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Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. reserved. Introduction to Psychology Introduction to Psychology Chapter 1 Chapter 1 The World of Psychology Seventh Edition Samuel E. Wood, Ellen Green Wood, Denise Boyd

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Introduction to PsychologyIntroduction to PsychologyChapter 1Chapter 1

The World of PsychologySeventh Edition

Samuel E. Wood, Ellen Green Wood, Denise Boyd

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Effective Study PracticesEffective Study Practices Establish a quiet place, free of distractions, where

you do nothing but study. Schedule your study time. Set specific goals for yourself each week and for

each study session. The more active a role you play in learning, the

more you will remember.• Use flash cards

Overlearning means studying beyond the point which you can just barely recite the information.

Forgetting takes place most rapidly within 24 hours, always review shortly before tests.

Sleeping immediately after studying will help you retain more of what you have learned.

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How Much Do You Know About Psychology?How Much Do You Know About Psychology?

1. Once damaged, brain cells never work again.2. All people dream during a night of normal sleep.3. As the number of bystanders at an emergency increases, the

time it takes for the victim to get help decreases.4. Humans do not have a maternal instinct.5. It’s impossible for human beings to hear a watch ticking 20

feet away.6. Eyewitness testimony is often unreliable.7. Chimpanzees have been taught to speak.8. Creativity and high intelligence do not necessarily go together.9. When it comes to close personal relationships, opposites

attract.10. The majority of teenagers have a good relationship with their

parents.

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An Introduction to An Introduction to the World of Psychology the World of Psychology

Definition of PsychologyDefinition of Psychology• The scientific study of behavior The scientific study of behavior

and mental processesand mental processes

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method• The orderly, systematic procedures that The orderly, systematic procedures that

researchers follow as they:researchers follow as they: identify a research problem, identify a research problem, design a study to investigate the problem, design a study to investigate the problem, collect and analyze data, collect and analyze data, draw conclusions, draw conclusions, and communicate their findings. and communicate their findings.

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Steps in the Scientific MethodSteps in the Scientific Method

Observe and theorizeObserve and theorize Formulate a hypothesisFormulate a hypothesis Design a studyDesign a study Collect dataCollect data Apply results to the hypothesisApply results to the hypothesis ReplicationReplication

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The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

TheoryTheory• General principle or set of principles proposed

to explain how a number of separate facts are related

ReplicationReplication• Process of repeating a study with different

participants and, preferably, a different investigator to verify research findings

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The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

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Goals of PsychologyGoals of Psychology DescriptionDescription

• Tells what occurred as accurately and completely Tells what occurred as accurately and completely as possibleas possible

ExplanationExplanation• An understanding of conditions An understanding of conditions • Confirmed by ruling in or out alternativesConfirmed by ruling in or out alternatives

PredictionPrediction• Must Identify all antecedent conditionsMust Identify all antecedent conditions

InfluenceInfluence• Apply principle prevents unwanted occurrences or Apply principle prevents unwanted occurrences or

bring about desired outcomesbring about desired outcomes

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Goals of PsychologyGoals of Psychology

Basic ResearchBasic Research• Conducted to seek new knowledge and explore Conducted to seek new knowledge and explore

and advance general scientific understandingand advance general scientific understanding

Applied ResearchApplied Research• Conducted specifically to solve practical Conducted specifically to solve practical

problems and improve the quality of lifeproblems and improve the quality of life

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Exploring Psychology’s RootsExploring Psychology’s Roots

Wilhelm WundtWilhelm Wundt ““The father” of psychologyThe father” of psychology Pure sensations are basic elements of consciousness Pure sensations are basic elements of consciousness

Edward TitchenerEdward Titchener Established Psychology lab in U.S. at CornellEstablished Psychology lab in U.S. at Cornell Consciousness reduced to basic elementsConsciousness reduced to basic elements

StructuralismStructuralism• First formal school of thought First formal school of thought • Endeavored to analyze basic elements of Endeavored to analyze basic elements of

conscious mental experienceconscious mental experience

• IntrospectionIntrospection

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Psychology’s RootsPsychology’s Roots FunctionalismFunctionalism

• An early school of psychology concerned with An early school of psychology concerned with how humans and animals use mental processes how humans and animals use mental processes to adapt to their environmentto adapt to their environment

• Included study of behavior, children, animals, Included study of behavior, children, animals, and individuals w/ impairmentsand individuals w/ impairments

William JamesWilliam James• First American psychologistFirst American psychologist• Taught mental processes are fluid with continuity Taught mental processes are fluid with continuity

not rigid, fixed, or structurednot rigid, fixed, or structured Charles DarwinCharles Darwin

• Evolution theory as applied to psychologyEvolution theory as applied to psychology

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Pioneering WomenPioneering Women

Christine Ladd-Franklin Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847-(1847-1930) 1930)

Completed PhD in the mid 1880’s at Completed PhD in the mid 1880’s at John HopkinsJohn Hopkins• Did not receive her degree until 1926Did not receive her degree until 1926

Formulated a well-regarded, Formulated a well-regarded, evolutionary theory of color visionevolutionary theory of color vision

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Pioneering WomenPioneering Women

Mary Whiton CalkinsMary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)(1863-1930)

Completed the requirements for a doctorate at Completed the requirements for a doctorate at HarvardHarvard• Harvard refused to grant the degree. Harvard refused to grant the degree.

Established a psychology laboratory at Wellesley Established a psychology laboratory at Wellesley CollegeCollege

Developed the paired associates testDeveloped the paired associates test

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Pioneering WomenPioneering Women

Margaret Floy WashburnMargaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939) (1871-1939)

Received her PhD from Cornell University Received her PhD from Cornell University

Taught at Vasser CollegeTaught at Vasser College

Wrote Wrote The Animal MindThe Animal Mind (1908) and (1908) and Movement and Mental ImageryMovement and Mental Imagery (1916) (1916)

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African Americans and Other GroupsAfrican Americans and Other Groups

Francis Cecil SumnerFrancis Cecil Sumner (1895-1954) (1895-1954)• The “father” of African-American The “father” of African-American

psychologypsychology• First African American to earn a Ph.D. in First African American to earn a Ph.D. in

psychologypsychology• Translated French, German, and Spanish Translated French, German, and Spanish

articlesarticles• Chaired psychology department at Chaired psychology department at

Howard UniversityHoward University

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African Americans and Other GroupsAfrican Americans and Other Groups

Albert Sidney BeckhamAlbert Sidney Beckham (1897-1964), (1897-1964),

A notable African American psychologistA notable African American psychologist

Established first psychological laboratory at a Established first psychological laboratory at a Black institution of higher learning – Howard Black institution of higher learning – Howard University.University.

Conducted impressive studies on intelligence and Conducted impressive studies on intelligence and how it related to occupational fieldshow it related to occupational fields

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African Americans and Other GroupsAfrican Americans and Other Groups

Kenneth ClarkKenneth Clark

Recent African American psychologistRecent African American psychologist

National recognition for writings on the harmful National recognition for writings on the harmful effects of racial segregationeffects of racial segregation

Writings affected Supreme Court rulings declaring Writings affected Supreme Court rulings declaring rational segregation unconstitutionalrational segregation unconstitutional

Published classic writings on racial identification Published classic writings on racial identification and self-esteem with his wife, Mamie Phipps Clarkand self-esteem with his wife, Mamie Phipps Clark

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African Americans and Other GroupsAfrican Americans and Other Groups

George SanchezGeorge Sanchez (1906-1972 (1906-1972

Hispanic American psychologistHispanic American psychologist

Studied bias in intelligence testing during Studied bias in intelligence testing during the 1930sthe 1930s

Pointed out that cultural and language Pointed out that cultural and language differences work against Hispanic students differences work against Hispanic students when they take IQ testswhen they take IQ tests

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Native American & Asian PsychologistsNative American & Asian Psychologists Fastest growing minority groupFastest growing minority group Percentages of doctorates doubled from mid Percentages of doctorates doubled from mid

1970s to mid 1990s1970s to mid 1990s Marigold LintonMarigold Linton

• Researches autobiographical memoryResearches autobiographical memory Richard SuinnRichard Suinn

• Eminent research in behavioral psychologyEminent research in behavioral psychology• First Asian American president of American First Asian American president of American

Psychological AssociationPsychological Association More women obtain degrees in psychology More women obtain degrees in psychology

than men than men

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Schools of Thought in PsychologySchools of Thought in Psychology

The Founders of PsychologyThe Founders of Psychology

John B. Watson - Behaviorism John B. Watson - Behaviorism

Sigmund Freud - PsychoanalysisSigmund Freud - Psychoanalysis

Maslow & Rogers - Humanistic Maslow & Rogers - Humanistic

George Miller - Cognitive George Miller - Cognitive

Wertheimer - Gestalt Wertheimer - Gestalt

Buss - EvolutionaryBuss - Evolutionary

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Schools of Thought in PsychologySchools of Thought in Psychology BehaviorismBehaviorism

• Views observable, measurable behavior as Views observable, measurable behavior as the appropriate subject matter the appropriate subject matter

• Emphasizes environment as key role in as Emphasizes environment as key role in as determinant of behaviordeterminant of behavior

• Helped establish psychology as a scienceHelped establish psychology as a science• Founded by John B. WatsonFounded by John B. Watson• B. F. SkinnerB. F. Skinner

Behaviors best understood by analyzing Behaviors best understood by analyzing conditions before they occur and consequences conditions before they occur and consequences that follow themthat follow them

Coined phrase Coined phrase operant conditioningoperant conditioning

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Schools of Thought in PsychologySchools of Thought in Psychology

PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis Term Freud used for his personality theory Term Freud used for his personality theory

and treatment of disordersand treatment of disorders The unconscious is primary focus of The unconscious is primary focus of

psychoanalytic theorypsychoanalytic theory ““Freudian slip” commonly knownFreudian slip” commonly known NeoFreudiansNeoFreudians

• Developed own personality theoriesDeveloped own personality theories Influential in psychology though research Influential in psychology though research

volume diminishesvolume diminishes

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Schools of Thought in PsychologySchools of Thought in Psychology

Humanistic PsychologyHumanistic Psychology Focuses on uniqueness of human beings and their Focuses on uniqueness of human beings and their

capacity for choice, growth, and psychological healthcapacity for choice, growth, and psychological health Rejects behavioral and psychoanalytic views Rejects behavioral and psychoanalytic views Emphasizes positive view of human natureEmphasizes positive view of human nature

• People are innately good and posses free willPeople are innately good and posses free will

Important in research of human motivationImportant in research of human motivation Carl RogersCarl Rogers

• Developed client-centered therapyDeveloped client-centered therapy• Popularized group therapyPopularized group therapy

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Schools of Thought in PsychologySchools of Thought in Psychology

Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology Views humans as active participants in their Views humans as active participants in their

environmentenvironment One of the prominent theories of psychologyOne of the prominent theories of psychology Studies mental processes, Studies mental processes,

• MemoryMemory• Problem solvingProblem solving• Decision makingDecision making• PerceptionPerception• LanguageLanguage• Other forms of cognitionOther forms of cognition

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Schools of Thought in PsychologySchools of Thought in Psychology

Gestalt PsychologyGestalt Psychology Individuals perceive objects and patterns Individuals perceive objects and patterns

as whole units.as whole units. The perceived whole is more than a sum of The perceived whole is more than a sum of

its parts.its parts. Phi phenomenonPhi phenomenon The mind interprets experiences in The mind interprets experiences in

predictable ways rather than simply predictable ways rather than simply reacting to them.reacting to them.

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Schools of Thought in PsychologySchools of Thought in PsychologyInformation-Processing TheoryInformation-Processing Theory Studies mental structures and processes that Studies mental structures and processes that

uses the computer as a model for human uses the computer as a model for human thinkingthinking

The brain processes information in sequential The brain processes information in sequential steps, one step at a time.steps, one step at a time.

The brain interprets information – doesn’t just The brain interprets information – doesn’t just respond to itrespond to it

Associations between new input and previously Associations between new input and previously acquired knowledgeacquired knowledge

Research artificial intelligenceResearch artificial intelligence

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Schools of Thought in PsychologySchools of Thought in Psychology

Evolutionary PsychologyEvolutionary Psychology Studies how humans have adapted the behaviors Studies how humans have adapted the behaviors

required for survival in the face of environmental required for survival in the face of environmental pressures. pressures.

Biological (Physiological) PsychologyBiological (Physiological) Psychology Looks for links between specific behaviors and Looks for links between specific behaviors and

specific biological processes.specific biological processes.

NeuroscienceNeuroscience Combines the work of psychologists, biologists, Combines the work of psychologists, biologists,

biochemists, medical researchers, and others and biochemists, medical researchers, and others and studies the structure and function of the nervous studies the structure and function of the nervous system.system.

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Schools of Thought in PsychologySchools of Thought in Psychology

Sociocultural Approach Sociocultural Approach View that social and cultural factors may be just View that social and cultural factors may be just

as powerful as evolutionary and physiological as powerful as evolutionary and physiological factors in affecting behavior and mental factors in affecting behavior and mental processes. processes.

Psychological PerspectivesPsychological Perspectives General points of view used for explaining General points of view used for explaining

people’s behavior and thinking, whether normal people’s behavior and thinking, whether normal or abnormal. or abnormal.

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Evaluating TheoriesEvaluating Theories Useful theories lead to:Useful theories lead to:

• Testable hypothesesTestable hypotheses• Development of solutions to real-world Development of solutions to real-world

problemsproblems Heuristic valuesHeuristic values

• Spur creativity and curiosity through:Spur creativity and curiosity through: Stimulated debate among psychologists and Stimulated debate among psychologists and

researchersresearchers Motivating proponents and opponents to Motivating proponents and opponents to

pursue research related to itpursue research related to it

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Evaluating ResearchEvaluating Research Goal:Goal: equip students with tools needed to evaluate claims equip students with tools needed to evaluate claims

based on psychological researchbased on psychological research

Critical thinkingCritical thinking• The process of objectively evaluating claims, propositions, The process of objectively evaluating claims, propositions,

and conclusions to determine whether they follow logically and conclusions to determine whether they follow logically from the evidence presentedfrom the evidence presented

• Independent thinkingIndependent thinking Not automatically accepting what is read or heard

• Suspension of judgmentSuspension of judgment Gathering relevant information on all sides prior to taking

a position

• Willingness to modify or abandon prior Willingness to modify or abandon prior judgmentsjudgments

Evaluating new evidence even if it contradicts held beliefs

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Descriptive Research MethodsDescriptive Research Methods Research methods that yield descriptions of behaviorResearch methods that yield descriptions of behavior Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation

• Researchers observe and record behavior in its Researchers observe and record behavior in its natural setting with out influencing or controlling itnatural setting with out influencing or controlling it

• LimitationsLimitations Observer biasObserver bias

• Expectations influence observations or interpretationsExpectations influence observations or interpretations Must wait for behaviors to occurMust wait for behaviors to occur

Laboratory observationLaboratory observation• Behavior studied in a laboratory setting allowing Behavior studied in a laboratory setting allowing

more control and use of precise instrumentsmore control and use of precise instruments

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Descriptive Research MethodsDescriptive Research Methods

The Case StudyThe Case Study • A single person or a small number of individuals A single person or a small number of individuals

are studied in great depthare studied in great depth• Usually done over an extended period of timeUsually done over an extended period of time• Uses observations, interviews, or psychological Uses observations, interviews, or psychological

testingtesting

• Limitations:Limitations: Causes of behavior difficult to establishCauses of behavior difficult to establish Observer biasObserver bias Applicability to larger groups or different Applicability to larger groups or different

cultures questionablecultures questionable

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Descriptive Research MethodsDescriptive Research Methods Survey ResearchSurvey Research

• Interviews or questionnaires are used to gather Interviews or questionnaires are used to gather information about attitudes, beliefs, experiences, information about attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviors of a group of peopleor behaviors of a group of people

• Population Population Entire group of interest to researchers to which they wish Entire group of interest to researchers to which they wish

to generalize their findingsto generalize their findings

• Sample Sample Part of a population that is studied in order to reach Part of a population that is studied in order to reach

conclusions about the entire populationconclusions about the entire population

• Representative sample Representative sample Sample that mirrors the population of interestSample that mirrors the population of interest Includes subgroups in the same proportion as found in Includes subgroups in the same proportion as found in

the populationthe population

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Descriptive Research MethodsDescriptive Research Methods

Interviews and QuestionnairesInterviews and Questionnaires AdvantagesAdvantages

• Results can be affected by wording, content, and Results can be affected by wording, content, and interviewer characteristicsinterviewer characteristics

• Questionnaires are less expensive and can gather Questionnaires are less expensive and can gather information from large groups quicklyinformation from large groups quickly

• May or may not meet scientific scrutinyMay or may not meet scientific scrutiny DisadvantagesDisadvantages

• Costly and time consumingCostly and time consuming• Faulty information may be gatheredFaulty information may be gathered• ““Social desirability response”Social desirability response”• Deliberately provide misleading informationDeliberately provide misleading information

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Descriptive Research MethodsDescriptive Research MethodsThe Correlational MethodThe Correlational Method Establishes the degree of relationship (correlation) Establishes the degree of relationship (correlation)

between two characteristics, events, or behaviorsbetween two characteristics, events, or behaviors Correlation CoefficientCorrelation Coefficient

• A numerical value that indicates strength and A numerical value that indicates strength and direction of the relationship between variablesdirection of the relationship between variables

• Ranges from +1.00 (perfect positive correlation) to Ranges from +1.00 (perfect positive correlation) to -1.00 (a perfect negative correlation)-1.00 (a perfect negative correlation)

• Positive CorrelationPositive Correlation Two variables vary in same directionTwo variables vary in same direction When stress increases illness usually increasesWhen stress increases illness usually increases

• Negative CorrelationNegative Correlation One value’s increase associated with decrease in anotherOne value’s increase associated with decrease in another Number cigarettes smokes and years expected to liveNumber cigarettes smokes and years expected to live

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Descriptive Research MethodsDescriptive Research Methods

Correlational StudiesCorrelational Studies Correlation does not prove causationCorrelation does not prove causation Correlation coefficient Correlation coefficient

• Indicates the strength of a relationship between Indicates the strength of a relationship between two variablestwo variables

• Ranges from +1.00 to -1.00Ranges from +1.00 to -1.00 AdvantagesAdvantages

• Ethical reasons don’t allow direct studiesEthical reasons don’t allow direct studies• Variables of interest can’t be manipulatedVariables of interest can’t be manipulated• Less time consuming to conductLess time consuming to conduct• Correlational studies are often less complexCorrelational studies are often less complex

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The Experimental MethodThe Experimental Method

Experimental MethodExperimental Method The only research method to identify cause-effect The only research method to identify cause-effect

relationships between two or more variables or relationships between two or more variables or conditionsconditions

Causal HypothesisCausal Hypothesis• A prediction about cause-effect relationship A prediction about cause-effect relationship

between two or more variablesbetween two or more variables VariableVariable

• Any condition or factor that can be manipulated, Any condition or factor that can be manipulated, controlled, or measuredcontrolled, or measured

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The Experimental MethodThe Experimental Method

Independent VariablesIndependent Variables• A factor or condition deliberately manipulated to A factor or condition deliberately manipulated to

determine whether it causes changes in another determine whether it causes changes in another behavior or conditionbehavior or condition

• Researcher deliberately manipulates the IVResearcher deliberately manipulates the IV

Dependent VariableDependent Variable• Any condition or factor that can be manipulated, Any condition or factor that can be manipulated,

controlled, or measuredcontrolled, or measured• It is measured at the end of the experimentIt is measured at the end of the experiment

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The Experimental MethodThe Experimental Method

Experimental groupExperimental group• The group that is exposed to an independent The group that is exposed to an independent

variablevariable

Control groupControl group• A group similar to the experimental groupA group similar to the experimental group• Exposed to the same experimental environmentExposed to the same experimental environment• Not given the IVNot given the IV• Used for comparison purposesUsed for comparison purposes

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Sources of Bias in ResearchSources of Bias in Research

Confounding variablesConfounding variables• Extraneous variables (time of day, type of Extraneous variables (time of day, type of

subject, experimenter bias)subject, experimenter bias) Selection biasSelection bias

• Assignments to groups so systematic Assignments to groups so systematic differences are presentdifferences are present

Random assignmentRandom assignment• All participants have equal chance of being All participants have equal chance of being

assigned to each conditionassigned to each condition Placebo effectPlacebo effect

Response to treatment is due to a person’s Response to treatment is due to a person’s expectations not the treatment itselfexpectations not the treatment itself

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Sources of Bias in ResearchSources of Bias in Research Placebo effectPlacebo effect

• The phenomenon that occurs when a The phenomenon that occurs when a participant‘s response to a treatment is due to participant‘s response to a treatment is due to their expectations about the treatment rather their expectations about the treatment rather than the treatment itself. than the treatment itself.

Placebo Placebo • An inert substance given to control group to An inert substance given to control group to

control for placebo effectcontrol for placebo effect Experimenter biasExperimenter bias

• Experimental results influenced by the researcherExperimental results influenced by the researcher Double-blind procedure Double-blind procedure

• Neither researchers nor participants are aware of who is in control of experimental groups

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Protecting Research Participant’s RightsProtecting Research Participant’s Rights Legality:Legality:

• research must conform to applicable lawsresearch must conform to applicable laws

Institutional approval:Institutional approval: • required clearance from institution/schoolrequired clearance from institution/school

Informed Consent:Informed Consent: • participants must be informed ofparticipants must be informed of the purpose and any potential harmthe purpose and any potential harm

Deception:Deception: • only used when necessary and no other means availableonly used when necessary and no other means available

Debriefing:Debriefing: • participants are informed of any deception after end of researchparticipants are informed of any deception after end of research

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Protecting Research Participant’s RightsProtecting Research Participant’s Rights Clients, patients, students, and subordinatesClients, patients, students, and subordinates

• steps used to assure participants are not damaged in any way by steps used to assure participants are not damaged in any way by participatingparticipating

Payment for participationPayment for participation• fully informed what is expected fully informed what is expected

Publication:Publication: • findings must be made available to others for verificationfindings must be made available to others for verification

Use of animals:Use of animals: • required adherence to laws and appropriate care required adherence to laws and appropriate care

Minimization of discomfort:Minimization of discomfort: • ethical duty to minimize discomfort to animals and to euthanize in humane ethical duty to minimize discomfort to animals and to euthanize in humane

manner when necessarymanner when necessary

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Psychologists at WorkPsychologists at WorkSpecialties in PsychologySpecialties in Psychology

ClinicalClinical• Specialize in diagnosis and treatment of mental and Specialize in diagnosis and treatment of mental and

behavioral disorders such as anxiety, phobias, and behavioral disorders such as anxiety, phobias, and schizophreniaschizophrenia

School School • Specialize in diagnosis and treatment of learning and Specialize in diagnosis and treatment of learning and

behavioral problems that interfere with learningbehavioral problems that interfere with learning Forensic Forensic

• Apply their training in clinical psychology to issues involving Apply their training in clinical psychology to issues involving psychology and the lawpsychology and the law

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Psychologists at WorkPsychologists at Work CounselingCounseling

• Help people who have adjustment problems (marital, social, or Help people who have adjustment problems (marital, social, or behavioral) that are generally less severebehavioral) that are generally less severe

Physiological, Biological, or Physiological, Biological, or NeuropsychologistsNeuropsychologists

• Study the relationship between physiological processes and Study the relationship between physiological processes and behavior in humans and animalsbehavior in humans and animals

ExperimentalExperimental • Conduct experiments, work in laboratories, teach and conduct Conduct experiments, work in laboratories, teach and conduct

research at colleges or universitiesresearch at colleges or universities

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Psychologists at WorkPsychologists at Work DevelopmentalDevelopmental

• Study how people grow, develop, and change Study how people grow, develop, and change throughout lifethroughout life

Educational Educational • Specialize in teaching and learningSpecialize in teaching and learning

SocialSocial• How individuals feel, think, and behave in social How individuals feel, think, and behave in social

settingssettings Industrial/Organizational Industrial/Organizational

• Relationships between people and work Relationships between people and work environmentsenvironments