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Chapter 1
What is psychology?
Psychology: the study of mental processes and behavior
Four goals:DescriptionExplanationPredictionControl
Bio-psycho-social
Levels of analysisThe brainThe personThe group
Approach
Study of knowledge and reality
Field that had strongest influence upon the development of psychology
MythsAttempts to describe, explain, predict, and control
reality
Philosophy
Hippocrates: Identified brain as organ of mental lifetheory that physical and psychological health is
impacted by humours (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile)
Socrates:Socratic method
Adopting opposing viewpoints to explore logic of the other side, in order to confirm one’s position
Socratic questioning open-ended questions, looking inward for answers
search for the essence of human nature
Philosophers contributions
Plato:Truth lies in the mind and is dependent upon
subjective states (role of perception)
Aristotle:Explored ideas about sensations, dreams, sleep,
and learningOne of first to promote empirical (testable)
investigations of the natural world
Philosophers contributions cont.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)First psychological lab in Leipzig, Germany (1879)Use of experimental methods from other sciences to study mind and behaviorExposed participants to simple, standardized, repeatable situationsStudied content and process of consciousnessRecognized the social context is necessary to
account for mental processes and behaviorInstrospection (looking inward)Voluntarism: much of behavior is motivated and
that attention is focused for a purpose
Early Days
Edward TichenerStructuralism: belief that the mind is a collection of sensory experiences and that study
should be focused on mental processes (rather than the explanation of underlying mechanisms)
Looking for structure/basic elements of conscious mind
Criticized for focusing upon description alonePrimary method of exploration is introspectionMechanical Identified three elementary states of consciousness
(sensations, images, & affective states)
Early Days cont.
William JamesContributed to Functionalism: belief that mental processes have
purpose and focus of study should be on how mind adapts those purposes to a changing environmentMind as ever changing stream of mental eventsThe study of living people as they adapt to the
environmentExpanded research, and included concept of
normal vs. abnormal functioning
Early Days cont.
The whole is greater than the sum of its partsThe perception is a whole (Gestalt) and any attempt to
analyze or reduce it to elements destroys it. Ex. Window
Contrasted behaviorism (which attempts to reduce experience)
Based on phenomenology (unbiased description of immediate experience just as it occurs)
Attempt to capture richness of experience
Gestalt psychology
Proximity: parts that are close together in time or space appear to belong together
Continuity: tendency to connect elements in a way that makes them seem continuous or flowing
Similarity: similar parts tend to be seen together as forming a group
Closure: tendency to complete incomplete figures, through filling in the gaps
Figure/Ground: organize perception into object being looked at (figure) and background against which it appears
Gestalt psychology cont.
Gestalt (visual)
Gestalt
Gestalt
Sigmund FreudMany thoughts and feelings exist beyond the
realm of awareness (in the unconscious)
Based theory upon case studiesNotion of the talking cure
Drives TransferenceSexual basis for neurosisFree associationDream analysis
Psychoanalysis
Freud’s iceberg
Only focus upon directly observable and measurable behaviors
Stimulus and behavior, doesn’t matter what’s in between
John B. WatsonRestrict psychology to objective, observable data
Animal research
Behaviorism
Sought to give greater prominence to special and unique factors of human functioning
Focus on human potentional, subjectivity, consciousness, free will, creativity, beauty, etc.
Carl RogersClient-centered therapy: client as equal (alliance), with
positive gains through mirroring clients thoughts and feelings in an environment of unconditional positive regard
Abraham MaslowGoal of seeking self-actualization (driven toward self-
fulfillment and realization of one’s potential)
Humanistic psychology
Hierarchy of needs
Ulric NeisserCognition: all processes by which sensory input
is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used
Information processing (information is stored and operates internally)
Mind as computer
Cognitive Psychology
Mind as computer
Study of psychological functions by looking at the biological foundations of those functions
Brain structure and activity
Neuroscience
Evolutionary psychologybelief that the body and brain are products of
evolution and that genetic inheritance plays an important role in shaping thoughts and behaviors
Positive psychologyFocus on upbeat aspects of human functioning, such
as happiness, meaning in life, character strengths, resiliency, etc.
Cultural psychologyStudy of how cognitive processing varies across
different populations
Modern influences