Chapter 1_Comer and Gould

Chapter 1

What is psychology?

Psychology: the study of mental processes and behavior

Four goals:DescriptionExplanationPredictionControl

Bio-psycho-social

Levels of analysisThe brainThe personThe group

Approach

Study of knowledge and reality

Field that had strongest influence upon the development of psychology

MythsAttempts to describe, explain, predict, and control

reality

Philosophy

Hippocrates: Identified brain as organ of mental lifetheory that physical and psychological health is

impacted by humours (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile)

Socrates:Socratic method

Adopting opposing viewpoints to explore logic of the other side, in order to confirm one’s position

Socratic questioning open-ended questions, looking inward for answers

search for the essence of human nature

Philosophers contributions

Plato:Truth lies in the mind and is dependent upon

subjective states (role of perception)

Aristotle:Explored ideas about sensations, dreams, sleep,

and learningOne of first to promote empirical (testable)

investigations of the natural world

Philosophers contributions cont.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)First psychological lab in Leipzig, Germany (1879)Use of experimental methods from other sciences to study mind and behaviorExposed participants to simple, standardized, repeatable situationsStudied content and process of consciousnessRecognized the social context is necessary to

account for mental processes and behaviorInstrospection (looking inward)Voluntarism: much of behavior is motivated and

that attention is focused for a purpose

Early Days

Edward TichenerStructuralism: belief that the mind is a collection of sensory experiences and that study

should be focused on mental processes (rather than the explanation of underlying mechanisms)

Looking for structure/basic elements of conscious mind

Criticized for focusing upon description alonePrimary method of exploration is introspectionMechanical Identified three elementary states of consciousness

(sensations, images, & affective states)

Early Days cont.

William JamesContributed to Functionalism: belief that mental processes have

purpose and focus of study should be on how mind adapts those purposes to a changing environmentMind as ever changing stream of mental eventsThe study of living people as they adapt to the

environmentExpanded research, and included concept of

normal vs. abnormal functioning

Early Days cont.

The whole is greater than the sum of its partsThe perception is a whole (Gestalt) and any attempt to

analyze or reduce it to elements destroys it. Ex. Window

Contrasted behaviorism (which attempts to reduce experience)

Based on phenomenology (unbiased description of immediate experience just as it occurs)

Attempt to capture richness of experience

Gestalt psychology

Proximity: parts that are close together in time or space appear to belong together

Continuity: tendency to connect elements in a way that makes them seem continuous or flowing

Similarity: similar parts tend to be seen together as forming a group

Closure: tendency to complete incomplete figures, through filling in the gaps

Figure/Ground: organize perception into object being looked at (figure) and background against which it appears

Gestalt psychology cont.

Gestalt (visual)

Gestalt

Gestalt

Sigmund FreudMany thoughts and feelings exist beyond the

realm of awareness (in the unconscious)

Based theory upon case studiesNotion of the talking cure

Drives TransferenceSexual basis for neurosisFree associationDream analysis

Psychoanalysis

Freud’s iceberg

Only focus upon directly observable and measurable behaviors

Stimulus and behavior, doesn’t matter what’s in between

John B. WatsonRestrict psychology to objective, observable data

Animal research

Behaviorism

Sought to give greater prominence to special and unique factors of human functioning

Focus on human potentional, subjectivity, consciousness, free will, creativity, beauty, etc.

Carl RogersClient-centered therapy: client as equal (alliance), with

positive gains through mirroring clients thoughts and feelings in an environment of unconditional positive regard

Abraham MaslowGoal of seeking self-actualization (driven toward self-

fulfillment and realization of one’s potential)

Humanistic psychology

Hierarchy of needs

Ulric NeisserCognition: all processes by which sensory input

is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used

Information processing (information is stored and operates internally)

Mind as computer

Cognitive Psychology

Mind as computer

Study of psychological functions by looking at the biological foundations of those functions

Brain structure and activity

Neuroscience

Evolutionary psychologybelief that the body and brain are products of

evolution and that genetic inheritance plays an important role in shaping thoughts and behaviors

Positive psychologyFocus on upbeat aspects of human functioning, such

as happiness, meaning in life, character strengths, resiliency, etc.

Cultural psychologyStudy of how cognitive processing varies across

different populations

Modern influences