1. Report of the National Commission forReligious and Linguistic MinoritiesMinistry of Minority Affairs

2. Report of the National Commission forReligious and Linguistic MinoritiesMinistry of Minority Affairs 3. Designed and Layout byNew Concept Information Systems Pvt. Ltd., Tel.: 26972743Printing byAlaknanda Advertising Pvt. Ltd., Tel.: 9810134115 4. CONTENTSChapter IIntroduction1Chapter II Constitutional and Legislative Provisions Regarding the Minorities3Chapter IIIReligious Minorities and their Status12Chapter IV Linguistic Minorities and their Status 31Chapter VStatus of Women among Minorities 41Chapter VI Criteria for Identifying backward Sections among Religious Minorities 56Chapter VIIMeasures for Welfare and Development of Minorities 72Chapter VIII Reservation as a Welfare Measure114Chapter IX Demands for amending Constitution (SC) Order, 1950139Chapter XRecommendations and Modalities for their Implementation 144Note of Dissent by Member - Secretary156Note on Dissent Note (written by Member Dr T Mahmood and 169endorsed by Chairman & other two members)Appendices1.Texts of the Government Resolutions and Notications 1732.List of Workshops sponsored by the Commission1803.List of Studies sponsored by the Commission1814.Names of the States/UTs visited by the Commission1825.Contents of Volume II1836.Sex Ratio of Population: 1991 and 2001 and 0-6 years: 2001 1847.Schedule of Socio-economic Parameters185 5. 1 Chapter 1INTRODUCTIONThe Commission and its Task Rights Commission . (Chairman)(b) Professor Dr. Tahir Mahmood: FormerOn 29th October 2004 the Government of IndiaChairman, National Commission forresolved to constitute a National CommissionMinorities & Ex-Dean, Faculty of Law, Delhiconsisting of (i) a Chairman, (ii) three MembersUniversity one of them being an Expert in Constitution (c) Dr. Anil Wilson: Principal, St Stephensand Law and (iii) a Member-Secretary with College, Delhiadministrative experience, to be entrusted with (d) Dr. Mohinder Singh: Director, Nationalthe following Terms of Reference: Institute of Punjab Studies, Delhi(a) to suggest criteria for identication ofsocially and economically backward4. The Commission held its rst meeting onsections among religious and linguistic the same date with Dr. Sundeep Khanna,minorities; Additional Secretary in the Union Ministry of(b) to recommend measures for welfare ofSocial Justice and Empowerment, as its Actingsocially andeconomically backward Secretary. At this meeting the Commissionsections among religious and linguistic assumed for itself the abbreviation NCRLMminorities, includingreservation in National Commission for Religious andeducation and government employment;Linguistic Minorities and charted out itsand future programme of action.(c) to suggest the necessary constitutional,legal and administrative modalities 5. The Commission was allotted an ofce atrequired for the implementation of itsthe Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium in Delhi andrecommendations.sanctioned a secretariat of 40 posts in variouscadres (later increased to 44), which wereThe Commission was asked to present a reportgradually lled in the coming months.on its deliberations and recommendations,within a period of six months from the date of6. Mrs. Asha Das, a former Secretary toassumption of charge by the Chairman. Government of India, was later appointed asthe Member-Secretary of the Commission2. The actual composition of the Commission and assumed charge of her ofce onwas notied nearly ve months later, in March 10 May, 2005.2005, by the Union Ministry of Social Justiceand Empowerment.7. After nearly ve months of its work theCommissions Terms of Reference were modied3. On 21 March 2005 the following took charge so as to add the following to its original Terms ofas Chairman and Members of the Commission:Reference:(a) Justice Ranganath Misra: Former Chief Justice To give its recommendations on the issues raisedof India & Ex-Chairman, National Humanin WPs 180/04 and 94/05 led in the SupremeIntroduction 6. 2Court and in certain High Courts relating to sector undertakings, nancial institutions,para 3 of the Constitution (Scheduled Castes)major banks and select NGOs;Order 1950 in the context of ceiling of 50 (g) visiting the States and Union Territoriespercent on reservations as also the modalities to interact with members and officersof inclusion in the list of Scheduled Castes.of the local governments and of the local minority community leaders and8. In view of the extensive work requiredrepresentatives;to be done by the Commission to answer (h) inviting researchers, subject experts,its various Terms of Reference, original and academics, and representatives andextended, its tenure was periodically extended spokespersons of various minorities, etc nally up to 15th May, 2007. individually and in groups for a discussion of issues relevant the Commissions work;Procedure Adopted(i) examining the old and recent reports of bodies and panels like Kaka Kelkar1. As the Commission was authorised by the Commission, Mandal Commission,Government to adopt its own procedure, itBackward Classes Commission, Gopal Singhwas decided to gradually follow an actionPanel, etc.;programme comprising of the following: (j) sponsoring seminars, symposia and(a) assessments of data available though Censusworkshops on the issues involved to be Reports, NSSO survey reports and NFHS and organised by outside institutions with a wide other special agencies. participation of subject experts, academics,(b) obtaining peoples views and public opinionresearchers and eld workers; and on each of its Terms of Reference through a (k) procuring special studies of select topics multi-lingual press notication;relevant to the Commissions work by(c) collectingnecessaryinformation,assigning these to individual experts and through personalmeetings andresearchers. questionnaires, fromtheMinistries and Departments of the Union Government 2. Texts of the Government Resolution and and from the Governments of the States andNotications relating to the Commission and its Union Territories;Terms of Reference are appended to this Volume(d) meetingrepresentativesofandof the Report (Appendix-1.1-1.5). collecting relevant information from the central and state-level governmen-3. A list of Workshops and Studies sponsored -talandparastatalcommissions, by the Commission, names of the States/ corporations, federations, boards and UTs visited, copy of Press release seeking organisations, etc. especially workingviews of NGOs and members of public on for the minorities like the central and the Terms of Reference of the Commission state Minorities Commissions, Nationaland the contents of Volume II are Minorities Development and Financeappended to this Volume of the Report Corporation and its state channelising(Appendix-2-5). agencies, Central Wakf Council and state Wakf Boards, etc. 4. Text of major notifications and(e) collectingnecessary informationquestionnaires issued by the Commission in from majoroutts,organisations, respect of its work, summary of reports on associations and institutions of each State visits and thefindings and of the minority communities;recommendations of studies and workshops(f ) having discussions with and collectingsponsored by the Commission are being relevant information from publicincluded in Vol. II of the report.Report of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 7. 3 Chapter 2CONSTITUTIONAL AND LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONSREGARDING THE MINORITIESWho are the Minorities? 3. As regards religious minorities at thenational level in India, all those who profess1. The Constitution of India uses the worda religion other than Hindu are consideredminority or its plural form in some Articles 29 minorities since over 80 percent populationto 30 and 350A to 350 B but does not dene it of the country professes Hindu religion. Atanywhere. Article 29 has the word minoritiesthe national level, Muslims are the largestin its marginal heading but speaks of anyminority. Other minorities are much smallersections of citizens. having a distinctin size. Next to the Muslims are the Christianslanguage, script or culture. This may be (2.34 percent) and Sikhs (1.9 percent);a whole community generally seen as while all the other religious groups are stilla minority or a group within a majority smaller. As regards linguistic minorities,community. Article30 speaks specically there is no majority at the national levelof two categories of minorities religious and the minority status is to be essentiallyand linguistic. The remaining two Articlesdecided at the State/Union Territory level. 350A and 350B relate to linguisticAt the State/Union Territory level whichminorities only.is quite important in a federal structure likeours the Muslims are the majority in the2. In common parlance, the expression State of Jammu and Kashmir and the Unionminority means a group comprising lessTerritory of Lakshadweep. In the Statesthan half of the population and differing of Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland,from others, especially the predominant Christians constitute the majority. Sikhs aresection, in race, religion, traditions andthe majority community in the State ofculture, language, etc. The Oxford Dictionary Punjab. No other religious communitydenes Minority as a smaller number oramong the minorities is a majority in anypart; a number or part representing lessother State/UT.than half of the whole; a relatively smallgroup of people, differing from others in 4. The National Commission for Minoritiesrace,religion, language orpolitical Act, 1992 says that Minority for the purposepersuasion. A special Sub-Committee on of the Act, means a community notied asthe Protection of Minority Rights appointed such by the Central Government- Sectionby the United Nations Human Rights2(7). Acting under this provision on 23-10-Commission in 1946 dened the minority as 1993, the Central Government notied thethose non-dominant groups in a populationMuslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist and Parsiwhich possess a wish to preserve stable (Zoroastrian) communities to be regarded asethnic, religious and linguistic traditions orminorities for the purpose of this Act.characteristics markedly different from thoseof the rest of population. 5. The Supreme Court in TMA Pai Foundation& Ors vrs State of Karnataka and Ors (2002)Constitutional and Legislative Provisions Regarding the Minorities 8. 4has held that for the purpose of Article 30 a in dignity and rights and prohibit all kindsminority, whether linguistic or religious, is of discrimination racial, religious etc. Thedeterminable with reference to a State and notUN Declaration against all Forms of Religiousby taking into consideration the population Discrimination and Intolerance 1981 outlawsof the country as a whole. Incidentally,all kinds of religion-based discrimination. TheScheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are UN Declaration on the Rights of Minorities 1992also to be identied at the State/UT level. Inenjoins the States to protect the existence andterms of Article 341 to 342 of the Constitution,identity of minorities within their respectivecastes, races or tribes or parts of or groups territories and encourage conditions forwithin castes, races or tribes are to be notiedpromotion of that identity; ensure that personsas Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes inbelonging to minorities fully and effectivelyrelation to the State or Union Territory, as theexercise human rights and fundamentalcase may be.freedoms with full equality and without anydiscrimination; create favourable conditions6. The State Minorities Commission Acts to enable minorities to express theirusually empower the local governments tocharacteristics and develop their culture,notify the minorities e.g. Bihar Minorities language, religion, traditions and customs;Commission Act, 1991, Section 2(c); Karnataka plan and implement national policy andMinorities Commission Act 1994, Section programmes with due regard to the legitimate2(d); UP Minorities Commission Actinterests of minorities; etc.1994, Section 2(d); West Bengal MinoritiesCommission Act 1996, Section 2(c); A.P. 8. In India, Articles 15 and 16 of theMinorities Commission Act 1998, Section 2(d). Constitution prohibit the State from makingSimilar Acts of M.P. (1996) and Delhi (1999), any discrimination on the grounds only ofhowever, say that Governments Noticationreligion, race, caste, sex, descent place of birth,issued under the NCM Act, 1992 will apply inresidence or any of them either generally i.e.this regard M.P. Act 1996, Section 2(c); Delhievery kind of State action in relation to citizensAct 1999, Section 2(g); Section 2(d). In several(Article 15) or in matters relating to employmentStates (e.g. Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, or appointment to any ofce under the StateMadhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, U.P. and (Article 16). However, the provisions of theseUttarakhand), Jains have been recognised as two Articles do take adequate cognizance ofa minority. The Jain community approached the fact that there had been a wide disparity inthe Supreme Court seeking a direction to thethe social and educational status of differentCentral Government for a similar recognitionsections of a largely caste-based, tradition-at the national level and their demand wasbound society with large scale poverty andsupported by the National Commission forilliteracy. Obviously, an absolute equality amongMinorities. But the Supreme Court did not all sections of the people regardless of specicissue the desired direction, leaving it to thehandicaps would have resulted in perpetuationCentral Government to decide the issue (Bal of those handicaps. There can be equality onlyPatils case, 2005). In a later ruling, however,among equals. Equality means relative equalityanother Bench of the Supreme Court upheld and not absolute equality. Therefore, thethe UP Law recognising Jains as a minorityConstitution permits positive discrimination(Bal Vidyas case, 2006). in favour of the weak, the disadvantaged andthe backward. It admits discrimination withRights of Minoritiesreasons but prohibits discrimination withoutreason. Discrimination with reasons entails7. The Universal Declaration of Human Rightsrational classication having nexus with1948 and its two International Covenants of constitutionally permissible objects. Article1966 declare that all human beings are equal 15 permits the State to make any special Report of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 9. 5provisions for women, children, any sociallyin the list of backward classes and haveand educationally backward class of citizens provided for reservation for them. Theand Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.Supreme Court in Indira Sawhney & Ors.Article 15 has recently been amended by the Vs. Union of India, has held that an entireConstitution (Ninety-third Amendment) Act,community can be treated as a class based2005 to empower the State to make special on its social and educational backwardness.provisions, by law, for admission of socially The Court noted that the Government ofand educationally backward classes of citizensKarnataka based on an extensive surveyor Scheduled Castes/Tribes to educational conducted by them, had identied the entireinstitutions including private educationalMuslim community inhabiting that Stateinstitutions, whether aided or unaided by as a backward class and have provided forthe State, other than minority educationalreservations for them. The expression backwardinstitutions. Article 16, too, has an enablingclasses is religion-neutral and not linkedprovision that permits the State for making with caste and may well include any caste orprovisions for the reservation in appointmentsreligious community which as a class sufferedof posts in favour of any backward class offrom social and educational backwardness.citizens which, in the opinion of the State, isnot adequately represented in the services10. Though economic backwardness is oneunder the State. Notably, while Article 15 of the most important or, perhaps, thespeaks of any socially and educationally single most important reasons responsiblebackward class of citizens and the Scheduled for social and educational backwardnessCastes and Scheduled Tribes without qualifyingalone of a class, the Constitution does notbackwardness with social and educationalspecifically refer to it in Articles 15 and 16. Inattributes and without a special reference to Indira Sawheny case, the Supreme Court hadScheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes, Article16observedspeaks of any backward class of citizens. It is, therefore, clear that economiccriterion by itself will not identify the9. The words class and caste are notbackward classes under Article 16(4). Thesynonymous expressions and do not carry economic backwardness of the backwardthe same meaning. While Articles 15 and 16classes under Article 16(4) has to be onempower the State to make special provisionsaccount of their social and educational for backward classes, they prohibitbackwardness. Hence, no reservation ofdiscrimination only on the ground ofposts in services under the State, basedcaste or religion. In other words, positive exclusively on economic criterion, woulddiscrimination on the ground of caste orbe valid under clause(1) of Article 16 of thereligion coupled with other grounds suchConstitution.as social and educational backwardness isconstitutionally permissible and, therefore,11. It is, however, notable that in theunder a given circumstance it may be possible chapter of the Constitution relating toto treat a caste or religious group as a class. Directive Principles of State Policy, ArticleTherefore even though Article 15 does 46 mandates the State to promote withnot mention minorities in specic terms,special care the educational and economicminorities who are socially and educationally interests of the weaker sections of thebackward are clearly within the ambit ofpeople and shall protect them fromthe term any socially and educationally social injustice and all forms of exploitation.backward classes in Article 15 and anyThis Article refers to Scheduled Castes/backward class in Article 16. Indeed, theScheduled Tribes in particular but doesCentral Government and State Governmentsnot restrict to them the scope of weakerhave included sections of religious minoritiessections of the society.Constitutional and Legislative Provisions Regarding the Minorities 10. 612. Article 340 of the Constitution empowered15. Unlike article 30, the text of article 29 doesthe President to appoint a Commission tonot specically refer to minorities, though itinvestigate the conditions of socially and is quite obvious that the article is intended toeducationally backward classes but did notprotect and preserve the cultural and linguisticmake it mandatory. identity of the minorities. However, its scope is not necessarily conned to minorities.Other Constitutional SafeguardsThe protection of article 29 is available to13. The other measures of protection and any section of the citizens residing in thesafeguard provided by the Constitution interritory of India and this may as well includePart III or elsewhere having a bearing onthe majority. However, India is a colourfulthe status and rights of minorities are: conglomeration of numerous races, religions,(i)Freedom of conscience and free profession,sects, languages, scripts, culture and traditions. practice and propagation of religionThe minorities, whether based on religion or (article 25)language, are quite understandably keen on(ii) Freedom to manage religious affairs preserving and propagating their religious, (article 26)cultural and linguistic identity and heritage.(iii) Freedom as to payment of taxes for Article 29 guarantees exactly that. There may promotion of any particular religionappear to be some overlapping in language (article 27)and expressions employed in article 15(1)(iv) Freedom as to attendance at religious and 29(2). However, article 15(1) contains a instruction or religious worship in general prohibition on discrimination by the certain educational institutions (article State against any citizen on grounds only of 28) religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of(v) Special provision relating to language them; whereas article 29(2) affords protection spoken by a section of the population of aagainst a particular species of State action, State (article 347) viz, admission into educational institution(vi) Language to be used in representationsmaintained by the State or receiving aid out of for redress of grievances (article 350) State funds.(vii) Facilities for instruction in mother tongue at primary stage (article 350A)Article 30(viii) Special Ofcer for linguistic minorities16. Article 30 is a minority-specific provision (article 350 B) that protects the right of minorities to establish and administer educationalArticle 29 institutions. It provides that all minorities,14. Article 29 and 30 deal with cultural and whether based on religion or language, shalleducational rights of minorities. Article 29 have the right to establish and administerprovides that: educational institutions of their choice.(1) any section of the citizens residing in theClause (1-A) of the article 30, which wasterritory of India or any part thereof havinginserted by the Constitution (Forty-fourtha distinct language, script or culture of itsAmendment) Act, 1978 provides that inown shall have the right to conserve the making any law providing for the compulsorysame, andacquisition of any property of an educational(2) no citizen shall be denied admission institution established and administeredinto anyeducationalinstitution by a minority, referred to in clause (1), themaintained by the State or receiving aid State shall ensure that the amount fixedout of State funds on grounds only ofby or determined under such law for thereligion, race, caste, language or any ofacquisition of such property is such asthem.would not restrict or abrogate the rightReport of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 11. 7guaranteed under that clause. Article 30 intention of instilling condence amongfurther provides that the State shall not, inminorities against any legislative or executivegranting aid to educational institutions, encroachment on their right to establish anddiscriminate against any educationaladminister educational institutions. In theinstitution on the ground that it is underabsence of such an explicit provision, it mightthe management of a minority, whether have been possible for the State to control orbased on religion and language.regulate educational institutions, establishedby religious or linguistic minorities, by law17. It would be worthwhile to note that enacted under clause(6) of article 19.minority educational institutions referred toin clause(1) of article 30 have been kept out ofLegal Framework for Protection ofthe purview of article 15(4) of the ConstitutionReligious Minoritieswhich empowers the State to make provisions 20. Legislations such as the Protection ofby law for the advancement of any socially andCivil Rights Act, 1955 [formerly known aseducationally backward classes of citizensUntouchability (Offences) Act, 1955] and theor SCs/STs in regard to their admission toScheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribeseducational institutions (including private (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989 have beeneducational institutions), whether aided or enacted by the Central Government to protectunaided.persons belonging to Scheduled Castesand Scheduled Tribes from untouchability,18. Articles 29 and 30 have been groupeddiscrimination, humiliation, etc. No legislationtogether under a common head namely,of similar nature exists for minorities thoughCultural and Educational Rights. Together,it may be argued that, unlike the latter Act.they confer four distinct rights on minorities. viz, the Scheduled Castes and the ScheduledThese include the right of: Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989, the(a) any section of citizens to conserve its own former Act, viz, the Protection of Civil Rightslanguage, script or culture;Act, 1955 is applicable across the board to(b) all religious and linguistic minorities toall cases of untouchability related offencesestablish and administer educationalregardless of religion. Therefore, if a Scheduledinstitutions of their choice; Caste convert to Islam or Christianity (or any(c) an educationalinstitution against other person) is subjected to untouchability,discrimination by State in the matter ofthe perpetrators of the offences may beState aid (on the ground that it is under proceeded against under the provisions ofthe management of religious or linguistic the Act. However, no precise information isminority); andavailable in regard to the Act being invoked(d) the citizen against denial of admission to protect a person of minority community.to any State-maintained or State-aidedThe law enforcing agencies appear toeducational institution.be harbouring a misconception that theProtection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 has been19. Article 29, especially clause (1) thereof,enacted to protect only Scheduled Castesis more generally worded, whereas article against enforcement of untouchability related30 is focused on the right of minorities to offences. There is, thus, a case for sensitising(i) establish and (ii) administer educational the law enforcement authorities/agencies ininstitutions. Notwithstanding the fact that this regard. Having said that, one cannot resistthe right of the minority to establish andthe impression that the Protection of Civiladminister educational institutions would Rights Act, 1955 has failed to make much ofbe protected by article 19(1)(g), the framers an impact due to its tardy implementationof the Constitution incorporated articlenotwithstanding the fact that the offences30 in the Constitution with the obvious under this Act are cognizable and triableConstitutional and Legislative Provisions Regarding the Minorities 12. 8summarily. The annual report on the for the protection of the interests ofProtection of Civil Rights Act for the year minorities by the Central Government or2003 (latest available) laid on the Table ofthe State Governments;each House of Parliament u/s 15A(4) of the (d)looking into specic complaints regardingAct reveals that only 12 States and UTs had deprivation of rights and safeguards of theregistered cases under the Act during thatminorities and take up such matters withyear. Out of 651 cases so registered, 76.04 the appropriate authorities;percent (495) cases were registered in (e)causing studies to be undertaken intoAndhra Pradesh alone. The number of cases problems arising out of any discriminationregistered in nine States/UTs varied from against minorities and recommend1 to 17. Only in three States, the number ofmeasures for their removal;cases registered exceeded 20. The report (f ) conducting studies, research and analysisalso reveals that out of 2348 cases (out of on the issues relating to socio-economic8137 cases including brought/forward cases) and educational developmentofdisposed off by Courts during the year, a minorities;measly 13 cases constituting 0.55 percent(g)suggesting appropriate measures inended in conviction. This appears to be a sad respect of any minority to be undertakencommentary on the state of affairs in regardby the Central Government or the Stateto investigation and prosecution. To sayGovernment; andthat the practice of untouchability does not (h)making periodical or special reports toexist in 23 remaining States/UTs would be the Central Government on any matterbelying the truth that is known to the world. pertaining to minorities and in particularIt only denotes pathetic inaction on the part difculties confronted by them.of law enforcing agencies. The provisions ofthe Protection of Civil Rights Act need to be22. A Constitution Amendment Bill, viz.enforced vigorously with a view to ensuringthe Constitution (One Hundred andthat the law serves the purpose it has beenThird Amendment) Bill, 2004 has beenenacted for. introduced so as to add a new article, viz. Article 340A to constitute a National Commission21. With a view to evaluating progress and for Minorities with a constitutional status.development of minorities, monitoring theA Bill to repeal the National Commissionworking of safeguards provided to them for Minorities Act, 1992 has simultaneouslyunder the Constitution and laws, etc. thebeen introduced.Central Government had constituted anon-statutory Minorities Commission in 23. In terms of Section 13 of the Act, the Central1978. In 1992, the National Commission Government shall cause the annual reportfor Minorities was enacted to provide fortogether with a memorandum of action takenconstitution of a statutory Commission. Theon the recommendations contained therein,National Commission for Minorities was set in so far as they relate to Central Government,up under the Act in 1993. The functions of the and the reasons for non-acceptance, if any, ofCommission include:any recommendationas soon as may be(a) evaluating the progress of the development after the reports are received to be laid beforeof minorities under the Union and States;each House of Parliament.(b) monitoring the working of the safeguardsprovided in the Constitution and in laws 24. In the absence of a denite time frame forenacted by Parliament and the Statelaying the annual report of the Commission,Legislatures;there has been considerable delay in tabling(c) making recommendationsforthe the annual reports of the Commission in theeffective implementation of safeguards Parliament. The National Commission onReport of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 13. 9Minorities has submitted twelve (12) annual Scheduled Castes. The successive Committeesreports for the years 1992-93 to 2004-05. have been doing yeomans work towardsThe annual reports for the years 1996-97, safeguarding the interests of Scheduled Castes.1997-98, 1999-2000, and 2003-04 have been Such a mechanism (of monitoring effectivetabled in the Parliament only recently, someimplementation of the constitutional andas recently as in the winter session 2006 of thelegal provisions safeguarding the interestParliament. Therefore, there appear to be a of minorities and, also, implementation ofcase for amendment of the Act so as togeneral or specic schemes for the benet ofprovide for a reasonable time frame for the minorities by Government and its agencies/recommendations to be laid, along withinstrumentalities) is expected to be an effectivememorandum of action taken before the step for ensuring the welfare of religiousParliament/State Legislature. It may be minorities.advisable to incorporate a suitable provisionin the Constitution Amendment Bill27. The National Commission for Minoritylaying down denite time frame for laying Educational Institutions Act, 2004 was enactedthe annual reports of the Commission on the to constitute a Commission charged withtables of both Houses of Parliament along the responsibilities of advising the Centralwith action taken notes.Government or any State Government on anymatter relating to education of minorities25. According to the provisions of Clause(9)that may be referred to it, looking intoof article 338 and 338A, the Union and everyspecic complaints regarding deprivation orState Government shall consult the National violation of rights of minorities to establishCommission for Scheduled castes and the and administer educational institutions ofNational Commission for Scheduled Tribestheir choice, deciding on any dispute relatingon all major policy matters affecting the to afliation to a scheduled UniversityScheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes,and reporting its ndings to the Centralrespectively. Such a consultation is mandatoryGovernment for implementation. The Act wasand can be construed to be an important extensively amended in 2006 (Act 18 of 2006),constitutional safeguard for Scheduled Castes interalia, empowering the Commission toand ScheduledTribes. A corresponding provisionenquire suo moto or on a petition presenteddoes not exist in the National Commission for to it by any minority educational institutionMinorities Act, 1992. In the absence of such a(or any persons on its behalf ) into complaintsprovision the Government of the day may orregarding deprivation or violation of rightsmay not consult the National Commission of minorities to establish and administer anfor Minorities on major policy matterseducational institution of its choice and anyimpactingminorities,depending ondispute relating to afliation to a Universityexigencies. Therefore, the National and report its nding to the appropriateCommission for Minorities Act, 1992 needs Government for its implementation. Theto be suitably amended with a view to Act also provides that if any dispute arisesincorporating in it a provision analogous between a minority educational institutionto the provision in article 338(9) andand a University relating to its afliation to338A(9). This may instill a sense of condencesuch University, the decision of theamongst minorities about protection of theirCommission thereon shall be nal.interests.The Commission discussed the provisions26. While we are on safeguards, it should beof the Act as amended and felt the need tonoted that a very important mechanism ofmake clear-cut, concrete and positiveensuring the welfare of Scheduled Castes is recommendations forimproving andconstitution of a Parliamentary Committee onstreamlining the provision of the Act.Constitutional and Legislative Provisions Regarding the Minorities 14. 10 30. Article 350-A of the Constitution containsLinguistic Minorities a specic measure of protection of linguistic minorities. It provides that it shall be the28. As already mentioned, the term linguistic endeavour of every State and every localminority or minorities has not been dened. authority within the State to provide adequateIf the country is taken as a unit, all who speak facilities for instruction in the mother-tonguea language other than Hindi can be treated at the primary stage of education to childrenas linguistic minorities but not so if the State belonging to linguistic minority groups; andis taken as the unit. Within a State, there may the President may issue such direction tobe minorities who speak a language or any State as he considers necessary or properlanguages other than the language spoken for securing the provision of such facility.by the majority in that State. Dialects of a Article 350-A, thus, is an amplication of thelanguage spoken in a State may proliferate cultural and educational rights guaranteedthe number of minorities. However, as under article 29(1) and article 30(1). Undermentioned earlier, it has been settled in article 29(1), a linguistic minority has theTMA Pai Vs. Union of India (2002) that a fundamental right to conserve its ownlinguistic minority is determinable with language. Article 350-A directs every statereference to the State as a unit. to provide facilities for education at the primary stage in the language of a linguistic29. Part XVII of the Constitution is devoted minority for the children belonging to such ato ofcial language. Chapter I of Part XVII, community. Read with article 45, article 350-comprising articles 343 and 344 deal with A provides an important policy direction tothe ofcial language of the Union. Chapter II the State for preservation of the language ofthereof deals with regional languages. Article linguistic minorities. In General Secretary,345 of the Constitution provides that subject Linguistic Minorities Protection Committeeto the provisions of articles 346 and 347 the vrs. State of Karnataka, a Government OrderLegislature of a State may by law adopt any one making Kannada a compulsory subject ofor more of the languages in the State or Hindi study for children belonging to linguisticas language or languages to be used for all or minority groups from the rst year of primaryany of ofcial purposes. Article 347 provides education and compelling the primarythat on a demand being made in that behalf, schools established by linguistic minoritiesthe President may, if he is satised that a to compulsorily introduce it from the rstsubstantial proportion of the population of a year of primary education was held to beState desire the use of any language spoken violative of article 29(1) and article 30(1) of theby them to be recognised by that State, direct Constitution.that such language shall also be ofciallyrecognised throughout that State or any part 31. Article 350-B provides for appointment ofthereof for such purpose as he may specify. a Special Ofcer for linguistic minorities byArticle 347 can, thus, be treated as a specic the President. It shall be the duty of the Specialmeasure directed towards linguistic minorities Ofcer to investigate all matters relating to theinhabiting a State facilitating preservation, safeguards provided for linguistic minoritiesand even propagation, of such a language. under the Constitution and report to theRead in conjunction with article 347, article President upon those matters at such intervals350 also affords protection to the language as the President may direct. All such reportsspoken by linguistic minorities. It provides are required to be laid before each house ofthat every person shall be entitled to submit a Parliament, and also sent to the Governmentsrepresentation for the redress of any grievance of States concerned. The provisions of articleto any ofcer or authority of the Union or a 350-B have to be read in conjunction with theState in any of the languages used in the Union rights conferred on religious minorities underor in the State, as the case may be. Report of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 15. 11Chapter III of the Constitution, more specically 33. TheCommission discussedthearticles 29 and 30. provisions of Article 29 and 30 and felt that acomprehensive law is required to protect and32.The Commissiondiscussedthe safeguard the rights of minorities mentionedapplicability of Protection of Civil Rights Act,in these two Articles of the Constitution.1955 to non-Hindus and agreed that all casesThe existing guidelines of Ministry ofof untouchability related offences regardless Human Resouce Development and Nationalof religion fall within the purview of the Act. Commission for Minorities need to beIt was felt that the provisions of Prevention updated and incorporated in an elaborateof Atrocities (SC/ST) Act, 1989 need to belaw which will be overriding in so far asextended so as to cover OBCs, Minorities or setting up and administration of minoritythe socially and economically backwards educational institutions is concerned. Theto protect them from discrimination and proposed law should ensure due and properatrocities by non-backward sections ofimplementation of articles 29-30 includingsociety.all their clauses in letter and spirit.Constitutional and Legislative Provisions Regarding the Minorities 16. 12 Chapter 3 RELIGIOUS MINORITIES AND THEIR STATUSIntroductionnamely: Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists,and Zoroastrians (Parsis). However, minorities1. Religion depicts the main socio-cultural are not limited to these ve religions andcharacteristics of a person. DifferentStates are free to declare/recognise others. Jainscommunities and people perceive religionhave been recognised as one of the religiousdifferently. Some people have an establishedminorities in nine States.set of beliefs, rituals and traditional practicesand worship one Supreme Being or deity that Socio-economic Characteristics ofmay be their own caste/tribe or village deity.Religious MinoritiesOther people worship a number of Gods andGoddesses while some practice and perceive5. Indian social structure is characterised byreligion in their own way and belief others unity as well as diversity. It has had numerousprefer to be atheist. India is a unique country groups of immigrants from different parts ofwhere some religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Asia and Europe. All the great religions of theJainism and Sikhism have originated and other world are represented in this country. Peoplereligions of foreign origin ourished bringingspeak different languages. Diversity is seenunity in diversity. in the patterns of rural-urban settlements,community life, forms of land tenure, and2. The word minority religion has not beenagricultural operations and in the mode ofdened anywhere in the Constitution but itliving. Some eke livelihood out of hills andnds mention in various Articles in Part III of forests, others out of land and agriculture andthe Constitution. yet a few depend upon marine resources. Thefusion of varying religions, the caste system and3. The U.N. Sub-Commission on Preventionpeoples occupational structure are the salientof Discrimination and Protection of Minoritiesfeatures of Indian society. Inter-caste relationshas dened minority as one including only at the village level are bound by economic ties,those non-dominant groups in a population be it peasant, the leather worker, carpenter,which possess and wish to preserve stable blacksmith or the servicing communities.ethnic, religious or linguistic traditions orcharacteristics markedly different from those 5.1.The demography of minorityof the population.communities, their rural-urban distribution,sex composition, literacy and educational4. In exercise of the powers conferred by status, marital status and livelihood patternsClause (c) of Section 2 of the National do indicate the lifestyle of the people. PatternCommission for Minorities Act 1992 (19 of of landholdings, sources of income and health1992), the Central Government in 1993 notied status narrate their quality of life. Today, socio-the following communities as the Minorityeconomic changes are taking place rapidlycommunities for the purposes of the said Act,in the country affecting the majority as wellReport of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 17. 13minority communities, due to diversication of Others category may be culledofeconomicpursuits, urbanisation, out from census data, and peoplewesternisation of education, inter-castepursingthese religionsidentifiedmarriages etc. The salient features of minority so that suitable policy initiatives are thoughtcommunities in the country are discussed in of for these mini-minority religious sectionssucceeding paragraphs:of our society.Demographic Features of Religious Religious Composition in Rural andMinorities: Population CompositionUrban Areas6. According to 2001 census, out of countrys 7. The 1991 and 2001 data indicate that Muslimstotal population of 10286.07 lakhs, the are more urbanised than Hindus and Sikhs. Thereligious minorities are 2010.29 lakhs, which isproportion of Hindus in rural areas declinedapproximately 18 percent. A large proportion of from 84 percent in 1991 to 82.3 percent in 2001them belong to Muslims (13.4 percent), followed and from 76.4 percent in 1991 to 75.9 percentby Christians (2.3 percent), Sikhs (1.9 percent), in 2001 in urban areas. In contrast, the MuslimBuddhists (0.8 percent) and Zoroastrianspopulation increased in both rural and urban(Parsis) (0.0069 percent). Details are given in areas during the decade. Besides Muslims, aTable 3.1.greater proportion of Christians, Buddhistsand Jains are urban residents. In fact Jains6.1 Population of those included in Othersare the most urbanised as compared to anycategory has risen from 14.98 lakhs in 1961 other religious minority group. Religion-wiseCensus to 66.39 lakhs in 2001. Their population distribution of minority population is giveninis significant in Jharkhand (35.14 lakhs),Table 3.2.West Bengal (8.95 lakhs), Maharashtra (4.09lakhs), Madhya Pradesh (4.09 lakhs), Orissa Overall Sex Ratio(3.61 lakhs) and Arunachal Pradesh7.1. According to the Census 2001, against(3.37 lakhs). Another salient feature isthe overall sex ratio of 933 for all religionsthat as against proportion of 0.6 percent put together, the sex ratio among Christians atpopulation in others category in the1,009 females per 1,000 males is the highest. Incountrys population, their proportion in contrast, it is the lowest among the Sikhs at 893.Arunachal Pradesh is 30.7 percent, whichTaking the all-India average, the sex ratio ofis highest among all the States, followed by931 females per 1000 males is lower among theJharkhand (13 percent). Thus, it is inferredHindus. The sex ratio among Muslims at 936, isfrom the above that religion-wise break-upslightly above the national average. However,Buddhists (953), Jains (940) and others (992)Table 3.1: Population of Religioushave improved sex ratio vis a vis all other Communities 2001 religions. In lakh Percentage S.NoTotal10286.071007.2. A comparative analysis of State-wiseoverall sex ratio according to Census 1991 and1. Hindus8275.7880.5Census 2001 and Child Sex Ratio (0-6 yrs) 20012. Muslims 1381.8813.4is given in the Appendix-III A. A glance through3. Christians 240.80 2.3the sex ratio for 1991 and 2001 would reveal that4. Sikhs192.15 1.9the over all sex ratio has marginally improved.5. Buddhists 79.55 0.8The sex ratio for all religious communities at6. Jains 42.25 0.4all India level has gone up from 927 in 1991 to7. Others66.39 0.6933 in 2001. Similar is the situation for Muslims8. Religion not 7.27 0.1 stated which has increased from 930 to 936, ChristiansSource: Census 2001 from 994 to 1009 and Sikhs from 888 to 893 andReligious Minorities and their Status 18. 14Table 3.2: Religionwise Population Distribution on Residence Basis, 1991 and 2001(in percent)19912001 TotalRural UrbanTotalRural Urban All religion100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0100.0 100.0 Hindu82.084.0 76.480.582.375.9 Muslim 12.110.5 16.713.412.016.9 Christian 2.32.2 2.82.32.1 2.9 Sikh1.92.0 1.81.91.9 1.8 Buddhist0.80.7 1.00.80.7 1.1 Jain0.40.2 1.10.40.1 1.1 Other religions and 0.50.4 0.20.60.8 0.2 persuasions Religion not stated 0.00.0 0.00.10.1 0.1Source: Census 1991 and 2001others from 982 to 992. However, the sex ratioCensus is a cause of serious concern. In fact, thefor Hindus has declined from 942 in 1991 to 931 child sex ratio has not been above 1000 in anyin 2001, Buddhists from 963 to 953 and Jainsreligious community in the States.from 946 to 940.8.1. The Child Sex Ratio (CSR) 2001 of 927 at7.3. While analyzing the state-wise sex ratio, theall India level has shown a decline whenStates of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala,compared with total sex ratio at 933. TheTamil Nadu, Assam, Manipur have shown anCSR shows a declining trend for all theincreasing trend not only at the respective religious minorities except Muslims (950).State level but at the all India average andThe States of Goa, Haryana, Himachalalso for the individual religious minorities. OnPradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Assam, Bihar,the other hand the States of Rajasthan, Uttar Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura,Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal,West Bengal have decline sex ratios whenthough lower than all India national average, 1991 and 2001 are concerned. When sex ratioyet have shown an increasing trend for all theis compared with Child Sex Ratio 2001. Thereligious groups. CSR is found to be lowered than the overallsex ratio. The worst position is shown by the7.4. The States of Punjab, Haryana, Arunachal States of Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,Pradesh, Chandigarh, Uttar Pradesh, Nagaland, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, UttaranchalDelhi and Andaman & Nicobar Islands haveand Uttar Pradesh.not only shown declining results but also givelowest sex ratios.8.2. The declining sex ratio in the countrybaring a few States, and the adverse child sexSex Ratio of Population in 0-6 Age Groupratio in 0-6 age group in most of the States calls8. As per Census 2001, as against child sex for an in depth study and specic interventionsratio of 927 for all religions, it was 976 forto stem the downward trend and create anOthers and 964 for Christians followed by 942 environment conducive to girl survival andfor Buddhists and 950 for Muslims. However, growth.child sex ratio was lower among Hindus (925)followed by Jains (870) and lowest among thePopulation of 60 Years and aboveSikhs (786). The declining child sex ratio in 9. Table 3.3 below gives the religion-wisethe age group of 0-6 years in many states and data of 60 years and above along with theirunion territories as brought to fore by the 2000percentage:Report of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 19. 159.1. It is seen from the above that 7.45 percent47 percent Muslims, 39 percent Buddhists,of Indian population belongs to 60 years and26 percent Jains, 20 percent Christians andabove. Jains have maximum proportion of older 13 percent Sikhs. Similarly, in the case ofpersons (9.94 percent) followed by Sikhs (9.77females who married below 17 years of age,percent). The proportion of female elderly of the percentage values were 37 percent Hindus,Jains is also maximum (10.69 percent) followed43.2 percent Muslims, 41.0 percent Buddhists,by Sikhs (10.05 percent). As against this, theapproximately 25 percent Jains and 36 percentSikhs have maximum male elderly proportionOthers. The proportion for Christian, and(9.53 percent) followed by Jains (9.23 percent).Sikh Women was 16.4 percent and 17 percentIt has been seen that proportion of Muslims respectively. Out of this, the proportion ofelderly is lowest (5.75 percent) as against 7.45girl child marriages (i.e. less than 10 years ofpercent of total population of the country. The age) was three percent of the total marriagesreasons for low population of older Muslims prevalent mainly among Buddhists (2.8and modalities for raising their expectancy percent), Hindus (2.6 percent) and Muslimsof life need to be found out and corrective (2.2 percent).measures taken in this regard.Average Household SizeAge at Marriage 11. According to a study sponsored by this10. As is evident from the details in Table 3.4,Commission through the Centre for Research,among men who married below the age ofPlanning & Action, New Delhi, in January 200621 years, 51.3 percent were Hindus, nearlyin ve states (Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Table 3.3: Sex-wise Population of Persons of 60 Years and above amongdifferent Religious Minorities Religion Persons MaleFemaleNumber in lakhs Percentage Number in lakhsPercentageNumber in lakhsPercentage Total766.22 (7.45) 377.68 (7.10) 388.54(7.83) Hindus 632.19 (7.64) 311.21 (7.26) 320.98 (80.05) Muslims 79.49 (5.75) 39.85(5.58) 39.64 (5.93) Christians20.06 (8.33)9.58(7.99) 10.48 (8.66) Sikhs 18.78 (9.77)9.67(9.53)9.11(10.05) Jains4.20 (9.94)2.01(9.23)2.19(10.69) Others 4.28 (6.45)1.97(5.91)2.31 (6.99)Source: Census 2001 Table 3.4: Religion-wise Data on Age at Marriage(in percent)Male age at marriageFemale age at marriage=20 years18 years All religions34.665.4 3.0 40.5 56.5 Hindu51.348.7 2.6 34.4 54.9 Muslim 46.653.4 2.2 41.0 56.9 Christian19.880.2 1.2 15.2 83.6 Sikh 12.987.1 1.1 15.9 83.0 Buddhist 39.160.9 2.8 38.2 59.0 Jain 25.674.4 1.6 23.1 75.4 Others 18.681.4 2.3 33.7 64.0Source: Census 2001Religious Minorities and their Status 20. 16Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal), it was foundTable 3.5: Literacy Rate among Religiousthat the average size of households among Communities, Scheduled Castes andminority communities was 3.40 persons. TheScheduled Tribeshousehold size was smallest at 2.75 persons (in percent)among Parsis while it was highest at 3.50Community/CasteMale Female Totalpersons among Muslims. The survey foundIndia75.353.7 64.8that 77.71 percent of the households wereHindu76.253.2 65.1nuclear, 10.4 percent joint families and 12.25 Muslim 67.650.1 59.1percent single occupant. Muslim households Christian84.476.2 80.3had the largest share of joint families at 12.47 Sikh 75.263.1 69.4percent. As against this, the lowest share (4.5Buddhist 83.161.7 72.7percent) of joint families was found among the Jain 97.490.6 94.1Parsis. Further Parsis also had the largest shareOthers 60.833.2 47.0of single occupant families at 21.69 percent.Scheduled66.64 41.9 54.7 CastesThus, it has been observed that: Scheduled59.1734.76 47.1(a) The Jains, Buddhists, Muslims andTribesChristians are more urbanised as compared Source: Census 2001to Hindus and Sikhs.(b) Sex ratio among the Christians is more12.2. Literacy rate among the Jains is thefavourable and lowest among Sikhs.highest at 94.1 percent, followed by Christians(c) Parsis, Jains and Sikhs have larger (80.3 percent) and Buddhists (72.7 percent).proportion of population of 60 years andHindus (65.1 percent) and Sikhs (69.4 percent)above. Proportion of elderly Muslims is have a marginally higher literacy rate than thelowest at 5.75 percent as against nationalnational average of 64.8 percent. The lowestaverage of 7.45 percent.literacy has been recorded at 47 percent for(d) Among the different religious communities Other Religions and Persuasions. Muslimsthe highest proportion of girl childhave a literacy rate (59.1 percent) lower thanmarriage was found among Buddhiststhe national average literacy rate. Literacyand Muslims.among Scheduled Castes and Scheduled(e) Average size of households amongstTribes was abysmally low.minorities was 3.40 persons smallest at2.75 persons was among Parsis and the 12.3. Analysis of literacy rates reveals thathighest at 3.50 among Muslims.Muslims were better off than Scheduled Castes,Scheduled Tribes and those pursuing otherEducational Status of Religious religions but lagged behind others. The literacyMinoritiesrate in the Parsi community is 97.9 percent.12. Education is one of the signicant social This could be due to the fact that education ofindicators having bearing on the achievementParsi children was emphasised as early as thein the growth of an individual as well as late 19th century. The Jain population has alsocommunity. This is perceived to be highly returned very high national literacy rate of 94.1suitable for providing employment and percent and is one of the most literate religiousthereby improving the quality of life, the levelcommunity.of human well being and the access to basicsocial services.Gender Gap in Literacy12.4. Both males and females among the JainLiteracy Rate population have very high literacy rate of 97.412.1. Status of literacy among differentpercent and 90.6 percent respectively at thecommunities and caste is given in Table 3.5.national level followed by Christians at 84.4Report of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 21. 17percent for males and 76.2 percent for females. have the lowest proportion at 3.6 percent.Thus, the gender gap in male-female literacyAmong Hindus, the proportion of thosefor these two religions is less than 10. Amongattaining the educational level of Graduatethe six major religions at the national level,and above is seven percent, which is more orthe maximum gap between male and female less in the same order as the overall proportionliteracy is among Hindus (23 percent) followedof all religious communities taken together asby Buddhists (21.4 percent) and Muslims (17.5 per details given in Table 3.6.percent points).12.7. Further, Muslims (65.31 percent) are12.5. There exists an interesting relationshipbetter off at primary level of education but theirbetween female literacy and proportionproportion goes down as we go to secondaryof child population in the 0-6 years age(10.96 percent) and senior secondary (4.53group. Generally, it has been argued that inpercent) stages. Though Christians at thedeveloping countries high female literacy rateprimary level with 45.79 percent are lower thanusually has a dampening effect on fertility ratethe national average but levels increases atother factors being constant. Thus, there is asecondary (17.48 percent) and senior secondarynegative relationship between female literacy (8.70 percent) stages. Other religions followand fertility. This indicates that irrespective ofalmost national average level.religious afliations, creation of a conduciveenvironment and promotion of educationDrop out Ratesfacilities leading to improved female literacy12.8. The drop out rate indicates the wastagemight bring down fertility rate. Among Jainsof school education and tends to underminehigh female literacy rate and lowest proportion benets of increased enrolments. According toof child population (0-6 years) and among the Educational Statistics, published by theMuslims low female literacy rate and higher Ministry of Human Resource Development,proportion of children in the age group (0-6during 1999-2000, out of students enrolledyears) support this contention. in classes I to V, over 40 percent dropped out.Similarly, out of students enrolled in classes I toEducational Level VIII over 55 percent dropped out. The drop out12.6. On analysing the distribution of literatesrate in classes I-X was over 68 percent. Further,by educational level, it was found that Jains the drop out rate has been higher for girls.(21.47 percent) have the highest proportionof educated persons among all the religions 12.9. Chief reasons for dropping out fromamong those who have completed graduation schools could be inability of students to copestage. This is followed by Christians (8.71 up with the studies or lack of interest amongpercent) and Sikhs (6.94 percent). Muslimsparents in the education of their children or Table 3.6: Educational Levels among different Communities CommunityUpto Primary MiddleSecondarySeniorDiploma Graduation Unclassified Level* Secondary All Religion55.5716.0914.13 6.74 0.726.720.02 Hindus54.9116.1814.25 6.92 0.717.010.01 Muslims 65.3115.1410.96 4.53 0.41 3.60.05 Christians45.7917.1317.488.7 2.198.710.01 Sikhs 46.7016.9320.94 7.57 0.906.940.02 Buddhists 54.6917.5214.09 7.65 0.35 5.70.01 Jains 29.5112.2721.87 13.841.03 21.470.01 Others62.1217.4811.24 4.55 0.264.350.01* Includes literacy without Educational Level, Below Primary Level and Primary Level.Source: Census 2001Religious Minorities and their Status 22. 18 Table 3.7: Status of Education in Religious Educational InstitutionsMadrasasGurukulsSeminaries Monasteries Curriculum adopted Mixed syllabusTeach both religiousInter disciplinary Provide monastic (Subjects taught)Generally and modern subjects subjects givingeducation (Buddhistconcentrate onmore emphasis on Philosophy) withreligious education theological subjects additional subjects like English, Mathematics and Hindi. Level of Education Varies from matricVaries from SeniorPost-graduation levellevel to post-Secondary level tograduation levelpost-graduation level Affiliation of Majority notMostly affiliated Mostly affiliatedNot affiliated the educationalaffiliated institutions Pattern of schoolSeparate for boys Separate for boys Co-educational Separate for boys andand girls and girlsgirlsSource: Study report on the Role of Religious Educational Institutions in the Socio-Economic Development of the Community by Himalayan RegionStudy and Research Institute, 2007economic considerations, like compulsion to Health Status of Religious Minoritieswork for augmenting family income or need 13. Health is one of the most important inputsfor looking after younger siblings or unfriendlyfor human development. Improvement inatmosphere in the schools etc. Among girls in the health and nutritional status of peoplerural areas, these factors mostly accounted for is therefore,important considerationthe dropouts. for determining the health standard of acommunity. Different indicators whichStatus of Religious Educational determine the health status of different religiousInstitutionscommunities are discussed below:12.10. The education systems of religiouseducational institutions like Gurukuls of Infant and Child Mortality RateHindus, Madrasas of Muslims, Monasteries13.1. Based on NFHS II Report, Table 3.8 indicatesof Buddhists and Seminaries of Christians infant and child mortality rates among differentvary widely both in its content and purpose.communities:A comparative study of religious educationalinstitutions sponsored by this Commission Table 3.8: Infant and Child Mortality Ratethrough the Himalayan Region Studyamong different Communities and Castesand Research Institute, New Delhi, in the (in percent)States/UTs of Delhi, Haryana, Uttar PradeshCommunity/Caste InfantChildand Uttaranchal brings out those variations mortality mortalityclearly as per details given in the Table 3.7.rate rate Hindu77.1 32.4 Muslim 58.8 25.412.11. As is seen from the above Table, by and Christian49.2 19.7large all religious educational institutions Sikh 53.3 12.3impart education from the primary to the Jain (46.7)(11.3)higher levels. However all of them concentrate Buddhist/Neo-Buddhist53.6 14.1on religious education. Thus, the religious No religion(77.6)(77.2)educational, institutions to a large extentScheduled castes 83.0 39.5provide religious knowledge and basicScheduled tribes 84.2 46.3education but do not enable them to competeOther Backward Class 76.0 29.3for admission to institutions of higher Source: NFHS-II 1998-99, National ReportNote: Figures given in brackets ( ) are based on 250-499 childrenlearning/professional courses and competitive surviving to the beginning of the age intervalexaminations.Report of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 23. 1913.2. As may be seen from Table 3.8, infant 13.4. The cut off point for height, below whichand child mortality rates among Hindus area woman can be identified as nutritionallymuch higher than Muslims, Christians, Sikhs,at risk, varies among populations, but itJains, and Buddhists. However, the infant is usually considered to be in the range ofand child mortality rate are higher among 140150 centimeters. As may be seen fromScheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.the above Christian, Sikh and Jain womenAmong minorities infant and child mortality are taller, on average, than women in anyrates of other minorities are lower thanother group. The percentage of women whoMuslims. Mortality rate differentials among are below 145 centimeters in height variesdifferent religious communities or Scheduledfrom 3.9 percent for Sikhs and 7.6 percentCastes and Scheduled Tribes may be due to for Jains to 24 percent for women belongingfactors other than religion alone e.g. urban or to no religion category. Among Scheduledrural residence or economic conditions of the Caste and Scheduled Tribe women below 145family or availability of health facilities and centimeters in height are 17 percent and 13.5access to them. percent respectively. Based on these criteria,nutritional status of women belongingNutritional Status of Women to Sikhs and Jain communities is better13.3. Based on NFHS-II Report, nutritionalthan women belonging to other religiousstatus of women among different communities communities, Scheduled Castes, Scheduledis indicated in Table 3.9.Tribes and Other Backward Classes.Nutritional Status of ChildrenTable 3.9: Nutritional Status of13.5. Nutritional status of children belonging Women among different Religiousto different religious communities, ScheduledCommunities and CastesCastes and Scheduled Tribes is given in theTable 3.10. Community/ HeightWeight for height Caste13.6. As may be seen from the Table 3.10,Mean Percent- Mean Percent-height ageBody age with Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes, Other (cm) below Mass BMIBackward Classes, Hindu and Muslim children 145 cm Index belowappear to be undernourished. As against this(BMI)18.5kg/m2 Jain, Sikh, Buddhist and Christian children arebetter nourished. Hindu 151.1 13.520.136.9 Muslim151.5 12.320.534.1Antenatal Check-ups Christian 152.1 10.321.424.6 13.7. Based on NFHS Report of 1998-99, Sikh155.03.923.016.4 status of ante-natal check-up among different Jain153.67.623.415.8 communities/castes is given in Table 3.11. Buddhist/ 149.9 17.320.433.3 Neo- 13.8. As may be seen from the table more Buddhistthan one-third of women among Scheduled No religion 149.8 24.120.634.5Tribes, Scheduled Castes, Muslims, no religion Scheduled 150.3 17.019.542.1 category, Other Backward Classes and Hindus Casteshave not gone for antenatal checkups. Further Scheduled 150.8 13.519.146.3 Tribesfacility of doctors has been availed of by allthe communities and castes but largely by Other 151.0 13.520.235.8 Backward Jains, Buddhists and Christians. As against Classesthis, facility of other health professional andSource: NHFS-II 1998-99 reporttraditional birth attendants has been availedReligious Minorities and their Status 24. 20Table 3.10: Nutritional Status of Children of different Religious CommunitiesCommunity/CasteWeight-for-ageHeight-for-age Weight-for-height Percentage Percentage PercentagePercentagePercentagePercentagebelow 3 below 2 below 3below 2below 3below 2SD* SD1SDSD1 SDSD1 Hindu18.4 47.723.3 46.02.9 16.0 Muslim 18.6 48.324.8 47.12.5 14.1 Christian9.630.814.0 30.62.5 13.4 Sikh 8.426.816.0 35.41.17.0 Jain 1.320.9 0.8 13.20.0 11.9 Buddhist/Neo-Buddhist7.543.7 8.7 32.50.9 11.9 Scheduled Castes 21.2 53.527.5 51.73.0 16.0 Scheduled Tribes 26.0 55.927.6 52.84.4 21.8 Other Backward 18.3 47.323.1 44.83.4 16.6 ClassesSource: NFHS II, 1998-99, National Report*SD= Standard Deviation1Includes children who are below 3 SD from the International Reference Population medianTable 3.11: Status of Antenatal Check-ups among different Communities and Castes(in percent) AntenatalAntenatal check-up outside homeNo Missing Total check up only from:antenatal at home fromDoctorOtherTraditional check up health worker healthbirthprofessionalattendant, other Hindu 6.2 47.211.2 0.234.5 0.6 100 Muslim3.3 50.7 8.5 0.436.4 0.7 100Christian3.0 73.4 7.5 0.215.4 0.4 100 Sikh1.3 44.729.0 0.024.9 0.1 100 Jain3.1 84.7 6.5 0.0 5.7 0.0 100 Buddhist/Neo-Buddhist 1.4 74.9 9.2 0.014.5 0.0 100 No religion10.0 53.7 0.7 0.035.6 0.0 100 Scheduled Castes5.9 41.713.3 0.238.2 0.6 100 Scheduled Tribes 10.0 34.711.5 0.343.1 0.4 100 Other Backward Classes5.9 48.9 9.6 0.234.8 0.6 100Source: NFHS-II 1998-99, National Reportof by all communities and castes, though by aAgainst this, among Christians and Jains mostsmall percentage of population.deliveries took place at Health Facility Centres comprising both government hospitals andPlace of Deliveryprivate institution. Large number of deliveries13.9. Table 3.12 indicates the status of place ofin private institutions may be due to the betterdelivery among different communities:economic conditions of these communities or because of their being urban based. Among13.10 . As may be seen from the Table 3.12,those who remained at home for deliveryamong Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, no religionwithout the care of medical personnel,category, Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribesproportion of Scheduled Tribes, no religionand Other Backward Classes, more thanCategory, Scheduled Castes, Muslims, Hindus50 percent deliveries took place at home.and Other Backward Classes was more. Report of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 25. 21 Table 3.12: Details Regarding Place of Delivery among different Communities,Scheduled Castes and Scheduled TribesCommunity/CastePlace of deliveryTotal Health facility/institutionHome Public NGO/trustPrivateOwn homeParents home Other Hindu 16.40.6 15.953.512.51.1 100. Muslim14.10.9 16.555.711.81.0 100. Christian 19.82.6 32.035.010.20.4 100. Sikh10.80.9 35.345.4 7.30.4 100. Jain12.41.6 57.625.5 3.00.0 100. Buddhist/Neo-Buddhist 38.90.0 16.330.514.00.4 100. No religion 7.9 0.0 11.178.5 2.60.0 100. Scheduled Castes16.00.5 10.360.112.01.1 100. Scheduled Tribes10.70.7 5.7 70.411.41.1 100. Other Backward Classes16.30.8 19.049.813.01.1 100.Source: NFHS-II 1998-99, National ReportChild Immunisation Among those who have not accepted any of13.11. Table 3.13 indicates the status ofthe immunisation programme, proportionchild-hood vaccination among different of Scheduled Tribes and Muslim is high. Thiscommunities and castes.may be due to illiteracy or lack of awareness.Table 3.13: Status of Childhood VaccinationUse of Contraceptives among different Communities, Scheduled13.13. Based on NFHS II Survey, 1998-99, Castes and Scheduled Tribes Status of Contraceptives among different Communities and Castes is given in the Community/ BCG PolioMeaslesNone Table 3.14. Caste Hindu 72.513.1 51.513.3 Muslim62.39.940.421.0 Table 3.14: Use of Contraceptives by Christian 84.032.1 66.211.0different Communities, Scheduled Castes, Sikh86.414.0 75.711.1Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Buddhist/Neo- 94.615.6 77.31.1Classes Buddhist Scheduled 69.611.7 47.615.1 Community/ AnyFemale Male CastesCaste methodsterilisation sterilisation Scheduled Tribes60.04.534.324.2 Hindu 49.2 36.22.1 Other Backward71.618.7 50.711.6 Muslim37.0 19.60.8 Classes Christian 52.4 36.52.1Source: NFHS-II 1998-99, National Report Sikh65.2 30.21.6 Jain65.1 42.31.413.12. As may be seen from the Table 3.13, BCG Buddhist/ Neo-64.7 52.55.0 Buddhistvaccination has received good response from No religion 30.1 16.70.0all communities and castes. As regards polio, Scheduled 44.6 34.41.9Scheduled Tribes and Muslims have been Casteslagging behind than others. The vaccinationScheduled Tribes39.1 28.83.1for measles has been widely accepted byOther Backward46.8 37.21.6Buddhists, Sikhs, Christian and Hindus asClassescompared to other communities and castes.Source: NFHS-II 1998-99, National Report Religious Minorities and their Status 26. 2213.14. As may be seen from the Table 3.14, usebetween 2.26 percent among Sikhs to 2.83of contraceptive is more among Sikhs, Jains,percent among Other Backward Classes.Buddhists and Christians. As against this use ofSimilarly, average number of children evercontraceptives is least among Muslims followedborn to married women of 40-49 years areby no religion category, Scheduled Tribes,highest among Muslims (5.72) followed byScheduled Castes, Other Backward Classes andScheduled Castes (4.85), Scheduled TribesHindus. Further, male sterilisation is adopted(4.74), Other Backward Classes (4.43), Hindusby very few among all communities and castes. (4.34), and Buddhists (4.25) with lowest gureHowever, male as well as female sterilisation of 3.32 among Jains.is lowest among no religion category andMuslims. As against this, female sterilisation is 13.17. Summing up, the nutritional status andhighest among Buddhists.antenatal care is relatively better among Jains,Sikhs and Christians. Use of contraceptivesFertility Rateis comparatively less among the Muslims,13.15. The Total Fertility Rate (TFR), and theScheduled Castes, and Scheduled Tribes. Whilemean number of children ever born to womenTotal Fertility Rate has been found to be moreof age 4049 by religious community are given among the Muslims, Scheduled Castes, andin the Table 3.15.Scheduled Tribes the use of contraceptive islow among them. There is an urgent need to Table 3.15: Total Fertility Rate among pay greater attention to immunisation different Communities Scheduled Castes,of children among Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Tribes etc.Muslims. Community/Total FertilityMean number ofHousing and Related Amenities Caste Ratechildren ever bornto ever married 14. Housing is a basic necessity as well as an women age 4049important economic activity. According toyears the Tenth Five Year Plan document, around Hindu2.784.3490 percent of housing shortage pertains to the Muslim 3.595.72weaker sections. The need for the increase in Christian2.443.47the supply of affordable housing to the Sikh 2.263.59economically weaker sections and those Jain 1.903.32belonging to the low income category Buddhist/Neo-2.134.05is emphasised through a programme of Buddhistallocation of land, extension of funding No religion3.91(5.62)assistance and provision of support services. Scheduled3.154.85 CastesThe existing position of housing and related Scheduled3.064.74amenities among different communities is as Tribes under: Other Backward 2.834.43 ClassesAvailability of Type of House (i.e. Kutcha,Source: NFHS-II 1998-99, National ReportSemi Pucca, or Pucca House)14.1. Table 3.16(A) and 3.16(B) below indicates13.16. As is evident from the data in Table the status of different types of houses among3.15, total fertility rate is very high, among no religious communitiesreligion category (3.91 percent), Muslims (3.59percent), Scheduled Castes (3.15 percent) and 14.2. According to a study conducted by theScheduled Tribes (3.06 percent). Total fertilityCentre for Research, Planning & Action, Newrate is lowest among Jains (1.9 percent). InDelhi, in January 2006 in ve states (Maharashtra,other Communities, total fertility rate rangesPunjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and WestReport of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 27. 23Table 3.16(A): Distribution of different Type Ownership of Houses of Houses State-wise 14.4. It is true that ownership of a house (in percent) empowers a person and enhances his status State KutchaSemipuccaPucca socially. Table 3.17 indicates the status Maharashtra7.6834.88 56.93 of ownership of houses among different Punjab 6.7950.842.22 communities in ve States of Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh21.54 29.22 48.89 Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Tamil Nadu 13.75 66.71 19.25Bengal and Scheduled Castes and Scheduled West Bengal58.96 37.343.3Tribes on all India basis. All22.31 42.71 34.63Source: Socio-economic status of Minorities, survey conducted bythe Centre for Research Planning & Action, New Delhi, in the States of14.5. As may be seen from the Table 3.17,Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal in 200652.71 percent of respondents belonging todifferent communities in these five States Table 3.16(B): Distribution of different Typelived in own houses and 36.10 percent inamong different Communities rented houses. The ratio of those living in (in percent) rented houses was highest among Muslims CommunityKutcha Semipucca Pucca(43.74 percent) followed by Christians (33.91) Muslim 34.6341.2 23.76 percent and Sikhs (33.29 percent). Ownership Christian22.58 49.67 27.26 of houses was highest among Parsis (75.13) Sikhs6.6853.34 39.97 percent followed by Sikhs (65.89 percent). A Buddhist 3.9443.01 53.05 few had other arrangements, such as living Parsis 2.38 7.04 90.58 with relatives etc. As against this, Scheduled All22.31 42.71 34.63 Castes and Scheduled Tribes with more thanSource: Socio-economic status of Minorities, survey conducted by theCentre for Research Planning & Action, New Delhi, in the States of90 percent owning houses fare better onMaharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal in2006 Table 3.17: Ownership of Houses by different Communities and Scheduled CasteBengal), only 34.63 percent of respondents hadand Scheduled Tribespucca houses. Further, the availability of pucca(in percent)house varies from states to state ranging from Community/Caste OwnedRented3.3 percent in West Bengal to 56.93 percent in Muslim 45.03 43.74Maharashtra. Christian51.64 33.91 Sikhs65.89 33.2914.3. This may be seen from the Table 3.16B, Buddhist 45.52 23.3while 90.58 percent Parsis followed by 53.05 Parsis 75.13 19.05percent Buddhists were living in pucca All52.71 36.10houses, share of pucca houses was lowest Scheduled Castes* 90.4 6.5among Muslims with 23.76 percent followedScheduled Tribes* 90.7 6.0by Christians with 27.26 percent. Similarly,Source: Socio-economic status of Minorities, Survey conducted by theCentre for Research Planning & Action, New Delhi, 2006 in the States42.71 percent of the respondent familiesof Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh. and West Bengaland *Census 2001lived in semi-pucca houses and 22.31percent in kutcha houses. The percentageof households living in kutcha houses was an all India basis compared to the religioushighest among Muslims with 34.63 percentminorities.followed by Christians with 22.58 percent.Very few Sikhs, Buddhists and Parsis lived in Source of Lighting in the Houseskutcha houses, which indicates their better 14.6. Table 3.18 indicates the source of lightingeconomic status vis--vis Muslims and in the houses among different communitiesChristians. in five States of Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Religious Minorities and their Status 28. 24 Table 3.18: Source of Lighting in Houses 55 percent Scheduled Castes depended onState-wise and Community/Caste-wise Kerosene.(in percent) Community/CasteElectricityKerosene Water Supply in Houses Muslim78.78 23.2914.8. Table 3.19 reveals the status of water supply Christian 82.51 16.75in the houses among different communities in Sikhs 88.81 15.83ve sample States and Scheduled Castes and Buddhist88.89 11.83Scheduled Tribes on all India basis. Parsis99.21 0.79 All 83.72 17.7514.9. The safe drinking water supply within Scheduled Castes*44.3 54.7 the premises is one of the basic needs of the Scheduled Tribes*36.5 61.9 people. It is seen from Table 3.19, that moreSource: Socio-economic status of Minorities conducted by the Centrethan 75 percent Parsis, Christians, Muslims andfor Research Planning & Action, New Delhi, 2006 in the States ofMaharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh. and West Bengal and Sikhs had source of drinking water within or*Census 2001near their house. The share of Buddhisthouseholds with water supply within or nearNadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal and the house was only 67.38 percent. The dataScheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes onshows that considerable effort needs to beall India basis.made to provide water to these communitiesat the premises where they live. The share14.7. Since all households contacted in the of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribessurvey in ve States were in urban areas, 83.72 having the source of their drinking water withinpercent were observed to have electricity.their premises is dismal, when compared toThis ratio was highest with 99.21 percent religious minorities.among Parsis and lowest with 78.78 percentamong Muslims. A large percentage of religiousAvailability of Toiletsminorities had electricity as compared to 14.10. According to the Report of the CentreScheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. As for Research Planning & Action, 77.97 percentmany as 62 percent Scheduled Tribes and of households surveyed had a toilet in thehouse. The availability of toilets was highestTable 3.19: Source of Drinking Water amongamong Parsis (98.41 percent) followed by different Communities, Scheduled CastesSikhs (83.77 percent). Interestingly, Muslimsand Scheduled Tribeshad a higher percentage of households withtoilets (80.33 percent) as compared with Community/ Within or WithinBeyondChristians and Buddhists. The condition Castenear the100-200 m 200 m house (Near(Away fromof Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes premises) premises)households is worse compared to religious Muslim 81.0610.35 7.09 communities. 76 percent Scheduled Castes Christian82.848.056.90 and 83 percent Scheduled Tribes had no Sikhs76.137.7814.87toilets. Details in this regard are given in the Buddhist 67.3822.22 8.60Table 3.20. Parsis 87.040.795.82 Total80.409.258.2814.11. Analysis of the housing conditions of Scheduled 27.053.519.5 Caste* Minority Communities reveals that Parsis Scheduled 15.256.628.2 lived with better housing facilities followed Tribe* by Christians. The Scheduled Castes andSource: Socio-economic status of Minorities conducted by the CentreScheduled Tribes had the satisfaction thatfor Research Planning & Action, New Delhi, 2006 in the States ofMaharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh. and West Bengal and they owned houses and did not depend on*Census 2001rental accommodation, but they lacked theReport of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 29. 25 Table 3.20: Toilet Facilities in the Houses Table 3.21: Population of Religiousamong different Communities and Scheduled Communities Living below the Poverty Line Castes and Scheduled Tribes Percent belowPercent below(in percent)poverty line poverty line Community/Caste (Rural) (Urban) Muslim 80.33 Hindus 27.8021.66 Christian67.49 Muslims27.2236.92 Sikhs83.77 Christians 19.8211.84 Buddhist 64.52 Sikhs 2.9510.86 Parsis 98.41 Others 33.0518.51 All77.97 Source: NSSO 55th Round, July 1999-june 2000. Scheduled castes*23.7 Scheduled tribes*17.1percent and Christians at 39.7 percent. TheSource: Socio-economic status of Minorities conducted by the Centrelowest work participation rate of 31.3 percentfor Research Planning & Action, New Delhi, 2006 in the States ofMaharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh. and West Bengal andat the national level is seen for the Muslim*Census 2001population preceded by Jains at 32.9 percentand Sikhs at 37.7 percent. Further, workfacilities of electricity, piped water supply participation rate of 9.2 percent among Jainand toilets.women and 14.1 percent for Muslim women isthe lowest in the country. Table 3.22 indicatesPoverty and Employmentthe community-wise status:Poverty Category of Workers15. In 1999-2000, a survey was got conducted15.2. Table 3.23 indicates the distributionby the Government of India for estimation of workers community-wise among variousof levels of poverty among various religiouscategories.communities and it was noted, therefore, thatpoverty as a phenomenon was more acute in 15.3. As is seen from the table 33.1 percent ofrural areas than urban areas for all religiousHindus are cultivators followed by 32.4 percentcommunities except Muslims and Sikhs as for Sikhs and 29.2 percent for Christians. Onlyshown in Table 3.21.one-fth (20 percent) of the Muslims arecultivators while among Jains, this is only 11.7Work Participation Rate percent, much below the national average of15.1. According to Census 2001, work31.7 percent. The highest percentage ofparticipation rate (WPR) or percentage of cultivators is 49.9 percent among the followersworkers to total population for all religions of other religion category.is 39.1 percent. However, the group of OtherReligions and Persuasions has higher work15.4. Further, at the aggregated level, 26.5participation rate of 48.4 percent followed percent of workers are agricultural labourers.by the Buddhist at 40.6 percent, Hindus 40.4The pattern among the six religiousTable 3.22: Work Participation Rate among Religious Minority Communities (in percent) All HinduMuslim ChristianBuddhistSikhsJains Others Male 51.7 52.447.550.749.2 53.355.2 52.5 Female 25.6 27.514.128.731.7 20.29.244.2 Average39.1 40.431.339.740.6 37.732.9 48.4Source: Census of India 2001Religious Minorities and their Status 30. 26 Table 3.23: Distribution of Category of Workers Community-wise (in percent)Workers by occupational category CultivatorsAgricultural workersHousehold industrial workers Other workers All religions31.7 26.54.2 37.6 Hindu33.1 27.63.8 35.5 Muslim 20.7 22.08.1 49.1 Christian29.2 15.32.7 52.8 Sikh 32.4 16.83.4 47.3 Buddhist 20.4 37.62.9 39.2 Jain 11.73.33.3 81.7 Others 49.9 32.63.2 14.3Source: Census of India 2001communities reveals that Buddhists withcategories above. This includes workers in the37.6 percent have maximum workers as tertiary sector, such as services, manufacturing,agricultural labourers followed by othertrade & commerce and allied activities. Jainsreligion category with 32.6 percent and with 81.7 percent workers are classied asHindus with 27.6 percent. On the contrary, Other workers followed by 52.8 percentthe number of agricultural workers among Christians and 49.1 percent Muslims. AmongMuslims is 22.1 percent followed by SikhsHindus, Other Workers are 35.5 percent. The(16.8 percent) and Christians (15.3 percent).business character of Jain workers and theOnly 3.3 percent among Jains are in theservice sector work of the Christians are evidentcategory of agricultural workers and fallin this data set.below the national average. To sum up, 82.5percent of population among the other 15.7. The NSSO in their 61st Round of surveyreligion category is engaged in agriculturalfound that more than half of the workersactivities either as cultivators and/orin the rural areas were self-employed, theagricultural labourers, followed by Hindus proportion being the highest among the(60.7 percent) and Buddhists (58 percent). Muslim workers both Males (60 percent) andAmong Muslims, Sikhs and Jains this is below females (75 percent). In the urban areas also,50 percent indicating that a majority of themthe same pattern is observed. The proportionare engaged in non-agricultural pursuits.of regular wage/salaried workers was highest among Christians in both rural and urban15.5. In the category of household industryareas among both males and females. Theworkers, artisan character of Muslims workersproportion of casual labourers was highestis reected in the data, where 8.1 percent among Hindus for females in both rural (34Muslim workers are engaged. This is almost percent) and urban (18 percent) areas.double than the national average of 4.2 percent.Among Hindus, 3.8 percent workers and15.8. About 37 percent of Hindu householdsaround 3 percent each among Sikh and Jainwere dependent on self-employment inworkers are in this category. Christian andagriculture. The corresponding proportionBuddhist workers constitute 2.7 percent andwas 35 percent for the Christians and 262.9 percent, respectively. percent for the Muslims. The proportions of households depending on self-employment15.6. The Indian economic structure is showing in non-agriculture were 14 percent for thea shift towards non-agricultural sector. The Hindus, 28 percent for the Muslims and 15category of Others Workers includes all thosepercent for the Christians. In the case of ruralworkers who do not fall under the three distinct labour households, the proportions varied Report of the National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities 31. 27from 32 percent (Muslims) to 37 percent Table 3.25: Dependency Ratio among(Hindus). different CommunitiesCommunityDependency Ratio15.9. In urban areas the proportion of Hindu Young Oldhouseholds depending on self-employment, All religions 621131regular wage/salary and casual labourHindu 604133were 36 percent, 43 percent and 12 percent Muslim778109respectively, whereas the correspondingChristian 499137shares for the Muslims were 49 percent, 30 Sikh526166percent and 14 percent respectively and forBuddhist577146 Jain390154the Christians 27 percent, 47 percent and 11 Others706118percent respectively.Source: Situation analysis by IIPS Mumbai in 2006Average Income15.10 . According to a study conducted by ratio of 778 and lowest dependency ratioCentre for Research, Planning & Action, of 109 which could be one of the possibleNew Delhi, in January 2006 in ve statesreasons for their economic backwardness(Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar as compared with averages for all religiousPradesh and West Bengal), average incomecommunities. On the contrary, Jainsper family per month is estimated at Rs. 2,103. haveshownlowestyoungpersonsThis is the highest at Rs. 3173 in Maharashtradependency ratio of 390 followed by Christiansfollowed by Rs. 2274 in UP, Rs. 2155 in Punjab, with 499.Rs. 1449 in Tamil Nadu, Rs. 1324 in WestBengal. By religion, the highest income was 15.13. Summing up, more Muslim workersrecorded among Parsis at Rs. 3484 per month than any other religious community arefollowed by Rs. 2478 among Buddhists, involved in household industry work, whichRs. 2285 among Sikhs, Rs. 1906 amongis indicative of their artisan nature. JainsChristians and Rs. 1832 among Muslims ashave the lowest number of workers involvedshown in the Table 3.24.in agriculture, which is preceded by Muslims,Christians and Sikhs. Table 3.24: Average Family IncomeState-wise and Community-wise Visits to the States/UTs and Workshops (In Rs.) Sponsored by NCRLM StateIncomeReligion Income 16. To examine the socio-economic status Maharashtra 3173.34Muslim1832.20 and other related issues of minorities, this Punjab2155.39Christian 1906.50 Commission visited 28 States and Union Uttar Pradesh 2274.60Sikhs 2285.60Territories and held discussions with the Tamil Nadu1449.10Buddhist2477.90political leaders, officials and non-officials, West Bengal 1324.15Parsis3483.80 All 2103.24All 2103.24community leaders, academicians etc. TheSource: Socio-economic status of Minorities conducted by the CentreCommission also sponsored workshopsfor Research Planning & Action, New Delhi, 2006 in the States ofon Muslims, Sikhs, Parsis, Buddhists andMaharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh. and West BengalChristians to familiarise itself with thesocial, economic and educational statusDependency Ratioof different minority communities. While15.11. Based on Census 2001, Table 3.25 givesSuggestions/Views of the States/UTs andthe details of dependency ratio among religiousRecommendations emerged out of theminoritiesworkshops have been furnished in Vol. II ofthe Report, important points are mentioned15.12. As may be seen from the above, Muslimsbelow:have the highest young persons dependencyReligious Minorities and their Status 32. 28Parsiswell-off being landowners, and in the rest ofi. The fertility rate among Parsis is very lowthe country largely comprising of converts and has affected its population. Reluctanceafter independence. of many couples to have children, in spiteii. Buddhists by and large are depending on of being healthy and economically well off agriculture and/or wage employment. was responsible for a low replenishment iii. Problem of landlessness among them is rate to the existing Parsi members which acute and wages paid to them are also quite when compounded with the increased low. longevity could hasten the shrinking of the iv. Since Buddhists do not have enough capital, community. they have not set up industries, businessii. The socio-economically disadvantagedenterprises, educational