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Designing Interpersonal Communication Modules For Effective Transformational Leadership Style

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Chapter 2

Critical Review of Related Literature

-

Confucius

2.1 Introduction

Research and training both rely heavily on the principle of creativity; creativity combined

with rigorous and innovate methods of inquiry. The skills to be developed are instilled by

a process of critical enquiry and engagement involving questioning, exploration and

communication that draw on resources across the spectrum of research, teaching and

learning. Thus, it is the combined power of creativity, critique and application that is at

the heart of research and training which calls for a systematic and meticulous approach of

each contribution to foster growth in the field.

The research tool of critical review of related literature is a clear and concise way of

communicating all the aspects of the topic; build a rationale for the research problem;

articulate the need and distinctive contribution of the additional research based on

standard and explicit organization and synthesis of the secondary data evidence. This

way, well-defined and unbiased strategies ensure any prospective research meets the

standard of good quality contribution to theory, practice or policy in the field of research.

Thus, a good literature review forms the basis of both theoretical and methodological

sophistication on a topic and is a means of developing an argument about the significance

This research study has critiqued and classified literature with the research study title

in focus.


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Consequently, this chapter encompasses the critical review of related literature which

lays the foundation for this researcher in designing, delivering and measuring the

effectiveness of the Intervention Program in the short as well as the long term.

The researcher has classified the critical review of literature in this study as follows:

2.2: Studies Related to Transformational Leadership 2.3: Studies Related to Interpersonal Skills in Leadership

2.4: Studies Related to Training and Coaching 2.5: Studies Related to Transformational Leadership and Gender

2.6: Studies Related to Long term Effectiveness of Training in Transformational

Leadership

2.2 Studies Related To Transformational Leadership

Bass & Avolio (1994) in the book, Improving Organizational Effectiveness, say that the

influence skills of leaders are very important in developing effective multi functional

teams (MFT) and guiding them toward successful completion of their tasks. Because of

the importance of influence skills for effective MFT leader, knowledge of Four

transformational leadership becomes particularly relevant. Each transformational

or her team. They say that many parallels can be drawn between effective MFT

leadership and transformational leadership. Individualized Consideration is shown by the

MFT leader in several ways by being adept in dealing with individuals with diverse

backgrounds, values and perspectives. Also, allowing individuals to make mistakes

increases the future chances of success and transforms individual appraisal processes

away from single person evaluation for both individual and team development. Each of

Influence (attributed & behavior), Inspirational Motivation,

Intellectual Stimulation and Individualized Consideration has relevance for improving the

problem discovery and diagnosis process.


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This is useful to the researcher in applying transformational leadership not only in a

global context but also in the Indian scenario which is multicultural, multireligious and

multilingual.

Bass (1997) in the article, Personal Selling and Transactional and Transformational

Leadership, conclude that selling and leadership both involve influence. So much of what

is known about the new paradigm of transactional and transformational leadership can be

suggested for enhancing the effectiveness of selling. Thus, as with transformational

leadership, selling will be more effective when salespersons are both emotionally and

intellectually appealing and considerate of their customers' needs. As with transactional

leadership, salespersons will be more effective if they are clear about how the customer

profits from concurrence with the salespersons' efforts and ensure that the benefits occur.

Effective salespersons arrange to keep up-to-date with the customer's problems and

needs. Salespersons can also exert important influence on colleagues inside and outside

their firms.

The author shows the parallels between the full range of transformational and

transactional leadership and effective selling. It would seem useful to introduce the

concepts of the full-range of leadership into sales training. For example, paralleling

leadership training and sales training could begin with asking trainees to describe the best

salesperson they have met. The examples could then be discussed in terms of the full-

range model. The top salespersons described should conceivably be seen as

transformational and contingently-rewarding. Each component of selling could be

pursued in more detail. Trainees could discuss how they might improve on one or more

of the components in their relating to customers, outsiders and insiders in the firm. The

concepts also appear applicable to salesperson selection. In fact, one study has been

conducted which made use of the linkages between transformational leadership and

selling to predict effectiveness of salespersons.

Northhouse (1997) in the book, Leadership: Theory and Practice, tries to bridge the gap

between theoretical writings on leadership and the inadequacy in presentation to the

practitioner. Leadership is defined and differentiated from similar constructs like power,


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coercion and management. It also deals with trait, behavioral and contingency approach

to leadership. Transformational leadership is seen as a change agent to create good role

models who can create and articulate a clear vision for an organization, empower

followers to achieve at higher standards, act in ways that make others trust them and give

meaning to organizational life.

The book is useful because it goes on to explain leader-member exchange (LMX) theory

and transformational leadership. The LMX theory conceptualizes leadership as a process

that is centered in the dyadic relationship and interaction between leader and follower.

Followers are classified as belonging to either the in-group or the out-group based on the

quality of exchange relationship they have with the leader. It is an excellent resource for

participants in leadership programs.

Bass (1999) in the article, Two decades of Research and Development in

Transformational Leadership, documents that the interests of the organization and its

members need to be aligned. Such is the task for the transformational leader. In contrast

to the transactional leader, who practices contingent reinforcement of followers, the

transformational leader inspires, intellectually stimulates and is individually considerate

of them. Transformational leadership may be directive or participative. Requiring higher

moral development, transformational leadership is recognized universally as a concept.

Furthermore, contrary to earlier expectations, women leaders tend to be more

transformational than their male counterparts. Although a six-factor model of

transformational/transactional leadership best fits a diversity of samples according to

confirmatory factor analyses, whether fewer factors are necessary remains an open

question.

Another important research question that has only been partially answered is why

transformational leadership is more effective than transactional leadership in a wide

variety of business, military, industrial, hospital and educational circumstances. Training

to increase transformational leader behaviors begins with an examination of the implicit

theories of ideal leadership that trainees carry around in their heads. The leadership is

actice


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more of it? Cases are reviewed to clarify the distinctions among the transformational and

transactional leadership behaviors. A 360-degree assessment of these behaviors of all the

trainees is provided from those back in the organization to which the trainees belong.

The trainees are helped to make plans on how to improve their profiles of behaviors and

to deal with perceived obstacles to change. Assistance is provided by facilitators and

fellow trainees. The trainees return to their respective workplaces for three months to

pursue their individual plans. Then, in a follow-up program, the trainees review the

success of their plans, revise them and learn more about what they can do to be more

transformational as a force for change in their organizational culture. Finally, they

videotape their vision of their organization in two to five years to align their interests

along with the interests of their followers and other stakeholders.

Yukl (2002) in the book, Leadership in Organizations, has a specific focus on

managerial leadership in large organizations and attempts to bridge the gulf between

academics and management practitioners; though the focus is more towards an academic

audience. The author looks into research theories: leader-versus follower, descriptive

versus prescriptive

referent.

The book talks about three forms of leadership development viz. formal training,

developmental activities and self-help activities. Leadership training programs are

discussed, as are the design of the courses many of which concentrate on the LMX

theory. The authors contend that leadership is learned more from experience than training

programs.

It is very useful because it provides a comprehensive review of techniques, citing

examples and guidelines throughout.

Bhargava (2003) in the book, Transformational Leadership: Value Based

Management for Indian Organizations, selects 15 papers presented in the National


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April 2000. It says that leadership is more about guiding and facilitating the efforts of

people. Transformational leadership which is value based can overcome resistance to

change. Various authors have talked about the need for leaders who will be able to touch

the consciousness of people, inspire and provide a unique sense of meaning.

The papers stress that ethics and values are a crucial element of transformational

leadership and need to be considered when any aspect of transformational leadership is

studied or researched.

Banerji & Krishnan (2000) in the empirical study, Ethical preferences of

Transformational Leaders, looked at the relationship between the four factors of

transformational leadership namely Charisma, Inspirational Leadership, Intellectual

Stimulation and Individualized Consideration and the leader's preference for unethical

behavior. Five ethical scenarios namely bribery, endangering the physical environment,

lying, personal gain and favoritism were studied using a sample of 100 pairs of managers

and subordinates from four multinational organizations in India. Relationships between

the leader's ethical preferences and three outcomes viz. followers ' willingness to put in

extra effort, perceived effectiveness and satisfaction were also analyzed.

Findings indicated that inspirational leadership was negatively related to the leader's

preference for bribery and favoritism and Intellectual Stimulation was negatively related

to preference for bribery. Charisma and Individualized Consideration were not related to

the leader's ethical preferences.

ut in extra effort was also negatively related to the leader's

preference for bribery and favoritism. Results also suggest that organizational culture

might moderate the relationship between transformational leadership and ethics.

Krishnan (2001) in this study, Value Systems of Transformational Leaders, attempts to

draw a value profile of a transformational leader, the leader who transforms people and

organizations. It compares the terminal and instrumental value systems of leaders who

are more transformational with those of leaders who are less transformational, using a


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sample of 95 pairs of leaders and subordinates of a non-profit organization in the United

States. Findings reveal that transformational leaders do have some identifiable patterns in

ational leaders might

give greater importance to values pertaining to others than to values concerning only

themselves.

Krishnan (2001) in the paper, Can the Indian Worldview Facilitate the Emergence of

Transformational Leaders? outlines four basic components of the Indian worldview an

understanding of the real nature of this world (theory of Maya), preference for action

over inaction, perceiving the potentially divine nature of oneself and others and

visualizing freedom as the supreme goal of human existence and presents propositions

relating those components to transformational leadership.

The paper makes a case for teaching Indian philosophy in schools and colleges in India to

facilitate the emergence of greater number of transformational leaders who could lift

people to higher levels.

The arguments can be used to enhance interaction between the leader and the follower

not only in the Indian scenario but can also be inculcated in the western context.

Crawford (2003) in this empirical study, Transformational Leadership, Innovation and

Knowledge Management: Empirical Findings and Emergent Conclusions, investigated

(N=1046) the relationship between innovation, transformational, transactional and

laissez-faire leadership and knowledge management. The combined model of innovation

and transformational leadership significantly predicted knowledge management,

accounting for 29.4% of the variance. Knowledge management was negatively predicted

by laissez-faire leadership. Knowledge management behaviors were not related to

transactional leadership overall, but were significantly predicted by each subscale. These

findings warrant further investigation.


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This study can be useful in organizations where the transformational leader needs to

enhance innovation, change and knowledge management. Interactions are a way for tacit

information to become explicit and interpersonal communication can facilitate this

process.

Krishnan (2003) in this paper, Modernization without Demolishing Cultural Roots:

The Role of Transformational Leadership, says that a general assumption is often made

that modernization of a society or a group requires discarding all their traditional beliefs

and cultural artifacts and instead adopting those of the apparently advanced societies and

groups. This paper argues that such an assumption is antithetical to the objectives of

enduring and successful transformations. Transformational leadership--the leadership that

transforms societies and organizations--attempts to bring to the conscious what lies in the

unconscious of followers. It is about expressing the true aspirations of people in a way

that is better than how they themselves are able to express. Such a truly transforming

leadership requires two distinct steps. The first step is to identify the core components of

the culture and ensure that those cultural roots are not demolished in the name of

modernization. The second step is to look at the various cultural artifacts that need to be

modernized to keep in line with the changing environment. The radicals who strike at the

roots and the conservatives who refuse to change artifacts are both not contributing to

effective transformation.

The findings reached are, that knowing what is to be preserved and what is to be changed

is the secret of effective transformational leadership. Transformational leaders bring

about enduring change by presenting the cultural roots in an inspiring way and

mobilizing followers' support to modernize existing practices.

The conclusions derived are of immense scope for further research as the training for

transformational leadership needs to take into account the fact that the core component of

any culture cannot be ignored before interacting with the followers, since in these days of

a multicultural workforce the followers can belong to several cultures at the same time.


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Hacker & Roberts (2003) in their book, Transformational Leadership: Creating

Organizations of Meaning, say that leading others requires the leader to be awake and

conscious of his/her

fundamental in creating meaning in life and of course consequently putting that plan into

action to produce results. The leader should understand the mindsets of the followers and

its role in performance and this understanding is critical for their role as leaders. They

give the five mind-sets that retard performance which are mechanism, image maker,

scarcity, detachment and power within limits. These five unproductive mindsets are easy

to see and need to be dealt with by the transformational leader. The authors also give five

mind-sets for performance which are Intentional, Authentic, Abundance, Oneness and

Power beyond measure.

This book is useful to the researcher of transformational leader because it says that

coaching in the context of transformational leadership involves having the desire to

awaken spirit in another. Transformational coaching is not about having the right answer

or offering counsel. The first step is to relate to another on a spirit-to-spirit level.

Conversations focused on personal passion, life vision and purpose. Taking sincere

interest is required. Being able to articulate a set of performance mind-sets and their

unproductive polarity is useful in bringing the leader and the followers to higher levels of

consciousness. Transformational leaders help others in their own self discovery and

reflection, which involves powerful questions, not answers and a firm commitment to the

greatness of others. They say that a defining characteristic of an organization is one of

interpersonal relationship and thus reality dictates that relationships become a focus of

organizational performance. Stronger relationships build stronger teams, which fosters

stronger team to team dynamics and ultimately a stronger, more robust organization.

Thus, it also focuses on relational transformation and consciousness (You, me and us).

Narayanan & Krishnan (2003) in the research paper, Impact of Sattva and Rajas

Gunas on Transformational Leadership and Karma-Yoga, studied the relationships

between Gunas, Karma-Yoga and transformational leadership using a sample of 105 pairs

of managers and subordinates of a large banking organization in India. Each of the three


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Gunas Sattva, Rajas and Tamas were measured along 10 dimensions: attribution,

leisure, interests, food, praise and criticism, sympathy, right and wrong, motivation to

work, working with determination and accepting pain. A scale was developed for this

study to measure Karma-Yoga.

Findings showed that three Sattva dimensions (sympathy, motivation to work and

accepting pain) enhance transformational leadership and two Rajas dimensions

(attribution, and right and wrong) reduce Karma-Yoga. Karma-Yoga is not related to

transformational leadership.

The conclusions derived can be used for further research wherein the interaction the

leader has can take into account the aspects which enhance the leadership style keeping in

mind the findings of the study.

Kejriwal & Krishnan (2004) in the research paper, The Impact of Vedic Worldview and

Gunas on Transformational Leadership, conclude that the thought processes, implicit

assumptions, beliefs and attitudes of leaders can be meaningfully studied only if they are

interwoven into a composite whole by a cultural thread where from they emanate. This

study explores the personality traits and worldview of transformational leaders from an

Indian cultural perspective. Indian philosophy provides a framework to help understand a

-up. It offers the Guna theory, also called the tri-dimensional

personality theory, to explain differences across individuals. The Vedic texts also outline

concepts like Karma (cause-effect chain or the basic law governing all actions) and Maya

(existing bundle of inexplicable contradictions of the world) which help in

worldview can we unravel the secrets of transformational leadership and try enhancing it.

This paper reports an experiment conducted to observe the impact of the different Gunas

and the Vedic worldview on the magnitude of transformational leadership. There are

three Gunas: Sattva (awareness), Rajas (dynamism) and Tamas (inertness). Gunas are

fundamental ingredients or constituents in every being and each being is composed of all

the three Gunas. When one of the three Gunas is dominant in a person, that person is

characterized by that Guna. The Gunas were manipulated by portraying a political leader


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as being high on one or two of the Gunas. The Vedic worldview (operationalized as an

understanding of Maya and belief in Karma) was manipulated by portraying the leader as

having or not having such a worldview. The outcome variable was transformational

leadership as perceived by the participants.

The sample consisted of 140 students, 97 males and 43 females, aged between 16 and 20

years, from a prominent school in eastern India. A 3 x 2 + 1 factorial design was used

where Sattva, Rajas and Sattva-Rajas combinations were crossed with Vedic worldview

(yes or no) to produce six cells, Tamas being the seventh cell. A 47-item multifactor

leadership questionnaire was used to capture the five factors of transformational

leadership as perceived by the participants: attributed charisma, idealized influence,

inspirational leadership, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration.

The mean of the five factors formed the transformational leadership score. The results of

analyses of variance indicate the following:

Sattva and Vedic worldview separately enhance transformational leadership whereas

Tamas reduces it. Sattva-Rajas combination also enhances transformational leadership

but the effect is not more than the effect of Sattva alone. Sattva and Vedic worldview

together do not enhance transformational leadership more than what Sattva alone does.

The paper concludes with a discussion on what organizations can do for enhancing

transformational leadership by using the Guna framework and by reinforcing the Vedic

worldview.

The study can be used to design training programmes to develop Sattva and reduce

Tamas, also to build team-orientation and self-sacrifice for directing energies towards

superordinate goals. The companies can also base organizational policies on a

competency framework built around Sattva and a Vedic orientation.

Sharma & Krishnan (2005) in their research paper, Transformational Leadership:

Aspects of Self-concept, and Needs of Followers, empirically examine how higher levels

leadership. The sample was 70 pairs of superiors (leaders) and subordinates (followers)


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employed at a medium sized metal-sheet manufacturing organization in eastern India.

The measurement instrument for transformational leadership was the MLQ (Bass and

Avolio, 1991).

The results lend empirical support to the suggestion that the transformational leadership

effect of getting followers to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the

collectivity can be explained in terms of leadership actions that raise the salience of

certain identities and valu -concept and link collective goals and

required behaviors to those identities.

Bass & Riggio (2005) in the book, Transformational Leadership, give a comprehensive

review of theory and empirical research on transformational leadership that can serve as a

reference and a starting point for additional research on the theory. It looks into the

structure and measurement of transformational leadership and the Full Range Leadership

Model. The various chapters discuss the dynamics involved as to why transformational

leaders the leader and the

organization; how transformational leadership relates to performance and helps followers

to deal with stress in crises, emergencies and various disasters and panic situations. It

reviews: (a) contingencies that affect the emergence and effectiveness of transformational

leadership, (b) the large and growing literature on transformational leadership and

gender, (c)

policies and strategic planning and (d) addresses issues of the development of

transformational leadership. The authors also examine the role of empowerment and

whether there could be a valid substitute for transformational leadership. The exploration

of the role of transformational leadership in shared and team models of groups and

organizations are looked into.

The book is an extremely useful resource to serious researchers of transformational

leadership because of its comprehensive review of the subject and also for giving

suggestions for future research in transformational leadership. It also encourages

researchers by saying that in spite of the vast body of research conducted by the


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researchers there are still many gaps in the knowledge and there are various aspects that

need to be looked into.

Bono & Anderson (2005) in the research, The Advice and Influence Networks of

Transformational Leaders, examine the social networks of managers who exhibit

transformational leadership behaviors. Their focus was on the network of relationships

social networks. In a field study using data from 39 managers and 130 non management

employees of 6 organizations; the authors found that managers who score higher on

transformational leadership tend to hold more central positions in organizational advice

and influence networks.

Furthermore, the direct reports of these leaders were also more central in informal

organizational networks. These results illuminate one of the ways that managers who

exhibit transformational leadership behaviors may exert influence in organizations.

This study may help in also incorporating the social networking angle to the interpersonal

skills ability of the managers thereby enhancing the effectiveness of transformational

leadership style.

Singh & Krishnan (2005) in the research, Towards Understanding Transformational

Leadership: A Grounded Theory Approach, attempt to take a preliminary look at the

behavioral manifestations of transformational leadership that are unique to Indian culture,

most of which have been drawn from Singh and Bhandarkar's (1988) model. After using

the grounded theory method for data generation, 1617 response sets obtained from 250

working managers were content analyzed.

The results showed that universal dimension of transformational leadership constitutes

44% of the responses, while culture-specific dimensions constitute the rest. The 56%

Indian cultural dimensions have been operationalized through seven sub-dimensions,

-Living-High-

- -Model-of-


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(2%). The paper concludes by discussing the importance of recognizing

culture-specific manifestations for leading change.

The authors build a case for studying the influence of national culture in organizations

and show how it influences the functioning of a transformational leader.

The study could help to design courses in effective transformational leadership in which

the primary tasks are consistent with dominant social values and offer both leader and

followers an opportunity for moral involvement. And if a manager follows socially

appreciable image (simple living) and encourages behaviors that are socially valued

(selfless behavior, loyalty, culture of giving and personal touch) then the manager is more

likely to emerge as a transformational leader.

Remus, Judge & Wagner (2006) in the paper, Making Sense of Motivational

Leadership: The Trail from Transformational Leaders to Motivated Followers,

present a theoretical model that integrates two related, but distinct mechanisms by which

transformational leaders influence follower motivation. One, an affective mechanism by

which charismatic leaders induce positive emotional experiences in their followers and

two, cognitive mechanisms that include

on goal setting that explain the connection between charismatic and transformational

leadership and follower motivation. Further, they specify the pathways through which

affective and cognitive processes influence three components of follower motivation: The

direction of action, the intensity of effort and effort persistence.

The paper suggests incorporating

positive affect through which

charismatic leaders transmit their emotions to their followers in the interpersonal process

to increase positive emotions.

Singh & Krishnan (2007) in three studies, Developing and Validating a New Scale

Using Grounded Theory Approach, report that they used a combination of methods to

develop a measure of transformational leadership in India. The grounded theory approach

was followed for generating the initial item-pool (n = 250). In the second study (n = 379)


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an exploratory factor analysis was conducted followed by a confirmatory factor analysis,

which resulted in a six-factor model. The factors show support for both universal as well

as unique cultural dimensions. In the third study (n = 202; 101 manager subordinate

dyads) survey data were collected and support was found for sound psychometric

properties of the new scale, including incremental, discriminant, convergent and

predictive validity. The new scale explained significant variance over and above the

variance explained by the currently existing scale for measuring transformational

leadership.

The study will help in measuring and recognizing transformational leadership in the

Indian context which then can be incorporated in research and programs designed in

transformational leadership and make it relevant also in the Indian context. The five

factors of transformational leadership developed were: (1) Idealized Influence

(attributed), (2) Idealized Influence (behavior), (3) Inspirational Motivation, (4)

Intellectual Stimulation and (5) Individualized Consideration.

Sahgal & Pathak (2007) in the study, Transformational Leaders: Their Socialization,

Self-Concept, and Shaping Experiences, use a developmental perspective to study

transformational leadership in the Indian context. It focuses on significant life

experiences that have shaped leaders who have successfully transformed organizations.

The personal experiences shared by leaders offer valuable insights on the role of family

and childhood experiences that have had a sustained impact on their lives.

The paper suggests that leaders do not emerge as a consequence of events or incidents,

but from a journey of distinctive life experiences and processes. It concludes with a

framework that weaves the antecedents of leadership that have enabled leaders to

accomplish professional growth and success.

Ardichvili & Mandersheid (2008) in the paper, Emerging Practices in Leadership

Development: An Introduction, focus on such theories and models of leadership as

leader member exchange (LMX) theory, situational leadership, transformational

leadership, servant leadership, authentic leadership and complexity theory.


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They make an important distinction between leader development and leadership

development. The authors emphasize the need to focus more on developing the ability of

the leaders to recognize complex dynamics and emergent patterns within their

organizations and to articulate emerging themes. Furthermore, leadership development

, to act

within a wider range of possibilities, take risks

. A new approach called leader assimilations is

exposed, which has yet to be researched and discussed at length. Leader assimilation is an

early leadership development intervention intended to help new leaders adapt to their

work teams. Leader assimilation is an intervention typically facilitated by an internal or

external leadership development practitioner. During assimilation, a facilitator meets with

the leader

solicits general feedback about the leader looking for new approaches that are not always

This article helps in knowing the current practices in leadership development and by

looking for new approaches that are not always aligned with what we perceive to be

Dennis (2008) in this paper, Challenging the Transformational Agenda Leadership

Theory in Transition?, contends that there are complex communicative processes at the

heart of leader follower interactions and the uncertainties intrinsic to such

communication. In contrast, social science research often seeks to close down uncertainty

and ambiguity that is, researchers typically look for hard-and-fast causal connections,

precise relationships between independent and dependent variables and the essence of

whatever phenomenon is being studied. Leadership pedagogy in business schools mostly

focuses on skills and tools that students will presumably find useful in transforming the

is, what if such approaches are misplaced or at least only one part of the whole view;

what if leadership has no essence but is realized anew in each social situation and must be

understood as a struggle for meaning. Each time that one discursive ambiguity is put to


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rest, a fresh one steps forward to take its place. It is stated by one of the writers that

attention must be paid to the communicative processes that characterize leader follower

relations. Such thinking would ameliorate some of the effects of unidirectional leadership

theories and perhaps help the development of more participative and inclusive models of

the leadership process.

It is said that there is an urgent need to reconsider how we teach leadership to our

students. A more dialogic and communication-oriented approach would, among much

else, stress the value of dissent, the need for limits on leader power and action, the value

of upward communication and the role of followers in shaping organizational systems

(Tourish & Robson, 2006). It also offers an analytic replacement lens of enormous

emancipatory power one that can help us understand that leaders are fallible human

beings whose discursive accomplishments in projecting their visions and values must at

all times be balanced by an equal respect for the creative and dissenting input of their

followers.

This paper may help in developing transformational leadership by using a more

communication oriented approach in not being contingent on followership, but as one of

its many manifestations. From the perspective of the global challenges that loom in the

decades ahead and the need to bring out the best in us all, this could be very helpful.

Krishnan (2008) in the research study, The Impact of Transformational Leadership on

studied the relationships between transformational

leadership and

beings), organizational identification and normative organizational commitment by using

a sample of 144 teachers of a prominent high school in western India. Spirituality is the

goal of all existence according to the Upanishads and karma yoga is a simple means to

enhance spirituality.

It was hypothesized that: (a) karma yoga enhances spirituality, (b) transformational

leadership enhances karma yoga and spirituality and (c) all the three in turn enhance

organizational identification and normative organizational commitment. Results of

structural equations analysis show that: (a) transformational leadership enhances


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both transformational leadership and karma yoga enhance

fol (c) both transformational leadership and oneness

enhance organizational identification and (d) both karma yoga and organizational

identification enhance normative commitment. The implications of transformational

organizational interests (identification and commitment) are discussed.

The study may help where one can possibly increase effectiveness of transformational

leadership by increasing leader follower interaction. This may be done by means of

mentor programs. Gatherings of project teams with their leaders could also be organized

cause. In addition, study circles could be arranged. These study circles could be forums

used by leaders to encourage employees to challenge old assumptions and drive them to

learn more and hence, intellectually stimulate them.

Yukl (2008) in the book, Leadership in Organizations, takes a very broad perspective

and examines many different aspects of leadership which are: (1) overview of major

research approaches, (2) the nature of managerial work, (3) perspectives on effective

leadership behavior, (4) power and influence, (5) managerial traits and skills, (6) leading

change in organizations, (7) types of leadership, (8) developing leadership skills-training

and development and finally (9) major findings in leadership research.

According to the author, the ten most important leadership functions for enhancing

collective work in teams and organizations are: (1)help interpret the meaning of events,

(2) create alignment (order/instilling) on objectives and strategies, (3) build task

commitment and optimism, (4)build mutual trust and cooperation, (5)strengthen

collective identity, (6)organize and coordinate activities, (7)encourage and facilitate

collective learning, (8)obtain necessary resources and support, (9) develop and empower

people and (10)promote social justice and morality.

The book is very useful for researchers of leadership because it not only gives an

overview but also gives the objectives that need to be attained for any leadership style to


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be effective and trainers and coaches should see that their training helps their participants

to fulfill their organizational goals.

Liden & Antonakis (2009) in the paper, Considering Context in Psychological

Leadership Research, contend that the context of leadership is the milieu the physical

and social environment in which leadership is observed. Contexts vary; as such they are

measurable and must be modeled when attempting to explain a particular aspect of the

leadership puzzle. An important criterion identified for theory building was the boundary

conditions (i.e. the context, including space and time) under which a theory is expected to

hold. As such, scholars must consider context in leadership research, such as examining

the way context influences the variability that may emerge in the constructs under study

or by assessing how context can moderate relations between variables.

Although transformational leadership, in general, was positively related to leader

effectiveness, it was found that relationships between transformational leadership and

leader effectiveness were significantly stronger in public than private sector

organizations.

The interactional psychology paradigm is especially salient for understanding the context

surrounding leadership. Context constrains what behaviors are considered prototypical. It

is stressed that person and situation reciprocally influence;

organizations cannot be fully understood when examined in isolation of the context in

which they occurred.

A most noteworthy of attempts made to research cultural influences on leadership has

been the GLOBE project led by Robert House. This ambitious project has assessed

leadership across 62 countries and provided researchers with valuable benchmark data.

Evidence from this project to date suggests that there are more similarities across national

cultures than differences in terms of the correlates of leader behaviors. The vast majority

of this research has focused on the influence of context on leadership; or relationships

between leadership and both individual and organizational outcomes.


Swati Mankad 47

Four dimensions were identified of organizational cultures that classify groups of values

specifically related to internal organizational activities. Innovation refers to the degree to

which risk taking and experimentation are valued and formal rules are less stressed

within organizations. Respect for people is the extent to which respect for individuals and

fairness are values shared by organizational members. Aggressiveness describes

Team orientation refers to values that promote collaboration, strong interpersonal

relationships, group harmony and individual sacrifice for the benefit of the team. The

values that are present within a workgroup prescribe how individuals within a group

should behave. As such, they become the standard. Just as leadership is influenced by the

team context, leaders influence teams as well. For example, transformational leadership is

positively related to shared team vision, reflexivity team potency and team performance.

Leadership also affects and is affected by the team context.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate claims that emotional intelligence is

significantly related to transformational and other leadership behaviors. Results (based on

62 independent samples) indicated a validity estimate of .59 when ratings of both

emotional intelligence and leadership behaviors were provided by the same source (self,

subordinates, peers or superiors). However, when ratings of the constructs were derived

from different sources, the validity estimate was .12. Lower validity estimates were found

for transactional and laissez-faire leadership behaviors. Separate analyses were performed

for each measure of emotional intelligence. Trait measures of emotional intelligence

tended to show higher validities than ability-based measures of emotional intelligence.

Agreement across ratings sources for the same construct was low for both

transformational leadership (.14) and emotional intelligence (.16).

The study is useful in that there is a possibility to explore the interpersonal and

communication processes that result in varying degrees of agreement between leaders

and followers on LMX quality. The context needs to be taken into account during

interpersonal communication.


Swati Mankad 48

Nohria & Khurana (Eds.) (2010) in their handbook, Handbook of Leadership Theory

and Practice, categorize the handbook in the following sections: (1) the impact of

leadership: Performance and meaning, (2) the theory of leadership: personal attributes,

functions and relationships, (3) the variability of leadership

contingent practice of leadership- Agency and constraint and lastly (5) the development

of leaders: knowing, doing and being.

It is a comprehensive volume and it features contemporary and renowned scholars who

will help shape the future research agenda on leadership.

Rowe & Guerrero (2010) in their casebook, Cases in Leadership, select cases to help

the reader understand to be better leaders and to lead more effectively in their area of

work. There are cases on various leadership approaches like the trait, skills, leader style,

situational, contingency, path-goal theory, leader-member exchange, transformational

leadership, authentic leadership, team leadership and strategic leadership. There are cases

on women and leadership, culture and leadership and ethical leadership.

The transformational leadership factors explained are: Idealized Influence or Charisma,

Inspirational Motivation, Intellectual Stimulation and Individualized Consideration. The

author also explains the Bennis and Nanus Transformational Leadership Model(1985)

and the Kouzes and Posner (1987, 2002) Transformational Leadership Model

delineates five strategies which are :(1) model the way, (2) inspire a shared vision, (3)

challenge the process, (4) enable others to act and (5) encourage the heart. The authors

explain how the transformational leadership works.

The case for transformational leadership is that of Mayor Rudolph Giuliani who did

everything right when faced with a crisis of a magnitude which was unimaginable.

Lippstreu (2011) in the dissertation, Revisiting Fundamental Concepts of

Transformational Leadership Theory: A Closer Look at Follower Developmental

Processes, initiates a closer examination of the process variables in three phases. Firstly,

the direct relationship between supervisor transformational leadership and various

follower variables relevant to the development process was examined. Secondly, the


Swati Mankad 49

study summarized the interrelationships between the process variables in a structural

model, including a test of the indirect effects of supervisor transformational leadership on

follower outcomes through more proximal followers. Thirdly, the study explored

-

follower processes by comparing some of the relationships tested in the study to

analogous relationships using other highly researched leadership styles, such as

transactional leadership, initiating structure, consideration and leader-member exchange.

The 95,000 participants were surveyed through an online survey service. The analysis

was performed in several phases. In the first phase, the direct relationship between

supervisor transformational leadership and the follower variables were examined using

correlations. The phase two analyses tested the structural/path model as well as the direct

paths between the specific variables. In addition, the fully mediated model was compared

to alternative models that added direct effects from supervisor transformational

leadership to the follower outcome variables. During the third phase of analyses, the

relationship between supervisor transformational leadership and follower

process/outcome variables was examined relative to the other leadership style.

The study established several direct relationships between transformational leadership

and the follower variables; and modeled a network of relationships among these

constructs. Organizations seeking to develop followers into transformational leaders may

still be effective by relying on supervisors who are transformational leaders to develop

followers. The premise of this study implies that organizations with transformational

leaders should expect to see their followers develop into transformational leaders

themselves.

This is an important premise which means that transformational leaders influence their

Inspirational Motivation

and Idealized Influence

Covey (2011) in the book, The Third Alternative-

Problems, affirms that creating synergy in all spheres of life; be it work, home, school,


Swati Mankad 50

law, society and the World; is the most transformative and enduring solutions

problems, creativity and productivity.

The author bases his contention on real life examples from various parts of the globe.

The three conditions for synergy according to the author are first, self-awareness, second

unconditional positive regard and third empathic understanding and listening. These

conditions are similar to those required to be a transformational leader. Teaming without

frontiers and converging divergence are qualities of teams seeking a third alternative to

confrontationist and contrasting views.

This viewpoint is useful to the researcher because it supports the conclusions supported

by the primary research done by this researcher and also is in consonance with the

essence of transformational leadership in the Indian context.

Shanker & Bin Sayeed (2012) in their research, Role of Transformational Leaders as

Change Agents: Leveraging Effects on Organizational Climate, conducted a study on

139 participants who answered the Transformational Leadership Style and Organizational

Climate Questionnaires. The leadership style data was earlier subjected to Principal Axis

Factoring technique with Varimax rotation procedure yielding 6 factors related to 5

organizational climate factors obtained in their study. The findings revealed an

unequivocal influence of transformational leadership styles over organizational climate

dimensions suggesting theoretically a maneuvering capability of organizational climate

with its backward influence over transformational leadership behavior.

Grant (2012) in the quasi-experimental study, Leading With Meaning: Beneficiary

Contact, Prosocial Impact, and the Performance Effects of Transformational

Leadership, concludes that transformational leadership is most effective in motivating

followers when they interact with the beneficiaries of their work, which highlights how

the vision has meaningful consequences for other people. The hypothesis was that

beneficiary contact strengthens the relationship between transformational leadership and

Followers

moderating effect of beneficiary contact on the relationship between transformational


Swati Mankad 51

females). The experiment used a 2 (transformational leadership: yes, no) X 2 (beneficiary

contact: yes, no) between subjects factorial design. The employees were arbitrarily

divided among four conditions: control, transformational leadership, beneficiary contact

and combined. A training session was conducted in interaction with the beneficiary. The

control group had a training session without the beneficiary. 2 x 2 analyses of variance on

manipulation checks were done. A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to assess

the factor structures of the performance, leadership, job design and perceptual variables.

A 13-factor solution with distinct, freely correlated factors was used for supervisor rating.

Chi-Square difference tests and hierarchical ordinary least squares (OLS) regression

analysis were done.

The results indicate that beneficiary contact is an important moderator of the impact of

transformational leadership on follower performance. This research has focused on the

interactional and social aspects of the jobs which may operate as enhancers. The design

2.3 Studies Related To Interpersonal Skills in Leadership

Tsouka (1991) in the article, The Missing Link: A Transformational View of

Metaphors in Organizational Science, outlines the divergent knowledge functions of

metaphors in lay and scientific discourses and proposes a methodology for the

development of metaphors to yield deeper organizational scientific knowledge. It is

argued that the traditional dichotomy between metaphorical and literal languages has led

either to an overemphasis or a depreciation of the role of metaphors in organizational

science. This dichotomy is unnecessary and unproductive because metaphorical language

and literal language are different but not incompatible. Drawing on Beer's suggestions

about scientific modeling, this article advances a transformational view of metaphors,

which attempts to outline a methodology for the development of metaphorical insights to

yield literal identities.

This study is useful because it has suggested a way in which the "either/or" thinking that

has traditionally characterized the debate about the utility of metaphors in theory


Swati Mankad 52

development in organizational science can be overcome. Instead, a "yes and" view has

been offered to bridge the gap between metaphorical and literal languages. The "yes"

component has been the acknowledgment that metaphorical and literal discourses have

indeed different, though not mutually exclusive, knowledge functions.

In the spoken discourse metaphors are better sensors than literal terms for capturing and

expressing the continuous flow of experience. They allow the transfer of concrete bands

of experiences, whereas literal discourse segments experiences. Although three types of

metaphors were distinguished, it has been argued that only live metaphors lend

themselves to further conceptual development.

Leary (1996) in the book, Self-Presentation Impression Management and

Interpersonal Behavior, says that self-presentational motives underlie and pervade

nearly every corner of interpersonal life. The theme of the book is that a certain degree of

are more motivated to impression-manage in some situations than in others. A

large portion of the book examines the myriad factors that affect the kinds of impressions

people try to convey in a particular situation. Finally, the book concludes with a look at

what happens, both behaviorally and emotionally, when people think they are making

undesired impressions on other people.

The book is useful resource for the study of behavior, social psychology and personality.

It notes that social psychologists use the word power, when they are referring to the

ability to intentionally produce desired changes in other people, which is very useful for

the study of transformational leadership.

Quinn (1996) in this article, The Role of 'Good Conversation' in Strategic Control, says

that most current writers on strategic control, whether from the rational planning or

processual schools, agree on the importance of dialogue and debate between the

interested parties to the control process. This is particularly so when strategic control is

reg


Swati Mankad 53

plan, rather than as a behavioral constraint or as an element of agency theory practice.

This paper advances a normative framework for ensuring the effectiveness of such

discussions based on Bird's notion of a 'good conversation'. Bird argued that the

discussion of business ethical problems should be vocal, reciprocating, issues-oriented,

rational, imaginative and honest. It is argued here that these characteristics should also

apply to the discussions within the strategic control process, if the process is not to be

dysfunctional.

Good conversations are rational in that they are 'intelligible, reasonable and well-argued';

are imaginative in that they invite the participants involved to consider unexplored

avenues; and they do not invite merely assent or dissent. Good conversations are also

honest.

Good conversations required for strategic control are issues-oriented in that they focus on

specific problems and alternative courses of action rather than expressions of personal

sentiment. It is hypothesized that the lack of good conversation would lead to a

diminution of trust, greater managerial opportunism (Williamson, 1975) and subsequent

increases in transaction costs.

The study is useful in incorporating this research and finding out as to how the 'goodness'

of conversation might be characterized and recognized and to relate aspects of

organizational performance to the quality of organizational dialogue.

Krishnan (1998) in this article, Influencing the Transformational Leader: Strategies

Used by Followers, says that Burns (1978) held that transformational leadership results in

a transforming effect on both leaders and followers. Studies in the past have, however,

primarily focused on how transformational leaders influence their followers.

This study is an attempt to look at how transformational leaders are influenced by their

followers. Results indicate that subordinates are likely to use friendliness and reasoning

strategies to influence their managers who are rated high on transformational leadership.


Swati Mankad 54

The study is useful in understanding the influence tactics used by followers of

transformational leadership which would be a key first step towards analyzing the

transforming effect that transformational leadership has on leaders.

Barry, Crant & Michael (2000) in the research, Dyadic Communication Relationships

in Organizations: An Attribution/Expectancy Approach, say that organizational

communication has examined the structure and content of interaction, but has paid little

attention to research traditions outside the organizational sciences that explore the social-

psychological interconnections between relationship development and interaction. In this

paper they draw upon and extend those traditions to develop a model of how

communication relationships develop within organizational dyads.

The proposed model examines organization-based communication relationships through a

synthesis of theoretical perspectives on communication richness, relational

communication, interpersonal attribution and social expectancy. They also call upon

precepts of Structuration theory to embed these micro-level processes in an

organizational context. In the Structuration theory-Giddens (1984), the core assumptions

are that behavior and structure are intertwined. People go through a socialization process

and become dependent on the existing social structures, but at the same time social

structures are being altered by their activities. In other words, social structures are the

medium of human activities as well as the result of those activities. Social structures not

only restrict behavior but also create possibilities for human behavior. It is not all about

the restrictions people encounter in unrolling their behavior in space and time, but people

also contribute to the creation of a certain time-space-structure. Giddens suggests that

human agency and social structure are in relationship with each other and it is the

repetition of the acts of individual agents which reproduces the structure. Giddens

suggests that through human agency social structure (traditions, institutions, moral codes

and established ways of doing things) can be changed when people start to ignore them,

that sociologists talk about. As Giddens and that form only


Swati Mankad 55

has effects on people, in so far as structure is produced and reproduced in what people

The relational outcome in the model is "interactional richness,' ' a dyad-level construct

that assesses the extent to which communication within the dyad is high in shared

meaning. Model antecedents are aspects of interaction through which communicators

reciprocally define their relationships, including relational message properties, message

patterns that emerge over time and relational perceptions. They propose that these

communication properties and behaviors give rise to relationship attributions. They then

incorporate processes of expectancy confirmation and violation to explain how specific

communication encounters lead individuals to reformulate attributions regarding the

status of a given relationship. Research propositions articulate how attribution/expectancy

processes mediate between relational communication behavior and relationship

development outcomes. They also develop propositions addressing how relational

communication behavior is influenced by macro level factors, including hierarchy,

structure and culture.

The researchers advice future research to incorporate the aspects of context and

individual differences in interpersonal communication.

Bhal & Ansari (2000) in the book, Managing Dyadic Interactions in Organizational

Leadership, contend that different followers have different orientations and thus, share

differing relationships with the leader and a 24-

is developed to measure dyadic quality of interaction. The scale has two factors

action with his or her subordinates

varies along with the dimensions of perceived contribution and affect.

The book is useful because of the studies conducted in India without diluting its

relevance in the western context.

Gergen, McNamee & Barett (2001) in the article, Towards Transformative Dialogue,

drawing from a social constructionist theoretical orientation and a range of congenial

practices; propose the concept of transformative dialogue which stresses relational


Swati Mankad 56

responsibility, self-expression, affirmation, coordination reflexivity and co creation of

new realities. They see conversational moves that accomplish these aims as highly

promising; at the same time there is no attempt in the present article to suggest these as

ultimate solutions to employ in situations of conflict.

Transformative dialogue may be viewed as any form of interchange that succeeds in

transforming a relationship between those committed to otherwise separate vocabulary

rather than a strict set of rules for negotiating among incommensurate and antagonistic

realities (and their related practices) to one in which common and solidifying realities are

under construction.

The study is useful as it attempts to cement theory to practice in such a way as to lend

vitality to the former and intelligibility to the latter. Conversational moves that

accomplish these aims seem highly promising; at the same time there is no attempt here

to legislate or draw final conclusions. As pointed out, cultural forms are many and varied;

and undergo continuous change. Thus, the study is more an attempt to generate a

potentially useful vocabulary rather than a set of rules.

There is scope for future research as the authors say that the account should be subject to

continuous emendation and alteration over time.

Dimitrius & Mazarella (2002) in the book, Put Your Best Foot Forward, teach the

authors prescribe the toxic traits, magic pills; body language and communicative style to

be used on different occasions, content of communication and ways to bring a change

from within.

The book is useful to the researcher of transformational leadership by incorporating

Kenny (2004) in this general theoretical model, PERSON: A General Model of

Interpersonal Perception, (personality', error, residual, stereotype, opinion, and norm),

reparameterizes a weighted-average model (WAM; Kenny, 1991; Kenny, Albright,


Swati Mankad 57

Malloy & Kashy, 1994) into six components. Two of those components refer to

categorical information and four to behavioral information. Based on a formal model, for

which parameters are estimated from previous research studies; several implications are

developed. The PERSON model explains: (a) the low level of consensus in person

perception, (b) the fact that consensus does not increase with greater acquaintance, (c) the

strong stability of interpersonal judgment, (d) the overconfidence effect and (e) the fact

that short-term judgments are sometimes as accurate as long-term judgments. The

PERSON model generally predicts that acquaintance is not as important in person

perception as generally thought.

The author says that one parameter largely neglected is communication and needs to be

incorporated when taking into account when understanding people through interpersonal

skills which can help in predicting judgment about people with fair accuracy even if the

acquaintance is for a short duration.

Stromer-Galley (2004) in this article, Interactivity-as-Product and Interactivity-as-

Process, attempts to clarify the concep

two distinct phenomena: interactivity between people and interactivity between people

and computers or networks. The former orients research on the process of interactivity.

The latter orients research on the product of interactivity. That two distinct phenomena

have been labeled with the same term causes problems when one wants to move from

theorizing about interactivity in the abstract to investigating what effects interactivity has

and then to operationalize measurement terms. Studying interactivity-as-process entails a

research focus on human interaction. Studying interactivity-as-product entails a research

focus on user interactions with technology. In trying to find out what interactivity is, the

researcher must not lose sight of why it matters. In research focused on the opportunities

and constraints for citizen participation in the political process afforded by

communication technology, for example, interactivity is a variable of importance.

Researchers of leadership communication must take into cognizance that interactivity as

a term refers to two distinct phenomena: interaction that occurs between humans and

interaction that occurs between humans and computer or networked systems. Because


Swati Mankad 58

these are distinct phenomena, theorizing about individual and social effects must take

such distinctions into account if they are to produce research that has any hope of being

valid and reliable.

Richardson, Michael, Marsh, Kerry & Schmidt (2005) in the empirical research,

Effects of Visual and Verbal Interaction on Unintentional Interpersonal Coordination,

unintentionally coordinated during interpersonal interaction. The current study sought to

uncover the degree to which visual and verbal (conversation) interaction constraints and

organizes the rhythmic limb movements of co-actors.

Two experiments were conducted in which pairs of participants completed an

interpersonal puzzle task while swinging handheld pendulums with instructions that

minimized intentional coordination but facilitated either visual or verbal interaction.

Cross-spectral analysis revealed a higher degree of coordination for conditions in which

the pairs were visually coupled. In contrast, verbal interaction alone was not found to

provide a sufficient medium for unintentional coordination to occur, nor did it enhance

the unintentional coordination that emerged during visual interaction.

Future research needs to answer questions raised by the results of these experiments

concerning differences between visual and verbal informational linkages during

interaction and how these differences may affect interpersonal movement production and

its coordination.

Clifton (2006) in this paper, A Conversational Analytical Approach to Business

Communication, says that the use of conversation analysis (CA) as an applied research

methodology in business communication is sometimes overlooked. Taking the case of

leadership as an example, this article demonstrates how CA can provide a fine-grained

analysis of talk-in-interaction during a business meeting, which reveals an emic

notably a social constructivist approach to leadership and the construction of reality, CA

with which


Swati Mankad 59

leadership is enacted. Moreover, the results of such an analysis can give researchers a

clearer insight into the phenomenon and help practitioners improve leadership and

communication skills.

Campbell (2006) in the book, Thinking and Interacting like a Leader: the TILL System

for Effective Interpersonal Communication, says that effective managers, understand

their jobs. Further, successful managers formally recognize their employees and praise

them for the contributions they make to the organization. Managers, of course, cannot

always deliver good news to employees. Instead, managers often face circumstances

where they must issue directives to ensure that job tasks are completed quickly. There are

times when managers must deliver negative performance feedback to employees. If these

interactions are handled inappropriately, each has the potential to damage the superior-

subordinate relationship. The key to effective management is identifying how to tailor

employee performance feedback in such a way that gets the job done yet still

-driven needs. The author advocates that

managers think (T) and interact (I) like (L) a leader (L) TILL. According to the TILL

model, the path to successful employee inter

may be considered rude. Conversely, indirect language is characterized as polite, but is

often vague (Spencer-Oatey, 2000). Clarity of language and politeness are therefore

inversely related.

The study advises the managers to adopt one of the four possible communication

strategies: going on record plainly, going off record, tending ego needs, and tending

autonomy needs Path-Goal

theory and Hersey and Bl Life Cycle theory, which focuses either on

or level of perceived emotional

maturity or their self-perceived capacity to do the job.


Swati Mankad 60

Ryback (2006) in this article, Self Determination and the Neurology of Mindfulness,

says that mindfulness, emotional connection and deep empathy all contribute to mental

wellbeing and a physiologically nurtured brain and help us transcend the numbing

awareness of mind-brain interaction bring us back to the self-actualization values of the

beginnings of humanistic psychology.

This study may be useful in incorporating aspects of mindfulness in interpersonal skills to

increase emotional and mental well being of the follower by the leader to help in the

ful practice, stable attachment and effective therapy;

all three are basics of the coherent brain leading to an awakened state. These are and have

been the values of humanistic psychology all along known as individual integrity,

social harmony and open-hearted empathy.

Sharbrough, Simmon & Cantrill (2006) in the article, Motivating Language in

Industry Its Impact on Job Satisfaction and Perceived Supervisor Effectiveness, report

on a study of the use of motivating language (ML) by employees of the southeast

regional division of a Fortune 500 company. The relationship between the supervisory

use of ML, communication competence, communication satisfaction (C

job satisfaction and perceived supervisory effectiveness was explored. The study was

based on a sample of 136 participating employees surveyed via an interactive Internet

survey of a 400-person organization. The identification of the specific relationship

between the use of language and communication competence, CS, job satisfaction and

tween communication,

leadership and job satisfaction.

This study also addressed the need for future research concerning the generalizability of

ML and the application of leader-subordinate communications for group-and

organization-level contexts. Specifically, the sample population was for an industry

division that spans five levels of management, varied levels of education and lengths of

service, both genders and various career fields. The diverse sample population overcame


Swati Mankad 61

a sample population that predominantly consisted of female nurses. The more diverse

industrial workforce sample population expanded the application of previous research

and increased the possibility of more widespread ML application across whole groups

and entire organizations. Finally, by using an Internet-based survey to gather data, a first

step in the effective application of MLT in electronic communications was made.

competence, perceived leader effectiveness

The study is useful because MLT could be used to improve management training,

correlation squared) of ML to the other factors predicts that a given amount of increased

ML use by supervisors will result in corresponding percentage increases for the other

factors. That is, the results showed that a given amount of increase in ML use by

supervisors resulted in a corresponding 35% improvement in perceived supervisory

perceived leader effectiveness and an increase of 12% in job satisfaction. ML and the

related scales provide management, particularly in an Internet or e-mail format, with a

organization or in specific groups. The feedback from the scales along with MLT can

form the basis for designing targeted supervisory

communication deficiencies unique to the organization or leaders in question. Finally, the

results show that ML is a communication strategy that can be used by leadership to build

commitment to an organization. The increased use of ML should have a positive impact

performance, turnover and absenteeism.

A further step is the development of an ML training curriculum and then the evaluation

of pre and post training results as well as the retention of ML knowledge and application

over time for given sample populations.


Swati Mankad 62

Detert, Burris & Ethan (2007) in the study, Leadership Behavior and Employee Voice:

Is the Door Really Open?, investigate the relationships between two types of change-

oriented leadership (transformational leadership and managerial openness) and

subordinate improvement-oriented voice in a two-phase study. Findings from 3,149

employees and 223 managers in a restaurant chain indicate that openness is more

consistently related to voice, given controls for numerous individual differences in

subordin and job demography. This relationship is shown to

be mediated by subordinate perceptions of psychological safety, illustrating the

importance of leaders in subordinate assessments of the risks of speaking up.

The study is useful because it suggests that leadership behaviors have the strongest

impact on the voice behavior of the best-performing employees.

Macik-Frey (2007) in the thesis, Communication Centered Approach to Leadership:

the Relationship of Interpersonal Communication Competence to Transformational

Leadership and Emotional Intelligence, proposes that leadership is inherently

communicative. In the research, interpersonal competence showed a strong positive

relationship with transformational leadership and follower attitudes provide support for

the importance of this construct. The dissertation asserts that leadership and the related

emotional components are a form of symbolic interaction within an interdependent

communication system. A survey was conducted on 210(420) dyads. The Interpersonal

Communication Competence Scale was used to measure interpersonal communication

competence. The attitude outcome measure findings seem to suggest that leader

interpersonal communication competence is a strong positive predictor of satisfaction

with supervisor, predicting 42.5% variance. Equally important in interpersonal

communication competence is the ability to effectively and efficiently receive symbolic

messages and to interpret the systemic process in which exchange of meaning takes

place.

Fuller, Jerry, Barnett, Hester, Relyea & Frey (2007) in the article, An Exploratory

Examination of Voice Behavior from an Impression Management Perspective, take a

functional approach to voice behavior to support the view that voice is used by some


Swati Mankad 63

people as an impression management tactic. Their findings suggest that high self-

monitors (those who are concerned about how they are perceived by others and will

actually change their behavior in order to fit different situations and their behavior may

lack consistency) utilize voice behavior as a form of self-promotion when they have

performed well. High self-monitors are more skillful in the use of impression

management behavior than low self-monitors (those who are less concerned with how

other people perceive them and will be more likely to act consistently) in communicating

their suggestions for constructive change than their low self-monitoring co-workers

because they are better at using humor (Turner, 1980), better at pacing conversations and

more active in conversations (Ickes and Barnes, 1977). Further, the suggestions of high

self-monitors may be better developed than those of low self-monitors because the

network positions high self-monitors tend to occupy provide them with more diverse

information and resources than low self-monitors.

These results are important because there is currently little empirical research that

examines the personal consequences of engaging in citizenship behavior in general or

voice behavior in particular. These results are also important because they suggest that

one of the means by which high self-monitors may emerge as leaders is through the

effective use of voice behavior in order to appear competent and be seen as challenging

the status quo. Their results suggest that high self-monitors engage in defensive

impression management, in that high self-monitors in the study tended to substantially

curtail voice behavior when they had performed poorly. The data for this study were

collected as part of a larger data collection effort at a health services organization. The

sample frame included 310 nurses, technicians and other support staff. The data was

obtained from employees, their immediate supervisors and company records.

The study is useful because voice as a form of impression management is different in that

the primary focus is more self-oriented, although it necessarily needs to be focused upon

benefiting others if the purpose of gaining social status is to be realized. The organization

is still likely to benefit from voice behavior regardless of the motive. Further, the results

suggest that managers perceive the voice behavior of high self-monitors to be laudable


Swati Mankad 64

at least in the organization in the study. Constructive, change-oriented communication

appears to be a function of the person and the situation.

Van der Merwe, Chermack, Kulikowich & Yang (2007) in the research, Strategic

Conversation Quality and Engagement: Assessment of a New Measure, say that when

considering organization strategy-making and executing from a learning perspective, the

role of conversation and engagement is of critical importance, yet little research has been

conducted in this area. Recent publications have suggested an increasing role for

conversation and dialogue in strategic planning processes. The study provides initial

validity and reliability scores of an instrument for measuring individual conversation

quality and engagement skills in a strategic planning context. Participants were managers

(n = 204) from four organizations.

The instrument used in this study is the Conversation Quality and Engagement Checklist

(CQEC). The CQEC is intended to assess participant conversation and communication

skills in the context of scenario-based planning and strategy execution (in the

performance management context). The instrument contains 20 items that were

developed over 30 years of use and relate to individual communication skills, as well as

interpersonal communication skills. Each item is ranked on a 5-point Likert scale (1 =

Never, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Usually and 5 = Always).

The analysis found a highly reliable set of instrument scores measuring two key

components that have been labeled one, Active leadership and engagement in

conversations and two, Awareness of individual communication tendencies the major

components of conversation quality and engagement skills in a planning context. These

components appear to be critical to the effectiveness of internal organizational strategic

conversation and this validation procedure lends some credibility to the instrument.

The instrument could be used to assess levels of conversation quality and engagement

skills in strategic planning participants. Additionally, training in communication skills

could be given to low scoring participants; in line with theory that suggests that improved

dialogue and communication among the planning team members will positively impact

performance.


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The first limitation of the instrument is, it is a self-assessment based measurement and

forms of assessment and future research should be undertaken to link the CQEC to

objective behaviors. Second limitation is, because the items on the instrument have been

modified based on the advice of scenario planning experts; a question arises in terms of

the adoptability of the instrument in varied and diverse contexts.

This research is useful in that it empirically confirms that communication skills are an

integral part of employee engagement;

Küpers (2007) in the paper, Perspectives on Integrating Leadership and Followership,

proposes a framework for the integration of leadership and followership. An integral

orientation considers that leadership is constitutively linked with followership and vice

versa. Facing the diversity of approaches and theories in both fields, a comprehensive

conceptualization is presented that is suited to investigating complex, interrelated

processes of leading and following. Based on a deeper understanding, integral

perspectives cover: (a) interdependent subjective, (b) intersubjective and objective

dimensions of leaders and followers, and (c) leadership and followership within a

developmental perspective. Based on an integral orientation, further processual and

relational dimensions are discussed by which mutually interwoven

leadership/followership can be understood as an emerging event embedded within an

ongoing, interrelated nexus. Finally, the paper outlines some theoretical and

methodological implications and perspectives for future research of an integral leadership

and followership.

This article has argued that an integral approach to leadership enables a consequent and

more inclusive enfoldment and offers practical implications for a different discourse and

practice of leadership and followership as well as their interrelationship. The article takes

into account the integral and relational dimensions of personal, interpersonal and

structural dimensions and influences.


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Casciaro, Lobo & Sousa (2007) in the paper, When Competence Is Irrelevant: The

Role of Interpersonal Affect in Task-Related Ties,

generalized positive or negative feelings toward someone (interpersonal affect) in task-

related networks in organizations. They theorize that negative interpersonal affect renders

task competence virtual

criterion for choosing task partners, facilitating access to organizational resources

relevant to the task. Social psychological models of interpersonal perception and

hierarchical Bayesian models support this theory in social network data from employees

in three organizations: an entrepreneurial computer technology company, staff personnel

at an academic institution and employees in a large information technology corporation.

The results are useful in designing interpersonal communication modules whereby this

factor needs to be kept in view because they suggest that competence may be irrelevant

when outright dislike colors a relationship. Across organizational contexts and types of

task-related interaction, people appear to need active liking to seek out the task resources

of potential work partners and fully tap into the knowledge that resides in organizations.

Mai & Akerson (2007) in their book, The Leader as a Communicator- Strategies and

Tactics to Build Loyalty, Focus Effort and Spark Creativity, as communication

communication as the critical leadership competency for guiding organizations through

conditions of heightened transition and turmoil. A well-designed and well-executed

leadership communication strategy is needed to accomplish the goals of creating a

workplace community that: (a) engages, attracts and retains talented people, (b) maintains

an even keel and a steady course through transition and difficulty and (c) stays at the

leading edge of change in their business through a process of continuous innovation and

renewal.

The authors define a goal-driven communication model based on their 50 years of

combined experience with all kinds of organizational leaders. The leader is considered a

community builder, a navigator and a renewal champion. The authors provide two audit


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templates and tools to use to take a snapshot of the situation; and some general strategies

for assessing strengths and weaknesses.

The book is useful because it also provides tactics and tools that support key leadership

objectives.

Siu (2007) in this paper, Interpersonal Trust a Necessary Condition for Organizational

Learning?, highlights the importance of interpersonal trust in promoting organizational

learning and proposes a research agenda to test the extent of interpersonal trust on

organizational learning. This paper contributes to the existing organizational learning

literature by specifying a specific form of trust, interpersonal trust, which promotes

organizational learning and proposes a future research direction. The paper is organized

as follows: firstly, a common conceptualization of organizational learning is revisited.

Secondly, the existing literature on trust reviewed and salient points on how interpersonal

trust enhances organizational learning discussed. Finally, a research agenda to test the

extent of interpersonal trust on organizational learning is being set out.

There are basically three kinds of trust, namely strategic trust, organizational trust and

interpersonal trust. Strategic trust is referred to as the trust employees have in the people

running the show to make the right strategic decisions. Organizational trust refers to the

trust people have in the company itself rather than any individual. Finally, interpersonal

trust is referred to the trust employees have in their own managers.

Developing trust relies heavily on human relationships and the knowledge processes

involved will tend to be more informal than structural. Informal knowledge processes

allow the verification of trust and mutual understanding. Therefore, interpersonal trust is

necessary for successful informal knowledge acquisition and dissemination within

organizations. Consequently, interpersonal trust is conceptualized as a variable that

promotes informal knowledge acquisition and dissemination.

Hogler, Gross, Hartman & Cunliffe (2008) in the article, Meaning in Organizational

Communication: Why Metaphor is the Cake, not the Icing, propose an alternative to the

postmodern way of viewing metaphor primarily as an instrumental and functional


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rhetorical tool designed to influence members of an organization through ideological

appeals, a view that depicts rhetoric as merely subjective and manipulable. The

communication exceeds the theoretical reach of the postmodern perspective, which

requires a new conceptualization of metaphor as epistemic and capable of signaling

meaning that is inseparable from its unique and discrete form.

In terms of leadership, metaphors are often seen as discursive tools to enhance

organizational performance. Metaphors offer common ground for dialogue while

simultaneously opening new paths for consideration by offering direction through

compelling visions., for example, suggest that leaders shape and frame meaning through

discursive instruments including stories, slogans, artifacts and metaphors; the latter being

the most important. Leadership, from this view, involves building commitment to

organizational goals through the sensitive, linguistic construction of vision and mission

statements. Metaphors will influence followers, promote change and enhance the

retention of powerful images.

The view is useful for skillful transformational leadership communication because the

animating idea is that organizational rhetoric may sometimes not only be persuasive,

informative, manipulative, ideological or intentional, but more than all of them to be

effective.

Yemm (2008) in this article, Influencing Others-A Key Skill For All, says that in his

experience, people who are good influencers have certain characteristics in common.

They have a good awareness of their own style and communication. They are clear and

firm about the outcomes they want to achieve and will be flexible in what they need to do

to reach these. Finally, they take time to consider those they want to influence and their

situation and possible response. As far as their talking tactics are concerned, the starting

point is to think about the strategy which the influencers are going to adopt. It makes

sense to do this before thinking about tactics (or behaviors.) An example is shown which

gives seven choices which are: (1) Friendliness: This involves creating a sense of

warmth, support and positive feelings between both parties. There is a sense of openness


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and trust which makes people feel comfortable with the situation and any request, (2)

Empowerment: Allowing others to have a sense of responsibility for the results, building

a feeling of confidence and that we have trust in them -- having given clear direction.

This gives a good degree of two-way communication and listening to ideas and concerns,

(3) Visioning: Creating an image of what the outcome will be, using elements of common

ground where possible and engaging emotions to make an appealing outcome, (4)

Building alliances: Finding common interests and areas where we can offer help or

support, before asking for it in return, (5) Expertise and knowledge: the expert should

use the information, facts and experience to reinforce the message and requests made, (6)

Bargaining: As it implies -- trading to reach agreement. This involves being able to offer

some 'hooks' or incentives, or even pressure, to encourage others to move, and (7)

Positional: Using legitimate authority to ask for something or to tell people what we

need. When one has chosen which of these, or a combination, which is felt to be most

appropriate then one can think about the outcome. The outcome needs to be defined

specifically in terms of: (a) essential elements to have, (b) parts which can be willingly

moved away from, (c) know what is wanted, (d) where the other party is, (e) how far

away from the desired outcome one is, (f) what might the reaction of the other party be

and (g) being asked to move towards the outcome (Remember to think about putting the

message across to answer the question from them, "What's in it for me?"). Good

influencers will always consider the outcome from the other party's perspective. The 'pull'

styles include bridging and attracting. These tend to require less energy on the

ch of these does need the influencers to operate with

a high degree of integrity. Any insincerity will be quickly spotted.

The second 'pull' style of attracting is the means of getting people to see things as a 'we'

situation. As the influencer, we want to have others share our vision or idea of the

outcome. It requires energy and enthusiasm from us and total sincerity and integrity.

Whilst it can work with individuals, it can be powerful with groups, even if it is only to

start things moving towards the outcome.

The strategies outlined can be very useful during interactions by the leaders in fulfillment

of organizational goals.


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Russell (2008) in the research, Promoting Subjective Well-Being at Work, says that

research has clearly shown the relationship between subjective well-being and work

performance, even though there is debate over the causality of that relationship (i.e. does

subjective well-being cause higher work performance or does greater work performance

lead to subjective well-being?). Regardless, researchers and practitioners would agree

that having employees who are productive and have high subjective wellbeing is

valuable. The purpose of this article is to review research in this area and to discuss

strategies for promoting well-being at the workplace.

with the organization and/or the occupation (i.e., sense of belonging), which in turn is

-concept and well-being.

Bates (2009) in the book, Motivate like a CEO, enumerates eight principles to motivate

through communication. The principles are: (1) on, (2)

communicate a clear and powerful mission, (3) learn what motivates people, (4) make a

personal connection with others, (5) make the conversation about them, (6) praise,

recognize and reward, (7) walk the talk and lastly (8) empower people.

The author says that every day motivating should be the number one communication job.

The more the leader focuses on communicating and aligning people, the fewer challenges

the leader will face because people will know what to do and what not to do. The

communication plan should be mapped keeping in mind the business goals.

Daniel & Davis (2009) in the case study, What Makes the High Performance Teams

Excel, demonstrate the importance of community and commitment in managing the

human dynamics and technical imperatives of a high performance R&D team in a highly

competitive industry. The authors conclude that managers who lead high-performance

teams in highly competitive industries must balance complex interpersonal relationships

with corporate deadlines and quality standards. Pressure on the team to perform and the

leader to deliver can frequently produce detrimental outcomes. Insightful management of

a diverse team of high-performing inter-organizational R&D professionals requires


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operational latitude for effective convergence of multiple complex relationships. IBM has

cultivated and refined techniques that facilitate the commitment and community

necessary for optimum team performance and successful product delivery.

The high-performing community that emerged was a direct result of the flexible and open

team structure that supported the interactions of its members. Such community

engagement was contingent on the recognition of the contribution each individual made

to the overall success of the mission. In addition, the effective and unambiguous

negotiations and interactions throughout the technical program. The firm agenda

recognized a shared ownership as well as dedication and responsibility for the success of

colleagues as a specialist professional group and the support of a structure that permitted

open communication, members were able to undertake the frequent discussions, debates

and extensive communications necessary to resolve many of the technological and

functional challenges that arise in the development of new technologies.

This study indicates that even teams whose primary goals are in the field of technology

cannot fulfill its objectives without the extensive use of open communication and

interaction.

Miller (2009) in the research, Transformational Leadership Behaviors and Empathy

with Action,

leadership dimensions that have been previously identified in leadership research. This

article discusses these correlations with the aim of identifying and understanding more of

the spectrum of behaviors that enable transformation to be an aspect of the relationship

between the leader and others.

Understanding transformational behaviors and processes is particularly useful for those

who are interested in assessing themselves and their organizations in the area of

transformation and transformative possibilities. The focus should be on the impact of


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relationship

because the GCFO are specific to the personal

relationship between the leader and the employee/colleague. The relationship dimensions

of the LTO also indicate behaviors that allow or enable aspects of mutuality between the

leader and the employee/colleague d

self- are vital to mutuality.

identified how the lead

Research indicates that to accurately assess the employee/colleague perception of

empowerment or employee/colleague perception of enablement, the psychometric

instrument must include assessment in five elements (CV5): Motivation, achievement,

job satisfaction, s and job stress (Thomas & Velthouse,

was representative of the em -perceptions of being empowered

and being enabled because all five of the aforementioned elements identified by Thomas

and Velthouse were included within the scale of the CV5.

The correlation of the CV5 with the GCFO scale does not specifically mean that the

listening items were the decisive factor in employee/colleague perception of

The indication is that not only is the leader listening, but the employee/colleague

perceives they are being heard.

Penna, Pietronilla, Sandro & Sechi (2009) in the paper, Emergence of the

Communicative Value of Silence, say that within traditional theories of communication,

silence is often devoid of any communicative value. When the latter is taken into

consideration, it is viewed as depending on the intentionality of the agent producing the

communicative act. Unfortunately, there are diverging opinions about the role to be

attributed to intentionality. Moreover, its detection by the receiver is often difficult or


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impossible, a circumstance which prevents from building a theory of a number of

interesting communication phenomena. We hold that the previous problems can be dealt

with by resorting to a systemic view in which communication is nothing but a

macroscopic phenomenon, emergent from the interactions between elements of a

communicative system. This perspective introduces the methodological tools of

systemics to better describe all kinds of communication and grasping their emergent

meanings. Only in this way the emergent communicative value of silence can be

detected.

This study is useful because such an approach is endowed with a strong potential

usefulness when dealing with the communicative interactions within both small and large

organizations.

Phillips, Rothbard & Nancy (2009) in the article, To Disclose or Not to Disclose?

Status Distance and Self- Disclosure in Diverse Environments, say that people who are

demographically different from one another face a fundamental challenge in developing

high-quality relationships in organizations. We build theory about how the status

differences that often accompany demographic characteristics can hinder this

development through their influence on disclosure of personal information.

They theorize about the construct of status distance and how ironically, disclosure of

personal information may increase status distance instead of bringing individuals closer

together. Beyond status distance, they also discuss how status characteristics and

identification with one's characteristics influence disclosure of status-relevant

information.

The study is useful because the leaders working with people from different cultures can

develop high quality relationship only if they take this diversity into account when

interacting individually.

Mayfield & Mayfield (2009) in the study, The Role of Leader Motivating Language in

Employee Absenteeism, addresses the need to look into leader follower communication

in two ways, first, by developing a motivating language scale and second, by testing it for


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reliability and validity. This scale is based on motivating language theory which proposes

that strategic managerial application of all three speech acts will have a significant and

positive effect on employee performance and process outcomes.

The study encourages the use of motivating language theory over traditional language

theory by transformational leaders as it has a strategic and goal oriented focus.

Liu (2010) in the book, Conversations on Leadership-Wisdom from Global

Management Gurus, opines that the way to learn effectively is through conversations.

The author has engaged extraordinary leadership thinkers in thoughtful conversations

getting the best ideas out of them. The author has summarized their contribution into

eight disciplines of leadership: (1) connecting with people, (2) learning from failure, (3)

reflecting from experience, (4) thinking deeply, (5) storytelling, (6) being a teacher, (7)

knowing oneself and (8) becoming oneself.

The author has opened the door to the exchange of leadership thoughts between the West

and the East. The thinkers are from China and India as well as from Europe and United

States.

This book emphasizes the fact that learning by leaders and teaching by leaders can be

effective through interpersonal skills. Culture is also one of the lenses through which we

see leadership, thereby endorsing the fact that leadership needs to take into account the

culture of the area being led.

Friedrich (2012) in the article, Feedback as a Gift, says that attention to this concept of

feedback as a gift should be given more attention to help others achieve success. When

we give a gift we are generally clear

appropriate to the occasion. Similar care must be taken when we give feedback. Like

during gift giving, the receiver must be receptive and it should be tailor-made for the

receiver. And while receiving feedback one must show appreciation, be receptive and

understand how to use it.

One of the conclusions of the primary research by the researcher has been that feedback

is a very important interpersonal skill for a transformational leader. It helps the leader to


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understand his/her followers, subordinates and peers thereby making it easier to

influence, inspire and motivate. The feedback on various problems and issues that are

faced by the organization can prove to be invaluable resource for the leader, result ing in

greater involvement and therefore engagement of the subordinate in organizational

affairs.

Silver (2012) in the article, says that a strategy for

social learning needs to be put in place. Social learning is the serendipitous learning that

happens through social exchanges that results in a knowledge negotiation. Therefore,

social learning works for people participating in social networking activities whether they

exchange with each other for personal reasons or for larger collective purposes.

Continuous improvement through learning through social learning can facilitate to find

the knowing-doing gaps. Collectives are formed because they want to accomplish a goal

and are focused on that goal. According to the author a social learning strategy can be

used for continuous improvement for the corporation to be agile and to respond to unruly

and turbulent markets.

Consequently, the tool of social learning can be consciously put into use by the

transformational leader by the use of interpersonal skills. With every cycle of knowledge

exchange the pool of know-how that supports an organization gets stronger and provides

more support for the impact that it may result into.

2.4 Studies Related To Training and Coaching

Kolb, D. A. (1984), in his book, Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of

Learning and Development, proposed that people progress round a cycle of learning

events, the starting point being determined by their own preferred style. Kolb developed a

four-stage cycle to describe the ideal sequence for effective learning to take place.

The four stages should always follow the same sequence, but the process may start at any

one of the stages:


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1. Concrete experience-this is where the learner is personally involved in carrying

out a task and gains feedback on how well or how badly he or she has done it. To

be useful as a learning experience the learner must be aware of what is happening.

The trainer may help by pointing out various cues.

2. Reflective observation-it is not enough to have an experience in order to learn.

Without reflecting on the experience it may quickly be forgotten or its learning

potential is lost. It is from the feelings and thoughts emerging from this reflection

and analysis that generalization or concepts may be generated. If this does not

happen, the learner may become skilled at the specific task being taught but

cannot generalize from one situation to other situations. This is the stage of the

cycle that may benefit from a trainer asking questions to stimulate thought and

from discussions.

3. Abstract conceptualization-it is only from generalizations to conceptual

understanding that new situations can be tackled effectively. This stage involves

learners developing a deeper understanding of what they have learned. It is often

a variety of situations. If the learner does not understand the connection between

the theory and the practice, he or she will be unable to make use of the theory in

the work situation.

4. Active experimentation-for learning to result in changed behavior it is not

sufficient to learn new concepts and develop new generalizations. The

implications of the newly learned concepts must be tested out in new situations.

The learner must make the link between theory and action by planning for that

action and carrying it out.

The important point about experiential learning theory is that experience alone is not

enough. We must think about what we have done and what we are going to do, to

maximize learning. We must also understand the underlying principles concerning

whatever we are learning if we are to be able to work out appropriate courses of action

for ourselves.


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Axtell, Maitlis & Yearta (1997) in their research, Predicting Immediate and Longer-

Term Transfer of Training, conduct an exploratory investigation to examine factors

affecting the initial and sustained transfer of interpersonal skills training to the

workplace. The ongoing role of trainee motivation in the immediate and longer term

transfer of learned skills to work is demonstrated. It is suggested that initial transfer of

skills is an important prerequisite of subsequent skill application in the workplace. They

conclude that factors which promote initial transfer of training, such as the perceived

relevance/usefulness of the course, appear to have an indirect effect on later use of

trained skills. They also conclude that, in the long term, individuals with more autonomy

in their jobs are more likely to apply learned skills, perhaps because they are more able to

create opportunities for using skills learnt through training at work.

Non-managerial, technical staff from a multinational organization attended one of six

training courses aimed at developing interpersonal skills at work. The courses covered

very similar material and were all taught in a highly interactive style. The first

questionnaire, measuring the independent variables in the study was completed by 75

trainees at the end of the courses they attended (Time 1). Transfer of training was

assessed by them through a second questionnaire (Time 2) one month after completing

the course (62 questionnaires were returned, a response rate of 83 per cent). After one

year, trainees again assessed their transfer of training (Time 3) and this time 45 trainees

responded, a response rate of 75 per cent in relation to responses after one month. The

analysis in this study had been conducted on the 45 complete data sets. t-tests were

performed to ensure that there were no differences on any of the variables between the 45

at Time 3 and the remainder of the original 75 at Time 1. No significant differences were

found.

The implications of these findings both for individuals learning new skills and for

organizations optimizing the utility of their training are that trainees should immediately

transfer their skills to the workplace. Motivation of the trainee, more autonomy and

freedom to transfer the skills should be seen as relevant to the trainee.


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Barling, Weber & Kelloway (1996) in their field experiment, Effects of

Transformational Leadership Training on Attitudinal and Financial Outcomes: A

Field Experiment, assess the effects of transformational leadership training, with 9 and

11 bank managers assigned randomly to the experimental and control groups. The

experiment consisted of training of a 1-day group session and 4 individual booster

sessions thereafter on a monthly basis. The results were analyzed by Multivariate

analyses of covariance with pretest scores as covariate. The analysis indicated that the

transformational leadership, sub

of branch-level financial performance.

The dependent variables were assessed using the Multifactor leadership Questionnaire

(MLQ). ANOVAs showed that the subordinates of managers receiving training perceived

their managers as higher on intellectual stimulation, charisma and individual

consideration than subordinates of managers in the non-training control group. The

commitment, whereas some support emerges for the notion that branch-level financial

indicators might be affected.

The study advanced the understanding of transformational leadership in three ways. First,

extended previous correlational results and provided experimental evidence that

some aspects of financial performance. Second, extended the findings on longitudinal

data and provided some indication that changing transformational leadership can exert

some effects on financial performance. Third, because outcome data were based on

branch- dership behavior and

subordin common source of bias inherent in previous

research was minimized.

Golen (1990) in the research paper, A Factor Analysis of Barriers to Effective

Listening, documented a study at a major Southwest State University with a population


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consisting of students who were members of 3 large business communication lecture

sections of approximately 400 students each. During each class, the students were given

instruction on various listening concepts, including a discussion of listening barriers and

ways to overcome them. The same instructor was assigned to each class; therefore, all the

students received the same instruction. Each student attending the large lecture then met

in a breakout section on another day. There were 33 breakout sections consisting of

approximately 35 students in each section. A random sample of 10 sections was selected

and only those students who attended the large lecture were included in the study. Each

student completed a questionnaire containing 25 barriers to effective listening. A total of

279 filled questionnaires were collected and used in the analysis. The Statistical Analysis

System (SAS) was used to analyze the data.

The barriers in the study were obtained by identifying the most common barriers as

evidenced through a review of the listening literature (Keltner, 1970; Nichols & Stevens,

1957; Sigband & Bell, 1986; Steil, Barker, & Watson, 1983; Watson & Smeltzer, 1984;

Wolvin & Coakley, 1982). These barriers were edited on the basis of interviews with

several business communication professors. These individuals reviewed the list for

clarity, vocabulary difficulty, completeness, appropriate length and potential ambiguities.

After incorporating the professors' suggestions, a pilot study was conducted with 65

advanced communication students. Further clarifications were made to the questionnaire

based on their feedback.

The students were asked to indicate their perception of the frequency of each barrier that

may inhibit or impede their listening effectiveness. The questionnaire contained five of

the ten most frequently experienced barriers; five were identified in the top ten of the

Watson and Smeltzer (1984) study. These five barriers were: (1) lack of interest, (2)

daydreaming, (3) distractions, (4) concentrating on speaker's mannerisms and (5)

detouring. Interestingly, empathy and feedback, which were two listening behaviors

identified by several authors (Brownell, 1987; Hunt & Cusella, 1983; Lewis & Reinsch,

1988) as important to communication effectiveness, were ranked 17th and 19th,

respectively, in the current study. These low rankings do not reduce the importance of

these two behaviors in listening instruction. However, these low rankings may be caused


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because of differences between students and adult workers. Lewis and Reinsch (1988)

noted that classroom listening and workplace listening appear to be different point Likert-

type scale ranging from "1," "most of the time" to "5," "never." An internal consistency

measure, coefficient alpha (Cronbach, 1951), indicated that the questionnaire was reliable

(alpha equal to .79).

However, there was a gender effect. Two factors were perceived significantly different.

Males perceived "closed minded" and "insincerity" factors more frequently than females.

Krishnan (2000) in the longitudinal study, Training Programs on Leadership: Do They

Really Make a Difference?" looked at the impact of a two-day leadership training

program on transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership in a large

manufacturing organization in Eastern India. Data was collected from 31 subordinates on

the leadership behaviors of their managers before and six months after the managers

attended a training program. Matched sample t-test did not reveal any significant

difference in ratings between the two periods on any leadership variable. Results also

show that pre-training ratings significantly predict post-training ratings in the case of

idealized influence-behavior, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation,

individualized consideration, contingent reward and active management-by exception.

There is no such effect in the case of {Idealized Influence (attributed)}, passive

management-by-exception and laissez-faire leadership.

The findings need to be taken into consideration by trainers and coaches which suggest

that sending managers for leadership training programs in an unplanned way may not

make any difference. An argument is made for taking leadership training more seriously

and planning it out in multiple phases, with data from earlier phases being fed into the

subsequent phases of the program.

Abrams, Cross, Lesser, Daniel & Levin, (2003) in the article, Nurturing Interpersonal

Trust in Knowledge-Sharing Networks, find that in many organizations, informal

networks are the primary means by which employees find information, solve complex

problems and learn how to do their work. Two forms of interpersonal trust trust in a


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enable effective knowledge

creation and sharing in these networks. Yet, though conceptually appealing, trust is an

elusive concept that is often difficult for managers to influence. Interviews were

conducted in 20 organizations to identify ways in which interpersonal trust in a

knowledge-sharing context develops. Based on this work, the authors summarized

behaviors (e.g., discretion, consistency, collaboration) and practices (e.g., building shared

vision, ensuring transparency in decision-making, holding people accountable for trust)

for managers interested in promoting trust (and thereby knowledge creation and sharing)

within their own organizations.

The study is useful for organizations where rapid dissemination of knowledge is essential

for survival and sometimes technology is unable to harness tacit information. Tacit

information can most of the time be accessed only through interpersonal communication.

Hunt & Baruch (2003), in the research study, Developing Top Managers: The Impact

of Interpersonal Skills Training,

performance on a set of interpersonal skills. The degree to which some of these skills can

be developed is the focus of this research.

The research study at a leading business school evaluated the soft skills training based on

subordinate feedback of 252 top level executives of different backgrounds, countries and

industries from 48 organizations, conducted before and six months after the training

program took place. Of the participants, 84 % were male; 67% employed by large global

firms (telecommunications, banking, oil, and chemicals), 30% by national or local firms

and 3% by local governments and international public sector organizations. A total of 22

countries were represented.

The hypotheses were: i) the impact of skills training on subsequent skill performance will

improve the effectiveness of those skills, ii) the impact of interpersonal skills training on

subsequent skill performance will be positive but modest and iii) the impact of

interpersonal skills on subsequent skill performance will vary across different skills.


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All 252 participants produced useable and sufficient number of responses numbering

1457. Results suggested that training proved to be effective and the first hypothesis was

accepted. There was a positive, but modest improvement rather than a radical change.

And finally, the impact on skills performance varied with specific skills. Thus, the

findings supported the three hypotheses. The skills most responsive to training were: (1)

easily described, (2) had clear objectives and outcome criteria and, (3) in practice, could

be segmented into a step-by-step routine based on a memorable model or theory. In

the most difficult to improve

statistically and provided some evidence for the view that emotional intelligence should

be considered a personality variable.

Maia, Zajonc & Dana (2003) aim in the study, Survey of Transformative and Spiritual

Dimensions of Higher Education, to document academic programs and other initiatives

in North American universities and colleges that incorporate transformative and spiritual

elements of learning. A combination of qualitative and quantitative instruments was used

for data collection. Transformative learning has been historically referred to as a

primarily epistemic, rational process whereby adult learners become aware of their

unconscious roles, beliefs and assumptions. The operational definition of transformative

learning used in this study emphasized reflective learning, the intuitive and imaginative

process; and the ethical, spiritual; and/or contemplative dimensions of education.

Questionnaire responses and interviews indicated that although there is great interest in

bringing transformative/spiritual elements into higher education, this movement still

exists primarily among individual faculty within classrooms rather than as a departmental

or institutional strategy.

However, there are a number of notable initiatives in mainstream educational institutions.

Survey participants were also asked about strategies that would support the

transformative learning movement.

The findings are very relevant to educators in the tertiary sector because respondents

wished to develop their theoretical understanding of transformation and contemplation in

higher education. The relationship between these two dimensions of the study was not


Swati Mankad 83

always clear to respondents and would merit greater attention. Research was given the

highest priority by respondents. Scoring second to research was the desire for faculty

retreats and opportunities for renewal. These would be focused on practices, their use in

teaching and research and the exploration of relevant themes of common interest. Such

retreats also contribute to the development of a community or culture that explores the

value of contemplation and transformation in higher education.

The authors say that the value of networks is often commented on, as is the need to

strengthen existing netw

case at the University of Michigan, regionally, with the Five Colleges and nationally via

conferences as well as through organizations such as Education as Transformation or the

Academic Program of the Center for Contemplative Mind in Society. The key role of

senior administrators presidents, deans and advisors was identified as important and

therefore recruiting their support would be very helpful. As one moves beyond the

individual classroom; the logistical, funding and administrative barriers increase rapidly

if one is to move beyond individual action to departments and institutions, especially in

mainstream secular institutions.

Michael (2003) in this article, Using Myers Briggs Type Indicator as a Tool for

Leadership Development? Apply with caution, says that the current way in which MBTI

is administered provides limited value to managers. The paper reviews how to interpret

MBTI, examines some of its psychometric and conceptual weaknesses; and identifies its

which MBTI is based and how the instrument was developed and applied are examined.

To improve the administration and interpretation of MBTI in leadership development

users of MBTI are advised to use make careful assessment of type when raw scores are

Analyzing ome

the predicted behavior type. Users should also consider the potential interaction of needs

with type and its potential impact on managerial behavior. Users are also told that they

MBTI.


Swati Mankad 84

The paper gives a few suggestions: a) given the reliability and validity concerns

especially if the difference was by one item or if tie breaking rules were enforced. Slight

scores on any dimension should be retested within six weeks to determine the stability of

the personality types, b) Human resource trainers should be asked to justify their use of

the MBTI in leadership development programs, c) Trainers and coaches must insure that

participants individually consider how their positions and other organizational forces

influence their situations, d behavior must

incorporate needs and finally e) users of the MBTI might consider adopting what is

traits: emotional stability, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and

conscientiousness. But there are problems in using the Big five model. More research is

required to determine the validity of its psychometric properties and predictive power.

Also, there is an existing generation of trainers and coaches who are accustomed to using

MBTI and the Big Five is evaluative in nature.

in the article, -

Centered Group Process as Transformative Androgogy, says that the case is made for

the need for a new educational praxis that can cultivate the levels of consciousness

necessary to succeed in the new emerging global contexts. The work of Carl R. Rogers is

discussed as a transformational pedagogy. In particular, his work in large person-center

community group processes during the past 15 years of his career is described where

rapid growth in individual consciousness levels and group consciousness occurs.

Elaborated are various configurations of individual and group consciousness and how

they are related to each other. Also considered is an extraordinary consciousness state

observed within groups where high levels of individual consciousness and high levels of

group consciousness are aligned. Some facilitative attitudes that may create the enabling

conditions for consciousness alignment are described.


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Newstrom (2004) in the book, Still More Games Trainers Play, has compiled games

with input from experienced trainers. The format of each game uses the following

outline: title, objective, procedure, discussion questions, materials required, approximate

time required and the source.

The games are on icebreakers, learning, brainteasers, perception, communication and

listening, presentation tools, conference leadership, creative problem solving, self-

concept and team building.

The book is an invaluable aid to the researcher because of a wide variety of training

situations since it has activities on leadership, communication, listening, leadership and

teambuilding which can be used in the intervention program.

Nuttall (2004) in this article, Modes of Interpersonal Relationship in Management

Organizations, reviews the five-

dimensions or modes of therapeutic relationship in psychotherapeutic literature and

presents management vignettes that demonstrate its relevance to management

organizations. In doing so links are made to the classical management theories and to the

more recent ideas on emotional intelligence and servant leadership.

The article concludes that this kind of relationship framework provides both managers

and consultants with a coherent and simple model by which they can understand the

relational factors that hinder performance and those relational qualities that bring

ents that may form

the basis of the relational competencies emphasized by the new approaches to

management and leadership.

Piskurich, Beckschi & Hall (2004) in the handbook, The ASTD Handbook of Training

Design and Delivery, have compiled an invaluable resource for trainers who want to

design effective classroom, self-study and technology based programs. The authors of the

various chapters are seasoned professionals who have explained how adult learning takes

place and various theories of intelligence.


Swati Mankad 86

Trainers are instructed on (1) media selection, (2) design and evaluation of an original

training program, (3) training techniques to be used, and (4) ways to sustain tra

interest and involvement throughout the training.

Quick & Macik-Frey (2004), in the paper, Behind the Mask Coaching Through Deep

Interpersonal Communication, say that executive coaching can focus on personal

behavior change, enhancing leadership effectiveness, fostering stronger relationships,

personal development and/or work family integration or specific performance issues on

the job. K. M. Wasylyshyn (2003a) and H. Levinson (personal communication, 2003)

suggested that executive coaching reaches for a deeper level of clinical and therapeutic

intervention. The authors propose a health-enhancing, developmental model of coaching

anchored in a process of deep interpersonal communication. This approach is neither a

surface approach nor a therapeutic approach. It is an interpersonal approach focused on

safe, secure communication in which difficult, complicated issues are addressed and

where crucial conversations occur. In this process, the executive is approached as a

person who stands behind the executive mask or facade.

Sogunro (2004) in the article, Efficacy of Role-Playing Pedagogy in Training Leaders:

Some Reflections, asserts that role playing is an effective strategy for experiential

learning as compared to traditional methods. 30-minute role playing scenarios were

conducted to teach various leadership styles. Role playing has positive aspects: (1) makes

lectures interesting, (2) is most similar to walk the talk scenario; and (3) is a good way of

presenting and getting a feel of the information. The negative aspects are: (1) people

become conscious in a group setting, (2) some participants cannot emote in front of a live

audience, (3) sometimes the participants get typecast in the role they played even when

the role playing is over and (4) demands time and resources.

However, to ensure success in role playing pedagogy the following fundamental

principles need to be taken into account participants:(1) should be clear about their roles,

(2)should be given their roles well in advance, (3) background and experience need to be

taken into consideration when giving a role, (4) should be given enough time for

preparation, (5) need to be acquainted with each other, (6) should not be more than 10,


Swati Mankad 87

(7) be given criteria for the role play beforehand, and lastly (8) need to have proper

coordination between themselves.

As far as implications for practice and research are concerned some of the important

characteristics of role plays : (1) provide for practical acquisition of knowledge and skills

for leadership, (2) expose participants to learning complex or ambiguous concepts more

easily than most other pedagogical approaches, (3) accelerate the learning process to

achieve faster learning outcomes, (4) convert theory into practical experience, (5) provide

a behavioral approach to understanding specific knowledge, skills and attitude, (6)

encourage self awareness and reflection of the skills, (7) acquire knowledge, (8) receive

feedback in a safe environment thus increasing chances of improvement in behavior, (9)

bring out different perspectives by the participants and lastly (10) empower the

participants to learn on their own resulting into learning which is relatively permanent.

The author cautions to use role playing and is to be used in combination with other

traditional methods of classroom pedagogy for teaching leadership skills.

Alexander (2005) in the book, Tales from the Top- 10 Vital Questions Every Leader

Must Answer to Stay on Top of the Game, says that in his career as an executive coach

asking the right questions was the best way to help people find the right answers. The

questions deal with: (1) asking the leader about the meaning and purpose of his life, (2)

them, (3) where do their abilities lie, (4) let people know s/he cares

about them and (4) not let circumstances or work overwhelm the leader. Questions for

reflection to focus on, (1) self awareness, (2) motivation, (3) how to do things differently,

(4) see people as whole persons and not only as employees, (5) inspire people to the

mission and vision of the organization and most importantly (6) practice what they

preach.

The suggestions given by the author are very useful in the coaching of transformational

leadership in the Indian context because it addresses universal teachings about leadership

coaching. The author also underlines that needs, outlook, views and suggestions of the

subordinates (in short intellectual stimulation) should be taken into account on the tasks

to be completed.


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Blanchard & Thacker (2005), in their book, Effective Training: Systems, Strategies

and Practices (2nd ed.), give an overview of: (1) training in organizations, (2) training to

fulfill the strategies of organizational development, (3) Learning, Motivation and

Performance (how adults learn, learning theories and individual differences in learning

and how adults are motivated to learn). As far as needs analysis (NA) is concerned one

needs to know the reason for the necessity to do a NA and identification of its outcomes

and approaches. The authors focus on (a) Training design, its objectives, (b) facilitating

training, (c) training transfer and (d) various design theories. There are detailed chapters

on training methods, development and implementation of training, evaluation of training,

key areas of organizational training and lastly on Management Development.

The book is an invaluable resource for the researcher since: (1) it integrates training into

the strategic process, (2) shows important relationship between the organizational

development practitioners and trainers, (3) provides a model of the training process, (4)

gives a step-by-step process for learning objectives, (5) incorporates micro and macro

aspects of theory of design into the design of training and (6) provides numerous

examples of actual training in companies to highlight aspects of training process.

Crosbie (2005) in the research paper, Learning the Soft Skills of Leadership, makes a

case for the importance of soft skills development for leaders and then to explore the role

of training along with other critical elements in helping leaders develop these skills. This

is done through an explanation of the complex process of learning. Statistical support for

the methodology outlined in this paper comes from an analysis of leadership development

programs conducted by Terow International, Inc. in 2000 through 2004. The six- to eight-

month leadership development programs incorporated the learning elements.

The research concludes that a leader must balance the process of self-knowledge and self-

development with the cultivation of relationships through the development of others. A

leader must do the balancing act, i.e. this all while attending to a clear strategy in pursuit

strategic skills of leadership. Although, some leaders approach the task with strengths in


Swati Mankad 89

either relationship building or strategy, everyone has to learn how to balance the skills

they have with the skills they have to learn.

Organizations undertaking a leadership development initiative are encouraged to look

beyond simply evaluating training programs. Success depends not only on effective

training but also on such important elements as expert facilitation, contextual awareness,

formal and informal support, real-world application, self-study, self-awareness, stress and

celebration.

Parry & Sinha (2005) in the research, Researching the Trainability of the

Transformational Organizational Leadership, test for the effectiveness of

transformational leadership training, using the Full Range Leadership Development

(FRLD) program upon leader behaviors and interactions. Quasi-field experiment research

was conducted, resulting in an increase in the display of all five transformational

leadership factors and contingent reward behavior. There was a reduction in the display

of passive transactional leadership behavior as a result of the training. The extra effort of

followers was increased. Goal-setting was found to be effective. All transformational

leadership factors were displayed significantly more frequently after the training. These

increases in display of leadership were apparent whether or not the participant focused on

the particular behavior as part of their developmental plan. There was no significant

impact upon contingent reward or management-by-exception-

-

month application period. Focusing on Individualized Consideration, results were

significantly higher in decreases for two of the transactional leadership factors,

Contingent Reward and Management-by-Exception-active. More people focused on

Intellectual Stimulation than those who did not focus upon it. It was the most popular

transformational leadership factor within developmental plans. Display of Intellectual

Stimulation increased more if it was not focused on.

According to the researchers, leadership learning cannot be acquired solely through

traditional classroom techniques. However, the classroom does have a place in adult


Swati Mankad 90

training. They believe the classroom complements quantitative feedback and workplace-

based action learning.

The conclusions drawn from this research were: a) that the display of all five factors of

transformational leadership can be increased through training, b) these leadership

behaviors increased irrespective of which ones are concentrated upon as part of a

developmental plan, c) one can discriminate between the five transformational leadership

factors,

and e) transactional leadership does

not necessarily decrease as a result of transformational leadership training, nor does it

have to.

Hutt (2005), in the Capstone Project, Required Interpersonal Communication Skills for

Leadership Coaching, concludes that communicating effectively as a leader is not only

required, it is expected for leading others. However, many leaders miss the mark on

ns,

out dated management styles and the inability to work with others. Great leaders

consistently strive to strengthen their interpersonal communication competencies by

building and maintaining open, supportive and collaborative relationships with others in

the organization.

The project was designed to identify which interpersonal communication skills help

-depth interviews with leaders,

consultants and educators the researcher determined that strong interpersonal

communication skills continue to be of great importance in the building of trust and

confidence in organizational leadership.

The study is useful because it identifies the key interpersonal communication skill of

as the most critical tool that a leader can use

when communicating within their organization. The transformational leader should

develop skills in empathy and show respect for others. Also, use active listening by

assessing their current listening skills, decenter, reduce distractions, repress emotional

barriers, and pay attention. Active listening includes verbal acknowledgement,


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paraphrasing and -

Bray (2006) in the book, The Training Design Manual, provides the theory and practice

and guides the reader through the total design process from start to finish. The training

design manual includes: (1) course planning, (2) needs analysis, (3) learning styles, (4)

team activities, (5) visual aids, (6) audio aids, (7) e-learning, (8) training the trainers, (9)

choosing venues, (10) how to pilot the course, (11) how to go live and (12) the review

process.

It is aimed at new trainers as well as anyone wanting to reenergize existing training

courses.

Iles & Preece (2006) in the article, Developing Leaders or Developing Leadership? The

argue that

leadership development has often been equated with leader development with the

resulting focus upon the individual; as against attending to the social, political, collective

and other contexts of action and meaning. Interviews, documentary analysis, and

participant observation have been used to collect data. Leadership development requires

social processes of bonding, bridging and brokering to attain social capital. Leader

development focuses on intrapersonal processes like intrapersonal communication, self-

awareness, emotional intelligence; whereas leadership development on interpersonal

communication, and attention to more collective and contextual processes.

Thus, this distinction needs to be considered when designing an intervention. The

researcher must determine where the focus of the intervention lies or does it address both.

Manuel & Sessa (2006) in the article, Group Feedback for Continuous Learning,

explore relationships between feedback, group learning and performance. It considers

how feedback to individuals and the group as a whole supports continuous group

learning. Feedback source, purpose, clarity and valence may affect perceptions,

processing and outcomes of feedback. How feedback is processed and used may be

influenced by group and individual conditions, such as demands and goals, accountability


Swati Mankad 92

for performance, learning orientation and whether the group is engaging in adaptive,

generative and/or transformative learning. Implications for human resource development

practice focus on interventions to improve the use of feedback.

Directions for research include: (1) examining the content and process of feedback at the

individual and group levels of analysis, (2) exploring the effects of feedback source, (3)

feedback specificity, (4) leader behavior and (5) member interactions on group learning.

Miller, Meng & Calantone (2006) in the paper, Adding Interpersonal Learning and

Tacit Knowledge to March's Exploration-Exploitation Model, extend the model given

by March(1991) in his classic article on exploration and exploitation, in which he

presented an agent-based model simulating learning within an organization. His model

includes mutual learning between individuals and an organizational code. They extend

: (1) allowing for direct interpersonal learning, (2) locating individuals

in a space, which makes the distinction between local and distant search relevant and (3)

recognizing that knowledge has a tacit dimension that cannot be transmitted through

codification. They also consider the implications of personnel turnover for learning over

This model is useful in that, it stresses on interpersonal communication as an important

factor in organizational lea

regarding the exploration-exploitation trade-off in organizational learning. Whereas

code, the authors add direct interpersonal learning. By allowing for interpersonal learning

they recognize that face-to-face interaction can be critical to knowledge transfer

(Orlikowski, 2002). Interpersonal learning is a decentralized process that takes place

without the mediation of an organizational code. They also incorporate the insight that

location matters to learning

. This spatial dimension allows one to consider both

local and distant search as distinct aspects of the process of interpersonal learning.


Swati Mankad 93

Burke & Hutchins (2007) in their paper, Training Transfer: An Integrative Literature

Review, provide a comprehensive and an analytical review of training transfer literature.

The authors critique, evaluate and summarize the literature which is categorized into

taxonomy of three long-standing factors affecting transfer: learner characteristics,

intervention design and work environment. Learner Characteristics include: (a) trainee's

intellectual ability, (b) self-efficacy regarding the training task, (c) motivation level, (d)

job/career variables and (e) personality traits that largely affect trainee motivation. The

second category intervention design include: (a) identification of learning needs, (b) the

identification of learning goals, (c) content relevance, (d) prominent instructional

strategies and methods, and (e) self-management strategies and instructional media as

relevant to training transfer. The third category work environment include: (a) strategic

linkage of training, (b) transfer climate, (c) supervisory and peer support, (d) opportunity

to perform and (e) accountability.

This analysis takes into account training transfer as a multidimensional phenomenon with

multilevel influences which a transformational leader in the Indian context needs to take

into account.

Callahan, Whitener & Sandlin (2007) in the article, The Art of Creating Leaders:

Popular Culture Artifacts as Pathways for Development, explore the literature regarding

popular culture as it relates to shaping audience perceptions, the role of popular culture as

a teaching tool and key characteristics for choosing effective popular culture artifacts for

leadership development.

Through watching popular film or television or reading popular fiction or nonfiction,

future leaders reap a host of learning experiences. Perhaps most important, popular media

engages learner interest. Hobbs (1998), notes that society now accepts the influence of

popular culture as a basic assumption. Popular culture infuses literally every aspect of

as a result, provides a natural connection to the familiar as an

anchor for learning new concepts.

In providing such an anchor, artifacts from popular culture serve as vehicles to

accomplish several learning goals. First, PCA (popular cultural artifacts) provide


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examples of practical application of theories decisions can be seen in context;

connections can be drawn between leader beliefs, values and actions; and implications of

interpersonal interactions can be assessed immediately (English & Steffy, 1997). Second,

PCA offer vicarious learning experiences one need not learn hard lessons by making

the mistakes personally. And third, PCA increase critical analysis skills because

individuals are asked to make connections between abstract concepts and a variety of

simulated situations.

Gilpin-Jackson & Bushe (2007) in their case study, Leadership Development Training

Transfer: A Case Study of Post-Training Determinants, explain what contributes to

transfer of soft-skill leadership training. A literature review resulted in 5 broad factors

that may influence transfer of leadership training. These were used to guide a qualitative,

exploratory study. Interviews were conducted with 18 participants of an extensive, soft

skills oriented leadership development program along with peer observers. Wherever

possible quantitative analyses is used to test and confirm qualitative findings.

The results showed substantial transfer of training and suggest that actual utilization of

newly learned skills is influenced differently than judgments about the value of the

training. The greatest inhibitor to transfer appeared to be fear of breaking cultural norms

and the most important remedy, the number of other managers who receive the training.

training utilization. Some kinds of social support like encouragement and verbal praise

were associated with positive judgments of the training but not with utilization. Instead,

observing others use the skills and being able to coach one another was the kind of

o

receiving the training.

The limitations of the study are that it is an exploratory case study and therefore it lacks

the large sample and the kind of methodology that could conclusively prove the validity

of the findings.


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Gomez (2007) in the paper, The Leader as Learner, talks about how the importance of

leadership in organizations has increased. Leadership training and development are

increasingly regarded as instruments of organizational change and a method of linking

people performance with business strategy.

Contrary to the myth that only a lucky few can ever decipher the mystery of leadership,

the research has shown us that leadership is an observable and learnable set of practices.

In fact, given the array of leadership development efforts and the considerable funds

expended upon those efforts, there seems to be widespread agreement that effective

leaders can be developed and that leadership makes a positive difference. New leadership

is needed for new times, but it will not come from finding more wily ways to manipulate

the external world. It will come as those who serve, teach and lead find the courage to

take an inner journey.

A key to effective implementation is having the organizational discipline to introduce

leadership development throughout the organization rather than be bounded by specific

(usually top) levels. Another key to effectiveness is linking initiatives across

organizational levels and in terms of an overall developmental purpose within the context

of a strategic business challenge.

Thus, the study suggests that leadership interventions need to be more inclusive in terms

of including employees of different levels and of both sexes.

Naik (2007) in the book, Training and Development, Text, Research and Cases,

provides a comprehensive resource for HRD intervention in the organizational context.

The contents include an overview of training and development which are: (1) definition,

(2) origin, (3) objectives, (4) principles of HRD, (5) classification, (6) difference between

training and development, (7) theories of adult learning, (8) needs analysis of training, (9)

design and development, (10) implementation, (11) training evaluation, (12) teaching and

facilitation skills, (13) selection and training of trainers, (14) training aids, (15) legal and

ethical issues in HRD, (16) classroom methods, (17) outward bound methods, (18) e-

learning, (19) community camps, (20) on-the-job methods, (21) coaching for


Swati Mankad 96

performance improvement, (22) mentoring, and (23) executive coaching for leadership.

All are discussed in detail.

The research findings and case studies bring immense value to the researcher. Simple

language and relevant examples make for conceptual clarity. This comprehensive

resource truly helps the researcher to understand the various aspects of training and

training at various levels of Human Resource Development.

Passmore (2007) in his book, Excellence in Coaching, presents cutting-edge thinking in

the field of workplace coaching. It is a comprehensive industry guide to enable coaches

to achieve personal excellence with groundbreaking collection of best practice material

covering the following areas: (1) setting and (2)

behavioral coaching, (3) solution focused coaching, (4) cognitive behavioral coaching,

(5) NLP coaching, (6) transpersonal coaching, (7) integrative coaching, (8) intercultural

coaching, (9) coaching and stress and (10) coaching ethics.

The GROW MODEL given is useful for behavioral coaching. The steps in the model are

Goal-(agree measurable output/ outcome), Reality-(describe current situation and

uncover real issues) and Options-(draw out all possible solutions and select preferred

solutions)

The book is a useful resource since it brings together a range of the best writings on the

subject of coaching without judgment or favor. It stresses on coaching for performance.

Tews & Tracey (2008) in their empirical research, An Empirical Examination of Post

Training On-The-Job Supplements for Enhancing the Effectiveness of Interpersonal

Skills Training, examined the impact of 2 post training on-the-job supplements to a

training program focused on interpersonal skill development for newly hired managers-

self-coaching and upward feedback. The research design utilizes a sample of 87 trainees

from 75 units of a national restaurant chain; the impact of these supplements was

assessed by examining post training performance across 4 training conditions in a quasi-

experimental framework: (1) classroom training only, (2) classroom training with self-

coaching, (3) classroom training with upward feedback and (4) classroom training with


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self-coaching and upward feedback. The results demonstrated that both supplements are

useful extensions to formal classroom training for enhancing trainees' interpersonal

performance. This research focused on a 10-week post training period on the job. The

self-coaching trainees received their workbooks during the first week and completed their

materials over the following 5 weeks. The upward feedback trainees received a packet for

administering their feedback assessments during the third week. These trainees were

required to complete survey administration within a week's time and return the

assessments to the researchers (i.e., "the external consultants") via prepaid overnight

express delivery for compilation of their feedback reports. The upward feedback trainees

received their feedback reports approximately during the fifth week via overnight express

delivery. Final measures for all trainees were assessed at the end of the 10-week period.

The self-coaching and upward supplements were designed to further develop and

enhance the transfer of interpersonal skills and the data demonstrated that both

supplements were successful in achieving this end. Trainees who participated in either

supplement exhibited better performance than those who attended classroom training

only. Further, trainees participating in both supplements as a combined intervention were

more effective performers than the self-coaching trainees. However, trainees participating

in the combined supplement were not found to be significantly better performers than the

upward feedback trainers, despite the positive point estimate.

The results indicate that self-coaching and upward feedback is similar in their post

training impact. Although the point estimate for upward feedback was almost twice as

large the self-coaching estimate, a statistically significant difference was not found. The

supplements do share a common framework for evaluating performance and goal-setting

to direct performance enhancement efforts. Further, the supplements' relative strengths

(i.e., the longer duration of the self-coaching program and the receipt of feedback from

key constituents with upward feedback) may offset each other. To more fully determine

whether the supplements are equivalent or whether one is superior to the other, additional

research is necessary using larger samples to obtain effect sizes with less sampling error

and to assess potential differences with greater statistical power.


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Bartram (2009) in the article, Behavior Change Intervention Tools, made the following

recommendations when incorporating behavior change. First, interventions should

incorporate more than one tool wherever possible. Second, incorporating a commitment

or pledge into behavior change is strongly recommended due to their demonstrated

effectiveness over the short and the long term, as well as the carry over effect to other

activities and people. Third, commitments should be made in writing by individuals

rather than groups and be made public if possible. Fourth, commitments should include

specific goals or actions. Fifth, feedback should be incorporated into interventions as it

has also been demonstrated to be effective, particularly combined with a commitment.

Sixth, good design and evaluation of interventions is critical in order to inform future

decisions which include longer term follow up after the intervention is finished so it is

possible to assess whether behavior changes have sustained.

The researcher has tried to incorporate these recommendations in the intervention

program.

Burnard (2009) in the book, Interpersonal Skills Training-Book of Activities, says that

interpersonal skills include the following: counseling, group membership skills,

assertiveness, social skills, interviewing skills of various sorts, writing skills, using the

telephone and group facilitation skills. There are certain personal qualities for

interpersonal effectiveness namely warmth, genuineness, empathy and unconditional

positive regard. The activities stress on experiential learning. The training activities

described are: (1) icebreakers and introductions, (2) activities in pairs, (3) small group

activities, (4) exploring eye contact, (5) exploring feelings, (6) interviewing skills, (7)

facilitation skills and (8) topics for discussion. The activities are very useful for training

in interpersonal skills and can be used in the intervention program, especially the 5-

minute role plays. The author has also given guidelines to use role-plays.

Silberstang & London (2009) in the article, How Groups Learn: The Role of

Communication Patterns, Cue Recognition, Context Facility, and Cultural

Intelligence, explore the role of group learning by focusing on how intragroup

communication patterns (implicit and explicit) influence learning readiness dimensions


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(cue recognition, context facility, and cultural intelligence), which in turn influences the

rning that occurs. The authors build on Wilson,

Goodman (2007) group learning framework with its focus on the sharing,

storage model of group

learning. Groups with high levels of cue recognition, context facility and cultural

intelligence are more likely to discuss difficult issues and decide whether and how much

the group needs to learn than groups with low levels. Communication patterns and

learning readiness contribute to adaptive, generative and transformative learning fostering

the type of learning that is most beneficial for the group at the time. Human Resource

Development professionals can help groups improve their communication patterns and

thus strengthen learning readiness and enhance their ability to effectively communicate,

learn and reach their goals.

Group learning is a process in which members obtain feedback, reflect on their actions;

and acquire knowledge, skills and learning behaviors. Group learning is also an outcome

characterized by changes in knowledge, behavior and group performance.

Lois (2009) in the book, Faultless Facilitation, distinguishes between leading and

facilitating; and facilitating and training. Key attitudes and behavior outlined for

functioning as a facilitator are: (1) remain neutral, (2) keep the focus, (3) be positive, (4)

encourage participation, (5) protect ideas, (6) do not evaluate, (7) suggest methods for

group functioning, (8) prepare a recorder, (9) educate the members, (10) coordinate

details and (11) prepare reports. The author provides comprehensive guidelines for

faultless facilitation which explain how to: (1) use the right visual aids, (2) tackle

problems and make decisions, (3) move beyond problems to action, (4) evaluate the

facilitation and (5) end the facilitation.

Even though the author has given comprehensive guidelines, it is suggested that effective

facilitators always try new ideas. Facilitators should be experimenters and risk takers and

in facilitation there are no absolutes, thus encouraging the researcher cum facilitator to be

innovative and creative in designing intervention programs and not follow only the

beaten path.


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Turner (2009) in the book, Role Plays-Book of Activities, has designed the book as a

source of role play scenarios for busy trainers. The situations and scenarios included

describe aspects of communication and face-to-face communication in particular. The

role plays can be very useful in the area of interpersonal communication and can help in

successfully changing both behavior and attitudes.

The author advices how to use role plays and gives us role plays in various scenarios. The

activities are in the area of negotiation, appraisal, discipline, grievance and managing

people at work. It also tells the trainer the approximate time required, number of

participants that can be involved and the skills which are practiced during the given role-

plays.

The book is very useful for trainers of interpersonal skills as the role plays described

benefit the participants to sharpen their various skills in how to: (1) listen effectively, (2)

motivate others, (3) explore attitudes and perception, (4) set goals and future action to be

taken, (5) set standards for future behavior, (6) have even handed dealings with both

employee and supervisor, (7) establish facts, (8) gain acceptance, and (9) improve.

Musselwhite, Kennedy & Probst (2010) in their article, Best Practices for Facilitating

Simulations, say that ambiguous problems and complex situations typically have long

learning horizons, requiring the passage of months or even years before the consequences

of previous actions and decisions can be experienced. A simulation is different from a

role play. There should be a thorough understanding of the intended learning. The

will b

and experience level, which must match the complexity of the simulation. The simulation

should be paired with the appropriate self-assessment instrument. The following factors

need to be considered in selecting a simulation: (1) know the participants, (2) know the

simulation, (3) avoid simulations with one right answer, (4) make a checklist, (5) plan the

facility, (6) plan the timeline, (7) invite the participants, (8) coach the leader, (9)

coordinate schedules and (10) facilitation styles. When delivering the simulation the

following needs to be done: (1) establish ground rules, (2) communicate the difference


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between simulations and role plays, (3) observe, (4) keep a straight face and (5) know

when to intervene. Debriefing-the most important part of the simulation experience

requires to: (1) have sufficient time, (2) have provision of optimal room setup, (3) coach

the leader, (4) reframe winning and losing, (5) provide time for reflection, (6) ask good

questions, (7) manage naysayers, (8) keep the focus on group learning, (9) encourage

different perspectives, (10) help participants make connections in the workplace, (11) use

creative tools to add value to the debrief and lastly (12) follow up on the simulation.

The distinction between role play and simulation is very useful. Especially in leadership

training where the situations that a leader faces are not simple. It can be a very useful tool

for this facilitator/researcher in interpersonal skills.

Tourish, Craig & Amernic (2010) in their critique, Transformational Leadership

Education and Agency Perspectives in Business School Pedagogy: A Marriage of

Inconvenience, based on, one- the literature review of the study of websites of 21 leading

business schools and two-an analysis of two presentations to business school students at

Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Stanford University by former CEO of

General Electric, Jack Welch. The critique draws attention to the unresolved tension

between two motivating ideas that underpin much teaching in business school: collective

interest- ideas that permeate transformational leadership education; and self-interest ideas

derived from agency theory. The critique highlights the risk that business schools are

producing graduates who will attempt to appeal to common needs (guided by precepts of

transformational leadership), but who will simultaneously enact contradictory

performance management systems (guided by agency theory).

With a view to improve teaching of leadership in business schools the authors offer the

following proposals:

1. Recognize that leadership is co-constructed phenomenon between leaders and

followers, replete with attributional biases.


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2. Provide a more critical evaluation of leadership practice in which individual

leaders (such as Jack Welch) are not depicted largely as paragons of effectiveness,

to be admired and emulated uncritically.

3.

constitutes effective follower behaviors and explore how leaders can encourage

more of it.

4. Provide more focus on assessing the merits of frank, open and critical two-way

communication between leaders and followers.

in their study, Becoming a Leader: Early Career

Challenges Faced by MBA Graduates, investigate the early career challenges of 55

young leaders who had graduated from an MBA program in the past decade. The goal of

the study was to understand the experience of recently minted MBAs-from their

perspectives-with a focus on the types of situations they found most difficult to navigate.

The method of key informant interviewing was used for each graduating class, graduates

whose current job title suggested that they held a role with significant managerial

cation

made meeting prohibitive. The in-person interviews lasted 90 minutes, although a few ran

for 2 hours.

The first goal of the study was to identify the situations that MBA graduates struggled

with early in their careers. The emerging leaders in the study were forced to reevaluate

and often adjust the very things that had made them successful to date. The transitions

described by the informants were grouped into three broad categories. Each category had

the following: (1) was triggered by a particular change in context (2) had the potential to

instill a specific type of learning and (3) could be characterized by a single dominant

question. The first category was role transitions-manager took on a new role, second was

Business transitions-being responsible for leading a significant change in the business

and third category personal transitions-

values to test.


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The four common leadership challenges described by the informants were: (1) Managing

others-motivating subordinates, (2) managing relationships with peers and bosses, (3)

managing the self-developing a leadership mind-set and (4) coping with setbacks and

disappointments.

The study concludes that adopting a leadership mind-set involves developing a

funda be

effective and successful. There was a tendency for inexperienced managers to over rely

on previous strengths when entering unfamiliar territory. Another striking finding was the

sheer number and diversity of transitions that our emerging leaders weathered.

The study is useful to identify specific challenges that young managers face and to create

teaching materials that help students confront these challenges. By extracting the

appropriate learning and making the necessary psychological transitions, an improvement

in the relevance and the rigor of leadership development can be made in the business

school context.

Vora & Bhatnagar (2011) in the, Colloquium of Leadership Development in

Organizations in India: The Why and the How of It, have examined: (1) how Indian

organizations made efforts towards leadership development within their organizations,

(2) what triggered their need to undertake this development, (3)methods and procedures

chosen, (4) what was the focus of leadership development, (5) the

definition of success of leadership and(6) the evaluation mechanisms and their success

rate. The companies include Murugappa group, Aditya Birla group, Tata Chemicals,

Ashok Minda Group, Lupin, Siemens and others.

Nine major insights emerged in the study. These insights were: (1) definition of leaders

and leadership is the basis of key decisions on leadership development, (2) for developing

a leadership pipeline a plan is necessary, (3) leadership development is triggered by

diverse factors, (4) change at the top leadership and context affect leadership

development, (5) wise selection of participants for leadership development initiatives is

vital, (6) need for a variable understanding on what needs to be part of leadership

development, (7) methods used for leadership development are diverse, (there is


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classroom based learning, on-the-job-development, reflective practice, personal

attention), (8) participation of top management is vital, and finally (9) assessment of the

efficacy of leadership development needs to be done.

The focus now according to the authors is the task of growing, maintaining, responding

and surviving for the organization all at the same time. This requires moving the focus

away from developing a few leaders to fill the leadership pipeline on a continuous basis.

Wenson (2010) in the hermeneutic phenomenological study, After-Coaching Leadership

Skills and Their Impact on Direct Reports: Recommendations for Organizations,

explores the after-coaching leadership skills of management that affected direct reports.

The selection process relied on sequential sampling as a means of choosing 20

participants for in-depth interviews. After the transcription of the interviews Atlas.ti

resulting in a motivated environment, (b) effects of management creating safe work

environment, (c) depth of communication and (d) self-reflection.

Eighty-five percent of participants gave credit to the coaching process in stating a noticed

improvement in their manager. The data further revealed that the management tools

resulted in a motivating environment after coaching as validation, information and

participation. Respect and appreciation exuded by management to their direct reports

after coaching was mentioned by 60% of the participants as leading to higher motivation,

job satisfaction and self-esteem. Ninety percent of participants indicated that they

received instruction, resources, guidance and problem-solving help and identified these

activities as leading to a motivated work environment. Eighty-five percent of participants

-coaching leadership skill of a participation or team

building enhanced job satisfaction built self-esteem and raised motivation.

were frequently used adjectives as participants described lived experiences related to safe

work environment. Sixty-five percent of participants stated creativity and 70% stated

teamwork as direct results of working in a safe environment. Participants described the


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depth of communication experienced after coaching using the terms time, personal

relationships; and feedback and counseling.

One of the most important factors was that all participants described the importance of

communication. 55% of the participants stated increase in communication skills. The key

themes were motivation, safety, self-reflection and communication.

One of the most important recommendations is that email is a one-way communication

and it cannot take the place of face-to-face communication.

Karve (2011) in the article, Setting the Stage for Effective Role Plays, says that

successful role plays require: (1) meaningful and relevant characters, (2) skillful

facilitators, (3) ability to play the roles, (4) observer involvement and (5) an

effective debriefing process. They can be prewritten, part of a video clip, impromptu or

created specifically for training. Role play as a pedagogy is usually used in training

programs involving interpersonal skills in general organizational settings such as

communication, sales, performance appraisal, counseling, mentoring, team building and

leadership.

According to the author there are two ways to approach role plays. One, they can be

designed so that participants are assigned to two or three person groups, with everyone

doing the role plays. Second, they can be developed by developing a script that calls for

two or three volunteers to do the role play, while the remaining learners serve as

observers. The various steps for creating the role play are: (1) conduct background

research, (2) script the role play, (3) script the general context, (4) script for specific

character, and (5) not to give exact dialogues. The facilitation guidelines are: (1) choose

volunteers, (2) prepare players for role play, and (3) prepare observers for role play.

This has been very useful for the study since the intervention program being developed

by the researcher involves interpersonal skills for Transformational leadership style.

Kapp (2011) in the article, Matching the Right Design Strategy to the Right Content,

says that instruction must be properly designed, crafted and presented to truly create

effective instruction. There should be a proper fit between instructional strategy and the


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content to be delivered, whether classroom or online. The teacher needs to understand the

knowledge types and the learning strategies that are congruent to them. Declarative

knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge and problem solving require

different learning strategies like mnemonics, chunking, storytelling, metaphoric devices,

concepts maps and various others strategies for effective learning to take place.

While preparing the intervention program the strategies used to transfer learning are used

depending on the kind of skills the participants are to learn. Role plays, storytelling,

interactive sessions, challenging the learner in a given situation and provide solutions to

the problem are the different activities used for learning.

Price (2011) in his analytical paper, Unifying Leadership: Bridging the Theory and

Practice Divide, says that there is a gap between leadership theory and practice and little

work has been carried out to span the divide. The author examines a parallel relationship

in the Christian realm of faith and works; and reveals the intermediary role of reason in

bringing the conceptual and practical together. To evaluate the appropriateness of any

one must understand the nature and the causes of the gap

between the realms, which could be roles, attitudes, timelines and language. The three

step model of Theory-> Analysis-> Practice, along with Feedback and Guidance makes

theory relevant and useful to leaders. The leaders need to understand the theoretical

constructs, hone their skills to conduct analysis for leadership application and promote

interaction between the communities through feedback on analysis and experience.

Similarly, the academics can promote the connection by seeking to collaborate with

individual leaders during analysis and promoting opportunities for feedback from those

who have seen their theories in action.

Edwards (2012) in the survey done by AMA Enterprise, Casting a Critical Eye on

Coaching, conclude that there are proven benefits to coaching as a leadership

development tool if the engagements are structured, transparent and their effectiveness

measured. The survey was conducted on more than 230 respondents to explore the

policies and practices associated with executive coaching and its perceived value. The

survey population consisted primarily of senior-level business, human resources and


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management professionals. Forty-two percent of respondents provide coaching to anyone

at any level in the organization, depending on the need. However, individuals at mid to

senior-levels (41 percent) are most likely to receive coaching. Leadership development is

the main purpose for executive coaching amounting to 70% of all coaching done.

AMA Enterprise recommends a six-step process for effective coaching engagements: (1)

business need evaluation and engagement scope, (2) strategy and approach, (3) coachee

assessment, (4) goal-setting/action planning, (5) coaching engagement delivery and the

last step (6) evaluation and measurement.

The most common difficulties involved with coaching are: (a) conflicting priorities, (b)

time constraints, (c) lack of sponsor/manager support, (d) lack of resources to provide

coaching and (e) difficulty assessing its effectiveness. Also, coaching cannot succeed

when it is pushed on an individual as a last resort to save someone who already has one

foot out of the door. Good leaders can be made better and their development and

contribution can be accelerated.

The survey encourages research in executive coaching and gives recommendations on the

elements that a good coach needs to keep in mind and not expect miraculous results in

case of bad leadership.

2.5 Studies Related to Transformational Leadership and Gender

Carless (1998) in the research paper, Gender Differences in Transformational

Leadership: An Examination of Superior, Leader, and Subordinate Perspectives,

examines gender differences in transformational leadership from multiple perspectives.

The sample consisted of a large international bank in Australia (n=120 female and n=184

males) their superiors (n=32) and subordinates (n=588). t- -rating on

the MLQ(Multi factor Leadership Questionnaire) and LPI(Leadership Practices

Inventory) were used. The GTL (Global Transformational Leadership Scale) a seven item

scale was also used as a short measure. Results concluded that superiors evaluated female

managers as more transformational than males; however, at the more specific behavioral

level of analysis, significant gender differences were noted only for those subscales


Swati Mankad 108

which were more interpersonally- oriented. Subordinates assessed their female and male

leaders equally.

The results imply that female managers are perceived as more transformational by their

superiors than their male counterparts. The subordinates evaluate the capabilities of

female and male managers equally. This also suggests that subordinates may not be

relying on stereotype expectations when rating their managers. Therefore, the results

suggest that the transformational leadership needs to be examined from multiple

perspectives.

Manning (2002), in the paper, Gender, Managerial Level, Transformational

Leadership and Work Satisfaction, conclude from the findings of a study of the

management team of a large US social services agency that there are confirmed predicted

satisfaction. The study examined the relationship of gender to self-reported and observer-

rated transformational leadership and to two aspects of work satisfaction. The research

participants of 64 included 36 women and 28 men, ranging in age from mid-

60s, median age being 41-45. Six described themselves as first-level managers, 33 as

mid-level and 25 as upper-level managers or executives. Their median supervisory

experience was 11-15 years and one third had been supervisors for 15 years or more.

They were highly educated.

The results of the independent t-test showed no significant differences in between men

and women on any LPI-self or LPI-observer scales or on total scores. As predicted,

independent t tests revealed no significant differences between female and male

managers on scales measuring work satisfaction with working relationships, nor on any

single work satisfaction item. Also top level managers reported higher transformational

leadership and work satisfaction than middle managers; and gender had less of an impact.

One surprising result was that even with knowledgeable raters, women often rated

themselves as significantly lower in transformational leadership than the observers rated

-ratings tended to be more similar to their evaluators. Moreover,


Swati Mankad 109

overrating was more common at top levels of management and underrating common at

lower levels.

The results support the argument that previously identified gender differences in work

satisfaction are probably related more to differences in organizational position and power

than to gender itself.

Poddar & Krishnan, (2004), in their study, Impact of Gender-Roles on

Transformational Leadership, investigated the impact of gender-role differences, as

opposed to sex differences, on transformational leadership using a sample of 80 pairs of

managers (52 men and 28 women) and subordinates from a large steel company in

Eastern India. The sample belonged to the first three levels of hierarchy. The

was developed to measure gender-roles based on the Indian conceptions of the ideal man

and the ideal woman. -Role Inventory (BSRI) and the

Indian scale, while their subordinates rated them on transformational leadership. The

BSRI and the Indian scale items were factor analyzed separately for femininity and

masculinity. An independent t-test (two-tailed) was then done to see if there were any

differences in any of the variables studied across males and female managers. The results

showed that the males were significantly higher, (p<.05), than the females on the leader-

like factor. There were no significant differences in any other variables.

Results indicated that regardless of sex, managers who are high on the BSRI femininity

factor of nurturing and the Indian femininity factor of chaste are perceived by

subordinates to be more transformational. Regardless of sex, being eager to soothe hurt

feelings, compassionate, sensitive to the needs of others and affectionate enhances all

transformational leadership attributions. The traditional definitions of leadership are

changing with the advent of transformational leadership and being nurturing is now more

important than being a leader in the typical sense.

Powell; Butterfield; Alves & Bartoll (2004) in their experimental study, Sex Effects in

Evaluations of Transformational and Transactional Leaders, answered the research


Swati Mankad 110

nsformational or transactional) and

as collected from

undergraduate students in the introductory management class at a large U.S University.

Surveys were distributed to about 380 students and completed during class time. Three

hundred and sixty three students (96%) returned a usable survey. The survey asked the

and then rate the manager using the attached questionnaire. In the vignette, either a male

or a female manager exhibited either a transformational or transactional leadership style.

Thus, four forms of the survey were randomly distributed to students: female

transformational leader, female transactional leader, male transformational leader and

male transactional leader. Vignettes for both leadership styles were set in the same

situation, a financial services firm with a recent history of poor performance. The

transformational leader vignette was adapted from a charismatic leader vignette written

by Grinnell (2002). The transactional leader vignette was written for the study. The sex

of the subordinates in each vignette was made ambiguous to avoid confounding effects.

-item MLQ subscales

that measured different aspects of transformational leadership (idealized influence-

attributed), Idealized Influence-behavior, Inspirational Motivation, Intellectual

Stimulation, Individualized Consideration) and transactional leadership (contingent

reward, active management by exception, passive management by exception).

ANOVA results indicated leader sex significantly influenced descriptions of transactional

leadership (higher for male leaders than female leaders: F1,355 = 5.32, p < .05). Leadership

style significantly influenced descriptions of both transformational leadership (higher for

the transformational leader vignette than the transactional leader vignette: F1,355=38.52,

p<.001) and transactional leadership(higher for the transactional leader vignette than the

transformational leader vignette:F1,355=49.27, p< .001). In addition, subject sex

significantly influenced descriptions of both transformational leadership (higher for

female subjects than male subjects: F1,355=5.12, p <.05) and transactional leadership

(higher for male subjects than female subjects:F: 1,355 = 5.83, p < .05). The interaction

between leaders sex and subject sex significantly influenced descriptions of transactional


Swati Mankad 111

leadership (F1,355 =4.29, p<.05). According to comparisons of means, female subjects

described male leaders as engaging in a greater amount of transactional behavior than

female leaders. However, male subjects described male leaders and female leaders as

engaging in similar amounts of transactional behavior.

ANOVA was also performed for the two measures of leader evaluations, subordinate

responsiveness and leader effectiveness. Descriptions of transformational leadership were

positively related to evaluations of both subordinate responsiveness (F1,355 =281.71,

r=.67, p<.001) and leader effectiveness (F1,355 =93.60, r =.41, p<.001). However,

descriptions of transactional leadership were negatively related to evaluations of

subordinate responsiveness. Among the main effects, leadership style significantly

influenced evaluations of both subordinate responsiveness (higher for the

transformational leader vignette than the transactional leader vignette) and leader

effectiveness (higher for transactional leader vignette than the transformational leader

vignette). The interaction between leader sex and leadership style significantly influenced

evaluations of subordinate responsiveness. Comparison of means indicated that male

leaders using a transformational leadership style were evaluated as stimulating more

positive subordinate responses than female leaders using a transformational leadership

style. However, both male and female leaders using a transactional style were evaluated

as stimulating similar subordinate responses.

The study suggests that sex effects in evaluation of transformational and transactional

leaders are more complex than either leadership theories or gender theories have

previously conveyed and recommends the continuation of experimental as well as field

research on sex effects in leader evaluations using different populations and work

contexts to increase understanding of how such effects shape the conditions under which

leadership is enacted and experienced.

Reuvers., van Engen., Vinkenburg & Wilson-Evered (2008) in the empirical research,

Transformational Leadership and Innovative Work Behavior: Exploring the Relevance

of Gender Differences, revealed a positive and significant relationship between

transformational leadership and innovative work behavior. Furthermore, the gender of the


Swati Mankad 112

manager moderated the latter relationship indicating that employees report more

innovative behavior when transformational leadership is displayed by male in comparison

with female managers, confirming the gender bias. No significant effect was found for

the three-way interaction of transformational leadership, gender of the manager and

gender of the employee. No concrete inferences can be made about the influence of

context. Future research should incorporate a measure of the gendered context and

attempt a comparison between feminine and masculine context. Results suggest that male

managers who express compassion, trust and confidence towards the individual; and

exhibit great commitment and persistence in pursuing objectives are more effective in

eliciting innovative work behavior in followers as compared to female managers. The

situation would imply that female managers are expected to demonstrate stereotypical

female leadership traits whereas male managers are overtly commended for exhibiting

such traits.

The dataset for the study was compiled from a sample of 335 participants dispersed over

four hospitals in Australia. Females represented 77.9% of the sample. Transformational

leadership was measured using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Bass &

Avolio). The four theoretical distinctive behavioral components of transformational

leadership were measured by 20 items rated on a five point Likert Scale.

The practical implications evident from this study are that individuals in key leadership

positions should not only possess transformational leadership behaviors, but explicitly

demonstrate them as well. Recruitment and development practices should therefore

incorporate means to control for the presence and actual use of such behaviors where

innovative work behavior can thrive, thereby aiding the advancement of medical care.

The hospitals should capitalize on the transformational leadership capabilities of both

male and female managers. Findings suggest that female managers are unable to exploit

and benefit from the empirically demonstrated greater likelihood of adopting a

transformational leadership style within a hospital setting with respect to innovative work

behavior in followers.


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The research concludes that investment in and nurturance of transformational leadership

creates an environment in which innovation can thrive.

Avolio, Mhatre, Mckenna, Norman & Lester (2009) in the meta-analysis, The

Moderating Effect of Gender on Leadership Intervention Impact: An Exploratory

Review, studied a total of 57 intervention-based leadership studies that included sufficient

data on leader and follower gender. By intervention, the authors mean any study where

the researcher overtly manipulated leadership as the independent variable through

training, assignment, scenarios or other means.

Results showed a significant difference in the effect sizes for leadership interventions

conducted with all-male and majority-male participants versus all-female and majority-

female participant studies. However, these differences varied based on the setting of the

intervention, the theoretical basis of the intervention and the type of outcome.

Implications for further research on gender differences with respect to examining cause

effect impact of leadership interventions are discussed.

This seems to suggest that leadership interventions have an equal and positive impact

across gender. However, on closer examination it can be seen that the degree of impact

varied depending on the nature of the intervention, focus of intervention impact,

leadership theory, sample characteristics and study setting. Women face more obstacles

in leadership roles than do men. This argument suggests that women face prejudice and

are rated more critically than men. A meta-analysis by Eagly et al. (1992) supported this

claim when the authors examined only experiments that equated male and female

behavior in order to control for that variable and found that men were rated higher than

women. Thus, when controlling for differences in behavior exhibited, it appeared that

men were rated more favorably than women and this effect was stronger in male-

dominated roles. Considering these findings, one might expect that post leadership

intervention ratings of women would be more inclined to go up than down, thus resulting

in potentially inflated differences in effect sizes between men and women.

The study is useful for researchers of Leadership intervention programs who need to take

into account some of the neglected inherent differences that have been found when


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comparing men versus women in nonintervention settings. Designing the structure and

content of leadership developmental interventions after taking into consideration existing

gender differences could help facilitate the positive impact on leadership development for

both men and women.

Ayman & Korabik (2010) in their article, Leadership: Why Gender and Culture

Matter, review major theories and models of leadership as they pertain to either gender or

culture. They focus on three approaches to leadership: trait, behavioral (two-factor,

transformational-transactional and leader-member exchange) and contingency. Gender is

a multidimensional and multilevel phenomenon with many different aspects.

Both culture and leadership; and gender and leadership have been studied using an emic

approach. But the article focuses on the imposed etic approach to leadership as it pertains

to gender and culture.

According to the authors traits related to leadership are not culturally universal and traits

have an impact on the way men and women are perceived as leaders. Gender can affect

access to leadership positions. The behavioral approach constitutes the largest body of

literature in leadership research. Research from intrapsychic leadership perspective has

demonstrated that gender-role orientation is related to transformational leadership

behavior (Korabik, Ayman, & Purc-Stephenson, 2001). Gender-role instrumentality was

predictive of higher self-ratings on all four sub dimensions of transformational

leadership. Gender-role expressivity was predictive of higher self-ratings on Idealized

influence, Individualized Consideration and Inspirational Motivation. Thus, androgyny

was related to transformational leadership. In addition, the more leaders reported being

androgynous and transformational the more their subordinates reported lower job stress

and higher job satisfaction.

Also, research for behavioral approaches demonstrates that there needs to be an

examination of cultural values as well as country boundaries in leadership research.

Lately, there has been more recognition of the importance of people skills for leaders.

Scholars have noted the increased prominence of the transformational leadership and

leader-


Swati Mankad 115

leadership. An approach that gives equal importance to task and people skills will open

up more opportunities for women and ethno cultural minorities to be considered as

leaders. Moreover, increasing the cultural awareness of leaders about different norms of

conduct should enhance the level of trust in their relationships with their subordinates. A

conceptualization of leadership which includes the effects of gender and culture has the

potential to expand the vision of a more inclusive leadership.

Judeh (2010) in the study, Transformational Leadership: A Study of Gender

Differences in Private Universities, conducted on Jordanian private universities to

investigate the gender differences in transformational leadership behaviors. The sample

consisted of 36 leaders from four private universities in Jordan. Each leader was sent two

types of questionnaires: one for self-rating and four to be filled-out by his/her

subordinates. A total of 132 filled out questionnaires were returned, of which 28 were

filled out by leaders and 104 by subordinates. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire

was utilized of Bass and Avolio (1990). Of the total 132 self and subordinate ratings

received, 43.9% were female and 56.1% were male.

The results indicated that male transformational leaders were evaluated to be more

effective than female counterparts in all dimensions except Individualized Consideration

score. There were no significant differences in all dimensions except Intellectual

Stimulation where males scored higher. Overall the results did not support gender

Loganathan & Krishnan (2010) in their research paper,

Transformational Leadership: Mediating Rol ,

affect transformational leadership. The participants included doctors and nurses

belonging to two government multispecialty hospitals and three private multi-specialty

hospitals across South India, with not less than 100 doctors each. 110 matched responses

were received, thereby creating 110 doctor-nurse dyads. The doctor sample included 61

male and 49 female respondents, with a median age of 31 years, ranging from 21 to 70


Swati Mankad 116

years. The nurse sample included 7 male and 103 female respondents, with a median age

of 30 years, ranging from 19 to 30 years.

The study showed that doctors high on emotional intelligence are better transformational

leaders than those with low emotional intelligence scores. There was a positive

correlation between emotional intelligence and femininity. This study shows that

femininity has to necessarily first enhance emotional intelligence in order to thereby

enhance transformational leadership. Another finding is that femininity and masculinity

are strongly positively correlated to each other and both of them independently affect

is mediated by emotional intelligence; there is no mediation in case of masculinity.

Ely, Ibarra & Kolb (2011) in their paper, Taking Gender into Account: Theory and

Design f suggest a conceptual

framework of three design principles that should underlie any leadership program

designed for women: (1) situate topics and tools of study in an analysis of second

generation gender bias, (2) create a holding environment t

work and (3) the participants are rooted on their leadership purpose. Women need to

consider the dynamics of gender in their organizations and connect to purposes that are

larger than themselves to take on leadership roles.

The implications for leadership theory and education are that the demand for teaching

development. There should be an integration of two streams of research, one is leader

identity development and two, second generation-gender bias.

This framework is especially useful and relevant for the corporate education and business

schools who would stand to gain from understanding how gender dynamics affect

identity development in work settings. It also says women in the process of internalizing

a leader identity should stay focused on a leadership purpose. The leadership program

should provide a framework keeping in the mind the three design principles. Of course a

criticism for women-only programs is that it insulates women from the real world biases

that they would eventually face and deprive them of interaction with their male


Swati Mankad 117

counterparts. Instructors must be willing and able to discuss second-generation bias

credibly.

Brandt (2012) in their research paper, Gender and Personality in Transformational

Leadership Context: An Examination of Leader and Subordinate Perspectives, have

done a quantitative analysis involving 459 leaders (283 men and 176 women) and 378

subordinates working in various fields. Leaders rated their leadership behavior and

subordinates also evaluated them. Results indicated differences in leadership behavior by

gender, in that women exhibited more enabling behavior and men more challenging

behavior. Further, gender and personality had an impact on leadership behavior, as

viewed by both leaders and subordinates. Extraverted and intuitive male leaders along

with those exhibiting the perceiving dimension regarded themselves as more challenging

as compared to introverted, sensing and judging male counterparts- a view confirmed by

subordinates in the case of perceiving male leaders. It uses the Myers-Briggs Type

Indicator for personality.

The practical implication is that the study offers specific knowledge for people seeking to

develop themselves as leaders. This study provides a novel perspective on both

personality and gender in the transformational leadership context.

Akhtar (2012) in the paper, The Relationship of Managers Leadership Styles with

Gender, Experience and Socio-Economic Status: An Analysis of Banking Sector

Organizations, e with

age, gender and socio-economic status in the banking sector. A scale of 49 items was

composed. This scale was tested before being used with 115 managers in a pilot study

and its Cronbach Alpha was 0.727. This scale was carried out on randomly chosen banks

leadership styles were determined.

According to the results, male managers tend to adopt a transactional leadership style

more often than female managers. However, it was observed that female managers tend

to be transformational leaders. Also, the number of male managers preferring charismatic


Swati Mankad 118

leadership style is higher than female ones. Chi-square distribution test gave similar

results. Managers working in an environment with low socio-economic status tend to

adopt transactional style whereas managers having transformational leadership style were

observed to work in environments with high socio-economic status.

2.6 Studies Related To Long Term Effectiveness of Training in

Transformational Leadership Programs

De Vries; Hellwig; Vrignaud; Ramo; Florent-Treacy & Korotov (2008) in their

exploratory longitudinal study, Sustainable Effectiveness of a Transformational

Leadership Development Program: An Exploratory Study, explore the impact of a

transformational leadership development program on the lives of its participants(senior

executives) after a one year interval. The study addresses three fundamental questions:

(1) what does a transformational leadership program transform? (2) How does the change

process occur? (3) How are behavioral changes maintained over time? Individual changes

were evaluated both quantitatively through test-retest results of a 360-degree survey

across 12 key leadership dimensions, and qualitatively, through semi-structured

interviews with participating executives.

-

assessment scores were significantly higher on key dimensions such as Rewarding &

Feedback and Life balance. Ratings by observers showed a significant improvement on

Visioning and Team-building dimensions. The elements of the program consistently cited

by participants retrospectively as contributing positively to the change process were: (1)

involvement in group coaching, (2) realistic action plans, (3) acting out or experimenting

with new behaviors and (4) subsequent follow-up with a partner from the cohort.

Bernal (2009) in the doctoral research study, Designing Transformational Leadership

Development Programs, proposes and tests a Five-Phase Model (FPM) for developing

leadership, matching theories of behavioral change that originate in health psychology

theory and practice. By combining existing leadership development literature with


Swati Mankad 119

change management theory this study offers a fresh look at how executive training should

be designed. The FPM is an innovative approach to guide practitioners to develop more

effective leadership development programs aimed at changing behaviors. The model

proposes to help participants to evolve step by step from one stage to the next. Research

has shown that stage-matched interventions can have a far greater impact than other

programs that encourage action as the main element for achieving behavioral change,

regardless of the stage in which the participants are in the change process.

First phase: awareness raising and problem identification

Second phase: development of a specific plan of change

Third phase: initiate environment and behavioral change

Fourth phase: sustain environment and behavioral change

Fifth phase: recommitment to change

The benefit for practitioners and organizations is a more effective model for designing

such leadership development programs aimed at changing behaviors.

De Vries Manfred & Korotov (2009) in the essay, Creating Transformational

Executive Programs, say that a transformational program presupposes a change in

behavior of the attending executive so that the latter becomes more effective in personal

or organizational change. To understand what influences the transformational process

three triangular conceptual frameworks (building on the short-term dynamic

psychotherapy tradition) are presented: the mental life triangle, the conflict triangle and

the relationships triangle. The first framework shows that cognitive and emotional

processes need to be taken into consideration to create changes in behavior. The second

describes the sources of thoughts and feelings that may prompt anxiety and third,

Behavioral changeINTENTION

Behavioral ChangePREPARATION

Behavioral ChangeIMPLEMENTATION

Behavioral ChangeTERMINATION

Behavioral ChangeMAINTENANCE


Swati Mankad 120

explains atterns of response that are

repeated throughout life and can become dysfunctional.

The essay is useful for faculty, facilitators and coaches whereby five major challenges in

program design examined are: (1) selecting participants, (2) identifying the focal issue on

which participants need to work, (3) creating a safe transitional space that enables the

change process, (4) using the group dynamics to foster transformation and (5) arriving at

the internalization of the change process.

Abrell, Rowold, Weiber & Moenninghoff (2011) in this study, Evaluation of a Long-

Term Transformational Leadership Development Program, present a multi-method,

multi-source and longitudinal evaluation of a leadership development program in a

German branch of an internationally operating, US American drug development

corporation. For the development of transformational leadership the methods of

leadership feedback, training and coaching were combined into a program. The effects of

this program were evaluated at three, six, nine and twelve months after training.

Altogether, 25 leaders participated in the program. The results revealed that

transformational leadership (subordinate assessment) improved six months after training

Citizenship Behavior (subordinate assessment) improved over time.

The research demonstrated that despite its complexity, transformational leadership can be

enhanced by means of a combination of leadership feedback; and training and peer-based

coaching. Transformational leadership, as assessed by subordinates, improved six months

after training and later on. The findings highlight the fact that long-term leadership

development is in itself a complex endeavor embedded in a social network with various

result underlines the notion that the development of transformational leadership has

positive effects on a broad and conservative success criterion of leaders, as measured

Results also demonstrate that the time frame is an important issue when planning

effective leadership development. Especially, in the case of complex leadership skills,


Swati Mankad 121

several months are nec

behavior. It might take time to practice these behaviors so that they become an authentic

2.7 Discussion of Critical Review of Related Literature

This age of complex, rapid and unforeseen changes--characterized by unprecedented

interconnectivity, radical innovation; new structures both social and technical demands

commensurate leadership capabilities to successfully deal with them. Leaders have to

cope with problems arising out of changing internal and external contexts which defy

immediate, easy and definite resolution. Solutions that worked in the past seem

inadequate and inaccurate. In such a scenario, Transformational leadership style is seen to

be not only a popular choice but an inevitable one. Usually, the western view has

prevailed and dominated, but this researcher has come across studies in transformational

leadership in the Indian context which have thrown light on the different approaches that

can be used in the Indian scenario. Concerns about the universal applicability, keeping in

mind the differing cultural landscapes; have been expressed while using the Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire to assess Transformational Leadership. Consequently, this has

measure the transformational leadership style in the Indian context.

Moreover, it is universally acknowledged that communication is a sine qua non of

effective leadership. Effective leadership communication is not only about formal

speeches and presentations, rather it is also about everyday workplace communication

which fosters employee potential for both organizational and employee benefit.

Interpersonal communication is fundamental to effective transformational leadership.

Motivating language, use of metaphors, listening, storytelling, cultural sensibilities,

empathy are some of the main ingredients of effective interpersonal communication skills

of a transformational leader. Though technology has unleashed a communications

revolution, it has not been able to engender the richness inherent in face to face

communication. In fact, critics of technological advancements in communications believe

that there is a s ability to communicate effectively in direct and real (as


Swati Mankad 122

opposed to virtual) face to face interaction. Geographical distance is a neutralizer of the

effect of transformational leadership.

Furthermore, transformational leadership can be taught and learnt with dedication and

time. The myth of leaders being born and not made has been demolished and leadership

is considered a skill which can be developed and honed through appropriate training and

development efforts. Therefore, training in leadership development forms a large chunk

of total human resource training and development interventions. Coaching and training

needs should be assessed and the tools used for designing, delivering and measuring

training interventions have to be examined properly for their validity and reliability. The

trainers and coaches themselves need to use the tenets of transformational learning for

effective training.

Additionally, gender balance has always been a contentious issue in the corporate world.

While women continue to outstrip men in academic achievements, there has not been any

real progress in the practical arena. In spite of rooting for gender equality in principle the

female talent pool lies untapped in the decision making spheres. Women face cultural,

social, psychological barriers to stake their claim in leadership roles. Research has

indicated that women make effective transformational leaders. Therefore, training and

development efforts need to be more inclusive and cultivate both males and females to

capitalize on their leadership potential to address the severe talent crunch.

Unfortunately, the general literature on transformational leadership has lagged behind

that of transformational leadership performance. Effective employee and leadership

development programs have a positive impact on the financial performance of

organizations. Organizations would be better prepared to implement an effective

leadership development program if they understood the development process of

transformational leaders. In addition, it has been argued that challenges from inside and

outside the organization have created new opportunities that place transformational

leaders in high demand. An increasingly competitive global business environment

requires corporations to constantly reinvent themselves to adapt to the changing nature of

world commerce; and to put in place organizational strategies to cut costs and increase


Swati Mankad 123

profitability. This has called for transformational leaders who can maintain the

commitment of followers through these changes. Organizations can more effectively

keep up with the increasing demand for transformational leaders if they had a greater

awareness of the development process and how their leaders can be developed.

Though transformational leadership is a popular research area there is scope for research

which finds ways to enhance the effectiveness of the transformational leadership style,

especially in the Indian context. The research in transformational leadership intervention

in the Indian context needs to be taken forward to maximize the leadership capabilities of

both males and females to ensure a continuous and adequate supply of transformational

leaders. Thus, there are ample opportunities for future research on transformational

leadership development processes to contribute to both theory and practice.

Though, Intervention programs which ostensibly cater to transformational leadership

development are a plenty, there is need for a research based approach to intervention

design for enhancing the transformational leadership style in the Indian context to ensure

enduring success of training and development efforts.

Also, since what gets measured gets done, measurement of leadership training and

development interventions using validated instruments of measurement will conclusively

demonstrate value addition to the human capital of organizations, thereby encouraging

companies to allocate resources for training and development.

Moreover, by measuring the effectiveness, impact and usefulness of the intervention

programs in the long term; academia can bridge the industry-academia divide through

empirical research in the area of training and development.

It can be concluded from the literature reviewed that empirical research in the area of

designing interventions in interpersonal communication skills for enhancing

transformational leadership style in the Indian context has not been undertaken despite a

dire need for it.

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