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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the literature review is to expend upon the context and background of the
study to further defining the problem and to provide an empirical basis for their
subsequences development of hypotheses. Borg and Gall (1988) mention that the review
can also help in reaching a number of specific goals, delimiting the research problem,
seeking new approaches avoiding sterile approaches.
“Practically all-human knowledge can be found in books and libraries. Unlike other
animals that must start new with each generation, man builds upon the accumulated and
recorded knowledge of the past”. John.W.Best
The Phrase ‗review of related literature‘ consists of two words i.e. Review and Literature.
The term ‗Review‘ means to organize the knowledge of the specific area of research to
evolve an edifice of knowledge to show that proposed study would be an addition to this
field. In research methodology the term ‗Literature‘ refers to the knowledge of a
particular area of investigation of any discipline, which includes theoretical, practical and
its research studies. The task of review of related literature is highly creative and tedious
because the researcher has to synthesize the available knowledge of the field in organized
and systematic way to provide the rationale for his/her study.
The review of related literature is an important part of the scientific approach and is
carried out in all areas of research. This provides the researcher the means of getting to
the frontier in his particular field of knowledge. It helps to understand the theory in the
field and gives knowledge with regard to the procedures and instruments which have
proved useful. It avoids unintentional replication of previous studies and keeps the
researcher in a better position to interpret the significance of his own results. Thus, it
could be seen that the review of related literature is very important and essential step in
designing any research work. Review of related literature implies locating, studying and
52
revaluating reports of relevant researches, study of published articles, going through
related portions of encyclopedias and research abstracts, study of pertinent pages out of
comprehensive books on the subject and going through related manuscripts, if
any. Survey of previous researches done in the past in associated areas of research by the
investigator is extremely important. It helps in identifying the problem; provide a
background for the development of study in terms of methods, tool design and what has
been investigated. The related literature makes the investigator up to date. It also helps
the investigator in safeguarding the work from pitfalls and weakness with which some of
the earlier researches have suffered.
To get acquaintance with the type of research work undertaken in the field of academic
achievement, underachievement, school environment, academic stress and socio-
economic status among adolescents, an attempt was made to review literature. Going
through the literature of the last few decades, particularly last couple of years, a number
of research studies (both Indian and Abroad) have been identified which have either
direct bearing on the recent study. This enlightened the investigator about the present
status of the problems taken up for research, what has been done in that field and what
remains still to be done. Also what the likely challenges are to be faced by the present
researcher in conducting the study.
A systematic review of the related literature not only guides to select a good problem but
also prevent the unnecessary duplication, provides valuable clues to formulate the
hypotheses, suggests appropriate design to conduct study, helps in selection of the
suitable tools and above all provides a comparative data which is useful in the
interpretation of the results. Pauline Young expressed the following function of the
resume of the related literature.
Help to avoid duplication of what already exist in the writings or in the print.
Function the thinking on a given subject as a result of the mental stimulation and
reflection.
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Carry the subject of inquiry further or into related channels and begin the work
where someone else has left it.
Give the valuable clues as the methods, scores and organization of the data.
The survey of the related literature is an important step in conducting Educational
research. It enables the investigator to locate the gaps and find the trends in research in a
particular field. The information about the designs, samples, and research tools employed
by other investigators help the future investigators to formulate their designs with more
care. An investigator must be aware of the new research conducted in the past and only
then he/she is in a position to contribute something in original. (Good 1972) has rightly
remarked," without a critical study of the related literature the investigator was grouping
in the dark and perhaps uselessly, repeat the work already done. Therefore in order to
save time, energy and resources, it is necessary to undertake a detailed and penetrating
study of all available literature."
The review of the literature serves as a guide just to judge the quantum of the work done
and perceive the gaps existing in the concerned research. A critical review of the
literature enables the researcher to go into greater details and wider applicability of the
problem in hand so as to provide new ideas, explanations or hypotheses. The review
promotes a greater understanding of the problem and its allied aspects and ensures that
unnecessary and useless duplication is avoided. According to Tuckman (1972) the
purpose of the literature review is to expand upon the context and back ground of the
study, to help further to define the problem and to provide an empirical basis for the
subsequent development of hypotheses.
This chapter is devoted to review, the available literature relevant to the present study. An
effort has been made to cover almost all the important dimensions that may have a direct
bearing on the study.
A systematic procedure has been followed in reviewing related literature for this study.
The investigator listed all key words related to the topic and used preliminary sources
54
such as resource of education, current index to journals in education, psychological
abstracts and educational abstracts to locate relevant sources of information. After
locating the source the investigator carefully analyzed studies related to the topic of the
current research. So review of related literature is an essential aspect of research.
The review has been organized under two different headings:
Survey type studies on cognitive strategy.
Co relational studies on cognitive strategy.
This chapter presents an interpretation of why the category of learning disabilities
emerged, that differs from interpretations that currently prevail. It argues that the
category was created in response to social conditions during the late 1950s and early
1960s which brought about changes in schools that were detrimental to children whose
achievement was relatively low. The category was created by white middle class parents
in an effort to differentiate their children from low-achieving low-income and minority
children. The category offered their children a degree of protection from probable
consequences of low achievement because it upheld their intellectual normalcy and the
normalcy of their home backgrounds, and it suggested hope for a cure and for their ability
eventually to attain higher status occupations than other low achievers.
The facilitative and essential aspects of strategy use are the focus of this next section of
the chapter. It is one thing to demonstrate that humans use cognitive and metacognitive
strategies to process and monitor incoming information, to solve problems and to
comprehend. It is quite another to demonstrate that these strategies can lead to improved
performance. Yet, the cognitive research conducted during the 1970s and 1980s is replete
with studies demonstrating that, in fact, cognitive and metacognitive strategies can be
taught, and when taught, they can lead to increased performance. In this section, we
highlight some of the key studies within this genre of research. We recognize that these
are a very few among literally hundreds of studies demonstrating the effectiveness of
55
strategy instruction. Cognitive and metacognitive studies have been discussed together as
cognitive strategy instructional studies.
Single Strategy Studies: It is fitting to begin this review with an early study of Pressley
(1976) since he was arguably the most influential proponent of cognitive strategy
instruction and since his books remain among the seminal works of the practical
application of cognitive strategy instruction (Gaskins & Elliot, 1991; Pressley &
Woloshyn, 1995; Wood, Woloshyn, & Willoughby, 1995). In one of the first
comprehension instructional studies, Pressley (1976) measured the effectiveness of
training 86 third-grade students to use mental imagery on their reading comprehension
scores. Students in the experimental condition were taught to create mental images of a
text by being told that creating mental images was an effective way to remember, being
shown pictures that contained the necessary elements for the text, and being given
practice in this procedure. Students in the control condition were instructed to recall the
text and ―do whatever you can or have to in order to remember the story‖. Results
showed that average and Learning disabled children in the experimental groups answered
significantly more questions correct than their counterparts in the control group. There
was little difference in scores between good readers in the two conditions. Pressley
(1976) concluded that when 8-year-olds are given training and practice in using mental
imagery, consistently reading first then visualizing second, they showed improvements in
their memory of a concrete and easy-to-understand story.
Singer and Donlan (1982), tested whether high-school students could be trained in
generating specific types of questions about complex short stories, and whether this
training increased their comprehension scores. Singer and Donlan‘s study was one of the
first, if not the first, to determine if students could generate their own questions, instead
of answering questions the teacher had generated. Twenty-seven 11th-grade students
were divided into an experimental treatment group and a traditional instruction group,
with both groups using the same six stories during the experiment and taking the same
daily 10-point comprehension test. Instruction in the traditional group involved teacher-
posed questions about the stories and student essay writing. The experimental group
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received instruction in five basic story elements (a problem-solving schema), one each
day. Results indicated that knowing a problem-solution schema along with use of general
and story-specific questions during reading helped students improve in their
comprehension of short stories. The authors concluded that reading complex stories
required training in these problem-solution strategies, and that high-school students were
able to acquire this knowledge.
Brown and Day (1983) measured developmental growth in children‘s and adults‘ ability
to use five basic ―macrorules‖ of summarizing expository texts. The rules, some of which
are taken from Kintsh & van Dijk (1978), are, a) deletion of unnecessary material, b)
deletion of redundant information, c) superordination (i.e., substituting a superordinate
term for instances of that term), c) selection of topic sentences, and d) invention, or
creation of topic sentences that describe an implicit main idea.
Participants in study one were 18 fifth graders, 16 seventh graders, 13 tenth graders, and
20 four-year college students. They were instructed to read a text three times, then write
what they considered to be a good summary, followed by a constrained, 60-word
summary. Findings revealed that even young children were able to perform certain rules
of summarization. The probability of effectively using the superordination and selection
rules increased with age. Use of the invention rule was infrequent by all groups, and use
increased with age.
Next, two experts, who were college rhetoric teachers, performed a think aloud while
generating a summary. The experts performed perfectly on the deletion rules, and far
superior to college students on the superordination and invention rules, and no
differences between groups was found in the selection rules. Further, unlike the younger
students, the experts combined ideas across paragraphs and wrote their summaries around
topic sentences.
The final experiment was a repetition of the procedure from the first experiment;
however, participants were 20 junior college students, a group considered less successful
at using basic reading skills, and therefore, considered novice summarizers. Results
57
showed that these students utilized the deletion rules at the same level as the four-year
college students. However, they performed at a level similar to seventh- and tenth-grade
students on the remaining three rules.
In sum, the researchers found a clear developmental pattern for emergence of rule use:
deletion emerges first, followed by superordination, then selection, and, much later,
invention. The authors explained that, ―we believe that the five rules differ in their ease
14 of application because they demand different degrees of text manipulation on the part
of the learner‖ (Brown and Day, 1983, p. 12).
Brown, Day, and Jones (1983) looked developmentally at students‘ ability to summarize
lengthy, complex stories. This time, participants were fifth, seventh and eleventh grade
and first-year college students. Students were given stories to read and instructed to
remember as much as possible all of the ideas in the story. A week later, they
summarized the texts using unlimited words, a 40-word limit, and a 20-word limit.
Results again indicated developmental trends in students‘ ability to write summaries.
College and eleventh-grade students were more likely than younger students to, a) plan
ahead for efficiency and effectiveness of writing summaries, b) recognize the importance
of higher-level words in writing summaries and, c) ―condens more idea units into the
same number of words‖. The authors concluded that this process of using judgment,
intention, knowledge and skill in succinctly summarizing lengthy texts was a ―late-
developing skill that continues to be refined throughout the school years‖.
Taylor and Beach (1984) studied the effects of training students to use a text structure
strategy on their ability to comprehend and remember texts and to write essays.
Participants were 114 seventh-grade students, who were divided into three groups:
experimental instruction, conventional instruction, and no instruction. Students in the
experimental condition received seven weeks of ―instruction and practice in how to
produce and study a hierarchical summary of social studies material that they read‖. This
included making outlines that identified key passage ideas, generating main idea
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statements, and listing important supporting details. The conventional group 15 received
instruction in completing practice questions on main ideas and details from the text.
Results from this study indicated that the experimental group had significantly higher
recall than other groups on an unfamiliar passage. However, on the recall of familiar
texts, the experimental and conventional groups showed similar scores, which were
significantly higher than the group that received no instruction. Results from the short
answer and writing tests revealed no significant differences between the experimental and
conventional groups, with both of these groups doing significantly better than the group
that received no instruction. In sum, the hierarchical text structure training had the
greatest effect on enhancing students‘ recall of unfamiliar, as opposed to familiar, text,
which indicated that students were able to transfer the strategy to a new reading context.
Palincsar and Brown (1984), In one study, seventh-grade struggling readers were
divided into four groups in a laboratory setting: reciprocal teaching, another intervention,
and two non-intervention groups. In the reciprocal teaching condition, the instructor
assigned a passage of text and engaged students in a discussion of the four cognitive and
metacognitive strategies. After reading the passage either the student or teacher lead the
dialogue with peers utilizing the four strategies to assist in comprehending the passage.
Students worked in peer teaching groups practicing the use of the strategies until they
could use the strategies independently. Throughout, instructors provided students with
support as they learned the strategies and told students explicitly that these strategies
were beneficial for understanding what they were reading. The measures of learning
included dialogic changes, transfer tests, generalization tests, daily comprehension tests,
and standardized reading tests. The second study was essentially a replication of the first
except for one important difference. It was conducted in a naturalistic setting with
classroom teachers and students in their regular reading groups. The results from both
studies were similar, revealing that students in the reciprocal teaching groups
outperformed the other groups. Palincsar and Brown‘s work led to a series of studies on
reciprocal teaching in various settings.
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Paris, Cross, and Lipson (1984), in their study was, at the time, ―one of the few
experimental manipulations of metacognition and perhaps the only one to provide
longitudinal, cross-sectional data from a classroom curriculum and intervention‖. This
study was key, in other words, in adding to the relatively new research base on training
studies and to the overall understanding of strategy use and metacognition in reading. The
researchers described metacognition as having two main components, a) declarative,
procedural, and conditional knowledge about what strategies are, how to use them, and
when and why various strategies should be used, and b) knowing how to ―evaluate, plan,
and regulate [one‘s] own comprehension in strategic ways‖.
Participants were 87 third graders and 83 fifth graders from eight classrooms. Two
classrooms from each grade were in the treatment group that received four months of the
strategy curriculum, and two from each grade were control classrooms. In the ISL
training a researcher explained the strategies and their appropriate application to students,
modeled strategy use, and providing guided and independent practice with feedback from
the instructor and peers. Results showed that groups receiving the ISL training
significantly outperformed control groups on the cloze and error detection tasks, which
the authors concluded showed that the students were using the instructed strategies. The
multiple-choice test results (of relative knowledge) indicated that almost all of the
students from the treatment groups learned the strategies from the ISL training rather than
from a different source. However, no significant differences were found between the two
groups on two standardized test measures.
The authors explained that the value of the study is that it shows convincingly that
through direct instruction, group work, and open discussion about strategies, students in
the classroom setting can be taught how, why and when to use reading strategies, and that
they begin to use them on their own. Further, ―we can infer from their increased
performance on strategic tasks that they also learned how to evaluate, plan, and regulate
their reading‖. In sum, the study demonstrated that metacognition in reading can be
taught to students.
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Two studies conducted by Duffy and his colleagues (Duffy, Roehler, Meloth, Vavrus,
Book, Putnam, & Wesselman, 1986; Duffy, Roehler, Sivan, Rackliffe, Book, Meloth,
Vavrus, Wesselman, Putnam, & Bassiri, 1987) were also pivotal in demonstrating the
possibility and value of teaching cognitive strategies to students. The purpose of the
studies was to examine whether teachers could be successfully taught to provide explicit
instructions to students, whether these explanations improved students' awareness of the
need to use strategies and how to apply them, and whether these explanations improved
student achievement. Twenty-two fifth-grade teachers and their low reading group
students participated in the first study and 20 third-grade teachers and their low reading
group students participated in the second study. Trained teachers were compared to
control group teaches who received no training.
In the first study, researchers taught teachers how to transform typical basal skills
instruction into cognitive strategy instruction. Classroom teachers were instructed in how
to explicitly discuss the mental processes and cognitive strategies involved in
comprehension, focusing on the "reasoning" and problem-solving nature of strategy use
instead of skill-based procedures. Specifically, teachers were trained to discuss openly
with students the strategy (skill) they were learning, why they were learning it, why it
was important, and how and when they could use it as they read.
The researchers found that, a) treatment group teachers were more explicit in their
instruction than control group teachers and, b) this explicit instruction improved students‘
awareness of the need for strategy use and their metacognitive awareness of strategies.
Additionally, results from the second study showed that treatment group students scored
higher than controls on most parts of the nontraditional measures of reading achievement.
Treatment students also scored higher on a maintenance test that was administered five
months after the conclusion of the study.
Idol and Croll (1987) examined story mapping as a strategy in aiding reading
comprehension. Students with learning disabilities and a heterogenous group of 3rd- and
4th-grade students participated in two separate studies. A basic assumption in these
studies was that all texts shared a basic organizational structure and that a link between
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students‘ knowledge structures (schemata) and text structure would facilitate
comprehension. In the first study, results from responses to the reading comprehension
questions indicated that all students improved through the intervention, a finding that
suggests ―mapping of story components is an effective way to build structural schemata‖.
Additionally, the four students who completed all phases of instruction maintained, on a
significant level, the improved reading comprehension after the instruction was
discontinued.
Idol (1987) in his study, he took twenty-two students randomly assigned to one of two
intervention groups, and five students were in a control group. A multiple-baseline design
was used, where groups received the same intervention, begun on different days. The
primary measure of comprehension was responses to the comprehension questions.
Results showed a significant increase in the average scores of both intervention groups
with story map use. Further, the low-achieving and learning disabled students showed a
general and maintained improvement in comprehension scores. The author concluded
that explicitly stating and explaining expectations in using the story mapping strategy
created comprehension improvements in heterogeneous students‘ comprehension scores.
Further, being grouped with mixed-ability students did not hinder high-achievers‘
performance, suggesting that grouping students by ability level may not be necessary.
The single strategy studies we have reviewed are exemplary of dozens of cognitive
strategy instructional studies conducted during the 1980s. They each demonstrated that
teaching students to use a single strategy—like using imagery (Pressley, 1976), self-
questioning (Singer & Donlan, 1982), summarizing (Brown & Day, 1983), using text
structure (Taylor & Beach, 1984) and using story maps (Idol, 1987)—can lead to
significant improvement in reading comprehension. We now review multiple strategy
studies in which researchers have taught several strategies in an effort to improve reading
comprehension.
Multiple Strategy Studies: Arguably the single most important work on cognitive
strategy instruction designed to improve reading comprehension was a set of landmark
studies conducted and summarized by Palincsar and Brown (1984). These researchers
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developed an instructional intervention called reciprocal teaching. Reciprocal teaching
involved instruction of a set of four cognitive and metacognitive strategies: summarizing,
questioning, clarifying difficult parts of text, and predicting. The essential elements of
reciprocal teaching included the initial modeling of the use of each the four strategies,
small groups of students practicing the strategies with a peer acting as teacher, and the
scaffolding of instruction toward independent use of the strategies by students.
2.2 ADVANCES IN COGNITIVE STRATEGY INSTRUCTION
Thus far, we have reviewed several landmark studies in cognitive strategy instruction.
These included seminal works that laid the groundwork for understanding what strategies
are and how to effectively teach them to students. We have not completed an exhaustive
review, and we have limited our review mainly to studies that have influenced the field of
reading. These studies were completed before 1990, and these and other studies have
been reviewed extensively in several sets of research syntheses (Dole, Duffy, Roehler, &
Pearson, 1991; Paris, Wasik, & Turner, 1991; Pearson & Fielding, 1991; Pressley,
Johnson, Symons, McGoldrick, & Kurita, 1989; Pressley, Symons, Snyder, & Cariglia-
Bull, 1989; Rosenshine & Meister, 1994).
To some in the educational research field, it would appear that all the major work on
cognitive strategy instruction was conducted before 1990. Within the last 18 years,
however, there has been additional research on cognitive strategy instruction. In
particular, the next section of this chapter focuses in detail on four programs of research
using cognitive strategy instruction. This research is significant because it demonstrates a
focus on 1) ongoing, programmatic research where studies build on one another, 2)
teaching cognitive and metacognitive strategies to groups of students in ecologically
valid settings, and 3) embedding cognitive strategy instruction within texts students read.
Panda (1970) administered the embedded figure test on 70 males and 70 female's
undergraduates and reported that males are more field independents that females. Stanes
and Gorden (1973) administered children embedded figure test on 7-8 years old children
and they obtained no significant differences with sex.
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Frencher 1973 conducted a study to determine whether the existence of cognitive
strategy in students influence the educational achievements of students when the
influence if I.Q. was parasailed out and when no known or conscious effort had been
made to specifically meet the needs of students based upon there cognitive strategy. The
study contained a random sample of 162 students of 78 boys and 84 girls. The
instruments utilized for this study were the otis.
Lennon mental abilities test (Elementary Second Level) the metropolitan achievement
test, the EFT and Sigel's conceptual strategy test. Based on journal correlation it was
concluded that the traits or skills found in the field independent (SCST) along with both
descriptive sub categories, are compatible with all areas of achievements.
As Witkin and Berry ((1975) also observe, the research evidence available in literature
indicate a persistence difference between the success, though small in magnitude. With
female tending to be more field dependent than males.
Some students have, however not reported any significant differences between the sexes
on the field independent and field dimension. Giel Herdner and Lough (1968) did not
report differences between boys and girls in their studies on pre-schoolers.
In recent years the study of cognitive strategy has facilitate on interesting and productive
interface between cognition and personality. The individual differences in strategy of
perceiving, remembering and thinking have been documented to be closely related to
certain aspects of personality. From a brief review of researches it was found that field
dependence has certain implication for schooling and for education.
Witkin, Moor, Goodnowgh and Cox (1977) Categorization is another way of
examining cognitive strategy. The attribute that people use to categorize a set of objects
is used to establish learning strategy.
Shymansky and Your (1980) found that field independents achieved battery semi
inductive strategies than field dependent. Gifted children are more likely to be field
independent than mentally retarded (Mann and Sabatino, 1985)
64
Ellen Rhea Smith (1980) designed the study to determine the effects the training in
logical thinking on the reading comprehension of integrated schools students. He
provided to types of training in logical thinking, mapping, and paraphrasing. The result
showed that there was no interaction between cognitive strategy and treatment (mapping
or paraphrasing). How ever, cognitive strategy appeared to have a significant effect
(p<05) on the reading comprehension of integrated school children. Cecil (1983)
designed a study to investigate the extent to what designated cognitive strategy are
reflected in academic performance on paper and pencil tests. He conducted that a large
percentage of persons who choose the some professional carrier and meet the criteria to
be accepted in to that carrier in a particular educational programme a people who have a
relatively flexible cognitive strategy.
Dani (1984) studied the scientific attitude and cognitive strategy of higher secondary
student and found that:\
Boys and girls did not differ in their cognitive strategies.
Science students were higher in field independence over arts and commerce
students.
City students possessed higher on field independence than town and village
students.
The early adolescents were found to be more field independent than middle and
late adolescents.
Studies on cognitive strategies reported that not only they are influenced by various
factors i.e. socio-economic status, sex, family structure but also influences the learning of
the individual learners. Kumar (1984) reported that science students at university level
are more field independent than the students of arts and commerce.
Another study in the same year presented that the field independent learn and retain more
significantly than field dependents. Research at Bhavnagar University, Gujrat found that
65
field independents appeared to be more effective than field independent in concept
learning at all stages.
This indicates that both the field independents and field dependents requires a different
approach for learning and if we provide them the environment for learning than their
learning capacity will increase which in turn will give good achievement in their areas of
study.
Shipman & Shipman (1985) – Sigles & Brodzinsky (1977) cognitive strategy is
different form ability. Ability is an issue of capacity, while cognitive strategies a matter
of habit. Cognitive strategy reflects individual differences in organizing processing the
uniformities required to do a variety of tasks. Learning strategy link cognitive, affective
and social functioning and are associated with respectively to different types of
instruction (Messick – 1984)
Drolka (1987) designated a study on which he analyzed the effect of matching and
mismatching cognitive strategy and learning environment in special schools. He reached
the conclusion that self perception as to cognitive strategy may only reflect perception of
grading method. He further found that the factors contributing to success with a given
environment differ from the environment to another.
Mc Carthy (1988) also reached similar results. He wanted t measure the cognitive affects
progress of student whose cognitive strategy performance were matched to the special
format designed to enhance them and to compare the results with the progress of students
who were no matched. Statistical analysis revealed that the match students progress in
cognitive variables was significantly better than the no matched or neutrals.
Kotar (1990) designed a study mainly to seek evidence concerning the VTT & RTT of a
cognitive strategy. The cognitive strategy was designed to classify individual cognitive
strategy categories based on expressed ability mode strengths with in the strategy proved
to be a useful instrument for assessing the degree of abstractness of individual and for use
in determining their cognitive strategy.
66
Snow. et. al. (1998-2000) identified several individual risk factors for L.D. family history
of reading difficulties poor pretitercy skills either because of inherent cognitive limitation
or home environment, poor literacy related cognitive. Linguistic processing especially
phonological awareness, confrontational naming sentence, story recall and general
language ability. A diagnosis of specific language impairment, hearing impairment and
primary medical diagnosis in which reading problems tend to occur as a secondary
symptom. Among the group factors listed as risk factors for L.D. by snow. et. al is poor
schools, low income poor neighborhood limited.
These finding indicated the characteristic cognitive strategy behavior of individual
learners i.e. field independents works bet when they are put alone in the learning situation
and taught through semi inductive strategies. Some students have, however not reported
any significant differences between the sexes on the field independent sand field
dependent dimension. Giel Herdner and Lough (1968) did not report differences between
boys and girls in their studies on pre-schoolers.
Each of these cognitive strategies shows developmental differences. As children mature,
their, cognitive strategy appears to become more sophisticated and more of a habit. Some
research shows gender differences in cognitive strategy. Cognitive strategies have
educational implications and some are malleable. For example – Meichen Baum
Goodman 1971 found the self instruction training decreased errors in impulsive children.
Cognitive strategies are not without significant critism. Intuitively, they seem important
for teaching and learning. However distinctions between the various strategies are often
tenous at best and are controversial, further more; links of cognitive strategy to academic
achievement are not clearly establishment.
A major reason for this interest, no doubt was that the experimental findings were in such
close agreement with clinically based notons about many learning disabled children.
Teacher and schools psychologists could easily relate to idea of the learning disabled
child as one who is too quick to respond. Because of the intuitive appeal of the cognitive
strategy work to educators, numerous special educators turned their attention to the
67
modification of the dimensions of field dependence and especially, impulsivity. They
hypothesized that impulsivity was a major cause of the behavioral and academic
problems of learning disabled children.
Learning - Disabled children can be trained to respond in more reflective manner. It is not
enough to concentrate training in forts on getting the children to slow down. In other
words longer response times do not automatically lead to fewer errors. Those who have
provided impulsive children with language based strategies. Systematically scanning the
entire alternative whole saying them a aloud, have the most success in making the
cognitive more reflective on e MFF.
Most importantly however, even though children have been made more reflective on the
laboratory – base MFF, this has not made them more reflective in their approach to
classroom based academic task nor has it automatically led to improved academic
responding. After all, if training in cognitive strategies does not lead to improvement in
classroom behavior, then of what use is it while it is true tat the immediate educational
pay off for the learning disabled has been minimal, it is important to place this early
research on cognitive strategies in its proper historical context.
There have been a number of valuable outcomes of this early work on cognitive strategy.
It made the learning disabilities field aware that learning disabled children may have
different strategy of approaching problem solving tasks than do their non handicapped
counterparts. These different strategies include impulsivity as well as are lack of task
approach strategies. This impulsivity and non strategic approach can be modified by
directly teaching, learning disabled children to use task approach strategies. Language is
useful regulator of impulsive behavior.
In order to achieve improvement in academic performance, the focus of cognitive
training needs to on the academic materials those selves rather than on laboratory type
tasks like the MFF. Michael M. Gerber's research concerned with cognitive strategy and
the relation between cognitive strategy and theoretical constructs associated with
cognitive strategy. Cognitive behavior modification and Meta cognition learning.
68
Disabled children fail to spontaneously or efficiently use task appropriate strategy.
However precise understanding of the concept of strategy may become progressively
obscured.
Michaels, Carolyn-R, Lewandowski, Lawrence-J (1960) examined parent reports of
behavioral and family functioning for 59 learning disabled LD and 65 non learning
disabled (normal) boys aged 6-12 years old. Parents completed the child behavior
checklist and family. Adaptability and cohesion evaluation scale. LD students were
reported as having significantly more internalizing and externalizing behavior problems
than NLD students. Higher scores (more problems) for LD students were found on the
hyperactive schizoid or anxious, depressed and obsessive variables pertaining to affective
behaviours are described, and case material is included.
Waterman, Lill-m (1981) 84 preadolescent (5th and 6th grade) emotionally disturbed
(ED), learning disabled (LD), and normal boys were compared on social perspective –
taking and behavioural measures to examine contributions of social cognitive deficits to
adjustment problems. Antisocial – pro-social and with drawn gregarious behaviour
dimensions were studies through subscales derived from teachers ratings. Across all
groups, high perspective – taking was associated with significantly less withdrawal than
was low perspective – taking within groups, this finding was significant only for EDSs.
Contrary to theoretical assumptions, antisocial behaviour was not significantly related to
perspective – taking across the sample. Among EDSs, relatively higher affective
perspective taking was significantly correlated with higher antisocial behaviour. This
positive correlation for ED group was significantly different from the non-significant
negative correlations between antisocial behaviour and perspective taking among normal.
Finding for LDSs were intermediate between results for ED and normal Ss on both
perspective taking and behavioural measures and the LD group did not differ
significantly from either other group (6). Classified a perceptually impaired an non-
classified high school students on all variables measured , social skill defects were not a
characteristic of the majority of students classified as perceptually impaired.
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Mathur, A. A. (1983), A comparative study of the adjustment problems, Level of
Educational aspirations, Self-concept and academic Achievement of Crippled and
Normal Children. The major objectives were:-
1) To compare the home adjustment and health adjustment of crippled and normal
children.
2) To compare level of educational aspiration of crippled and normal children.
3) To compare educational interest of crippled and normal children.
4) To compare academic achievement of crippled and normal children.
Sample: The sample comprised 30 crippled and 30 normal children in the age range of
13-16 years. The two groups were matched in age, sex, iQ, socio-economic status and
institution.
Major findings: Crippled children differ Significantly from normal in health adjustment
and home adjustment. Crippled children differ significantly from normal in the level of
educational aspirations. Crippled children differ significantly from normal in the
educational interest. No significant difference was found between crippled and normal
children in academic achievement.
Singh, D. P. (1983), A comparative study of the achievement of blind and sighted
children studying in an integrated system. The objectives of the study were:-
1. To study the achievement of blind children studying in an integrated system of
learning Hindi.
2. To study the achievement of blind children learning English language in an
integrated approach.
3. To study the achievement of blind children learning social studies in an integrated
approach.
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4. To study the achievement of blind children learning Sanskrit in an integrated
approach.
Total population of visually handicapped children i.e. 4 studying in class IX in
Government co-educational senior Secondary School, Presidents Estate, New Delhi were
selected for the study and an equal number of 4 sighted children in class IX in the same
institution were selected along with the school periodical tests (September, December,
February) standardized teacher-made tests were administered to these eight (4 blind + 4
sighted) students.
The findings of the study were that the achievement of blind in Hindi, English, Social
studies and Sanskrit was higher than that of sighted children. This goes in favour of
integrated education since we did not control all moderate variables. The higher
achievement of visually handicapped may be result of non-educational factors e.g;
psychological factor and individual factor.
Kulshreshtha, R. (1985), Values orientations, interests and attitudes as Correlates of
self-concept among male and female Adolescents. The Objectives of the study were;
To determine and study the impact of value orientation, interests, and peer
relations upon the concept of self in both male and female adolescents.
To obtain interactions between value-orientations, interests and peer relations on
bivariate and trivariate levels of operation.
Methodology: The sample consisted of 160 high school and inter-mediate college going
students of Aligarh. It represented both males and females, whose age ranged from 15-19
years and who belonged to the urban area . They were from these faculties viz. science,
arts and commerce and generally belonged, to the Middle Secondary Educational
Schools. Value orientation was measured with the help of a Value Orientation scale
developed by N. S. Chauhan, Self-Concept developed by G.P. Sherry. The data were
analyzed with a help of factorial design analysis of variance of equal cell size. Major
Findings of the study were:-
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Value orientations affected the concept of self in adolescents.
Value orientation had a positive affinity with self-concept among male as well as
female adolescents under different levels of interest.
Interest played an important role in the growth of self-concept among adolescent.
It promoted the concept and also demoted the concept of self in various
association bonds with value orientation and peer relation.
Interests were shaping and forming the male adolescent's concept of growth of
educational interest during the period of adolescence in both the sexes depended
upon the variations of interest occurrence.
Peer relations prompted the concept of self also but when value orientations or
interests were operating.
Promotion or demotion of the concept of self by peer relations in case of both males and
females remained different.
D. L. Pareek (1990), A comparative Study of educational interest, Personality traits and
educational aspirations of the Adolescents, studying in Central Schools, Government
schools and Private Schools in Rajasthan.
Methodology: The normative survey method was used 730 students studying in
differentschools framed the sample. Swata Bodh Parikshan by Sherry and Uma, Cattell‘s
16 PF Questionnaire, Level of Educational aspiration and input check-list and students
Educational aspiration Test developed by the researcher were used to collect the data.
Major findings: It was found that 45.2% of the adolescents studying in central schools,
44.2% in private schools and 57.6% in Government Schools possessed average self-
concept. Adolescents studying in private and central schools were more intelligent than
the adolescents studying in government schools. Students in private schools were
generally practical while Government school students preferred arts stream. There existed
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no significant relationship between personality traits and levels of educational aspiration
among students from different types of schools.
Shah, J. H. (1990), A study of relationship among intelligence, self-concept and
academic achievement of pupils of standard X of semi urban and rural areas of Sihore
Taluka. Out of the total population of about 300 pupils of grade X of Sihore Taluka, 305
pupils (61 %) were selected randomly from eight schools out of which two were from
semi urban area. The sample from semi urban area consisted of 60 boys and 67 girls.
From six schools located in rural areas, 169 boys and 69 girls were selected. The sample
was selected by stratified random cluster sampling method. The tools used were J. H.
Shah's self-concept inventory and Desai Bhatt Group intelligence test. To evaluate pupils
academic achievement, the marks obtained in area. Subjects at the Gujarat State
Secondary Education Board - taken into consideration and were converted into
percentage. Mean, S. D., t-test and Pearson's pro correlation were used to treat data.
It was found that there was no sex difference self-concept either in semi urban or rural
areas. There was difference in DIQ's (Deviation Intelligence Quotient) either urban or
rural areas. There was significant difference in academic achievement in favour of boys
in both semi urban and rural areas. There were positive and linear correlation among self-
concept Intelligence Quotient and academic achievement in both types of areas. Also,
intelligence was more related to academic achievement than self-concept.
Kale, P. S, (1991), A study of the development of educational interest of Pre-adolescent
level with reference to some Family and school factors. The Objectives of the study
were:-
1) To trace the general development of educational interest at the preadolescent level
as a function of age and sex.
2) To study sex difference in educational interest development.
3) To study the relationship of internal family factors like parent –parent and parent-
child relationship with educational interest at the pre-adolescent level.
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4) To study the relationship of school factors i.e. teacher-students and peer relations
with educational interest at the pre adolescent.
Methodology: The data were collected from three co-educational Marathi medium
schools. The study was conducted on a sample of 990 children. Tools employed in this
were Self-Concept Inventory, Parent-Child Relationship scale, Parent-Parent
Relationship scale, Scale of Teacher-Student Relationship, Peer Relationship Scale and
Socio-economic status scale of Jogavas. All the tools were specially constructed for this
study except the socio-economics status scale. Descriptive, bardiagrams, frequency
polygons, mean, median, mode, Barttell's homogeneity test analysis of variance, t-test
and multiple correlation regression.
Major findings of the study were:- The perceived self did not show a downward trend
throughout the Pre-adolescent period. It showed a significant upward trend at the end of
this period. According to this, the self-concept did not remain static and showed gradual
development up to the end of the pre-adolescent period. Boys and girls did not differ
significantly in self- concept development. Perception of family factor as well as school
factors showed significant development in concept perception of parent-child
relationship. Girls showed more understanding for parent-parent relationship teacher
student relationship and at the end of the pre-adolescent period and parent-child
relationship. Parent-parent relationship was highly significantly related to self- concept.
Teacher-student relationship was important in self-concept. Parent-child relationship was
significantly associated with self- concept.Peer relations were important in development
of self-concept. Family factors jointly were significantly associated with self-concept.
School factors jointly were significantly associated with self-concept.
Burhan, R. G. (1991), An enquiry into the nature of self-concept in the area of
competence and its impact on mental health and academic achievement. The present
study deals with the problem of self-concepts and tries comprehensive study of a
particular dimension of self-concept, viz, the dimension competence and its relationship
with mental health and academic achievement.
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Objectives of the Study:
1) To study the nature and extent of the real self-concept of competence and the
ideal self-concept of competence, and the discrepancy between the two.
2) To study the nature and extent of mental health in the group studied.
3) To study the relationship between real self-concept/ideal self-concept and mental
ill-health/academic achievement;
4) To study the relationship between each of' the five facets (social, intellectual,
physical, emotional and general) of self-concept in competence and mental ill-
health.
5) To study the relationship between each of the five facets and academic
achievement.
6) To make a comparative study of the three groups of students: the commerce
group, the science group and the combined group.
Methodology: The sample consisted of 432 first year Science and Commerce honours
girl students from seven good institutions with an English medium background and age
between 18 and 20 years. The tools used included a Self-Concept Inventory constructed
and standardized by the investigator, and a Mental III- Health Inventory. Higher
secondary marks in two common subjects were taken as a measure of the academic
achievement of students. The statistical technique used included mean, median, mode,
standard Deviation, skewness and kurtosis, chi-square test, "t" test, coefficient of
correlation, partial correlation and factional analysis.
Major Findings: Real self-concept scores, ideal self-concept scores, real-ideal
discrepancy scores and mental ill-health scores were found to be more or less normally
distributed in the sample and the three groups did not differ significantly among
themselves in respect of distributions of scores on these variables. Real self-concept and
ideal self-concept were highly correlated. Students with high real self-concept scores
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showed lower discrepancy scores. Students who perceived themselves to be highly
competent were relatively from mental ill-health symptoms. A trend could be noticed to
suggest that high ideal self-concept was conducive to mental health. Discrepancy
between real and ideal self-concept was found to be associated with mental ill-health.
Academic achievement was positively associated with perceived intellectual competence
but not with scores of other areas of self-competence. Howe' ideal self-concept regarding
their competence did not seem to affect academic achievement scores. Discrepancies
between the real and ideal self-concept did not affect the academic achievement of the
commerce groups; but in the science group, these two were positively related. Regression
coefficient revealed that intellectual competence had high positive influence upon the
academic achievement of both the science group and commerce group. The other facets
of components showed a negative influence on the academic achievement of the science
group. Students who revealed mental ill-health symptoms were poor in academic
achievement.
Fox and Faver (1991), Achievement and Educational aspiration Patterns Among Male
and Female Academic-Career Aspirants, Work and Occupations. It is considered both
meaning and mediation factors in the achievement-educational aspiration relationship. In
a sample of graduate women students ("academic-career aspirants"), the achievement-
educational aspiration relationship varied with type of academic achievement and
professional educational aspirations, and as it was mediated by women's perceptions of
their professional roles and their faculty's support. Women's achievement-educational
aspiration conversion was different from, but not necessarily lower than, non- graduate
non-working women. Rather, the strength and direction of the relationship varied with
educational aspiration type (traditional versus alternative) and to some extent, with
specific types of academic achievement. The mediators of the achievement-educational
aspiration relationship also vary by work conditions and educational aspiration type.
Women's educational aspirations for traditional career rewards were largely a function of
their perceptions of the structural availability of job opportunity.
76
Kuotsu Banui (1992), The study of academic achievement of college students in
Nagaland in relation to their self-concept. The Objectives of the study were;
1) The study attempts to find out the academic achievement and self- concept of
Nagaland College students.
2) To find out whether differences exist in their self-concept among arts, science and
commerce college students.
3) To find out whether any relationship exists between the academic achievement
and self-concept among college students in Nagaland.
Methodology: The sample consisted of 716 college students drawn from the three
colleges in Kohima Town. They represented the arts, science and commerce streams
including boys and girls. The tools used as Personality Word List by Deo 1973 and the
academic achievement was obtained by collecting their results. Statistical measures
mean, S.D, t-test and correlation were used to treat the data.
Major findings of the study: There was significant difference in the academic
achievement and self-concept of college student of arts, science and commerce stream.
Both science and commerce students showed significantly high academic achievements
then their arts counter parts. No significant difference was found in the mean self-concept
scores between boys and girls among the arts, science and commerce students.
Krishnan, S. Santhana (1993), Relation between self-concept and academic
achievement of college students. The sample of the study comprised of 130 students. Out
of them, 90 were men and 60 were women students. There were 45 urban and 105 rural
students. They were further stratified with faculties, age groups and birth orders.
Stratified random sampling technique had been used to select the sample. The
educational interest tool standardized by Rastogi was used to collect the data. The
investigator applied mean, S. D., t-test, correlation and ANOVA for the treatment of the
data. It was found that there was a significant relationship between educational interest
and academic achievement of the college students. There was a significant difference of
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mean score between arts and science groups of students on self –concept. Sex had no
influence on self-concept of the individuals. Similarly, birth orders had no impact on
educational interest of students. Different age groups had not shown any significance
mean difference on educational interest score.
Maikhuri, R. A. & Pande, S. K. (1997), Self-concept of adolescents in relation to their
academic achievement. Maikhuri & Pande attempted to study the self-concept of
adolescents in relation to their academic achievement. The sample of the study comprised
of 200 students (100 boys and 100 girls) studying in the intermediate College of
Kotdwara city, ho were selected through random selection method. Their age ranged
between 16 to 18 years. The tool used to collect the data included Self-concept Inventory
by Pratibha Deo. The collected data were treated with mean, S.D. and ‘t‘- test. The
findings revealed that the academic achievement and self-concept were not significantly
related. Significant relationship was observed with academic achievement of adolescents
having high and low self-concept. No significant difference was found between academic
achievements of adolescents belonging to high and low self-concept.
Wenz-Gross, Melodic Sipertein, Gary N (1998) the changes that occur in early
adolescence within almost every domain of the students life physical, social, educational
and familiar. Most of these changes are gradual and have different timetables and
magnitude for different adolescents. However, one change that has a predictable time
table for the entire peer group is the educational move into middle school. This change
brings with it increased academic demands and social challenges that can lead to stress
and adjustment problems for some adolescents. We believe that one group that is at
particular risk for stress and adjustment problems in middle school are students with
learning problems due to specific learning disabilities or mild mental retardation.
Students with learning problems come to the middle school period with history of
academic and social problems.
Sharma, Ram Paul (2000), Study of self-concept and mental health of male and female
physically challenged secondary students. The purpose of this study was to know the
educational interest and mental health of physically challenged students at secondary
78
level. The investigator selected 630 students randomly from various secondary schools in
northern area of Assam and used educational interest scale of H.M. Sing & S. Sing and
Mental health battery by Alpana Sengupta to know the educational interest and mental
health of physically challenged students. For the statistical treatment the investigator used
Mean, S.D and t-value. It was found that there is no significant difference between male
and female secondary students in their mental health and self-concept.
Rainer, S. Martin, P. (2000), A study of self-concept stress and academic achievement
of secondary school students in west zone of Assam. The investigator selected 640
secondary students to know the self-concept, stress and academic achievement. For
collection of data the investigator used self-concept scale by H.M sing and stress scale by
OM Prakash Srivastava and R.K Nadiu and past three years obtained marks from official
school records. The collected data were analyzed by using Mean. S.D and t-value. It was
found that the educational interest of male students is significantly different than female
students. The mean difference shows that male students have high educational interest
than female students. It was also found that female students have high stress than boys
but there is no significant difference between male and female students on their academic
achievement.
Jefferson (2000), Study of level of educational aspiration, educational interest of hearing
impaired orthopedically school going children of U.K. The Objectives of the study were
as; To study the self – concept and educational aspiration of hearing impaired and
orthopedic impaired school going children. To compare the different dimensions of
educational interest viz. real self, ideal self, reflected self and physical self of hearing
impaired and orthopedically impaired schools going children.
Methodology: The sample of the study comprised 125 hearing impaired and equal
number of orthopedic impaired children of class 7th and 8th. The investigator used
various sampling techniques and tools to draw results.
Major Findings: Hearing impaired and orthopedic children were showed no significant
difference on real self. Both the categories were insignificant on ideal self and physical
79
self. Hearing impaired and orthopedic impaired childern were also insignificant on level
of educational aspiration.
Kobal, Darja and Musek Janek. (2001), Study of educational interest and academic
achievement. of adolescents. The investigators tested the hypothesis that academic
achievement effects different components of educational interest. The sample comprised
of 230 students in the age range of 16-17 years. The authors investigated in the possible
influence of nationality (Slovenia, France) in modifying the relationship between
academic achievement and educational interest. The results of two factors (academic
achievement+ nationality) analysis showed significant correlation between academic
achievement and various indices of educational interest, which varied in a nationality-
dependent fashion. The French subjects exceeded Slovenians in some domains of self-
concept (i.e. verbal , academic relations with some sex peers relations with parents,
religion and spirituality and general self- concept) while Slovenian subjects exceeded of
French subjects in the domain of problem solving and creativity. There was no significant
difference between both national samples in self esteem. Also the French subjects
exceeded Slovenian pupils‘ in general academic achievement. The results were
interpreted on the grounds of theoretical expectations related to the formation of
educational interest and academic achievement as well as on the basis of national
differences in the school system and personality structure.
Seginer (2002), Family Environment, Educational aspirations, and Academic
Achievement in Two Cultural Settings. Tested a four-step model consisting of family
background, perceived parental support and demandingness, educational aspirations, and
cademic achievement. The model was estimated on data collected from working and non-
working women (N = 686) growing up in two cultural settings: transition to modernity
(Israeli Arabs) and Western (Israeli Jews). The results showed that family background
had direct and indirect effects on the academic achievement of Arab but not Jewish
women. The indirect family background- academic achievement path showed working
and non-working differences only for the Arab women viz educational aspirations for
girls and parental demandingness for boys and parental demandingness was directly
80
related to academic achievement of women. The study also explained ethnic and gender
differences in terms of demographic and socio-cultural conditions.
H. R. Shan & S. S. Schrawat (2003), Educational interest and level of educational
aspiration among physically challenged students. The Objectives of the study were;
1) To study the effect of total educational interest of various categories of physically
challenged high school students.
2) To study the effect of level of educational aspiration among various categories of
physically challenged high school students.
3) To study the relationship of gender and residence among various categories
various categories of physically challenged high school students.
4) To study the interaction effects of self-concept, its six dimensions and level of
educational aspiration, in combination with gender and residence of various
categories of physically challenged high school students.
Hypothesis: There exist significant differences between various categories of physically
challenged school students in relation to total educational interest and its six dimensions
viz. behavior, school status, physical appearance, attributes popularity, happiness and
satisfaction. And there exist significant differences among various categories of
physically challenged school students in relation to level of educational aspiration. There
exist significant two and three factors interaction effects of educational interest, its six
dimensions and level of educational aspiration, gender and residence of various
categories of physically challenged school students.
Sample: In this study, only hearing impaired, visually impaired and crippled students of
classes 9th and 10th (14+ age group) of secondary school, at least one from each district
out of 20 districts of Haryana State were taken up. The sample comprised of 1000
students: 499 (49.9%) boys and 301 (30.1%) girls. The sample included 211 (21.1%)
boys and 258 (25.8%) girls from urban area and 288 (28.811%) boys and 243 (24.3%)
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girls from rural area. It may also be mentioned that 533 (53.31%) of students were taken
from class 9th and 467 (46.7%) students were from 10th class. Thus, the sample was
fairly representative of population gender wise, residence wise and class wise.
Tools: Wallach-Kogan tests of creativity to measure creativity. Children‘s self-concept
scale (CSCS) constructed and standardized by Ahluwalia. And Level of Educational
aspiration Test developed by Patel.
Major Findings: The result shows that educational interest of urban various categories
of physically challenged school students was found to be more than the rural
counterparts. The results shows that socially, the different categories of physically
challenged school students with high level of educational aspiration and low level of
educational aspiration differ significantly from each other.
Enri Dumanhuri (2003), Evaluation of level of educational aspiration, academic growth
of physically challenged male students in Bandung metropolitan area of Indonesia.
Whole metropolitan area was surveyed for generating the data pertaining to hearing
impaired and crippled students below the age of 18 years. The data was treated in excel in
order to draw the conclusion. The main findings were showed that hearing impaired and
crippled students do not differ significantly on level of educational aspiration and
academic growth.
Gakhar, S. C. (2003), Educational interest and academic achievement of secondary
school students. The Objectives of the study were;
1) To study the educational interest of secondary school students.
2) To study the academic achievement of secondary school students.
3) To compare secondary school students on self-concept.
4) To compare secondary school students on academic achievement.
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Hypotheses: Following hypotheses were assumed;
1) There exists significant difference among the secondary school students on
educational interest.
2) There exists no significant difference among the secondary school students on
academic achievement.
Sample: The study was conducted on a sample of 200 students of secondary schools
from two districts i-e Punjab (Patiala and Ferozepur). The sample comprised of 105 boys
and 95 girls. Self-concept scale (Ahlawalia, 1986) and academic achievement coefficient
of correlation and t-test were used as statistical techniques.
Major Findings: Secondary school students viz boys and girls were showed significant
difference on self-concept. Both the categories were insignificant on academic
achievement.
Chowdhury, Aparajita; Kumari Anita (2003), Study of academic achievement of
physically handicapped and normal children. The study was conducted on a sample of 30
children of physically handicapped studying in VIII and IX grades in school, of which an
equal number of normal children were included in the sample. The school was in a
predominantly middle class community area. The mean age of students was 13-15 years.
The results revealed that normal students showed better academic achievement as
compared to handicapped students.
Nabuzoka Dabie (2003) Teacher ratings were obtained of bulling and other behaviour of
121 children including 20 children with learning difficulties. Peer nominations were also
obtained for 55 of these (15 LD and 40 non LD). Correlations between teacher rating s
and peer nominations were significant for non-learning difficulties (non-LD) children but
not for children with learning difficulties (LD). Teachers and peers scored children with
LD higher on victim and sky behaviour and non-LD children higher on leadership and
co-operator behaviour. Bulling with shy and help seeking behaviours, while teachers
associated victims with fighting, being disruptive and being less co-operative. These
83
differences were related to the children LD status. Implications for substituting one
measure for another when assessing children at risk for adjustment problems, especially
children with LD are discussed.
Kumthekar, M. (2004), Comparative analysis of physically challenged and normal
college going students on self-concept and mental health. It revealed that educational
interest is an important indicator of personality. It was found that normal college going
students have a more positive self-concept as compared to physically challenged college
going students. To assess this, a Q- sort technique developed by Butler and Haigh (1954)
was used for 137 normal and 99 physically challenged college going students. The
significant difference was also found in mental health of both the categories, as mental
health supports to normal ones.
Gagandeep, S. J. & Verma B. K. (2004), A study of real self, ideal self and reflected
self of hearing impaired and crippled female adolescent students in southern part of
Ghawahati in India.For the conduction of present study, 30 visually impaired and equal
number of crippled female adolescents were selected randomly of different parts of
Ghawahati to investigate the real self, ideal self and reflected self. The collected data was
analysed by using different statistical techniques. It was found that there is no significant
difference on real self, ideal self and reflected self of visually impaired and crippled
female adolescents.
Ntzamilis G. & Haver (2004), Academic potential in mathematics among visually
impaired and hearing impaired elementary students in Athenes. For the present study the
researcher selected 30 visually impaired and 30 hearing impaired elementary level
students randomly from 42 elementary schools in Athenes to examine the achievement in
mathematics. The collected data were analyzed by various statistical techniques in order
to draw the relative permanent results. It was found that there is no significant difference
between visually impaired and hearing impaired elementary level students on academic
achievement in mathematics.
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Behnke, et al. , (2004), Educational and Occupational Educational aspirations of Latino
male and female adolescents. Research conducted an in-depth interview of 10 male
adolescents of latino and equal number of female latino adolescents. The researcher
investigated their educational and occupational educational aspirations of male and
female adolescents and factors affecting their educational aspirations. Using a content
analysis of the interview scripts, it was found that male adolescents have high educational
aspiration level as compared to female adolescents.
Gasser, (2004), Contributions of Personality and Interests to Explaining the Educational
aspirations of College Students. This is the first study to investigate personality-interest
convergence by examining the newly revised 2003 California Psychological Inventory
with the 1994 Strong Interest Inventory. In general, the researchers found that those
personality scales and interest scales that were more related or applicable to educational
aspirations of male and female college students, were moderately correlated with level of
educational aspirations. Also, hierarchical regression result shows that specific
dimensions of personality and interests are related to female college students plans for
future work. The study found that components of male and female college students
personality and interest may relate to aspiring to higher levels of education.
Sangdeep, R. K., Sharama, S. (2004), A study of level of educational aspiration
academic achievement and self-concept of secondary school students in Eastern zone of
Nagaland. For the present study the investigator selected 430 boys and girl secondary
school students randomly from 10 secondary schools in Eastern zone of Nagaland to
study the self-concept, level of educational aspiration and academic achievement. For the
collection of data the investigator used level of educational aspiration test by V.P
Bhargava and self-concept scale by H.M Sing and past two years obtained marks from
official school records. The collected data were analyzed by using Mean, S.D and t-value.
It was found that both boys and girls secondary schools students have no significant
difference on all the three variables viz educational interest, level of educational
aspiration and academic achievement.
85
Stuart Breg (2004), A study of a self-concept level of educational aspiration, mental
health and academic achievement of normal and handicapped teenagers. Objectives
1) To compare the self-concept of normal and handicapped teenagers.
2) To compare level of educational aspiration of normal and handicapped teenagers.
3) To compare mental health of normal and handicapped teenagers.
4) To compare academic achievement of normal and handicapped teenagers.
Hypotheses: The hypotheses of the study are given below;
1) Handicapped and normal teenagers differ significantly on educational interest.
2) Handicapped and normal teenagers differ significantly on level of educational
aspiration.
3) Handicapped and normal teenagers differ significantly on mental health.
4) To compare academic achievement of normal and handicapped teenagers.
Sample: The sample consists of 230 handicapped and 230 normal teenagers. The data
was collected of about seven months during spring season in New Jersey of USA. The
investigator applied various statistical techniques in order to draw the relative permanent
results.
Major Findings: Handicapped teenagers differ significantly from normal teenagers on
self- concept. Handicapped teenagers differ significantly from normal teenagers on level
of educational aspiration. Handicapped teenagers differ significantly from normal
teenagers on academic achievement. And Handicapped teenagers differ significantly
from normal teenagers on mental health.
Sharma (2004) This study examined the personality characteristics of 180 boys and girls
of aged 8, 9 and 10 with learning disabilities (LD) in 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade in urban an
86
rural primary schools of Andhra Pradesh. India. The subjects were identified based on
their scholastic achievement on spelling dictation test, an oral reading test, a reading
comprehension test and an arithmetic test development specifically for the purpose, along
with mental ability tests- Ravens standard Progressive Matrices and Draw a man. An
adapted version of the children Personality Questionnaire (CPQ) was administered to
subject with learning disability and a comparison group of children without learning
disabilities. Examination of scores obtained by learning disabled and non-learning
disabled subjects on the CPQ portrays the learning and disabled child as having problems
in social and emotional adjustment.
Lily L. Dyson (2005). This study examined the global self –concept, academic self-
perception, social competence, and behavioral problems of 19 children with learning
disabilities within the family context. Comparisons were made between the target
children and their close-age siblings and family psychological correlates were identified.
The participants were administered child assessment scales and rated by their parents,
who also completed family psycho-social measures. The results show that although
children with learning disabilities do not differ from their siblings in global self-concept
and academic self-perception, their parents rated them to have less social competence and
more behavior problems than their siblings. Moreover, the social competence and
behavioral problems of children with learning disabilities are related to their parents
stress.
R. C. Vaishya (2005), Comparative study of male and female hearing impaired and
visually impaired students on level of educational aspiration and academic achievement,
a case study of Allahabad University. The sample of 20 male and 20 female students
having either hearing impairment or visual impairment were selected for the present
study. The data regarding the study were gathered in two stages over a period of 45 days
during mid day summer. In order to draw meaningful inferences, the data was treated
statistically by using various methods. The main finding was that both the groups do not
differ significantly on the different variables viz. level of educational aspiration and
academic achievement.
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Kumar Krish (2005), A study for observing academic achievement, its relation with
educational interest and level of educational aspiration of +2 handicapped and normal
students of Haryana State.For the purpose of present study the investigator collected the
sample of 75 handicapped +2 students and 75 normal +2 handicapped students from 48
institutions existing in different zones of Haryana. The statistical treatment was given in
excel, it was found that academic achievement is effected by educational interest and
level of educational aspiration. Both the categories handicapped and normal students
showed marked difference in educational interest and level of educational aspiration.
Macoy Krishna (2005), Normal and physically challenged students with relation to their
academic achievement tests. This study included about 330 ethnically diverse third
grades from 6 California public elementary schools. The researchers conducted
interviews in the fall and spring of the school year and the school provided test scores
from the students grade three academic achievement test (mathematic, reading and
language arts) which were administered in the spring. It was found that the normal
students shows high academic achievement then physically ones.
Chandra Rakish Koul Kabire (2006), Comparative analysis of visually impaired and
orthopedically handicapped children on academic performance, level of education and
level of educational aspiration in northern Assam.
Objectives: The objectives of the study were;
1) To study academic performances, level of education and level of educational
aspiration of visually impaired and orthopedically impaired children.
2) To compare academic performance, level of educational aspiration, level of
education of visually impaired and orthopedically challenged students.
3) To compare the visually impaired and orthopedic impaired on academic
performance.
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Major Findings: The result showed that no significant difference was found with respect
to level of educational aspiration and level of education of visually impaired and
orthopedic children.
The result also showed that no significant difference was found with respect to academic
performance of visually impaired and orthopedically impaired children.
Eve, Kikas Eve, Mottus (2006), Ability grouping in school, a study of academic
achievement in five schools in Estonia. The paper deals with the questions of the quality
of schooling and the effect of ability grouping on student‘s achievement. One hundred
and forty seven students from 5 schools participated in the study. Two schools one a
usual mainstream town school, one a usual rural school, one step by step school and one
elite private school. All children were studied twice, at the beginning of the first (age=7)
and third grade. At first children‘s cognitive abilities were assessed, and at second their
academic achievement in Estonian language and mathematics were assessed. Both the
battery of cognitive tests was developed specifically for this study. It was shown that
attending on elite private school was related to abilities and higher academic achievement
attending elite school had negative impact on achievement.
Raven, R. & Prince, A. (2006), A study of level of educational aspiration and stress of
elementary sighted and impaired children.
Objectives: The objectives of the study were;
1. To study the sighted children on level of educational aspiration.
2. To study the impaired children on level of educational aspiration.
3. To study the sighted children on stress.
4. To study the impaired children on stress.
5. To compare the sighted and impaired children on level of educational aspiration.
6. To compare the sighted and impaired children on stress.
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Hoptheses: Sighted and impaired children differ significantly on level of educational
aspiration. And Sighted and impaired children differ significantly on stress
Sample: The researcher selected 200 sighted children at elementary level and equal
number of impaired children (100 orthopedic and 100 hearing impaired) for the collection
of data, the investigator applied various tools in the form of questionnaire, psychological
tests and interviews etc. The collected data were analyzed by applying various statistical
methods in order to draw the infrances.
Findings: The investigator found that sighted children have more level of educational
aspiration than the hearing impaired and visually impaired elementary children. It was
also found that hearing impaired and visually impaired children have more stress than
sighted elementary children.
Judith Wiener (2007) this article reviews the literature on peer relations and social skills
of children with learning disabilities (LD). Two risk models are discussed. The single-
risk model suggests that for some children with LD, social skills deficits are inherent in
the disability. These deficits lead to problems with social relationships, which foster
internalizing behavior problems. The multiple-risk model suggests that internalizing and
externalizing behavior problems typically result when more than one risk factor is
present. These additional risks might include co morbid attention deficit/hyperactivity
disorder, poverty, English as a second language, inadequate educational
accommodations, and ineffective parenting. However, risk of behavior problems is
reduced if children with LD are able to establish healthy social relationships.
Hussain Akbar (2007), Educational interest of Physically Challenged Adolescents. In
order to ascertain the impact of disability on the development of educational interest the
study was designed to compare the level of educational interest among the physically
challenged adolescents with the normally developed peers. Altogether 90 school going
adolescents of grade IX and X aged 11-16 (30 in each category namely normal, blind and
Orthopaedically handicapped) were purposively selected from 3 different schools of
Delhi. Out of which 15 were males and 15 females in each category. Mohsin‘s
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educational interest Inventory was administered on each subject. On the whole the level
of educational interest among the physically challenged adolescents was found
significantly lower than their normal counterparts. Similarly the level of educational
interest among the girls was also found significantly lower than the boys in general,
where as category wise significant difference was found only in case of blind subjects.
Mohit Joshi (2008) A new study has found that learning disabilities are associated with
language problems later in life. For the study, the research team examined a group of 699
individual, 108 with primary progressive aphasia, 154 with Alzheimer's disease, 84 with
a related disorder known as front temporal dementia and 353 controls without dementia.
During their enrolment, participants completed a detailed demographic and medical
history interview that included two questions about whether they or immediate family
members had a history of learning disabilities. Team conducted a medical record review
for the 23 individuals with primary progressive aphasia who reported either a personal or
family history of learning disability. The researchers found that patients with primary
progressive aphasia were more likely to have had learning disabilities or a close family
member with learning disabilities than review of patients with both aphasia and learning
disabilities showed families with unusually high rate of learning problems, especially
dyslexia. The study suggests that some individuals or families may have an underlying
susceptibility to difficulties with the language network.
Verma Arti (2008), Study of Self-concept and Study habits of visually impaired and
Normal students. The aim of this research was to study the self – concept and study
habits of visually impaired and normal students. The investigator selected 100 college
students randomly from various colleges in West Bengal to know the self-concept and
study habits of visually impaired and normal students. The investigator used the self –
concept scale by Caplan & Naidu and study habits inventory by Gopal Roa. It was found
that there is a significant difference between both the groups in their self-concept and
study habits. The normal students have good study habits and the mean difference of self-
concept favours normal students.
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Alawode E.A. (2008), To study the influence of impairment on the academic
achievement of adolescents in secondary school.
Objectives: To find the effects of impairment on the academic
achievement. And to find the difference between male and female academic achievement.
Sample: The investigator selected 200 senior secondary students randomly from five
secondary schools.
Tools: The data were collected through academic records of the students from principals,
personal data, regarding their age, gender, impairment and type of homes they come
from.
Statistical analysis: The collected data were analyzed by using mean, t – test and
correlation.
Major findings: Results indicted that impaired children had significantly less academic
achievement as compared to the non-handicapped. The significant difference was also
found, between the academic achievement of males and females.
Roy Sharmistha (2008), A comparative study of factors affecting academic achievement
of school going adolescent boys and girls. The aim of the study was to determine some of
the selected influencing factors like daily routine of the students, tuitions, and content
viewed on television etc, affecting the academic achievement of school going adolescent
boys and girls. The factor groups of the study consisted of top 10 rankers both boys and
girls from class VII, VIII, IX, X, selected from two English medium schools in Gujarat.
Data was collected by the questionnaire method. Each respondent was made to fill the
questionnaire. Analysis was done by calculating frequency and percentages. Results
showed that there is not much difference in the importance of many of the selected
factors exhibited by boys and girls, which plays an important role in their academic
achievement.
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Chaudhary, Vineeta (2008), Impact of academic achievement on creativity. Seeked to
find out the correlation between academic achievement and creativity of the creative and
non-creative students. A sample of 500 high school students was taken from different
schools. A verbal and non-verbal test of creativity of Baquer Mehdi was administered.
Creative and non-creative students were categorized by applying Jalota‘s Mental Ability
Test. Scores of the final examinations were used as the academic achievement of the
students.
Singh, Ramesh (2008), Learning style preferences and academic achievement school
children. Explored the relationship between learning style preferences and academic
achievement of high school pupils. The sample of the present study were the 538 pupils
studying in class Xth in the schools /colleges situated in the urban and rural locality of
Dehradun district of Uttaranchal state. The data was collected by using learning style
Inventory and Record of Annual Examination. X2-values were calculated to find out the
relationship between learning style preferences. The following conclusions are being
drawn : (a) flexible, aural, short-attention span, non-motivation centered, learning-styles
preferences) have been observed to be positively affecting the academic achievement of
urban-pupils (both boys and girls), (b) Non-flexible, visual, non-motivation centered and
environment free learning styles (preferences) have been observed to be positively
affecting the academic-achievement of rural pupils (both boys and girls).
Reddy, Suvaranna Bhim and BL Hoovinbhavi (2008). The effect of study-habits
environment on the student‘s lifestyle. This empirical study on the study habits
environment forms a great portion which live a great impact throughout the life of an
student at pre-university level. The study habits with proper environment, feedback,
guidance helps the individual to develop his life style. It is this study habits in relation to
goof environment help the individual to develop the personality, which have great impact
on an individual Life i.e. from birth to death.
Bhatnagar, Mudita (2009), Effectiveness of technology in the classrooms. Studied the
effective use of technology in the classrooms. The roles of the teachers and students have
changed dramatically over the years. In the traditional model of education, the teacher
93
was responsible for disseminating information to students. The student‘s primary
responsibility was to consume and retain as many of the facts and figures as they could.
In student-centric classrooms, the role of teacher changes to that of a facilitator and
resource person. Often acting as a catalyst, the teacher helps the student to promote his or
her individual learning. With the use of technology, the teacher can extend his or her role
beyond the classroom. Technology provides students with the opportunity via emails or
discussion forums to ask questions and also collaborate with other students in the
understanding of the course content. This use of technology virtually gives the student
access to the teacher at all times where they can ask and receive answer to their questions
without having to speak in front of a large group.
Chand, Suresh and Kulwinder Singh (2009), Socio-demographic correlation of
language achievement. Seeked to ascertain the relationship of socio-demographic
variable with that of language achievement. A sample of 861 sixth grade students
selected from 34 schools spread over four district s of Himachal Pradesh. Personal data
sheet and language achievement test developed and standardized by Suresh Chand (2002)
were used to collect the relevant data. Data obtained were analyzed by using t-test. The
result showed that (i) paternal and maternal education and occupation, family income and
family support in educational matter plays a facilitative role in language achievement of
secondary school students (ii) the non-existent gender and cast differentials in language
achievement points towards equality in language achievement, though moderate level,
(iii) urban conditions are more conducive in language achievement of elementary
students.
Chellamani, K. (2009). Acquisition of reading skill: the role of psycho-linguistic
principles in teaching –learning process. Explored the acquisition of reading skill.
According to this study all the four skills of language, reading is the higher order
communicative skill. Language teaching may not be the same as that of teaching any
language. A subject teacher should have mastery over that subject. Similarly a language
teacher to have on the psychology of learning and the latest trends on language learning.
In this line, psycho-linguistics principles were applied in teaching of language English
94
focusing ‗reading‘ and a significant effect in reading comprehension was found among
students.
Dammani, Kiran and Kamakshi Agnihotri (2009), Effectiveness of concept mapping.
Attempted to study the effectiveness of concept mapping in terms of Understanding
Concepts of Educational Psychology. The Concept mapping is the strategy employed to
develop a Concept Maps. It is graphical tool for organizing and representing knowledge.
The present study was experimental in nature. It was employed pre-test post-test single
group design. Sample of 77 B.Ed. Students of Shri Gujarti Samaj B.Ed. College studying
in the academic year 2007-08 were selected by using Purposive Sampling technique for
teaching selected units of Educational Psychology.
Kirtika, Sheela Sangwan and Krishna Duhan (2009), Multiple intelligence of slow
learner young adolescents. They Seeked to assess the multiple intelligence of slow learner
young adolescents. Hundred children in the age groups of 12-41 years having IQ 76-89
were taken from the selected schools and were assessed for multiple intelligence. Results
revealed that more than 60 per cent of young adolescents had below average intelligence
in most of the aspects of multiple intelligence except in musical naturalistic and
mathematical intelligence. Above 75 per cent of the adolescents were in below average
category in interpersonal, linguistic and existential intelligences and only nearby 20 per
cent respondents performed average on these aspects.
Mahmoudi, Armin and Ningamma C Betsur (2009), Relationship between adjustment
and academic achievement. Examineed the relationship between adjustment and
academic achievement. Adolescence is a transitional period of one‘s life between
childhood and adulthood during which some important biological, psychological and
social changes take place. It is a period of storm and stress. Adolescents have to adjust
with their own changes in personality on one side and the changing socioeconomic
environment on the other side. Some adolescents find it difficult to adjust normally with
these changes and experience some problems, which are characteristic of this developing
95
stage. Adolescent who display antisocial behavior in a variety of settings are at risk of
low academic achievement and school failure. As early as the age of school entry,
behavior problems are negatively correlated with verbal ability and reading readiness and
aggressive students in the primary grades are at elevated risk for grade retention and
special education placement. Hence an attempt is made to investigate the relationship
between adjustment and academic achievement among the student (IX) students.
Shalini, S Punia, S Balda and CK Singh (2009). Impact of home based intervention on
cognitive and language development of children. The study was conducted in Hisar City
of Haryana State. Multiple phase sampling procedure was used to draw the sample. For
assessment of language development of children Reynell Development languages Scale
and for assessment of cognitive development, Bayley Scale of Infant development was
used. The results reveal that at pre-testing stage both the groups were almost same in
cognitive and language performance. Whereas at 1st and 2nd post testing stage
significant differences were observed as experimental group performed much higher than
those of control group, which means the gain was higher in intervention group.
Penelope Ross (2009) studied that recent inquiries have demonstrated the health
inequalities faced by people with learning disabilities; and the reasonable adjustments
needed to overcome them. This is a practical guide to support may be general, analytical
or clinical diagnosis includes development of educational objectives assessing student
strengths and weaknesses; identifying factors contributing to difficulties; systematic
testing and analysis; planning; and assessing the validity of the diagnosis and the
effectiveness of corrective measures. Treatment must be based on diagnosis and be
individualized. The programme must be motivated the child, and materials and
instructional methods must be carefully selected. Continuous evaluations must be made,
steps teachers and parents can take to increase the efficacy of treatment are described.
Narimani Mohammad & Mousazadeh Tavakko (2010), Comparing self-esteem and
self-concept of handicapped and normal students. This research was conducted in order
to compare self-esteem and self-concept of handicapped and normal students. Statistical
analysis of this research comprised all the handicapped boy and girl students as well as
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the normal society included all the sighted students of age group10–20 years, who were
studying at Ardabil province high schools in 86 schools. 20 handicapped students (10 girl
handicapped and 10 boy handicapped) were selected randomly as a study group and 20
sighted students (10 girl handicapped and 10 boy handicapped) as a comparison group.
They were tested individually by two subtests of Coppersmith, self- esteem and self-
concept Beak & Stiller scale at their schools. The results of multivariate variance
(ANOVA) showed that there was different mean score between handicapped and normal
Students. As all the results proved that the function of the sighted group individuals in
self-esteem subtests was better than the handicapped. But the function of the handicapped
individuals in self – concept subtests was better than the handicapped.
Arrepattamannil, Shaljan (2010). Parenting practices parenting style, and children‘s
school achievement. This study drawing on data from the 2002 Survey of Approaches to
Educational Planning (SAEP), examined the predictive effects of parenting practices and
parenting style on children‘s school achievement, and the predictive effects of parental
expectations and parental beliefs on parenting style for 6,626 respondents with children
aged 5-18 years in Canada. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses, after controlling
for family socioeconomic status (SEES), revealed the substantial positive predictive
effects of family SEES, parental encouragement, parental expectations, and parental
beliefs on children‘s school achievement. In contrast, parental monitoring had a
substantial negative predictive effect on children‘s school achievement in the context of
other variables. Although parental expectations were not related to parenting style,
parental beliefs were positively associated with both parental encouragement and parental
monitoring – the two dimensions of authoritative parenting style.
2.3 OVERVIEW
Many studies have been reviewed under this section of review of studies. Some of them
were carried on cognitive strategies and some studies were on academic achievement of
special children specially lerning disabled children. Raven, R. and Prince, A. (2006)
revealed that the sighted children have more level of educational aspiration than the
hearing impaired and visually impaired elementary children. Vaishya (2005) found that
97
both the groups viz hearing impaired and visually impaired students do not differ
significantly on level of educational aspiration and academic achievement. Kumar (2005)
revealed that the academic achievement is affected by self-concept and level of
educational aspiration, both the categories viz handicapped and normal students showed
marked difference in self-concept and level of educational aspiration. Gasser (2004)
found that components of adolescent are personality and interest may relate to aspiring to
higher levels of adolescents. Shah H.R. and Sehrawat S. S. (2003) found that there exists
significant difference among various categories of physically challenged secondary
school students on level of educational aspiration and self-concept. Jefferson (2000)
found that both hearing impaired and orthopedic school going children were insignificant
in relation to their educational interest and level of educational aspiration. Kulshreshtha,
R. (1985) found that promotion or demotion of the self-concept by peer relations in case
of both males and females remained different. Marthur, A. A. (1983) found that no
significant difference was found between crippled and normal children in academic
achievement, while as significant difference was found in their self-concept. The related
studies revealed that many LD children experience considerable social-emotional and
behavioral problems along with his learning difficulties which adversely affect their
adjustment. Compared to their normal peers, LD children are less adaptive, less flexible,
less social & less popular. In addition, LD children demonstrate disproportionate degrees
of inappropriate behavior and the reason is that they need different cognitive strategies
which are incompatible with learning in mainstream class. LD children have more
academic problems due to the backward cognitive strategies as non-disabled children get
provided which affect their adjustment & which disrupt their learning. Therefore,
knowledge of different kinds of cognitive strategies of LD children is indispensable to the
educators & who are responsible for the education and of the learning disabled.
The investigator did not find direct research on the topic. Only few studies are carried out
in the field of cognitive strategies among the learning disabled children.
However, the review of the above selected literature either Indian or of abroad give the
researcher a comprehensive understanding about her topic & provide a very sound and
98
scientific based to the clearly specify her objectives and in finding out a general views
related to the topic. Above description of the studies suggests that an individual reading
practice, way of thinking and feeling, having, his home environment, family type & size,
school environment, classroom atmosphere, anxiety, teaching taught relationship all
determines the LD child's adjustment, which also effects their behavior, so adjustment, is
just not a uni-dimension. But a multi dimensional activity and is influenced by a number
of variables. So the students on cognitive strategies among the learning disabled children
and their attention achievement and their success have been the focus of attention in the
context of any social, psychological and educational researchers.
The present study is, therefore, an attempt to discover the importance of cognitive
strategies and its effects on academic achievement of teach disabled children, which
remain untouched among the early studies. So the effort were made by investigator to
study the relationship between cognitive strategies and it's effects on academic
achievement of learning disabled to identify the problem related to their adjustment in
academic, social and psychological areas.
Recommended