ALHT106 – Psychology for Allied Health2. Explain principles of major learning theories in...

ALHT106–Semester1Notes 1

Biopsychology-physicalbasisofpsychology

phenomena

Developmental-ofthought,feelingsand

behaviouracrosslifespan

Social-individualandgroupinteracDon,

theoreDcalapproachi.e.whendopeoplebehave

aggressively

Clinical-natureandtreatmentofpsychologyprocessesresulDngindistresse.g.mood

disorder

CogniDve-natureofthought,memory,

snesaDonpercepDonandlanguage

Personality-impactontheirreacDon,disorders,

impactofthoughts,feelingsandbehaviours

onpersonality

Industrial/OrganisaDonal-behaviourofindividuals

inorganisaDonsandsolveorganisaDonal

problems

EducaDonal-psychologicalprocessesinlearningineducaDonal

seMngs

Health-psychologyfactorsinhealthand

disease

Counselling-diagnosis/treatmenttoindividuals,couples,families,groups,

organisaDons

Forensic-prevenDonandtreatmentofcriminal

behaviour

ConservaDon-reciprocalrelaDonshipsbetweenhumansandnature

ALHT106–PsychologyforAlliedHealthLearning Outcomes 1.Describethescientificapproachofmodernpsychologyandprinciplesforgeneratingknowledge.(GA4,5)

2.Explainprinciplesofmajorlearningtheoriesinpsychology;identifyimplicationsforunderstandingbehaviourinhealthsettings.(GA1,4,5)

3.Describethemaintheoriesofhumanmemoryandsomeoftheirimplicationsforunderstandingbehaviourinhealthsettings(GA5,8,9).

4.Explainthemajortheoriesofmotivationandemotionandtheiruseinhelpingtoexplainalliedhealthpractices(GA1,4,5)

5.Throughparticipationinagroupworkexercise,identifyanddescribegroupworkprinciplesused,andtheirlinktotheory(GA1,4,5,7)

6.Locate/extractappropriateinfofromelectronichealthdatabasesinpreparinganessayusingrelevantacademicconventions.(GA7,8,9,)

Introduction to Psychology Psychology:studyofthehumanmindandbehaviourincludingscience,behaviourandmentalprocesses. Apersonrequiresattentiontotheir:biology,psychologicalexperience,culturalcontextStructuralism(theoretical)àemphasisesconsciousthough,classificationofmindstructurally;uncoverbasicelementsofconsciousnessFunctionalism(applied)àfunctionofmind,reasoningbehindthoughtprocesses;attemptstoexplainpsychologicalprocesses(theirrole)ContemporaryPsychologyPerspectivesPerspective KeyFigures BasicPrinciples MethodologyPsychodynamic SigmundFreud Behaviourlargelyresultofunconsciousprocesses,

motivationandearlyexperiences-actionsdeterminedbyconnectionofthoughts,feelings,wishes-mentaleventsoccuroutsideconsciousawareness-mentalprocessesconflictresultingincompromise

Casestudy,observationofthoughts,feelingsandactions

Behaviourist Pavlov–animals:2eventscombinedformuniqueresultsWatson–extendedquestiontohumansSkinner–focusonexternalstimuli,causesandconsequencesofaparticularaction

Behaviourlearnedandselectedbyitsenvironmentalconsequences

Experimental,imperialism,morestructured

Humanistic Maslow:basicphysicalneeds→needsforsafety/security→developrelationshipsRogers:observedthenclientunderwentownmotivation,emphasisesself-actualisation(peoplemotivatedtoreachfullpotential)

Behaviourandexperienceshapedbyneedtoself-actualise,tofulfilinnerpotential

Person-centredtherapeuticapproach,respectandacceptanceofindividual

Cognitive ReneDescartes–earlyphilosophicalquestionsledcognitivepsychologiststoemphasiseroleofreasonincreatingknowledge

Behaviourisproductofinfoprocessing;storage,transformationandretrievalofdata-Wordrecognitionmodel(McClelland)-Workingmemorymodel(Baddeley)

Experimentation,scientific,empirical

Evolutionary CharlesDarwin–naturalselection,adaptivetraits

Focusonadaptiveaspectsofpsychologyandhowadaptiontoenvironmentshapesbehavioursandmentalprocesses

Deductive,comparative,experimental

SubdisciplinesinPsychology

ALHT106–Semester1Notes 2

ResearchTheoreticalframework:systematicwayoforganising,explainingobservationsStandardisedprocedures:allparticipantsexposedtoassimilarproceduresaspossible,variationintroducedtotesthypothesisGeneralisability:studythatisinternallyvalid(design)andexternallyvalid(applicabletosituationsoutsidelab),samplethatrepresentspopulationObjectivemeasurement:reliability(consistentresults),validity(accuratelyassessconstructintendedtomeasure),repetitionEvidencebasedpractice:empiricalmethodologyusedtogainknowledge,methodsbelowMethod Description Usesandadvantages PotentiallimitationsExperimental Manipulatevariablesto

assesscauseandeffect- demonstratescausalrelationships- canberepeated- maximisescontrolovervariables

- generalisabilityoutsidelab- complexphenomenanotreadily

testedDescriptive:casestudy

In-depthobservationofsmallnumberofcases

- psychologicalprocessesinindividualcases

- studyofcomplexphenomena- providesdatausefultoframe

hypotheses

- generalisability- replicability- researcherbias- can’testablishcausation

Descriptive:naturalisticobservation

In-depthobservationofphenomenonasitoccursinnature

- phenomenaastheyexistoutsidelab

- studyofcomplexphenomena- providesdatausefulinframing

hypothesis

- generalisability- observereffects:mayalterbehaviour- replicability- researcherbias- can’testablishcausation

Descriptive:surveyresearch

Askingpeoplequestionsre.attitudes,behaviours

- revealsself-reportedbehavioursoflargesampleofpeople

- quantificationofattitudesandbehaviours

- self-report:maynotbeaccurate- can’testablishcausation

Correlational Examinesextenttowhichtwoormorevariablesarerelated,usedtopredictoneanother

- revealsrelationshipsamongvariablesoutsidelaboratory

- allowsquantificationofrelationshipsamongvariables

- cannotestablishcausation

Learning and Behavioural Analysis Learning:theacquisitionandmodificationofknowledge,skills,strategies,beliefs,attitudesandbehaviours.Itinvolvescognitive,linguistic,motorandsocialskillsandcantakemanyforms.[Schunk,2000]

− Linguistic:newlanguage/jargon− Motor:manualhandling,handlingclients− Social:rangeofpeoplewedealwith,professionalpractice

LearningTheoriesTwomainaims:

− Conceptualframeworkthatattemptstosystematisewhatisknownaboutlearning,tounderstandifthesametheoryisrelevantindifferentenvironments

− AssistancewithpracticalsolutionsAgreedupon: Variablyincluded:• Behaviourist

paradigm• Cognitive

paradigm

• Constructivist–throughreflectingoneverydayexperiences,oneconstructstheirownlearning• Humanistic–emphasisesimportanceofthepersonfromsubjectiveandobjectivepointsofview• Sociallearning–observationofsocietalnorms• Experimental–learningthroughdiscovery,exploration• Blendedlearningtheory–facetofaceaswellasonlinelearning,mixedmodality• Connectivism–hypothesisoflearningemphasisingroleofsocialandculturalcontextoflearning,

connectingtheoryandpractice• Multipleintelligences–individualshavestrengthsandweaknesses,placeemphasisontheirstrengths

− Linguistic,mathematical,interactionwithenvironment,musical,visual/spatial,interpersonal,intrapersonal,naturalist(noticingsubtledifferences),existential

• Technology/internet–text,audio,visualBehaviouristApproachesToLearningPavlov–ClassicalConditioning“typeoflearninginwhichastimulusacquirescapacitytoevokeresponseoriginallyevokedbyanotherstimulus”UCS-unconditionedstimulus,evokesunconditionedresponsew/opreviousconditioningUCR-unconditionedresponse,unlearnedreactiontoUCSw/opreviousconditioningCS-conditionedstimulus,previouslyneutralstimuluswithacquiredcapacitytoevokeconditionedresponsethroughconditioningCR-conditionedresponse,learnedreactionduetoconditioning.NS-neutralstimulus• Implication:CRattainablebypairingCSandUCStochangebehaviour(bedwetting,bellandpad)• Extinction:ofCSoccursifCSpresentedw/oUS.Conditionedresponsegraduallydisappears(butreturnoccasionally)

ALHT106–Semester1Notes 3

o Implication:ceasepairingofCS/UStochangebehaviour• Spontaneousrecovery:aCRwillreappearafterarestperiod,evenafteraseriousofCS(noUS)pairings

o Implication:thinkabehaviourhasceasedbutitcaneasilyreturno Warnclientsthisisn’tasetback/unusualintermsoftherapy

• StimulusGeneralisation:aCRtooneCSseemstogeneralisetoothercloselyrelatedstimulie.g.bellswithslightlydifferenttoneso Implication:wedon’tneedtoteacheveryskill/behaviour

• DiscriminationtoCS:afterteachingCR,furtherpairingstootherCSresultsinselectiveCRthusonlyCSmostcloselymatchingtrainingCSelicitresponse

o Implication:abletoteachspecificityofresponses

• Secondorderconditioning:originalpairing(CS1)linkedwithCS2,withrepeatedexposurestheCRoccursonlywithexposuretoCS2notCS1

o Implication:abletoscaffoldconditioningofresponses

• Counterconditioning:pairCSthatelicitsfearwithastimulus(US)thatelicitspositiveemotion(UR)

o Implication:canreplaceoneresponsetoastimuluswithanother

o E.g.givingachildalollipopafterinjections

Watson–StudyofEmotionsAim–expandonPavlovtodemonstratethatemotionalreactionscouldbeclassicallyconditionedinpeopleKey–observation,LittleAlbertexperimentsconditionedfearImplication–canconditionnegativeresponsestopreviouslyneutral/positivestimuli;counterconditioningmayberequiredinalliedhealthSkinner–OperantConditioning‘nurture’overnatureLearnerispassive,acquiringskillsviainfluencesofenvironment.Allbehaviourisalearnedbehavioure.g.language,ridingbike.Consequencesdrivebehaviour.

• AntecedentàbehaviouràconsequencesChangingbehaviour-seetheoreticalconstructsi.e.reinforcementandpunishment

Thorndike–Connectionismstimulusàresponse(preSkinner)

1. Lawofeffect–behaviourfollowedbypleasantconsequenceslikelytoberepeated(viceversa)2. Lawofreadiness–seriesofresponsescanbechainedtogethertosatisfysomegoalwhichwillresultinannoyanceifblocked3. Lawofexercise–connectionsbecomestrengthenedwithpracticeandweakenedwhenpracticeisdiscontinued

TheoreticalConstructsReinforcement(reinforce=tostrengthen,reinforcer=anyeventwhichstrengthensormaintainsbehaviourthatitconsistentlyfollows)

1. Intrinsicvs.extrinsic2. Primary(sleep,food,airetc.)vs.secondary(physicalrewards)3. Artificial(settingupthesituatione.g.goodjobforsametask)vs.naturallyoccurring(usingpraiseinnormalsituation)4. Natural(readingbecauseyouenjoyit),Logical(reasonablereinforcers,notexcessive)andArbitrary(readingforareward)

ALHT106–Semester1Notes 4

CategoriesofPotentialReinforcers:1. Tangible–touchandfeel2. Consumable-lollies3. Social–hug,attention,approval4. Activity–gettoengageinaparticularactivityafterdesirable

activity5. Token–afteracertainnumber,abiggerrewardachievede.g.

stickers6. Intrinsic–doitforyourself

FactorsInfluencingReinforcerEffectiveness:1. Deprivation–workharderforreinforceriftheyhaven’thadit

inawhile2. Satiation–toomanyreinforcements3. Immediacy–otherwiselinkbetweenact/reinforcerdissipates4. Amount-varying5. Schedule–reinforcevaryingtimes/days6. ConcurrentSchedules–multipleschedulesinplace

ReinforcementSchedules:

• Continuousreinforcementschedule–reinforceallcorrectresponses• Extinctionschedule–reinforcenoinstancesoftheresponse• Intermittentreinforcementschedule–reinforcesomecorrectresponses(fixedorvariableratio)

ShapingConceptsofshapinginclude:

• Differentialreinforcement,forsomebutnotother• Reinforcementcriterionwhichisgraduallychanged(alterrewardwithimprovements)• Specifybehaviouralobjective,specifystartingbehaviour,sequenceoflearningsteps,findreinforcer,starttrainingonfirststep,

decidewhentoadvance,backtrackifnecessary,repeatuntilobjectiveachieved,intermittentreinforcementChainingChaining–linkingbehaviourstogethertoachieveafinalresult

• Initially,conductataskanalysistodeterminedifferentcomponentsofsequenceviaobservation,self-completion,writinglistofcomponents

• i.e.chainofstepstomakeacupofcoffee• Forwardchaining–startatfirststepoftask• Reversechaining–dofirststepsandleavelaststep,teachthatstepandlearnercompletestaskandgetsreinforced=usefulin

reallifesituations,morereinforcingandlesstimeconsumingPromptingandFadingPrompting–inducepersontoperformdesiredbehaviourbypresentingprompt

o Physical–manualguidanceo Auditory–verbal,non-verbalauditorycues(alarm,notes)o Visual–gestural,pictorial,modelling/limitation

Fading–weananindividualoffpromptsbygraduallyreducingstrengthofprompt

1. Pairdesiredstimulusandprompt2. Reinforcecorrectresponses3. Startfadingprompt4. Continuereinforcementofcorrectresponses5. Probeoccasionallytoseeiftransferofstimuluscontroliscomplete6. Stopifsuccessful,ifnotrepeat3-5untilsuccessful7. Graduallyshifttointermittentscheduleofreinforcement

WeakeningBehaviour

1. Extinction→ Withholdingreinforcerforpreviouslyreinforcedresponsetocause↓inlevelofresponse→ Initialeffects–extinctionburst(initialtemporary↑inundesirableresponse/emotionalbehaviours)

2. Differentialreinforcement:→ Incompatiblebehaviour(DRI)–suggesttaskswhicharephysicallyincompatiblewithbehaviour→ Alternativebehaviour(DRA)–reinforceanybehaviouralternative→ Otherbehaviour(DRO)–onlyreinforceifbehaviourisn’tshownforanamountoftime→ Lowrates(DRL)–reinforcesmalleramountsofbadbehaviour

3. Punishmenttype1→ Simpleovercorrection–makethemcorrectresultsofmisbehaviour

ALHT106–Semester1Notes 5

CogniDvemaps Latentlearning Insight Expectancies Learnedhelplessness Explanatorystyle

→ Overcorrection–positivepractice(makethemdotasktwice),restitution(additionaltasktodo,improvethestakes)4. Punishmenttype2

→ Timeoutfrompositivereinforcement–movetolessreinforcingenvironment→ Responsecost–removalofsomethingdesirablei.e.dessert,TV

ImplicationsforHealthProfessionals

• Manipulateastimulus,individual’sresponseandtheirownresponse(reinforce,ignoreetc.)• Premackprinciple:opportunitytoengageinahighprobabilitybehaviourmaybeusedtoreinforcelowerprobabilitybehaviour

Cognitive-SocialTheory- Acombinationofsociallearningandcognitiveparadigmplusbehaviourism- Proposesthatindividualslearnmanythingsfrompeoplearoundthem,withorwithoutreinforcementviasociallearningmechanisms- Concepts:SocialLearningTheory- Observationallearning,modelling(personlearnstoreproducebehaviourexhibitedbyamodel)- Threeconceptsatthecentreofsociallearningtheory:

→ Learningthroughobservation→ Internalmentalstatesessential→ Learningdoesn’tnecessarilyresultinbehaviourchange

- Vicariousconditioning(learningconsequencesofanactionbyobservingitsconsequencesforanother)- Tutelage(teachingconceptsprimarilythroughverbalexplanation)- Theindividualactiveinlearningprocess;mosthumanbehaviourisacquiredbyobservation- Anindividual’slearningandperformancedependson

→ Motorreproduction→ Motivation→ Attention→ Retention

- Bandura:reciprocaldeterminismin1986→ Individuals,theirbehavioursandsocialenvironmentaredynamicallyboundtogether→ Individuals:self-identity,self-esteem,self-efficacy,expectancy→ Overtbehaviour:actionsandperformancelevel→ Socialenvironment:distinctivegroupconceptions,socialstatus,socialinteractions

- Learningoccurswithinthesocialspheresandcontextof:→ Family:firstexperienceswithinfamily,childrenmodelbehaviourandattitudeonfamily→ Peergroups:interact,behave,conforminsociallyacceptableways→ Communitygroups:normative(religious/belief),civil(political,charity),interest(sport,photography),vocational

Bandura:‘BoboDollExperiment’onchildren’saggressivebehaviourin1961

→ Investigationintowhethersocialbehaviourscanbeacquiredthroughimitation→ 1/3childrenwatchedadultbehaveaggressivelytowardsblowuptoy;1/3exposedtononaggressivebehaviourtowardsdoll;1/3

notexposedtoanymodelatall→ Childrenbroughtintoanotherroomwithaggressiveandnonaggressivetoys;behaviourobservedinonewaymirrorevery5secs→ Childrenwithaggressivemodelsactedmoreaggressively;boysorelikelytoimitatesame-sexmodelsthangirls;boysactedmore

physicallyaggressivethangirls;verbalaggressionsimilarbetweengroups→ FindingssupportBandura’sSocialLearningTheory–socialbehaviourlearnedthroughobservationallearning→ Implicationsforeffectofmediaviolenceonchildren

ImplicationsHealthprofessionals

→ Learningshouldbefacilitatedwheneverprocessofmotivationtoattendtotargetbehaviourandimproveretentionofmodelledeventincorporated

→ Selectmodelwithwhomindividualcloselyidentifies,advisethemtomodeltargetbehaviour,reinforcemodelforcorrectattemptsatbehaviour,laterencourageindividualtodobehaviour,reinforceindividualforcorrectbehaviourproductions

Promoteroleoffamilies

→ Establishcommunicationlinkswithfamilies→ Makefamilymemberswelcome→ Fivefamilyactiveroleintasktohelpindividual’slearning→ Explaintermsoftherapytofamily→ Involvefamilyaseducatorsandrolemodels

ALHT106–Semester1Notes 6

→ Promoteintergenerationallearning

Promotepeerintegrationandcohesion

→ Usesmallgrouplearningtoencourageparticipation→ Strategiesforhealthycompetitionintask→ Varycompositionofgroups→ Assignspecificrolestomembers→ Organisetrips,extra-curricularactivitiestofostergroupcohesion

Promotepositiveself-identityandself-esteem

→ Mixedabilitygroups→ Encouragerecognitionofeachmemberscontribution→ Identifythosenotparticipatingandintegrate→ Permitfriendlycompetition→ Assigndifferentroles→ Protectfrompublicfailure→ Clientsopportunitiestobeteachers→ Recogniseeffortandachievement→ Celebrateindividualsuccess→ Praisecontribution→ Errors=opportunitiestolearnconstructively→ Avoidsarcasm,criticism,comparison

CognitiveApproachesToLearningCognitivism:theorythatattemptstoanswerhow/whypeoplelearnbyattributingprocessestocognitiveactivityFocusonperception,memoryandconceptformation,↑engagementinhypotheico-deductivescientificinquiryImplicationforhealthprofessionals:- Cuesustoaskwhysomeonecan’tcompleteatask- Cognitivefactors:languageissue,memoryissue,

processingspeed,executivefunctioning(planningproblem,sequencing,reasoning,attention)

- Motivationandemotion:personality,ICF(internationalclassificationoffunctioning)personalfactors

ExperientialLearningandConstructivismExperiential–learningthroughaction,doing,experience,discoveryandexplorationConstructivism–explainshowpeopleacquireknowledgeandlearn,fromexperiencesKolb’sCycleofExperientialLearningàKolb–implications:- Differencebetweenyouandyourpeers,lecturers,

professionalpracticeeducators,clientPiagetandtheOriginsofIntelligenceIntelligenceseenasevolvingwithphysicalmaturationandexperience,threefundamentalprinciples:

1. Equilibrium2. Organisation3. Adaption

Implications:- Createdisequilibriumtochallengeclient- Encouragesproblem-solvingandanalysis- Providesphysical,interactive,manipulativetoolstoworkwith- AllowsexplorationofenvironmentVygotsky:ZoneofProximalDevelopment(ZPD)Implications:- Guidedlearning:jointknowledgeconstructedbyclientandclinicianbyclinician

managinglearning- Scaffolding:provideappropriatesupportstohelpclientsconstructnewknowledge

→ Clinicianprovidesscaffolds→ Teachclienttoself-scaffolde.g.self-talk→ Removescaffoldsasclientlearnstask→ Re-introducescaffoldsiftaskisaltered

ALHT106–Semester1Notes 7

PersonalLearningTheoriesLearningStyle DescriptionDeepLearning DeveloprealunderstandingSurfaceLearning LearningjustenoughtopasstaskStrategicLearning

Deliberatesurfacelearninge.g.forexam

BehaviourChangeSelecttargetbehaviour→identifycontingencies(antecedents,consequences)→measuringandrecordingbehaviour(narrativerecording,counting,timing,checking,rating)

1. Precontemplation2. Contemplation3. Preparation4. Action5. Maintenanceortermination

Sensation and Perception Sensation:bodygathersinformationaboutenvironment,transmitsinfotobrainviaelectricalenergyforinitialprocessingPerception:activeprocess,bywhichthebrainselects,organisesandinterpretssensoryinformationOutlinethethreebasicprinciplesandprocessesthatapplyacrossallsenses

1. Noone-to-onecorrespondencebetweenphysicalandpsychologicalreality2. Sensationandperceptionareactiveprocesses,whereenergyisconvertedintoaninternalrepresentation3. Sensationandperceptionareadaptive,servingafunctionalpurposetofacilitatesurvivalandreproduction

Describetheprocessescommontoallsensorysystems- Detectphysicalenergye.g.lightwaves- Transduction:translatephysicalstimulationintoneuralsignals

→ Processoftransformingoneformofenergyintoanother→ Sensoryreceptorsspecialisedtorespondtoenvironmentalenergy,whichisconvertedintoneuralimpulseswhichare

interpretedbybraino Visual(lightenteringeye),auditory(pressurechangesinair),touch(pressuretransmittedthroughskin),smell

(chemicalsenternose),taste(chemicalsentermouth)- Threshold:eachsystemrequiresaminimumamountofenergytoactivatethesystem

→ Signaldetectiontheoryproposestwodistinctprocessesrequiredfordetectingastimulus:o Initialsensoryprocess:observer’ssensitivitytostimuluso Decisionprocess:observer’sresponsebias

→ Peopledifferintimeittakestoreachthresholde.g.painthresholds- Sensationinvolvesefficientandautomaticdecisionmaking- Sensorysystemsaresensitivetochangesinstimulationlevel

→ Tendencyofsensorysystemstorespondlesstostimulithatcontinuewithoutchange→ Makessensefromevolutionaryperspective;constantsensoryinputprovidesnonewinformationaboutenvironment→ Habituatingtostimuliuseful,onlyrespondtousefulcues

ExplainhowlightwavelengthsaretransformedintovisionandcolourLight- Electromagneticspectrumisacontinuumof

electromagneticenergy–producedbyelectricchargesandradiatedaswaves

- Visiblelightrangesfrom400-700nanometres

Eye- Containreceptorsforvision- Lightentersviapupil,focusedbythecornea

andlenstoformsharpimagesofobjectsontheretina

Retina- Visualreceptors,rodsandconescontain

lightsensitivechemicals(visualpigments)whichrespondtolightandtriggerelectricalsignalswhichtravelviaopticnervetobrain- Shape:rodsarelargeandcylindrical,conesaresmallandtaperedprovidingdetailedvision- Distributiononretina:imagefallsonfoveaconsistingofcones,peripheryhasmorerodsthancones- Approximately120millionrods,6millioncones- Informationprocessing:signalsgeneratedtraveltobipolarcellsthentoganglioncells.Ganglionaxonstransmitsignalsoutofretinain

opticnerve

ALHT106–Semester1Notes 8

BlindSpot- Areainretinacontainingnoreceptors- Locatedoffsideofvisualfield- AmechanisminbrainfillsinplacewhereimagedisappearsVisualpathways- Signalstransmittedviaopticnervetolateralgeniculatenucleus(LGN,groupofneurons)ofthalamus- SignalsthentraveltovisualreceivingareainstriatecortexWhat(ventral)andWhere(dorsal)pathways- Fromprimaryvisualcortex,visualinfoflowsalongtwoprocessingstreams- What:involvedindeterminingwhatanobjectis,incorporatestemporallobe,neutralstream- Where:locatingobjectinspace,followsitsmovements,guidingmovementtowardsit,dorsalstreamPerceivinginColourBrightness–intensityofcolour;Hue–typeofcolour;Saturation–purityofcolour,addingwhitereducessaturationRetinaltransductionofcolour–coneswithdifferentphotosensitivepigmentsrespondinvaryingdegreestodifferentwavelengthsofthespectrum,conereceptorsfatigueafterprolongedstaringTheoriesofColourVision- TrichromaticTheory(Young-Helmholtz)

→ Colourisexplainedbydifferentialactivationof3colourreceptorsineye- Opponent-ProcessTheory

→ Coloursderivedfromactivityof3antagonisticsystems(black-white,red-green,blue-yellow)- Boththeoriesarecomplementary:Trichromaticappliestoretina,Opponent-ProcessappliesathighervisualcentresinbrainExplainhowsoundwavesaretransformedintohearingSound:pressurechangesintheairorothermedium(physical);istheexperiencewehavewhenwehear(perceptual)Pressurechanges- Vibrationscausepressurechangesinair/watersurroundingobject- Pattern=soundwave- Speedofsoundinair=340metres/second- HearingistheexperiencecausedbysoundwavesNatureofSound- Frequency(pitch)=timespersecondthepressurechangesrepeat,

measuredinHz- Complexity(texture)=howmanyfrequencies- Amplitude(loudness)=differencebetweenhighandlowpeaks,measuredindecibels(Db)

OuterEar § Soundwavesfirstpasshere

§ Consistsofpinnaandauditorycanal§ Collectsandmagnifiessounds

MiddleEar § Whensoundwavesreachtympanicmembrane,theycauseittovibrate§ Vibrationistransmittedtostructuresinmiddleear§ Ossicles-malleus(hammer)movesduetovibration;incus(anvil)transmitsvibrationofmalleus;stapes

(stirrup)transmitsvibrationsofincustoinnerearviaovalwindowofcochleaInnerEar § Cochlea–fluid-filled,snail-likestructureapprox.35mmlong

§ SemicircularcanalsTransduction(actionofcochlea)- Movementofstapescreatespressurechangesofliquidincochlea- Cochlearpartitionmovesinupanddownmotion- MotioncausesOrganofCortitovibrateandthetectorialmembranetomove- Motioncausesciliaofinnerhaircellstobend- Triggersactionpotentialsinsensoryneuronsformingauditorynerve,whichtransmitsauditoryinfotobrain

ALHT106–Semester1Notes 9

SensingPitch- Placetheory

→ Differentareasofthebasilarmembranearemaximallysensitivetodifferentfrequencies- Frequencytheory

→ BasilarmembranevibratesmorefrequentlybasedonfrequencyofsoundwavesNeuralPathwaysSensoryinformationtransmittedalongauditorynerve,endsupinauditorycortexoftemporallobes’SoundlocalisationCriticalcues:differenceinloudness,timingofsoundsarrivingateachearDistinguishthefunctionsofsmell,taste,touch,thevestibular,andkinaestheticsystemsOlfaction/smell § Functions:detectdanger,detectspoiledfoods

§ Gasmoleculesinair,enterbodythroughnoseandmouth§ Smellreceptorslocatedinnasalcavities§ Transductionofsmelloccursinolfactoryepithelium(thinpairofstructuresattopofnasalcavities)§ Movementofciliainolfactoryepitheliumtransducesphysicalenergy-Chemicalmoleculesinairbecometrappedinmucusofepithelium,theymakecontactwitholfactoryreceptorcells;axonsofolfactoryreceptorsformolfactorynerveswhichtransmitsinfotoolfactorybulb,informationtravelstoprimaryolfactorycortexdeepinfrontallobes

Taste § Functions:protectorganismfromingestingtoxicsubstances,regulatesintakeofnutrientse.g.sugarsandsalt§ Contributionofnoseandmouthtotasteisalmostindistinguishable§ Transductionoccursintastebuds(withinpapillae),eachcontaining50-150receptorcells§ Tastereceptorsstimulateneuronsthatcarryinfotomedullarandponsofbrain,thenalong1of2pathways:- Leadstothalamusandgustatorycomplex(respondstosweet,sour,salty,bittertastes)toenableidentificationof

tastes- Leadstolimbicsystemtoproduceimmediateemotionalandbehaviouralresponses

Touch § Function:protectbodyfrominjury,aidinidentifyingobjects,maintainbodytemperature,facilitatesocialinteraction

§ Mixtureofpressure,temperatureofobjects,pain§ Touchreceptorsrespondtodifferentaspectsofthesequalities§ Painpreventstissuedamage(↓timeofinjury),adaptivetoadegree- Whencellsaredamaged,chemicalsreleasedstimulatingfreenerveendingtotransmitpainmessages- Influencedbyculturalbeliefs,emotionalstates,personality(painthresholds)

Vestibular § ProprioceptiveSenses:registerbodypositionandmovement§ Providesinformationaboutthepositionofthebodyinspacebysensinggravityandmovement

Kinaesthetic § ProprioceptiveSenses:registerbodypositionandmovement§ Providesinformationaboutmovementandpositionoflimbsandotherpartsofthebodyrelativetooneanother

DescribethevariouswaysinwhichperceptionisorganisedPerceptualOrganisation:- Organisingsensoryexperience- Formsperception:organisationofsensationsintomeaningfulshapesandpatterns- GestaltPsychologists:proposedthewholediffersfromthesumofitsparts,perceptionisn’tbuiltfromsensations,butistheresultof

perceptualorganisation,involvingthegroupingofelementsinanimagetocreatelargerobjectsDepthPerception:- Organisationofperceptionin3dimensions- 2kindsofvisualinfoprovideimportantinfoaboutdepthanddistance:

→ Binocularcues:visualinputintegratedfromthetwoeyes→ Monocularcues:visualinputfromoneeye

- Interposition,elevation,texturegradient,linearperspective,shading,aerialperspective,familiarsize,relativesizeMotionPerception:- Perceptionofmovementofobjects- Ganglioncells(motiondetectors)particularlysensitivetomovementPerceptualConstancy:- Colour:tendencytoperceiveobjectcolourasstable,evenunderconditionsofchangingillumination- Shape:werecogniseanobjectashavingthesameshapedespiteviewingfromdifferentangle/distance- Size:objectsdon’tappeartodifferinsizewhenviewedfromdifferentdistance

Intell igence and Memory MemoryDescribehowinformationisencoded,storedandretrievedinlong-termmemory

ALHT106–Semester1Notes 10

• AcDveencodingpayscrucialroleinmemory• AoenDontoinformaDonessenDaltoremembering,involvingfocusingawarenessonnarrowrangeofsDmuli• SelecDveaoenDon=criDcaltoeverydayfuncDoning,likenedtoafiltertoscreenoutmostsDmuli• CogniDveloadinfluenceslocaDonofaoenDonalfilter(Lavie,2005)• DividedaoenDonreducesmemoryperformance(Craik,2001)• Levelsofprocessing:CraikandLockhart(1972)proposedthatincominginformaDoncanbeprocessedatdifferentlevels:Structural,Phonemic,SemanDc;deeperlevelsofprocessingresultinlongerlasDngmemorycodes• Improvingencoding:elaboraDon(linkingsDmulustootherinfoatDmeofencoding),visualimagery(visualimagestorepresentwords),self-referent(whetherinfoisself-relevantornot),moDvaDontoremember(highmoDvaDon,greaterrecall)

Encoding-formingamemorycode

• SensoryMemory:preservesinfoinoriginalsensoryformforabriefDme,itisadapDve,canbeofvisual(iconic)orauditory(echoic)info• Fullreport-typicallyonlyrecall4-5itemsfrom12,sensaDonyou'veseenmorebydisappearedbeforereported• ParDalreport-Sperling(1960),avoidsproblemofforgeMngduringreporDng,parDcipantsdon'tknowwhichrowwillbeselectedthusreporttreatedasrepresentaDveofwholearray,reported3itms(75%ofdisplay),sensorymemorycapacaityisvirtuallyunlimited

• Short-TermMemory:limitedcapacitystorethatmaintainsunrehearsedinfofor10-20seconds• rehearsal-processofrepeDDvelyverbalisinginfotomaintaininSTM• capacity-limitedto7(+/-2)(Miller,1956),whenfilledtocapacitynewinforeplacesold[Cowan2005arguesittobe<7aspreviousresearchdidntaccountforchunking-groupingoffamiliarsDmularasoneunit

• WorkingMemory-morecomplexmodelofshorttermmemoryproposedbyBaddeley• Long-TermMemory:unlimitedcapacitystore(theory-allinfostoredinLTM,forgeMngreflectsretrievalissue)• Knowledgeinmemory:• ClusteringàspontaneousorganisaDonofinformaDonintocategoriesforstorage,Bousfield(1953)• ConceptualHierarchiesàmulDlevelclassificaDonsystembasedoncommonproperDesamongitems,Bower1970• SchemaàorganisedclusterofknowledgeaboutparDcularobject/event• MorelikelytorememberinformaDonconsistentwithschemasoninfo,TuckeyandBrewer(2003)• BeoerrecallofinfoviolaDngschemaalsonoted,duetoincreasedaoenDonanddeepprocessing• SemanDcNetworksànodesrepresenDngconcepts,joinedbypathwayslinkedtopics,acDvaDonofanodespreadsalongpathway(spreadingacDvaDon)

Storage-maintainingencodedinformaDonoverDme

• retrievalcuesaresDmulithathelpsyougainaccesstomemories(richerretrievalcue,easiertoremember)• Contexteffect-recallbeoerwhenencodingandretrievalhavesamecontext,mood-dependdentmemory• Realitymonitoring-processofdecidingwhethermemoriesarebasedonactualpercepDonofevents(externalsources)orone'sthoughtsandijmaginaDons(internalsources)• Sourcemonitoring-processofmakinginferencesaboutoriginsofmemories,errorsinsourcemonitoringoccurwhenmemoryfromonesourceismisaoributedtoanothersource

Retrieval-recoveringinformaDonfrommemorystores

DescribeworkingmemoryMorecomplexmodelofshort-termmemoryBaddeley’sModel- Phonologicalloop

→ EquivalenttoSTMinpreviousmodels→ Involvedinrehearsalofinformation

- Visuospatialsketchpad→ Enablespeopletoholdandmanipulatevisualimagese.g.mapoutroutetotravelhomeinmind

- Centralexecutive→ Controlsallocation,switchinganddividingattention→ Coordinatesactionofothercomponents

- EpisodicBuffer→ Temporary,limitedcapacitystoreallowingcomponentsofWMtointegrateinformation→ ServesasaninterfacebetweenWMandLTM→ ConceptofWMstillcontainscharacteristicofSTM–limitedcapacity,storageduration→ WMcapacityisone’sabilitytoholdandmanipulateinformationinconsciousattention,influencedbyindividualdifferences

andsituationalfactors

ALHT106–Semester1Notes 11

Memory

Long-termMemory

DeclaraDveMemory

EpisodicMemory

SemanDcMemory

Non-declaraDve

Short-termMemory

Explainwhyremembering,misrememberingandforgettingoccurEbbinghaus’sCurve–hisstudylookedatmemoryfornonsensesyllables;overtime,hisretentionofnonsensematerialdroppedconsiderably(seeninretentioncurve)Whydoweforget?- IneffectiveCoding

→ Typicallyduetolackofattention(pseudoforgetting)→ Levelofprocessinginfluencesextenttowhich

materialisforgotten- Decay

→ Attributesforgettingtotheimpermanenceofmemorystorage→ Memorytracesfadeovertime

- Interference→ Proposesthatpeopleforgetinformationbecauseofcompetitionfromothermaterial→ Controlledbymeasuringsimilaritybetweenoriginalmaterialbeingtestedandmaterialstudiedin

interveningperiod→ Greatestwheninterveningmaterialismostsimilartotestmaterial(McGeoch,

McDonald,1931)→ Retroactiveinterference:newinformationimpairsretentionofpreviously

learnedinformation→ Proactiveinterference:previouslylearnedinformationinterfereswithretention

ofnewinformation- RetrievalFailure

→ Encodingspecificityprinciple:valueofaretrievalcuedependsonhowwellitcorrespondstothememorycode

→ Transferappropriateprocessing:occurswheninitialprocessingofinformationissimilartotypeofprocessingrequiredbysubsequentmeasureofretention

DescribetheneuropsychologyofmemoryThosewhosufferfromamnesia(deficitinmemoryduetobraindamage)providekeyinsightsintophysiologyofmemoryH.M.- Medialportionsoftemporalloberemoved- Resultedin↓convulsionseverityandfrequency;remainedemotionallystable;

suffereddevastatingamnesia- Ourunderstandingofmemoryhasbeengreatlyenhancedbyneuropsychological

patientH.M- Unabletoformlong-termmemories,normalshort-termmemory(showedimplicit

notexplicitmemory)- Showedretentionofcertaintypesoftasks,despitenoconsciousrecollectionSystemsandTypesofMemory

§ Declarative:factsandevents§ Procedural:knowledgeofproceduresandskills§ Semantic:generalworldknowledgeandfacts§ Episodic:memoriesofparticularevents§ Explicit:recollectionofinformation§ Implicit:memoryexpressedinbehaviourthatdoesn’trequireconsciousrecollection

- Prospectivememorycanhavesignificantimpactoncurrentlifestylee.g.knowledgeofwhentotakemedicinemaybeimpaired,needforfull-timecarer

Outlinethemajortypesoflong-termmemoryLong-termmemoryisanunlimitedcapacitystoreOnetheoryproposesforgettingreflectsissuesinretrievalofinformationratherthanstoragePenfieldandPerot(1963)- Memoriestriggeredbyelectricalbrainstimulation- Temporallobestimulationàvividdescriptionsofeventslongago- AssumedtobeexactplaybacksoflonglostmemoriesFlashbulbMemory- Unusuallyvividanddetailedrecollectionsofcircumstanceswherepeoplelearnedof

momentouseventsPermanencyIssues- RemarkablememoriesactivatedbyEBSàinvolvedmajordistortions- Flashbulbmemoriesàlessdetailedovertime,ofteninaccurate- Noconclusiveevidenceofpermanentstorage

OnsetofAmnesia

RetrogradeAmnesia

priortoonsetofbraindamage,can'trecall

memories,lovedonesetc.

AnterogradeAmnesia

memorylosspostbraindamage,can'tformnew

memories