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CHAPTER - 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A brief review of literature related to various aspects of the present
investigation, which throws light upon research studies in India and aboard are
discussed below:
Studies on various chemical compositions of wild herbs, spices, fruits
and leafy vegetables used as food sources were analyzed by different countries.
Achinewhu et al.,( 1995) characterized and determined chemical composition
of 30 wild fruits, nuts, herbs, spices and leafy vegetables found in
Nigeria.Some of them were not only used for food, but for medicine in minor
aliments by natives. Results of total carbohydrate content ranged from 34.6-
71.9% for spices and herbs, 11.3-76.1% for fruits and nuts, and 24.6-51.4% for
leafy vegetable. The wild fruits, nuts and leafy vegetables are high in ascorbic
acid (vitamin C) content that ranged from 18-113mg per 100g dry sample for
fruits and nuts, and 23-232 mg per100g sample for leafy vegetables.
A survey of study and utilization of wild fruits in Yunnan province
indicated that there are 600 species and varieties belonging to 43 families and
79 genera that are good for eating while others are useful for processing
(Liang-Mingqing, 1995).
19
Herzog et al.,(1994) analysed eleven wild fruit species (Aframomum
alboviolaceum, Annona senegalensis, Dialium guineense, Landolphia hirsute,
Landolphia owariensis, Lantana camara, Napoleonaea vogelii,
Pseudospondias microcarpa, Salacia owabiensis, Sarcocephalus latifolius,
Vitex doniana) consumed in Cote d’ Ivoire and concluded that ,although the
diet is based essentially on agricultural crops, wild fruits make an important
contribution by providing rare nutrients and are an important source of
variation and of complementation especially with regard to vitamins and
minerals.However, as a result of the changes sweeping through African
societies, wild fruits are in danger of disappearing.
Ascorbic acid and mineral contents were determined in the mesocarps of
14 wild fruits of Nigeria (Eromosele et al., 1991). Ziziphus spina(Christi),
Sclerocarya birrea, Haematostaphis berteri [H.barteri], Ximenia americana,
Adansonia digitala, Annona senegalensis, Butyrospermum parkii [ Vitellaria
paradox], Zizyphus [zizyphus] mauritiana, Phoenix dactylifera[date], Balanites
aegyptiaca, Tamarindus indica [tamarind], Deterium [Detarium]
microcarpum, Vitex doniana and Dialium guineense .The concentrations of
ascorbic acid in samples were in the range 1.28 to 403.3g per 100mg FW.
Sclerocarya birrea and Adansonia digitata had 403.3 and 337.0 mg ascorbic
acid per 100g respectively. These 2 fruits are used as sweeteners for many local
foods and as curdling agents for milk. Zizyphus mauritiana contained the
20
highest concentration of Mg, at 227.0 mg per 100g and Fe were in the range
1.07- 6.30mg per 100g, which are 2-5 times higher than the concentrations in
oranges (0.2 mg/ 100g) and mangoes (0.4 mg/100g).
Saka and Msonthi, (1994) had analysed the moisture, protein, fat, crude
fibre, ash, minerals (Ca, Mg, Fe, P,K and Na), and total carbohydrate contents
of the edible portion of 16 wild fruits. Trichilia emetic, Strychnos spinosa,
Azanza garckeana [Thespesia sp.], Ximenia caffra and Parinari curatellifolia
gave the highest levels of protein (17.0%), fat (31.2%, fibre (45.3%), ash
(11.2%) and carbohydrate (88.2%). The highest contents of Ca, Mg, Fe, P, K,
and Na were found for Adansonia digitata (1156mg/g), Syzygium guieneese
(2247 mg/g), Syzygium guieneese (758mg/g), Trichilia emetic (3164mg/g),
Ximenia caffra (791mg/g) and Flacourtia indica (589 mg/g) respectively.
The dry matter content, acidity and total ascorbic acid content of the
edible portion of 22 wild fruits species were analysed by Saka et al., (1992).
The highest and lowest dry matter contents were 91.6% (Bauhinia thonningii)
and 11.9% (Garcinia huillensis), the highest and lowest pH values were
6.01(B. petersiana) and 2.18 (Vangueria infausta), respectively. The highest
ascorbic acid contents occurred in Adansonia digitata (179.1mg/100g fw) and
B.thonningii (70.6mg/100g FW). The ascorbic acid content of the other species
ranged from 6.2 (Diospyros kirkii) to 39.8mg/100g FW (Annona senegalensis).
21
Campbell, (1987) had revealed the importance of wild edible fruits of
Zimbabwe used in most of the households. Fruit use occured mainly in the
periods of seasonal food stress even though these seasons may not be the
periods of maximum fruit abundance and there is significant trade in wild fruit.
Biologically active compounds could contribute to health promotion on
a large scale. Therefore it is getting more important to know how much of these
are consume from fruits. Fruits contain valuable inner-constant materials like
acids, sugar, phenolic compounds, mineral elements and other compounds with
antioxidant capacity. Experiments were done on strawberry, raspberry, red and
black currant, blackberry and elderberry cultivars from fresh fruits and show
that in point of several minerals elements ther are differences between species
in most cases ( Szenthe et al., 2006).
Five different coloured sweet peppers (Capsicum annum cv.Signal),
White, green, yellow, orange and red were analysed for total carotenoids,
alpha- tocopherol, sugar (glucose, fructose and sucrose), organic acids (citric
and ascorbic acids) and antioxidant properties. The mature fruits, ‘Signal Red’,
'Signal Orange’ and ‘Signal Yellow’ contained higher carotenoids, alpha-
tocopherol, sugars and organic acids than the immature fruits, Signal Green and
Signal White. Among the matured fruits, Signal Red was the highest in total
carotenoids (9.15 mg/100g of fresh weight) while Signal Orange was the
highest in alpha-tocopherol (5.40 mg/100Gfw). Signal Red and Orange
22
contained the most sugars and organic acids. The suppression of 2, 2 azobis (2,
4-dimethylvaleronitrile) (AMVN)-induced oxidation of methyl linoleate by the
acetone extracts from the coloured sweet peppers resulted as follows: Signal
Red Signal orange Signal yellow < Signal green ~ Signal white.The order of 1,
1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activities of the
acetone extracts was similar to that of suppression of methyl linoleate
oxidation( Matsufuji et al., 2007).
There is wide awareness on the importance of antioxidants in cell
protection against free radicals constantly produced by the cell
metabolism.Ferreyra et al., (2007), carried out the antioxidant capacity and
content of the main accepted antioxidants- ascorbic acid, dehydroascorbic
acid,total phenols and anthocyanins on 10 growth stages of the strawberry
cultivar "Selva”. Antioxidant capacity in the small green stage was 27 mmol
DPPH/100g fress tissue, keeping noticeably high values in the large-green one.
Towards the white stage, antioxidant capacity reduced, to remain mostly
constant. The antioxidant capacity was higher in those stages where cell
division was more important and this parameter correlated mostly with the
contents of total phenols and ascorbic acid.
Remberg, (2006), studied the antioxidant activity in fruits and berries
with effects of cultivars and postharvest condition in Norwegian fruits and
berries on quality-related criteria. The quality-related components measured in
23
both berries (including blueberry, red raspberry and black currant) and apple
were: soluble solids, titratable acidity, sugar/acid ratio, pH, colour, firmness, L-
ascorbic acid (vitamin C), antioxidant activity (Ferric reducing ability of
plasma and oxygen radical absorbance capacity assays) and phenolic
compounds (chlorogenic acid, epicatechin, procyanidin B1 and B2, phloridzin,
quercetin 3-galactoside and cyaniding 3-galactoside).
The main N storage forms were arginine and proteins. Arginine –N
accumulated predominantly in the roots and decreased in all woody tissues
during the spring and recovered its previous levels during dormancy. Protein-N
in the bark and root cortex also decreased during spring and recovered during
dormancy (Munoz et al., 1993).
Food potentials of some selected plant species with edible fruits of the
lowland rainforest ecosystem of southwest Nigeria on chemical analysis show
that all the selected fruits contained adequate level of food nutrients required
for normal body functioning. Their protein values were discovered to be high
(above 100g/kg dry matter). All the fruits are potentially good as cheap source
of protein and other essential nutrients for the rural sector of the economy that
are facing food crisis today. Conservation strategies were recommended for the
species to avert the extinction threat on them as a result of increased pressure
on this lowland rainforest ecosystem that will make them sustainable
(Adekunle and Oyerinde, 2004).
24
Tardio et al.,(2006) complies and evaluates the ethnobotanical data
currently available on wild plants traditionally used for human consumption in
Spain.A total of 419 plant species belonging to 67 families was recorded. A list
of species, plant parts used, localization and method of consumption and
harvesting time was revealed and many wild food plants have also been used
for medicinal purpose. Until recently, many wild plants were used as dietary
supplements. However, most of this knowledge survives only in the memory of
the elderly and will probably disappear in a few decades.
A systematical procedure on traditional usage of wild, edible,
vitaminous, and aromatic plants in the nutrition of human population in Bosina
and Herzegovina detected 308 plants belonging to 73 plant families that are
being used as delicious vegetables, fruits, peer and species, in either fresh, raw
or dried condition. The majority of identified, wild edible plants may satisfy the
daily human need for elementary nutrition material, particularly those of
vitamin C and A, and for some minerals, according to the regulations of World
Health Organization (Redzic, 2006).
Attempt was made to highlight the genetic resources and importance of
wild fruits in subtropical Trans- Giri, Himachal Pradesh, India describing 28
species of wild fruit – bearing plants that have diverse uses belonging to 22
genera and 19 families found to grow in the area. Among the species, four were
recorded as endangered (Prunus persica, Prunus armeniaca, Morus alba,
25
Berberis aristata) four were vulnerable (Murraya koenigii, Myrica esculenta,
Punica granatum, Emblica officinalis, and four were rare (Phoenix sylvestris,
Pyrus serotina, Cornus capitata, Artocarpus lakoocha in the area (Vidya and
Chauhan, 2005).
Bist and Sharma,(2005) explored a germplasm and collection in Gharsa
and Nagar valleys of Kullu district and Lahaul areas of Lahaul Spiti district of
Himachal Pradesh, India. During this exploration, 20 superior selections of
wild fruits were made. The genetic resources collected were wild pomegranate
(4 accessions), walnut (4 accessions), wild peach (3 accession), wild apricot (4
accession), wild persimmon (2 accessions), prunes (2 accession) and peach×
almond natural hybrid (1 accession).
Fruits of indigenous wild fruit species play an important role in the diet
of people in the savanna belt, especially during famines and food shortages.
They are well adapted to the local environment but of low-to- medium market
quality and productivity. The availability of land and water resources in a
diversity of climatic zones provides Sudan with a vast potential to produce
many tropical subtropical fruits (Gebauer and Osman, 2004).
Protein concentration and activities of the enzymes in the extracts of
ripe Uapaca kirkiana, Zizphus mauritiana, Tamarindus indica and Berchemia
discolor fruits of Zimbabwe were determined. The protein concentration in the
26
enzyme extracts ranged from 0.822.17 to 1.970.13 mg/ml .Optimum pH of the
enzyme ranged from 4.5 to 5 and optimum temperature from 25 to 37 degrees
C (Muchuweti et al., 2005).
Several wild fruits have a twin value of food and medicine and the
economically weaker section of the Meena tribe were found to be largely
dependent upon the wild plants (Meenaskhi et al., 2003)
Pulps of 28 wild fruits from Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India, were
analysed for their total soluble solids (TSS), acidity,ascorbic acid .The data
showed that Diospyros pyrrhocarpa (22%), Artocarpus integrifolia(21%) and
Annona reticulate (21%) had high TSS. The fruits showed a wide range of
acidity and a low value (0.06%) was recorded in Gnetum gnemon and
Muntingia calabura (0.16%). The highest total sugar were recorded in Annona
reticulate (18.18%), D. pyrrhocarpa (18.18%) and M.calabura (14.28%).
Majority of these fruits were rich in ascorbic acid and the highest value was
recorded in Artocarpus integrifolia (176mg per 100g), (Singh et al., 2001)
Zizyhpus mauritiana Lam. is a wild fruit tree, which is widespread in the
Sahel region of Africa. Its fruits are traditionally harvested from wild stands
and make up a sizeable part of the income of many rural households; they are
eaten either fresh or dried. They have a high content of sugar, vitamin C,
27
calcium and iron. These fruit represent a very important nutritional contribution
for populations of arid zones (Danthu et al., 2002).
According to Ravi, (1999) wild pomegranate fruits are a potential source
of anardana (dried aril). This species may have commercial potential due to the
abundance of wild fruits and the fact that it is well adapted to adverse soil
conditions and could be grown on wastelands. Well-ripened wild pomegranates
from Kodapani, Jammu and Kashmir, India, were sampled and data on the
physicochemical characteristics of the fruits are tabulated and compared with
those of Punica granatum cultivar Kandhari. The wild pomegranate had high
acidity (6.41% compared with 1.02% for Kandhari).
Ko et al., (1998) tabulated data on the carbohydrate composition of the
fruit pulp of 58 species collected in Hong Kong.
The fruits of Pyrus pashia, Cornus capitata, Berberis asiatica, B.
aristata, B. lycium, B. chitria and B. osmastonii, which are eaten raw by local
Himalayan people were analysed and the highest contents of crude protein
(10.56%), K (1.86%) and Ca (0.78%) were recorded in the ripe fruits of
B.asiatica, C.capitata fruits contained the most crude fibre (13.92%) and
soluble carbohydrate (47.86%). Fruits of B.aristata contained the most
moisture (48.15%) and Mg (0.73%), B.chitria the most crude fat (8.02%),
28
B.osmastonii the most ascorbic acid (8.3 mg per g) and organic matter
(95.05%) and B. lycium the most P (0.33%) (Rawat et al., 1994).
Joya and Barua (2002) prepared a value based product-jelly from
indigenous carambola fruit (Averrhoa carambola) to evaluate its quality
changes during storage. The jelly was stored for 6 months at room temperature
and the quality parameters were evaluated at monthly interval. An increasing
trend was observed in percent reducing sugars and percent total sugars. The
ascorbic acid, percent non-reducing sugar and percent acidity showed
decreasing trend during extended storage.
An experiment was conducted to assess the quality of pomegranate
cultivars (Eichakdana, Jalore seedless, Ganesh, Khog, Muskut seedless and
Basin seedless) and their crosses (Eichakdana × Jalore seedless, Jalore seedless
× Ganesh, Khog × Jalore seedless, Ganesh × khog, Muskut seedless × Ganesh
and Khog × Ganesh), grown under Jodhpur (Rajasthan, India) conditions. Data
were collected for fruit moisture, acidity, ascorbic acid, sugar content. Khog ×
Ganesh gave the highest ascorbic acid content (29.41mg/100g).Basin seedless
gave the highest moisture content (82.2%) and acidity (2.91%). Eichakdana ×
Jalore seedless and Muskut seedless × Ganesh gave the highest reducing sugar
(14.86%) and total sugar (15.46%) contents (Dheeraj and Meena, 2003).
29
Kannan and Thirumaran, (2003) also studied the physico-chemical
changes during ripening of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.) fruits on the plant
and in storage which revealed that the fruit ripening had significant effects on
the physicochemical characteristics of ber fruits.
Fruit characteristics were evaluated during 1998-2000 in 12 pawpaw
cultivars (Co-1, Co-2, Co-3, Co-4, Co-5, Co-6, Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Delicious,
Pusa Giant,Pusa Majesty, Coorg Honey Dew and Honey Dew) grown in
Jharnapani, Nagaland, India by Naresh and Anamika (2002) that result Honey
Dew fruits were characterized by greatest total sugar (12.450%), reducing
sugar (11.570%) and non-reducing sugar (0.880%) contents, acidity (0.100%).
And Co-5 fruits had the highest ascorbic acid content (71.860 mg/100g).
Wu et al., (2003) analysed sugar and acid contents in a group of 22
peach and 85 nectarine genotypes, which were grouped into 75 white-flesh and
32 yellow–flesh genotypes.
A field experiment was conducted in Hisar, Haryana, India during 1998-
99 to determine the response of ber (Zizyphus mauritiana) cv.Umran to foliar
applications of urea (1.2 and 3%), zinc sulfate (0.25, 0.5, and 1%), potassium
sulfate (0.5,1 and 1.5%), borax (0.25, 0.5 and 1%), NAA (10, 20 and 40 ppm)
and ascorbic acid (10, 25 and 50ppm). The highest total soluble sugars and
lowest acidity was recorded in ber sprayed with 1.5% potassium sulfate.
30
Spraying with 50ppm ascorbic acid resulted in the highest ascorbic acid content
and soluble and total proteins, and lowest reducing sugar content. (Rajpal et al.,
2002).
A study was conducted in 1994 in Rajasthan, India, to determine the
effect of various nitrogen rates (0, 350, 500, 740g/plant) on the quality
characters of pomegranate fruit. TSS was not affected by the N rates. The TSS
was highest in the control fruits (17.6%) and was slightly lower in the fruits
treated with 250, 500, and 750 g N (17.5, 17.4 and 17.4%, respectively). The
pH and acidity of the juice increased significantly with the increasing N rates
upto 750g/plant. Sugar (total, reducing and non-reducing) increased linearly as
the N rate increased upto 500g/plant. The reducing sugar percentage was quite
high, as this fraction constituted ~ 92-95% of total sugars. N at 500g/plant
recorded the maximum sugar content. (Prasad and Mali, 2003).
Prunus davidiana (Carr.), a wild species with poor fruit quality that is
related to peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch], is used as a source of resistance
to pests and diseases in peach breeding programs. Two genotype of
P.davidiana were studied for fruit biochemical composition and compared to
three genotypes of P.persica (Summergrand, Bailey and Pamirskij), and two P.
persica × P. davidiana hybrids. Fruit of P. davidiana clones had higher malic
acid, neochlorogenic and cryptochlorogenic acid and lower sucrose
concentrations than fruit of all P. persica genotype, even poor-quality Bailey.
31
Differences in biochemical composition could be related to sensory evaluation.
P. persica × P. davidiana hybrids had intermediate values between their
parents for neochlorogenic acid concentration. They were similar to the
P.persica parent for total soluble sugar, malic acid and citric acid, amino acid
and catechin concentrations, indicating possible rapid progress for fruit quality
in a breeding program (Moing et al., 2003).
Waseem et al., (2002) determine the physical and chemical
characteristics of fruits of litchi cultivars Purbi, Bedana, Bombai, Serai and
Gola, picked from the upper and lower half portions of trees growing under the
agro-climatic conditions of Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan. Among the cultivars,
Purbi recorded the highest pH (40.6), vitamin C content (56.19mg/100g pulp),
total sugars (10.95%), reducing sugar content (6.58%) and total soluble solids
(13.48%). Bedana and Bombai recorded the highest total acidity (1.99%) and
non-reducing sugar content (4.50%), respectively. Differences in the values for
total acidity; total soluble; total sugars and vitamin C, reducing sugar and non-
reducing sugar content of fruits from the lower and upper half was higher
compared to thar of fruits from the upper half. On the other hand, pH of fruits
from the upper half was higher than that of fruits from the lower half of the
tree.
Field and pot experiments were conducted at Agricultural College and
Research Institute, Killikulam situated in Tirunelveli District of Tamil Nadu
32
State, India, during November 1999-March 2000 to study the possibility of
substitution of N with organic N source, viz., farmyard manure (FYM),
perssmud, fish meal, pig manure and poultry manure to get superior quality
fruits of tomato (var. PKM-1). Urea was taken for comparison. Application of
organic N sources at both levels increased pH, TSS, titratable acidity, reducing
and non-reducing sugar, crude protein and ascorbic acid content of tomato over
no mature (control). Among the different organic N sources, application of
recommended dose of N in the form of poultry manure recorded higher pH,
TSS, titratable acidity, reducing sugar, non-reducing sugar, crude protein and
ascorbic acid content in tomato fruits in both the experiments (Prabakaran and
Pitchai, 2002).
Pre-harvest foliar spray of Zinc (0.2, 0.4 and 0.6%), boron(0.05, 0.10
and 0.15%) and their combination significantly increased the physicochemical
characteristics of pineapple fruits namely, fruit weight, fruit growth, fruit
volume, pulp weight juice content including TSS,reducing sugar, non–reducing
sugar, total sugar, acidity, ascorbic acid and TSS acid ratio. Spraying with
0.6% zinc or its combination with boron at 0.15% significantly influenced the
fruit size (Kar et al., 2002).
Rudreshappa et al., (2000) conducted experiment in Dharwad,
Karnataka, India, in 1997 and 1998 to evaluate the performance of seven
Zizyphus mauritiana cultivars (Kadaka, Chhuhar, Salnaur-2, Dandan, Salnaur-
33
6, Jogia-Mundia, and Umran). Jolgia- Munda produced the tallest plants
(5.60m) while Salnaur-6 showed the highest number of primaries (82.08). The
highest yield (137.65 and 118.45 quintals/ha) and total fruit soluble sugar
content (22.15 and 19.81%) were recorded for Dandan and Umran.
Liu et al., (2000) discusses the difference in N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe,
Mn, Cu, soluble sugar contents of sweet persimmon (Diospyros kaki) fruits
during fruit development.
Berry quality ,coloration and sugar accumulation pattern were examined
in 6 cultivars of grape (Vitis labruscana) during ripening.Considerable drops of
berry firmness (<10N) and titratable acidity (0.5%) were found at the ripening
stage.Total levels of anthocyanin content among the cultivars were different,
the concentration of anthocyanin sharply increased coinciding with the sugar
accumulation in berries showing high correlation (r = 0.956, p<0.01) with
maturity index (brix/acid) regardless of cultivars. Correlations between colour
index for red grape (CIRG) and sugar/acid ratio were found in cultivars
including ‘Camphell Early’ (r = 0.802, p < 0.05), ‘Kyoho’ (r =0.853, p< 0.01),
and Heukguseul’ (r = 0.832, p < 0.05). Sugar analysis of extractable juice by
HPLC revealed that cultivars such as ‘Delaware’, ‘Campbell Early’, ‘Kyoho’,
‘Heukguseul’, and ‘MBA’ belonged to reducing sugar accululating group at
maturity and ‘Sheidan’ showed sucrose accumulation one. The rapid
accumulation of glucose at ripening resulted in the increase of glucose/fructose
34
ratio. These characteristic patterns of sugar accumulation may have a potential
for the development as objective ripening index. (Matsumoto et al., 2007)
Titratable acidity, and pulp, sugar, ascorbic acid and beta- carotene
contents were evaluated in fruits of wild cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica)
sampled from major wholesale markets Sana’a and Taiz cities in Yemen during
the summer of 2000. Mean values of pulp yields and chemical components did
not significantly vary among fruit samples obtained from wholesale market in
both the cities. The pulp yields of fruits obtained from wholesale markets were
~ 62%. The total and reducing sugar contents were ~ 9 and 8% respectively.
Ascorbic acid and beta- carotene were present in moderate levels having
14.70mg/100g and 334.00 mg/100g, respectively (Ghaleb et al., 2003)
Rumee and Kartik (2006) carried out experiment in Jorhat, Assam,
India, during 2000-01 to study the performance of 3 commercial banana
cultivars namely Jahaji (AAA), Barjahaji (AAA) and Malbhog (AAB) under
different input conditions. Nine treatment combinations consisting of 3
cultivars were imposed. The quality characters were significantly affected by
both cultivars and input levels. The highest total soluble solids (TSS, 21.90%),
reducing sugar (10.03%), total sugar (19.50%) and TSS: acidity ratios (77.59)
were recorded under high level, but the reverse trend was observed in the case
of titratable acidity. Though Malbhog had the highest TSS (21.77%), titratable
acidity (0.40%) and reducing sugar (10.16%), it had the lowest TSS: acidity
35
ratio. Jahaji had the highest TSS: acidity ratio (77.39). Jahaji performed best
for producing quality fruits under high input level.
Chatterjee et al., (2005) determined the physico- chemical characters of
13 mango hybrids grown in the agro-climatic condition of Sabour, Bhagalpur,
Bhiar, India. The highest stone/pulp ratio (4.63) was observed in Langra. The
highest (25.00%) total soluble solid (TSS) was recorded in Amrapali and the
lowest (18.43%) in Neelgoa. The maximum acidity (0.265%) was obtained in
Neelashan and the minimum (0.170%) in Prabhashankar. The highest ascorbic
acid (42.82g/100g) was recorded in Langra and the lowest (19.13g/100g) in
Alfali. Reducing sugar was highest (6.77%) in Sunder Lanra and the lowest
(4.15%) in Mahmud Bahar. Amarpali was superior to all hybrids than the
control in terms of non-reducing sugar (13.99%). The highest total sugar
content (19.86%) was recorded in Amarpali and the lowest (13.93%) in
Mahmud Bahar.
Yadav et al., (2005) evaluated fruit quality in 10 Zizyphus mauritiana
cultivars. Fruit pH varied from 4.1(Mundia Murehra) to 5.2 (Chuhhara).
Generally, higher concentration of total soluble solids (TSS) was recorded for
Safed Rohtak (20.2%). The total sugar (10.03%), reducing sugar (3.62%) and
non reducing sugar (6.41%) contents were highest in Chuhhara. Seb was
superior in terms of taste, flavor, general appearance, flesh colour and texture.
Pulp pH was negatively correlated with sugar content. TSS was negatively
36
correlated with reducing sugar content. Total sugar, reducing sugar and
nonreducing contents were positively correlated.
Mokbel (2005) extracted tissues from Buntan (Citrus grandis Osbeck)
with hexane, ethyl acetate (EtOAc), n-butanol and methanol (MeOH). The
highest concentration of antioxidant activity of the n-butanol extracts as
evaluated using 2, 2,-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH). After column
chromatographic (CC) separation of this crude extract with silica gel column,
three fractions (Fr. A, B and Fr. C) of the crude extract were obtained from the
eluents of CH2C12: EtOAc: MeOH (0:9:1, 0:7-5:1 and 0:1:1), gradually.
Among them, Fr.B and Fr.C showed better antioxidant activity by using DPPH
antioxidant assay. Those fractions were further purified by preparative
TLC(PTLC) and the main constituents were find to be glycoside,
monosaccharide and glycosides exhibited exceptional DPPH free radical
scavenging and beta- carotene methods, whereas the identified sucrose, glucose
and fructose possess less antioxidant activity.
Ramesh (2005) evaluated fruit quality during 2000 and 2001 in 4
cultivars (Allision, Abbot, Bruno and Monty) of Chinese gooseberry (Actinida
deliciosa) grown in Tadong, Sikkim, India. Bruno recorded the greatest fruit
length (6.88cm), weight (71.69g), volume (78.78 cm3), juice content
(18.20ml), reducing sugar content (7.02%), and sugar/acid ratio (6.32). Fruit
diameter and nonreducing sugar content were greatest in Allison (4.00 cm and
37
1.22%, respectively), whereas fruit firmness was greater in Allison, Abbott and
Monty (7.00, 7.41 and 8.00 kg/cm2). The highest fruit ascorbic acid content
was recorded for Monty (121.31 mg/100g), whereas the highest total sugar
contents were registered for Allison (7.65%) and Bruno (7.87%). Specific
gravity did not significantly vary among the cultivars (0.95-1.02).
Ripe fruits from litchi (Litchi chinensis) cultivars GTL-48, Rose Scented
and Shahi were analysed for various physicochemical parameters. Fruit weight
was greatest in Shahi (18.61) and lowest in GTL-48 (15.55g). The greatest fruit
diameter was recorded for GTL-48 (3.35cm). Shahi fruits had the greatest peel
content (17.21%), pulp titratable acidity (0.526%), and reducing sugar (9.2%)
and nonreducing sugar (6.01%) contents. Rose Scented had the greatest pulp
content (71.11%), ascorbic acid content (34.7mg/100g) and total sugar content
(13.28%), and lowest pulp titratable acidity (0.526%). The TSS (total soluble
solid) content was highest in GTL-48 (17.76%) and nonreducing sugar (4.21%)
contents (Ram et al., 2005).
Sugar and organic acids in the aril of litchi (Litchi chinensis) were
analysed by HPLC. The high repeatability and recovery values suggested that
HPLC was highly efficient in the detection of organic acids and soluble
sugars.The contents of reducing sugar, organic acids and reduced ascorbic acid
in mature fruits of 2 litchi cultivars (Feizixiao and Nuomici) from Guangdong,
China, were analysed. Glucose, fructose and sucrose were the predominant
38
sugars in the aril. Feizixiao accumulated a higher amount of reducing sugar
than sucrose, whereas Nuomici accumulated a higher amount of sucrose than
reducing sugar. The dominant organic acids were tartaric acid and malic acid.
The ascorbic acid content of the aril of Feizixiao was higher than that of
Nuomici by 2- fold (Hu et al., 2005).
Anwar et al., (2005) studied the performance of twenty sweet orange
varieties under the soil and climatic conditions of Agricultural Research
Institute, Tarnab and Peshawar during 2002 and 2003. Data were recorded on
physic-chemical properties of fruits. Musambi contains highest non-reducing
sugar (6.4%), reducing sugar (6.47%) and total sugar of (13.21%).
The constituents of the fruits of 3 tamarind cultivars were studied .Ziton,
Bargeton and Zichupoton had a total suagr content of 45.90-50.26% , reducing
sugar content of 33.66-46.94%, Vc [ascorbic acid] content of 0.33-0.87% , and
Ca content of 1.2-2.0mg/ g. The percentage of essential amino acids relative to
the total amino acids reached 27.68-45.85%. The results suggest that tamarind
fruits can be used for the production of food and beverage. Zhao et al., (2005).
Grewia coriacea is a widespread plant species that occurs spontaneously
in tropical forests of Central Africa. It is one of the most important commercial
spontaneous fruits crops in the Republic of Congo (Brazzaville), where it is
harvested,sold and consumed on a rather large scale.However, similar to many
39
other spontaneous products of the tropical rain forest in Africa, G.coriacea
remains poorly studied and its nutritional potential is unknown.Because the
G.coriacea is an important food for indigenous people in a large portion of the
Congo River Basin, the contents of various pigments, and the concentrations of
soluble sugars, ascorbic acid and soluble protein of the fruit pulp of G.coriacea
were analyzed in the laboratory. Increasing applied to the soluble sugars
(9, 9mg/g up to75, 4mg/g), ascorbic acid (25mg/100g upto 230mg/100g) and
soluble proteins (7mg/g upto 40mg/g).The study shows that the studied fruits
have high nutritional potentials, and that their ability to accumulate rather high
levels of ascorbic acid could make them a potential source of vitamin C.
(Attibayeba et al., 2007).
Diaz et al., ( 2007) determined the chemical compositions ( moisture,
degree brix, total fibre, protein, fat, ash, pH, acidity, ascorbic acid, total
phenolics, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Ni and Cr) in fruits belonging to
two species of prickly pear, Opuntia ficus indica and Opuntia dillenii, from
Tenerife Island. The chemical compositions of the two species were clearly
different. However, no important differences were observed between orange
and green prickly pears within the specie O. ficus indica. An important
contribution to the intakes of fibre, ascorbic acid, Mn, Cr and total phenolics is
provided by the consumption of prickly pears, particularly from fruits of
O.dillenii. Applying factor and/or discriminant analysis, the prickly pear
40
samples were differentiated according to the species, altitude and region of
cultivation in the island.
Fruit, vegetable and antioxidant intakes may reduce the risk of several
insulin-like growth factors (IGF)-related chronic diseases, such as certain types
of cancers and cardiovascular diseases.Plasma IGF-I and IGFBP-3
concentrations were measured in 1542 healthy women by enzyme–linked
immunosorbent assay. A self-administration semiquantative food- frequency
questionnaire was used to estimate mean daily dietary intakes of fruit,
vegetables, and antioxidants over the year preceding blood sampling.
Multivariate analyses were performed by using generalized linear models to
evaluate the association of quintiles of daily intakes with concentrations of
growth factors. A higher intake of citrus fruit was associated with the higher
concentrations of IGF-I (215ng/ml for quintiles 5 compared with 205ng/ml for
quintiles 1; P for trend = 0.04) and with lower concentrations of IGFBP-3
(4803ng/ml for quintiles 5 compared with 4960ng/ml/ for quintiles 1; P for
trend = 0.04). Higher dietary vitamin C intake was associated with higher
concentrations of IGF-I (214ng/ml for quintiles 5 compared with 204 ng/ml for
quintiles 1; P for trend = 0.02) and lower concentrations of IGFBP-3 (4813
ng/ml for quintiles 5 compared with 4953ng/ml for quintiles1; P for trend =
0.03). Total intake of fruit and vegetables and intakes of other botanical fruits
and vegetable subgroups, beta-carotene, and lycopene were not related to either
41
IGF-I or IGFBP-3 concentrations. Women with higher intakes of citrus fruit or
dietary vitamin C tend to have higher plasma concentrations of IGF-I and lower
plasma concentrations of IGFBP-3, (Cong et al., 2006).
Owolarafe et al., (2006) studied the physical and chemical properties of
Spondias mombin an underexploited fruit. The moisture content, ash, crude
fibre, crude protein, cardohydrate and ether extract were 85.0, 0.53, 0.30, 0.93,
13.1 and 0.11%, respectively .The total soluble solids (TSS) content was 4.6.
The vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content was 38m/g/100g while the ph was 5.6.
The oxalate (1.4 mg/100g) composition was low. The essential amino acids
contents, ranged from 0.88 to 14.4g/16Gn. The high moisture, vitamin C,
essential amino acids and TSS contents with very low anti-nutritional oxalate
content suggested that the fruit can be a good source for beverage juice.
Soluble sugar, organic acid, vitamin C [ascorbic acid], total carotene,
protein, starch, tannic acid, amino acid are important indices of the nutritive
values levels of fruits, which have guiding functions on the development and
utilization of the cultivar. The content of the above elements was determined
and synthetically analysed, using Prunus divaricata (from Xinjing, China) as
the experimental, material. The result indicate that Fengchandaguo 001
contained higher protein, vitamin C and tannic acid; Dujiahuanggou 33
contained abundant carotene, soluble sugar, starch and amino acid; and
Fengchanguo 002 and Majintanggou 31 contained higher content of and
42
various types of organic acids the human body needs. Prunus divaricata fruits
contain high nutritive components and have extensive application and
development prospects (Qiman et al., 2005).
Khasbagan et al., (2006) analysed the nutritional components in dry
fruits of Lonicera caerulea var. eduli, collected from Hulun Buir of Inner
Mongolia. Dry fruits mainly contained sugar (243.40mg/g), crude protein
(87.49mg/g), crude fat (86.30mg/g), riboflavin (0.543mg/g), nicotinamide
(2.809mg/g), retinol (4.66×10-3mg/g), carotene (1.661mg/g), essential amino
acids (22.97mg/g). Fruits also contained ascorbic acid, thiamin, K, Na, Ca, Mg,
P and other nonessential amino acids.
The nutritive values of fruits of four cultivars (Dashehari, Langra,
Chausa and Lucknow Safed) of mango, 3 (Sardar, Sangam and Allahabad
Safeda) of guava and 2 (Calcuttia and Rose scented) of litchi (Litchi chinensis),
grown in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India, were assessed during 2003-04. The fruit
quality of mango was the best with the highest total soluble solid and sugar
content, followed by litchi. Guava was relatively poor in this respect, but it was
significantly the richest source of vitamin, pectin and iron. Litchi was a fair
source of Ca, while mango and guava were poor in Ca (Vinata et al., 2005).
Ten apricot cultivars from north China were compared with 20 cultivars
from South Xinjiang, China for different nutritive components: sacrocarp total
suagr, total organic acid, ascorbic acid, water soluble solids, water –insoluble
43
solids, kernel fat and other fruit characters. Xinjiang cultivars showed higher
sugar content than north China cultivars, with sugar acid rario of 13.34 (1.5
times higher than north China cultivars). Ascorbic acid, water insoluble solids
and kernel proteins varation was not significant among geographical places, but
significant among cultivars Xinjiang apricots showed smaller fruits and the
weight is15g lower than those of north China cultivars, but Xinjiang cultivars
showed high soluble solids content (4% higher than north China cultivars) (
Zhang et al., 2006).
Laurocerasus officinalis Roem is a summer fruit highly characteristic of
the Black Sea region. The edible parts of the fruit were tested for chemical
composition and antioxidant properties. Total moisture, ash, protein, sugar,
pectin, ascorbic acid, phenolic, and mineral contents of the fruit were
determined. The antioxidant activity of the fruit was investigated using TLC
plate and ferric thiocyanate methods. Its antioxidative character was also tested
utilizing hydroxyl, DPPH, and superoxide radical scavenging activity
measurements, using BHT, vitamin C, and Trolox as references. Besides being
a good source of nutrients, L.oficinalis was found to provide a rich source of
protective antioxidant compounds. Its antioxidant and radical scavenging
activities were comparable to or higher than those of the reference antioxidants.
It appeared to have high mineral content. The concentrations of macroelements
K, Mg, Ca, and Na were high at 221510.5, 17911, 15730.8 and 550.3 mg/kg,
44
respectively, and the concentrations of trace elements Mn, Fe, Zn, and Cu were
24.21.3, 8.30.8, 1.90.2, and 0.80.1mg/kg, respectively. In addition, the fruit
showed very low contents of Pb, Ni, Co, and Cr, below the detection limits,
which is considered to be a good foof quality. As it is a rich source of protein,
sugar, ascorbic acid, minerals, and antioxidants, L.officinalis is well worth
further studies regarding its components possessing important health benefits
and inclusion in the daily diet (Kolayli et al., 2003).
A study was conducted to develop value added products from papaya
fruit to provide maximum return to growers and proper utilization of the fruits
to avoid glut in the market. The product was prepared with pulp (1kg), sugar
(1.25 or 1.80kg) and citric acid (25 or 28kg). Results showed that acidity,
ascorbic acid contents and total soluble solids, sugar content and reducing
sugars were increased. Different sugar levels influenced the colour and
appearance of the papaya squash. With an increase in sugar content, the colour
of the pigments available in the fruit produced better appearance due to
condensation of the sugar and phenols with carotenoids (Saravanan et al.,
2004).
Research work by Kulkarni and Aradhya, (2005) describes the major
chemical changes and antioxidant activity and their significant during
development of pomegranates. Pomegranates arils showed a significant (p < =
0.05) increase in total soluble solids, total sugar and reducing sugar contents up
45
to 100 days of fruit development, followed by a steady-state in their rate of
accumulation. Significant (p < = 0.05) decreases of 76.2% and 71.1% in the
concentration of ascorbic acid and total phenolics, respectively, were recorded
from 20 to 100 days of fruit development. The equilibrium concentration of
these chemicals on the 100th day marked the attainment of optimum maturity
and onset of ripening of pomegranate fruit. After an initial rapid decrease (by
66.9%) in total protein content, pomegranate arils showed a significant (p < =
0.05) increase (by 58.7%) during the late – developmental stages (80-120
days). The high antioxidant activity (71.2%) of arils recorded in 20-day-old
fruit decreased significantly (by 13%) up to 60 day, concomitant with a
decrease in ascorbic acid and total phenolics by 68.4% and 63.9%,
respectively. An increase in antioxidant activity by 10.6% in the late
developmental stage was due to a build up of anthocyanins. The trend in
accumulation and depletion of the above mentioned chemicals marked the
different stages of fruit development, maturity and onset of ripening. A
significant decrease in acidity was found to be the major chemical factor for
increased incidence of internal browning in over-ripe fruits.
The development and ripening of 15-year-old guava cv. Lucknow-49
trees were studied in a field experiment conducted in Hisar, Haryana, India
during the winter of 1999-2001 and rainy season of 2000. Total soluble sugar,
total sugar, reducing sugar and ascorbic acid contents increased throughout the
46
development and ripening of the fruits, with the values of the parameters
measured being higher during the winter compared to the rainy season. Protein
content was highest 30 days after fruit set and lowest at harvesting. (Hegde and
Chharia, 2004).
A study was carried out during 2000 and 2001 to investigate the
behavior and different physicochemical fruit characters of some commonly
grown apricots cultivars/landraces, i.e. Halman, Raktesy Karpo, Narmo,
Tokpapa, Khantey Chulli, Afgani Selection and Koban, in Ladakh, Jammu and
Kashmir, India. Raktsey Karpo and Koban was the first and last, respectively,
to initiate flowering. On an average, a flowering span of 18.5-27.5 days was
recorded with a fruit set range of 57.5-80.0% under open pollination. Weight of
fruit, stone and kernel, shelling percentage, total soluble solids, titratable
acidity, reducing sugar, nonreducing sugar and total sugar ranged from 8.3 to
40.7g, 1.2 to 3.1g, 0.4 to 0.9g, 29.03 to 37.50%, 13.5 to 20.0%, 0.2 to 1.7%, 1.5
to 2.8%, 6.8 to 13.5% and 8.8 to 16.5%. Biswajit et al., (2004).
A study was conducted to evaluate the performance of three late
maturing plum cultivars (Warwickshire Dropper, Green Gage and Grand Duke)
in Jammu and Kashmir, India. Green Gage attained the maximum tree height
(5.25m) and trunk girth (7.5cm), while Warwickshire Dropper obtained the
minimum height, trunk girth and tree volume with the maximum fruit yield
(10.9kg/trees). The maximum fruit and peel weight, reducing sugar content,
47
total sugar content and the maximum total soluble solids content and flowering
to harvest period (135 days) were recorded in Warwickshire Dropper
(Srivastava et al., 2005).
Blackberries are an excellent source of natural antioxidants. Fully
ripened fruits of ‘Apache’, ‘Apache’, ‘Chester,’ ‘Loch Ness,’ ‘Navaho’ and
‘Triple Crown’ thornless blackberries were evaluated for their physicochemical
and antioxidative activity. There were no consistent differences in initial pH,
titratable acidity, total soluble sugar and TSS/TA ratio values. Differences
among cultivars with respect to reduced ascorbic acid were established, but
there were no differences in either oxidized ascorbic acid or total ascorbic acid
content. The antioxidant activity as determined by ABTS radical cation
procedure for fractionated crude fruit extracts varied in response to parameters
evaluated. Hydrophilic antioxidant activity was not different among cultivars
evaluated. In contrast, differences were found in lipophilic antioxidant activity
and total antioxidant activity (Thomas et al., 2005).
Guo et al., (2004) investigated the seasonal changes in the carbohydrate
content and enzyme activity in the fruits and leaves of peach cv. Yanfengyihao.
The reducing sugar content in the fruits and leaves decreased during the early
fruit development stage, while that of non-reducing sugars increased. Reducing
sugar content remained low during mid- and late stages of fruit development.
Sucrose, glucose and fructose contents were significantly higher in fruits than
48
in leaves during fruit development. Sucrose content in the fruits increased from
the beginning to the end of the fruit development. Glucose and fructose
contents decreased in the fruit during the early stages of fruit development and
remained low. The seasonal evaluation of sorbitol content in leaves first
decreased and then maintained a low stable level. A significantly positive
correlation was observed between fructose activity and the activities of neutral
invertase (beta-furctofuranoside), sucrose synthase (SS) and succinate
dehydrogenase (SDH); and between glucose content and SS and SDH activities
in the fruit. A significantly positive correlation between glucose content and
SDH activity, and a negative correlation between fructose content and SS
activity and ADGPPase activities in leaves were observed. Sucrose content was
negatively correlated with the activity of sucrose- phosphate synthase (SPS) in
leaves, but no correlation was found between sucrose content and SPS in the
fruit.
The biochemical and mineral compositions of the raw juice extracted
from M.citrifolia fruits were determined by Chunhieng and Montet, (2005) to
understand the medicinal characteristics of the noni fruit cultivated in
Cambodia. The oil, fatty acid, protein, amino acid, sugar and mineral contents
of juices were analysed.The composition of noni juice of various origins was
determined, compared, and discussed in relation to the biochemical and mineral
composition of other vegetable oils. The biochemical composition of the noni
49
juice, which showed a high content of antioxidant molecules, is not sufficient
to explain the medicinal effects of noni juice.
Fruits of Choerosposdias axillaris, an indigenous fruit tree of Nepal,
were collected from fresh fruit sellers in Kathmandu and from six selected
mother trees in Central Nepal. From both the samples, the edible (peel and
pulp) and non-edible (stone) parts were separated in the laboratory. Lapsi fruit
contained 71% (w/w) of edible parts and 29% of stones.The edible part
contained 83% water, 3.4% total sugars and 6.76 % of titratable acidity.
Ascorbic acid content of the market collected samples was lower (6.7%) than
reported in earlier publication. The composition of fruit from the selected trees
varied greatly in total reducing sugar (1 to 3.3%), titratale acidity (5 to 7%),
and mineral content. Lapsi fruits were also rich in potassium (355.1 mg per
100g), calcium (57 mg per 100g), and magnesium (34 mg per 100g). Highest
values for sugar, acidity and potassium were found with KCP-205 (Paudel et
al., 2002).
Lin et al., (2002) studied the chemical composition from fruits and seeds
of Ligustrum lucidum Ait and found that mineral and total sugar contents of the
fruits were relatively high.
50
Yuan et al., (1998) presented data showing the nutritional component
(water, ash, fibre, protein and sugar) and mineral composition of fruits of
Zizyphus mauritiana.
Fei et al., (1994) carried out study to clarify and compare the chemical
compositions of the fruits of 4 non- astringent, Japanese persimmon cultivars
and 2 local astringent cultivars. Sugar, protein, vitamin, mineral element and
ash content were determined. The ascorbic acid concentration of Jiro was
121.49 mg/100g FW, which was 2.45 times that of the astringent cultivar
Fangshi. But two pollination variant, non-astringent cultivars, Zenjinaru and
Nishimura Wase, had much lower ascorbic acid concentration than the others.
The content of trace elements such as Fe, Zn, Se, were noticeably higher in
non-astringent cultivars.
Plant of mulberry (Morus nigra cv. Pakistan) were propagated by
budding on Japanese mulberry seedlings. Trees were cultivated under saline
soil conditions in northern Cairo, Egypt, during 1998-99. Fruit contained
10.2% carbohydrates, 1.4% protein and 1.2% fibres. Fruits were found to be a
good source of iron, potassium, calcium and phosphrous. Fruits contained a
medium level of vitamin C. Ripe fruits could not survive more than 5 days of
storage at room temperature, but survived 3 weeks of cold storage ( El Obeidy,
2005).
51
Fourteen wild edible berries, fruits, roots, and nuts consumed by the
Khasi tribe of Meghalaya were botanically identified and analyzed for their
nutrient contents in terms of macronutrients, minerals and vitamins. The study
revealed that Coix lachrymal jobi, a nut, was rich in protein (13.3g%).
Castanopsis indica a nut, contained good amount of calcium (1540mg%),
Kaempfaria galangal a root, considerable amount of iron (69.91mg%) and
zinc (8.4mg%), and Vangeria spinosa, a fruit, a good amount of zinc
(23.0mg%). The berry Solanum indicum contained 826.4mg% of vitamin C
(608.9mg%). It can be concluded that the wild edible eaten by the Khasi are a
good source of nutrients, and considering their low cost and easy availability,
need to be popularized and recommended for commercial exploitation
(Agrahar and Subbulakshmi 2005).
Ambarella (Spondias cytherea Sonn.) belong to Anacardiaceae family.
The round or oval- shaped fruits were analysed for some physical and chemical
changes at three different maturity stages. The maturity stages at which
determinations were carried out are defined. The fruit length and width on
average were 5.56 and 4.26 cm, respectively. The fruits were found to contain
protein (1.76-2.33%). The pH, soluble solids and insoluble matter increased
with the maturity of the fruit. Ripe fruits were significantly less acidic than
green and half- ripe ones. Vitamin C content ranged from 4.650.27 to 5.860.73
52
mg/100g.The amount of P (3.93-4.52g/100g) was highest compared with the
other minerals, (Na, Mg, Ca and Zn) (Siti et al., 2005).
Various fruits and vegetable spices are known to provide food security
to the people in the arid zone of northeast India. Among various available arid
foods, analysis for nutritional composition and organoleptic evaluation of phog
(Calligonum polygonoides) products was carried out. The phog seeds were
found to contain 6.05g protein, 57.31g carbohydrate, 359.73 k cal energy,
3.52mg iron, 211mg calcium, 427mg phosphorus, 75.05mg sodium, 271mg
potassium and 4.30mg vitamin C on dry weight basis. Phog products like spicy
vegetable, parantha, raita, kadi and simple vegetable were also standardized
having 3.41 to 4.63 overall mean acceptability scores on five-point scale (Sarita
and Madhu, 2003).
Fruits of A. chinensis cv. Bruno at different developmental stages were
sampled in the northern region of Zheijang, China. Fruit growth was
characteristic of a double “S” curve. During fruit development, the content of
the main nutritive ingredients, such as organic acids, proteins, carbohydrates
and vitamin C, change regularly (Fu et al., 2004).
Chemical and biochemical changes were studied in ripening prickly
pears from three Opuntia morphospecies with different ripening behavior. At
fullyripe stage (commercial maturity), Blanca Cristalina showed the biggest
53
fruits, the hardest texture, and its pulp had the highest protein content. There
were no significant differences among morphospecies in ph or total soluble
solids in fully ripe fruits. The three species exhibited considerable levels of
vitamin C, dietary fibre, and mineral such as calcium iron and zinc. Protein
expression was analysed in pulp and skin from every species at physiological
and commercial maturity. Some proteins appeared at both stages, while many
others expressed differentially.This study evaluated prickly pear components
important for human nutrition and health, and provide basic information on
prickly pear ripening, with a view to its control and to improving shelf life.
(Silos et al., 2003).
Kowalski et al., (2003) determined the chemical composition of
aubergine cultivars Solara, Black Beauty and Epic, raised in an unheated
plastic tunnel in Lublin, Poland. Dry matter and ash, total protein content were
highest in Solara, whereas carbohydrate and vitamin C content, and energetic
value were highest in Black Beauty. Solara recorded the highest mean P, K, Ca,
Mg, Zn, Fe, Mn, Se and Cu content, whereas Black Beauty recorded the
highest Na content.
The juice in fruits of 21 genotypes of Japanese quince (Chaenomeles
japonica), 1 genotype of Chinese quince (C.cathayensis). 1 genotype of
flowering quince (C.speciosa) and 1 genotype of a hybrid taxon (C.x superb),
representing plant breeding material, was extracted and characterized. The
54
content of juice in the fruits varied between 41% and 52%, on fresh weight
basis. The juice was very acidic (pH 2.6 and a titratable acidity of 3.5%
calculated a anhydrous citric acid, on average) and transparent (52 NTU, on
average), with low density and viscosity. Protein constituted 26 mg per 100ml
juice on average, but no soluble polysaccharides were present. A high content
of vitamin C (59mg per 100ml juice, on average), beside the high acidity of the
juice, suggests that chaenomeles juic may be an interesting raw material as
ingredient for the food industry and a source of valuable substances (Ros et al.,
2004).
Akaniwor and Arachie, (2003) studied the nutritive values of some
fruits and seeds usually eaten raw in Nigeria.The fruits showed appreciable
amounts of moisture; pawpaw (80.244.20%), garden egg (73.463.15%), banana
(68.843.14%) and avocado pear (66.363.20) in decreasing content.The protein
content of all the fruits and seeds were not high; the highest value of 3.000.21%
was obtained for coconut. Appreciable amount of calcium and vitamin C
(13.80210% and 7.190.14%) respectively have been obtained from fruits
some.The carbohydrate content (expressed as glucose) of the fruits and seeds
also gave values ranging from 2.970.02% to 4.000.10%. The results show that
these fruits are good sources of essential nutrients particularly vitamin C which
is destroyed by high temperature.
55
The domestication of new fruits from tropical and subtropical regions of
the world holds promise to diversify and increase income and nutrition in these
regions. Many of the species have never been intensive cultivation and show
large intraspecific genetic varation. It is therefore expected that rapid
improvement in overall product quality can be achieved by simple selection. To
assist in the selection of superior individuals with a potential for wider
production and marketing, simple and quick screening method must be made
available. In the rural setting of developing countries, where malnutrition is
still prominent, the nutritional value of the fruit has ro be on of the most
important selection criteria. Selection for high-quality marula (Sclerocarya
birrea) have beenmade in the South Africa against the background of
commercial wine and liqueur production. In Kenya, where several provenances
exist, marula remains under -utilized by the local population. To develop a
selection strategy targeted at increased consumption by local communities,
fruits of 15 trees from Chyulu Hills and Mbui Nzau provenances (Makueni
District, Kenya) were collected in January 2000 and analysed for vitamin C,
sugar, starch, protein and mineral content. Vitamin C values in the pulp and
skin fraction ranged from 90 to over 300mg per 100g of fresh matter, sugar
content varied between 7 and 11% sucrose. Total acidity was around 2%, and
the embryos, consumed like nuts, contained over 50% fat. Most minerals were
present in only small amounts (Thiong et al., 2002).
56
Prickly pear (Optunia ficus indica) fruits, pulp, and seed oil (obtained
from markets in Alexandria, Egypt in July 1999) were studied in terms of fruit
technological properties, physicochemical, and chemical properties as well as
technological pulp processings to prepare jam, sheet, and paste. The results
showed that the strained pulp had a ph value of 6.12. The acidity of the pulp as
citric acid percentage was 0.19%. Chemical composition showed minor
amounts of crude protein, ether extract, crude fibre, ash and pectin, being
0.204, 0.11, 0.08, 0.42, and 0.195, respectively. Reducing sugars represented
about 97% of the total sugar (11.15%). The pulp contained fair amount of beta-
carotene (66 mg per g) and vitamin C (28mg per 100g). The different products
prepared from the strained pulp; paste, jam, and sheet were highly acceptable
by panelists (Abdel Nabey, 2001).
Teixeira et al., (2001) analysed the physical and chemical characteristics
of 6 carambola cultiuvars (Tean-ma, Fwang Tung, Arkin, Malaysia, Golden
star and Nota-10) from Sao Paulo, Brazil. Fresh weight, size, percentage juice,
residue and seed, seed numbers, and coloration were determined. pH, moisture
content, total soluble solids, total titratable acidity, vitamin C, total soluble
sugar, ash, protein total and soluble pectin, and minerals were evaluated for the
pulp. It was shown that Arkin, Tean-ma and Nota -10 were the largest, heaviest
and had the greatest total soluble solid and soluble sugar contents and a good
ratio of total souble solids to total titratable acidity.
57
Regular observation and measurement of Actilida kolomikta fruits
revealed that fruit weight and volume increased synchronously, resulting in a
double S-shaped growth curve. Regular changes in nutrient contents of fruits,
including organic acids, proteins, amino acids, carbohydrates and vitamin C
[ascorbic acid], were also observed. Nutrients in fruits were at the appropriate
level about 90 days after pollination (Cang et al., 2001).
Marula (Sclerocarya birrea) is an important indigenous fruit tree species
in semi-arid regions of southern Agfrica and the Sahelian zone and has been
commercially exploited in Botswana and South Africa. S.birrea (marula) fruits
and seeds collected from two regions in Kenya in January 1999 (Kibwezi) and
March 1999 (Kitui) were evaluated for their nutritive quality, and the results
compared with fruits from South Africa. Intial results from bulked sample from
the Kitui and Kibwezi provenances showed similar to higher values for vitamin
C, protein, important nutritional minerals and carbohydrates than values
published for fruits from Botswana, Namibia ans South Africa. The vitamin C
content of fresh fruit was 5-6 times higher than that in citrus (188 and 236mg
per 100g flesh for Kibwezi and Kitui fruits, respectively, while high value of
protein ,and minerals were obtained from nut. Fruits from both Kenyan
provenances showed significantly higher values for carbohydrates and minerals
in the fruit flesh than those of South Africa fruit. The results indicate the
possibility of commercializing this crop in Kenya (Jaenicke and Thiong, 2000).
58
Guava fruits of cv. Allahabad Safeda and Sardar harvested at different
developmental stages were analysed for their physico-chemical, biochemical
and minerals constituents. The growth of fruits followed a double sigmoid
curve.Data indicated that fruit densiy,total acidity, skin chlorophyll, skin
carotenoids, vitamin A, total pectins, crude protein, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium and sodium contents decreased; pulp pH, total tannins,
dry matter and iron contents showed marginal changes, and TSS, vitamin C,
sucrose, glucose and fructose contents increased during fruit maturation and
ripening. The fruits of Allahabad Safeda had glucose: fructose ratio below 1
and those of Sardar above 1 during maturation and ripening. Citric acid content
was the major acid together with malic, tartaric, pyruvic, succinic, fumaric,
oxaloacetic, x- ketoglutaric and malonic acids formed 71-97% of the total non-
volatile acids at various ripening stages (Sslvaraj et al., 1999).
The physicochemical properties of pineapple (cv. Kew) fruits harvested
at various dates during the winter (115-120, 135-140, 141-145, 146-150, 151-
155 or 156-160 days from flowering to harvesting or DFH) were studied. Fruits
harvested in the winter had higher TSS and ascorbic acid contents, but had
lower TSS: acid ratio, sugar: acid ratio, total sugar content and reducing sugar
content than those harvested in the summer. The reducing sugar content
increased until the full colour development stage in the winter, but increased
until the 2/3 colour development stage, and then decreased, during the summer.
59
The total sugar content increased until the full colour development stage. The
ascorbic acid content increased until 2/3 colour development stage, and then
decreased. The data suggested that the optimum harvesting time for pineapple
fruits is 5-6 days earlier in the summer than in the winter (Deka et al., 2007).
An experiment was conducted to determine selected features of the new
honeysuckle (Lonicera caerulea) cultivars Zielona. The average mass of one
fruit was 0.99g, 198g firmness, 12.65% dry weight content and total sugar
content was low (4.64g/100g mostly reducing sugar).Whereas ascorbic acid
was 42.7mg per 100g. Fruit extract showed ability of scavenging ~ 52% of
DPPH radicals. Because of low climatic agronomic requirements, early fruiting
and valuable chemical composition of the fruit, blue honeysuckle is an
interesting species both for amateur and commercial cultivation (Skupien et al.,
2007).
Kim and Park (2007) studied the sugar accumulation and related enzyme
activities of peach fruit during fruit development. Fruit growth and
development patterns of ‘Kanoiwa Hakuto’ (an early maturing cultivar),
‘Nagazawa Hakuho’ (a medium maturing cultivar), 'Yumyeong' (a late matur
ing cultivar) and ‘Changhowon Hwangdo’ (a very late maturing cultivar) were
similar. In all the cultivars, soluble solid content (SSC) increased rapidly as the
fruit matured. The contrast, titratable acidity increased gradually until pit
hardening stage, and then decreased as the fruit matured. Total soluble sugar
60
content in fruit increased with fruit maturation. The change was almost sigmoid
and mainly due to change in sucrose which was the predominant soluble sugar
in mature fruits, although initially glucose and fructose were the predominant
soluble sugar in immature stage. Activity of sucrose synthase (SS) was high in
young fruit and decreased as the fruit matured. That of SS increased again to
high level with fruit maturation in all cultivars. On the other hand, sucrose-
phosphate synthase activity was low throughout fruit maturation. Thus, SS
might account for the most portion of sucrose synthesis. Acid invertase (AI)
activity was high at the initial fruit growth, and decreased to low level at
ripening. Sine AI activity was high at the early developmental stage, content of
reducing sugar such as glucose and fructose were higher than sucrose content.
There was the negative correlation with SSC in all the cultivars, while glucose,
fructose and sorbitol showed negative correlation with SSC.
An investigation was carried out during 2003 and 2004 to study the fruit
developmental stages pertaining to quality characteristics for fixation of
maturity standards in Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis) at the Central
Horticultural Experiment Station, Vejalpur, Gujarat, India. It was observed that
the fruit growth was faster initially and slowed down between last week of
September to first week of October and increased slightly thereafter and
followed a double sigmoid growth pattern in almost all the cultivars. Total and
reducing sugar contents increased as the fruits reached towards maturity. In all
61
the cultivars, vitamin C increased during development and became constant
until the fruits attained physiological maturity (Sanjay et al., 2006).
The changes in chemical and microbiological characteristics of some
olive [olea europea] cultivar during natural fermentation in brine were
examined. Chemical characteristics such as reducing sugars, titratable acidity,
total phenols and dry matter were investigated. The olives were put in brine
acidified up to pH 4. The salt concentration and pH values were necessary to
favour lactic acid fermentation. A uniform trend of pH was observed for all the
olive culivars; a stable pH value below 4.5 was noted.Reducing sugar content
was highest in the Nocellara etnea cultivar (> 5%), and lower than 4% in the
other cultivars.Drymatter content was highest in the Ogliarola cultivar (Poiana
and Romeo, 2006).
Some nutritional and physical properties of myrtle fruits (Myrtus
communis) growing wild in Mersin region, Turkey were determined.
Nutritional properties (such as protein, oil, fibre, reducing sugar, tannin, ash,
and water soluble extract) and physical properties (such as dimensions, weight,
thickness, geometric mean diameter, shhericity, bulk density, porosity,
projected area, 100 fruit weight, terminal velocity and the rupture strength of
myrtle fruits) were established. The crude oil, crude protein, crude fibre, crude
energy, reducing sugar, tannin, ash, water-soluble extract and essential oil
values of fruit were determined as 2.37%, 4.17%, 17.41%, 11.21 kcal per g,
62
8.64%, 76.11mg per 100g, 0.725%, 52.94% and 0.01, respectively. Some
physical properties of myrtle fruits were evaluated as functions of moisture
content. The average length, width, thickness, the geometric mean diameter of
myrtle fruits were 13.75mm, 8.11mm, 7.57mm, 10.53mm at a moisture content
of 8.32% d.b., respectively (Aydn and Ozcan , 2007).
Diurnal varations of carbohydrate content and activities of related
enzymes in source leaves in response to defruiting were studied during
endocarp hardening and final rapid fruit growth stages of ‘Yanfeng Yihao’
peach. The total soluble sugar, sorbito, sucrose and starch contents, opposite to
glucose and fructose contents, tended to increase during the day in sucrose
leaves for both retaining fruit (control) and defruiting treatments (defruiting).
Defruiting resulted in significantly higher contents of sorbitol and starch , and
higher activities of aldose-6- phosphate reductase (A6PR) and ADP- glucose
pyrophosphorylase (ADPGPase) compared with the control at most time during
a day ( Li et al., 2006).
Two varieties of guava fruit were analyzed for total phenol contents,
ascorbic acid contents and antioxidant activities. The antioxidant activities
were assessed based on the ability of the fruit extract in 50% ethanol to
scavenge DPPH, reduce Fe (III) to Fe (II) ion. The results were compared to
several other local fruits as well as orange. It was found that the guava fruit
contains relatively high amounts of antioxidant. It also has high primary, but
63
low secondary antioxidant potential. Storage at 4 degree C has the effect of
increasing ascorbic acid content, and the non-peeled fruit has higher total
phenol and ascorbic acid contents compared to the peeled fruit (Lim et al.,
2006).
Shela et al., (2001) evaluate the antioxidant properties of some citrus
fruits. The contents of dietary fibre, total polyphenols, essential phenolics,
ascorbic acid and some trace elements of lemons, oranges and grapefruits were
determined and compared with their total radical-trapping antioxidant potential
(TRAP). There was no significant differences in the contents of total, soluble
and insoluble dietary fibre in the studied peeled fruits or their peels.The
contents of total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre in peels were significantly
higher than in peeled fruits (p<0.05 in all cases). The peeled lemons, oranges
and grapefruits contain 164 ± 10.3; 154 ± 10.2 and 135 ± 10.1mg per 100g of
total polyphenols, respectively.The content of total polyphenols in the peels
was significantly higher than in peeled fruits (p<0.05) in all the cases. The
same results were obtained in the investigation of essential phenolics and
ascorbic acid. The content of Fe in peeled lemons and their peels was
significantly higher than in peeled oranges and grapefruits and their peels,
respectively. Also the TRAP was significantly higher in peeled lemons and
their peels than in peeled oranges and grapefruits and their peels, respectively.
In all three fruits, the TRAP was significantly higher in peels than in peeled
64
fruits (p<0.05). Thus, lemons possesthe highest antioxidant potential among the
studied citrus fruits and are preferable for dietary prevention of cardiovascular
and other diseases.
Uptil now there has been no reports regarding the nutritive values and
cultivation of wild fruits. No symstematic work or datas for the improvement
of cultivation of these wild fruit of Manipur has not so far been taken up.
However an account of some of the edible fruit plants of Manipur that are eaten
by the people in different ways along with there local names have been made
(Sharma et al., 2000).
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