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7/21/2019 Aristotle Politics 2.9 Spartan Constitution
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OXFORD WORLD S CLASSIC S
A R I S T O T L E
Politics
Translated
by
ERNEST B A RK E R
Revised with an ntroduction and Notes by
R
F STALLEY
OXTORD
UNIVERSITY PRES S
C o p y r i g h t
©
1 9 9 8 .
O x f o r
d
U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s .
A l l
r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .
M a y
n o t
b e
r e p r o d u c e d i n
a n y
f o r m
w i t h o u t
p e r m i s s i o n
f r o
m
t h e
p u b l i s h e r ,
e x c e p t
f a i r
u s e s
p e r m i t t e d
u n d e r
U . S .
o r
a p p l i c a b l e
c o p y r i g h t
l a w .
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OX OR
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C o p y r i g h t
©
1 9 9 8 .
O x f o r
d
U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s .
A l l
r i g h t s r
e s e r v e d .
M a y
n o t
b e
r e p r o d u c e d i n
a n y
f o r m
w i t h o u t
p e r m i s s i o n
f r o
m
t h e
p u b l i s h e r ,
e x c e p t
f a i r
u s e s
p e r m i t t e d
u n d e r
U . S .
o r
a p p l i c a b l e
c o p y r i g h t
l a w .
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POLITICS II . 9 6 7
B: Actual Constitutions which
Approach
the Ideal
Chapters
9-12)
CHAPTER 9
1. The Spartan
constitution.
The
problem
of finding a leisured
class
for the purposes
of government: serfdom
as a solution: the
Spartan
Helots.
The
undue
influence of
women
at
Sparta:
the
bad distribution of property and its bad
effe ts
on the army.
The
defects
of the
Ephorate
the
Council
of
Elders
and the
dual
kingship: defects of the
Spartan system
of
common meals.
The
bad
results
of
Spartan militarism
and the bad
state
of the
public finances at
Sparta.
1269*21
Whe n
w e
conside r
th e
constitution s
o f Spart a an d
Crete—or indeed , fo r tha t m atte r , o f an y othe r
city —tw o
questions emerge.
Th e firs t i s
whether
any o f
thei r provision s
is goo d
o r ba d
whe n judge d
b y th e
standar d
o f th e
bes t
system:
th e secon d i s whethe r an y provisio n run s contra r y
to th e principle s an d characte r o f thei r
constitutions
a s
established. I t i s generall y agree d tha t leisure , o r i n othe r
words freedo m fro m th e necessit y o f labour , shoul d b e avail -
able i n a
well-ordere d city ;
bu t i t i s difficul t t o se e b y
wha t
mode
o f
organizatio n th i s leisur e
i s t o b e secured. Th e
Penestae
[o r
serfs ]
of
Thessaly have ofte n revolted agains t
th e
Thessalians; an d th e Helot s hav e similarl y revolte d agains t
the Spartans , fo r whos e misfortune s the y ar e alway s o n th e
watch, just
a s i f
they
lay in a n
ambush . Nothin g similar ,
it is
true, ha s hithert o happene d i n Crete . Perhap s th e reaso n i s
that
th e neighbourin g cities , althoug h engage d i n m utua l
hostilities, neve r ente r int o an y allianc e w ith revolting serfs: i t
is
not t o th e
interes t
o f
any ,
a s
eac h
ha s
serf s
of it s
own .
Th e
neighbours
o f Sparta o n th e
othe r hand , Argos , Messenia ,
and
Arcadia, hav e been
her
enemies. Likewise
the
early revolts
of
thei r
serf s
agains t
th e
Thessalian s wer e
due to th e
fact tha t
they
wer e stil l engaged i n hostilities wit h th e people s o n thei r
borders, th e Achaeans, th e Perrhaebians, an d the M agnesians.
Even i f
there wer e
no
adde d trouble ,
i n th e
handlin g
o f serf s
C o p y r i g h t
©
1 9 9 8 .
O x f o r
d
U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s .
A l l
r i g h t s r
e s e r v e d .
M a y
n o t
b e
r e p r o d u c e d i n
a n y
f o r m
w i t h o u t
p e r m i s s i o n
f r o
m
t h e
p u b l i s h e r ,
e x c e p t
f a i r
u s e s
p e r m i t t e d
u n d e r
U . S .
o r
a p p l i c a b l e
c o p y r i g h t
l a w .
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68
P OLITIC S
ii
9
there
i s the
irksom e business
o f
deciding
o n
wha t footin g
on e
should associat e wit h them : i f the y ar e kep t o n a loos e rein ,
they becom e insolent , an d procee d t o clai m equalit y wit h
their masters: i f they have a hard
life ,
the y
fall
int o conspirac y
and hatred Th e mora l i s plain. Thos e w h o
suffe r
i n this w a y
from havin g a system of serfdom have not discovere d th e best
mode
of
organization .
I 9
b
i Th e indulgenc e permitte d t o wome n i s damagin g
both t o th e purpos e o f the constitutio n an d t o th e happines s
of
th e city . Just a s husband an d
wif e
ar e
parts
o f th e
family ,
so
i t i s clear tha t a cit y shoul d als o b e considere d a s divided
almost equall y in t o th e mal e an d femal e populations . I n al l
constitutions, therefore, where
the
position
o f
wom en
is
poorly
regulated,
on e
hal f
o f the
citize n body m us t
b e
considered
a s
left
untouche d b y the laws . This i s what has actually happened
at Sparta The legislator who made the Spartan cod e intende d
to
m ak e
th e
whol e citizen body hardy ;
bu t i f he fulfille d
tha t
in tention, a s h e obviousl y did , i n regar d t o th e men , h e ha s
wholly
neglecte d t o achiev e it i n regard to th e women , whose
lives are
full
o f every kind o f licence and luxury . The inevitabl e
result,
i n such a constitution , i s the worshi p of wealth, especi-
ally if , a s
happen s wit h mos t militar y
an d
m artia l races ,
th e
citizens
ar e
dominate d
b y th e
women . (Bu t
th e
Celt s
ar e a n
exception t o t hi s genera l rule : so , too , ar e suc h people s a s
openly approv e o f homosexua l attachm ents. ) Ther e wa s
wisdom
i n th e earlies t autho r o f myth s whe n h e paire d Are s
and
Aphrodite :
the fact s
sho w that suc h people s
ar e
pron e
t o
passionate
attachment s
e ithe r
t o me n o r t o
wom en .
I t wa s
attachments o f th e latte r sor t whic h were common i n Sparta ;
and th e
resul t
wa s
that ,
i n th e
day s
o f he r
hegemony , affair s
largely
fel l
into th e hands o f women. But what is the differenc e
between ruler s bein g rule d
b y
wome n
an d
wome n bein g
actually rulers ? The resul t i s the same . Eve n i n th e matte r o f
courage, whic h i s useless in al l life s ordinar y affair s an d onl y
of use , i f i t ha s a use , i n tim e o f war , th e wome n o f Spart a
have
ha d a
mos t misch ievou s
influence .
The y show e d thi s
during
th e
Theba n
invasion; *
unlik e
th e
wome n
o f
othe r
cities, the y wer e
o f n o us e
w hatever ,
an d
cause d mor e con -
fusion
tha n th e enemy.
C o p y r i g h t
©
1 9 9 8 .
O x f o r
d
U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s .
A l l
r i g h t s r
e s e r v e d .
M a y
n o t
b e
r e p r o d u c e d i n
a n y
f o r m
w i t h o u t
p e r m i s s i o n
f r o
m
t h e
p u b l i s h e r ,
e x c e p t
f a i r
u s e s
p e r m i t t e d
u n d e r
U . S .
o r
a p p l i c a b l e
c o p y r i g h t
l a w .
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POLITICS
II 9 6 9
I209
b
39
Th e
licenc e enjoye d
b y
w ome n seem s
t o
hav e come
about originall y a t Spart a i n a wa y whic h i t i s eas y t o
understand. Th e me n wer e absent fro m thei r ow n country fo r
long
period s
o n militar y expeditions : the y wer e a t wa r wit h
the Argives , an d the n w it h th e Messenian s an d Arcadians .
W hen th e m e n returne d t o a lif e o f leisur e an d submitte d
themselves t o th e legislato r the y wer e
wel l
p repare d b y thei r
experience
o f
m ilitary
life ( a lif e
whic h requires m any kinds
o f
human excellence) . But , a s th e stor y goes , whe n Lycurgus *
attempted t o b rin g th e wome n withi n th e rang e o f hi s laws ,
they
opposed
h im ,
and he had to
abando n
th e
at tempt . Thes e
are th e
cause s
o f
wha t happened ,
an d ar e
th u s
th e
sourc e
o f
[the Spartans ] error ;
bu t w e
hav e
t o
r emembe r tha t
w e ar e
not
concerne d wit h what can ,
o r
cannot,
b e
excused,
bu t
with
what is right o r wrong .
127 11
Th e
defect s
in th e
positio n
o f
women
i n
Sparta ,
a s
we hav e alread y suggested , see m
not
onl y calculate d
t o
pro -
duce som e lack o f harmony i n the constitution , i f we take
that
by itself , bu t
als o
t o
foste r
th e
growt h
o f
avarice.
On e
might,
indeed, pass fro m th e observation s jus t mad e to a criticism of
the unequa l distributio n o f property . W hil e som e o f th e
Spartans have com e
t o
posses s
fa r to o
muc h property , other s
have bee n reduce d
t o th e
tinies t amoun t ;
an d i n
thi s
wa y the
land
ha s
mostl y passe d int o
th e
hand s
o f a
ver y
fe w
people .
This matte r ha s been badly handle d i n their laws . The legisla-
tor,
ver y
r ightly , made i t imprope r t o bu y o r sel l property i n
land;
bu t h e
als o allowe d
an y
perso n
wh o s o
desire d
t o giv e
or
bequeat h
hi s property— thoug h th e
sam e result s m us t
necessarily follo w i n th e on e cas e as in th e other . Abou t two -
fifths o f th e whol e coun try actually belong s to w omen ; this is
due t o th e
num be r
o f
heiresse s
an d th e
practic e
o f
givin g
dowries. t would hav e bee n bette r to hav e had no dowrie s at
all,
o r t o
hav e
fixe d
them
a t a
small ,
o r a t an y
rat e
a
moderate , amount . A s i t is , a citize n ma y giv e th e daughte r
who inherit s
h i s
propert y
t o an y m a n
w ho m
h e
like s (ric h
o r
poor); an d i f he dies intestate befor e he has don e so , th e ma n
who i s
left
i n the
positio n
o f
guardian give s
her t o
whoeve r
he
chooses.
Th e
resul t
ha s
bee n tha t whil e
th e
t er ritor y coul d
have
supporte d
1,50 0
hors e an d 30,00 0
foot ,
th e actua l
C o p y r i g h t
©
1 9 9 8 .
O x f o r
d
U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s .
A l l
r i g h t s r
e s e r v e d .
M a y
n o t
b e
r e p r o d u c e d i n
a n y
f o r m
w i t h o u t
p e r m i s s i o n
f r o
m
t h e
p u b l i s h e r ,
e x c e p t
f a i r
u s e s
p e r m i t t e d
u n d e r
U . S .
o r
a p p l i c a b l e
c o p y r i g h t
l a w .
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70
P OLITIC S
II . 9
number
was
les s tha n 1,000 .
The
histor y
of the
Spartan s
ha s
shown
tha t the effect s of
this arrangemen t hav e bee n
bad for
them.
Th e
cit y
wa s
unabl e
t o
withstan d
a
singl e blow
an d
was ru ine d fo r wan t o f men . I t i s sai d that unde r th e earl y
kings, th e Spartan s wer e i n th e habi t o f sharin g [citizenshi p
with
foreigners] ,
and
that ,
a s a
result , ther e
wa s no
w an t
o f
men,
i n
spit e
o f th e
lon g wars they were
fighting:
indeed the y
are sai d t o hav e numbered , a t on e time , a s m an y a s
10,00 0
citizens. W hethe r thi s statement i s true o r false , Spart a would
have
don e
bette r
t o
kee p
he r
ran k s
filled by
maintainin g
a n
equal d istributio n o f p roperty . Suc h a re for m is , however ,
impeded
b y the la w
concerning
th e
birth-rate . Anxiou s
for th e
Spartans t o be as numerous as possible, the legislato r encour-
aged citizen s
to
hav e
a s
m an y childre n
a s
possible ; the y hav e
a la w tha t th e fathe r o f thre e son s shoul d b e exemp t
fro m
military service ,
an d th e
fa the r
o f
fou r entirel y
fre e fro m al l
taxes. Ye t i t i s obvious that , i f many childre n ar e born , an d
the
lan d
i s
divided accordingly ,
a
large numbe r
o f the
citizens
must necessarily
be
reduced
to
poverty.
I 7
b
6 M oreove r ther e
ar e
deficiencie s
i n th e wa y th e
Ephorate
i s
organized.
The
Ephors
at Sparta
have
a
sovereign
authority
i n
matter s
o f th e
highes t importance;
bu t
the y
ar e
all draw n fro m th e people a t large , an d i t ofte n happen s tha t
very
poo r men , whos e lac k
o f
mean s render s them ope n
t o
bribery, attai n thi s office . The y hav e
ofte n
show n th i s tend -
ency
i n the past ; an d ther e i s a recen t instanc e in th e
affai r
a t
Andros, whe n som e o f th e Ephors , b y takin g bribes , di d
everything in their power to rui n the whole city. Furthermore ,
this
inst itut io n is s o important , an d s o much in th e natur e o f
a dictatorship , tha t eve n th e king s hav e bee n compelle d t o
court
th e
favou r
o f the
Ephors .
A s a
result , damag e
ha s
als o
been don e t o th e whol e constitu tion , which ,
fro m
bein g a n
aristocracy
ha s
tende d
t o
tur n int o
a
democracy .
Bu t th e
Ephorate doe s hol d
th e
constitutio n together .
Th e
peopl e
a t
large
ar e
contente d becaus e the y hav e
a
shar e
i n th e
mos t
important
office ; an d
th i s result , whethe r
i t b e du e t o th e
legislator
o r t o
chance ,
ha s a beneficia l effec t o n
thei r
affairs .
If th e constitutio n i s t o survive , every part o f th e cit y mus t
have a comm on desire for its existence and fo r the continuanc e
C o p y r i g h t
©
1 9 9 8 .
O x f o r
d
U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s .
A l l
r i g h t s r
e s e r v e d .
M a y
n o t
b e
r e p r o d u c e d i n
a n y
f o r m
w i t h o u t
p e r m i s s i o n
f r o
m
t h e
p u b l i s h e r ,
e x c e p t
f a i r
u s e s
p e r m i t t e d
u n d e r
U . S .
o r
a p p l i c a b l e
c o p y r i g h t
l a w .
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P O L I T I C S
II 9 7 1
of it s arrangements. Th e king s hav e thi s becaus e o f th e
honour that is paid t o them ; the uppe r classe s have it becaus e
there i s th e C ounci l o f E lders thi s offic e i s a rew ar d fo r
excellence); and th e genera l populatio n hav e i t because o f th e
Ephorate whic h is open to all citizens).
I270
b
26 I t i s righ t an d prope r tha t al l shoul d b e eligible fo r
the
office ,
bu t no t tha t th e electio n shoul d b e conducte d o n
the presen t me thod , whic h i s fa r to o childish. * Again , th e
Ephors
ar e
just ordinar y men,
but
the y have powe r
to
decid e
important cases ;
an d i t
woul d
b e
better , therefore , tha t the y
should
no t
decid e
a t
thei r discretion ,
bu t o n th e
basi s
o f
written rule s se t dow n i n lega l form . Finally , thei r mod e o f
life i s not i n agreement with the aim o f the city . It permits to o
much indulgence , wherea s for th e othe r citizens , th e arrange -
ments
inclin e
so
much
to th e
opposit e extrem e
o f
severity that
men cannot endur e their rigour, an d escap e f ro m th e law into
the
secre t enjoym ent
of
sensual pleasures.
I270
b
35
Th e
institutio n
o f the
Counci l
o f
Elders
ha s
als o
it s
defects. I f th e member s o f th e counci l wer e m en o f probity ,
and adequatel y traine d i n manl y vir tues , i t migh t b e argue d
that th e institu tio n w a s o f benefi t t o th e city . Eve n so , i t
would
be
dubiou s whether councillors should
be
life-judges
in
important cases : th e mind , a s wel l a s th e body , i s subjec t to
old
age .
Bu t
w hen ,
a s a
ma tte r
o f
fact ,
th e
trainin g
o f th e
councillors
i s
such tha t
eve n th e
legislato r
ha s n o
confidence
in
thei r characte r a s goo d men , th e arrangemen t i s unsafe. I t
is
evident fro m experienc e tha t thos e w h o hav e held th e offic e
of councillor have often bee n
influenced
b y bribery and favour-
itism i n dealin g w ith public
affairs .
Thi s i s a reaso n w h y they
should
no t b e
fre e
fro m scru tin y o f thei r conduct . I t i s tru e
that th e Ephor s ca n apparentl y scrutin iz e th e conduc t o f
every
official ;
bu t th i s is too sweepin g a prerogativ e fo r the m
to
possess ,
no r i s i t th e wa y i n
w hich ,
i n ou r
view ,
th e
councillors should
b e
subjected
to
scrutiny .
I27i
a
9 Th e syste m b y whic h the y appoin t councillo r s in -
volves a
childish m etho d
o f selection; * an d
ther e
i s an
impro -
priety i n requirin g that , t o b e eligible , a ma n shoul d openl y
seek election . The man wh o deserve s the
offic e
shoul d have i t
whether h e wan ts it or not . Her e th e legislato r is plainly doing
C o p y r i g h t
©
1 9 9 8 .
O x f o r
d
U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s .
A l l
r i g h t s r
e s e r v e d .
M a y
n o t
b e
r e p r o d u c e d i n
a n y
f o r m
w i t h o u t
p e r m i s s i o n
f r o
m
t h e
p u b l i s h e r ,
e x c e p t
f a i r
u s e s
p e r m i t t e d
u n d e r
U . S .
o r
a p p l i c a b l e
c o p y r i g h t
l a w .
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72 P O L I T I S II 9
what
h e did
wi th
the
res t
o f the
co nstitution .
He ha s
impose d
this requiremen t [tha t candidate s seek election ]
on the
election
of
councillors because h e want s to mak e his citizens generally
ambitious o f honours ; fo r n o on e woul d see k t o hol d offic e
unless h e was am bitious. Ye t ambitio n an d avaric e are exactly
the motive s which lead m e n t o commi t nearl y al l intentional
crimes.
I27i
a
i8 Th e
genera l them e
o f
k ingship ,
an d th e
questio n
whether
i t i s
good
o r ba d fo r
citie s
t o
hav e kings,
may b e
lef t
to anothe r occasion . Bu t i t woul d b e bette r i f the y di d no t
come to th e thron e o n th e principle no w
followed
[i n
Sparta];
instead th e choic e o f a kin g should i n every case b e based o n
his manne r o f life . O n th e presen t syste m it i s clear tha t eve n
the
legislato r himsel f must b e o f th e opinio n tha t h e canno t
produce goo d
an d
honourabl e kings.
At an y
rate
h e
show s
no
confidence t ha t the y will b e sufficientl y goo d men ; this i s why
it
wa s th e practic e t o sen d opponent s o f th e king s with them
on
embassies , an d wh y i t wa s considere d tha t factiona l dis -
putes between the kings served as a political safeguard.
I27i
a
i6 Th e lega l a rrangement s mad e b y it s f ounde r fo r
regulating th e syste m o f commo n meal s (or , a s th e Spartan s
call them , phiditia , ma y als o b e criticized . Th e cos t o f suc h
gatherings ough t t o b e defraye d fro m publi c
funds,
a s i t i s in
Crete;
but th e
rul e
a t
Spart a
i s for
eac h
man t o
brin g
hi s own
contribution, i n spit e o f th e
fac t tha t
som e o f th e citizen s ar e
extremely
poor an d
unabl e
to
bea r
th e
expense .
Th e
natura l
result i s th e ver y
opposite
o f th e legisla tor s intention . Th e
system o f commo n meal s is m eant t o b e democratic , bu t with
these regulation s
i t i s the
revers e
o f
democratic . Citizen s
who
are
extremel y poo r
fin d i t difficul t t o
shar e
i n th e
com mo n
meals; an d ye t it is the traditiona l rul e of the constitution tha t
those
wh o
canno t contr ibut e thei r quot a
ar e
debarre d fro m
participating i n it.
1271 37
Othe r writer s have als o censured ,
no t
wi thou t jus-
tice,
the law relating to th e
office
o f admiral. The y are righ t t o
do s o
sinc e
i t i s a
caus e
o f
factiona l
conflict .
Th e
offic e
o f
admiral i s a sor t o f secon d kingship , rivalling the kings , wh o
are
suprem e commanders
fo r
l ife .
1271 41 Ther e
i s
anothe r criticis m
on e
m igh t m ak e
o f th e
C o p y r i g h t
©
1 9 9 8 .
O x f o r
d
U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s .
A l l
r i g h t s r
e s e r v e d .
M a y
n o t
b e
r e p r o d u c e d i n
a n y
f o r m
w i t h o u t
p e r m i s s i o n
f r o
m
t h e
p u b l i s h e r ,
e x c e p t
f a i r
u s e s
p e r m i t t e d
u n d e r
U . S .
o r
a p p l i c a b l e
c o p y r i g h t
l a w .
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POLI TI CS II . 1 0 7 3
principle
tha t underlie s
th e
Sparta n legis la tion ,
a
criticis m
also mad e b y Plat o i n hi s Laws.* Th e whol e syste m o f
legislation
i s directe d t o fosterin g onl y on e par t [o r element]
of
goodness , goodnes s i n war , becaus e tha t sor t o f goodnes s
is
useful fo r gainin g power. A s a result th e Spartan s remaine d
secure a s lon g a s they were at war ; but the y collapsed a s soo n
as
the y acquire d
a n
empire . The y
di d no t
kno w
ho w t o us e
their leisure and the y had neve r accustome d themselve s to an y
discipline othe r tha n
an d
superio r
t o
tha t
o f
wa r . Ther e
i s
another defec t at Spart a whic h is equally grave. The Spartan s
hold tha t
th e
goods
fo r
whic h
m e n
striv e
ar e to b e
at taine d
through goodnes s rather tha n badnes s
o f
character. The y
a r e
right i n th inkin g th is ; bu t the y ar e wron g i n supposin g tha t
these goods are greater tha n goodness of charac ter.*
i 7i
b
io
Anothe r defec t
a t
Spa rt a
i s the
s ta t e
o f th e
publi c
finances. Th e publi c treasur y i s empty , a t a tim e whe n they
are compelle d
t o
wag e m ajo r w ars ;
an d th e
taxe s
ar e no t
properly paid . Becaus e m os t o f th e lan d i s i n th e hand s o f
citizens, the y d o no t loo k closel y a t eac h other s payments .
The
effec t
o f th e
legislator s w or k
i s
her e
th e
revers e
o f
beneficial: h e has reduced th e city to penur y while encouraging
private avarice . Thi s
m a y
serv e
a s a n
accoun t
o f th e
Sparta n
constitution, an d thes e ar e th e defect s whic h are particularl y
open to censure.
CHAPTER 1 0
2 The Cretan constitution
Crete possibly
the
model
of Sparta:
similarities
between
the
two.
The
Cretan system
of
common
meals
is superior to the Spartan; but the Cretan
Cosmoi,
who
correspond
to the
Spartan
Ephors, are
inferior
to them. Cretan
feudalism :
confederations
of
nobles: feuds
and
factions: Crete
hitherto s ved from their evil effects by its geogr phic l
isolation.
I 7i
b
Th e C reta n constitu tion * i s clos e t o tha t o f th e
Spartans; i n som e ways it is no wors e but i n most respect s it is
less polished . I t i s sai d tha t mos t
feature s
o f th e Sparta n
constitution wer e copie d
fro m th e
Cre tan . Thi s
m a y wel l b e
C o p y r i g h t
©
1 9 9 8 .
O x f o r
d
U n i v e r s i t y
P r e s s .
A l l
r i g h t s r
e s e r v e d .
M a y
n o t
b e
r e p r o d u c e d i n
a n y
f o r m
w i t h o u t
p e r m i s s i o n
f r o
m
t h e
p u b l i s h e r ,
e x c e p t
f a i r
u s e s
p e r m i t t e d
u n d e r
U . S .
o r
a p p l i c a b l e
c o p y r i g h t
l a w .
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OF CHICAGO
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