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The Value of Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystem Services
EDWARD B. BARBIER, SALLY D. HACKER, CHRIS KENNEDY,
EVAMARIA W. KOCH, ADRIAN C. STIER, AND BRIAN R. SILLIMAN
Edward B. Barbier
Professor of Economics, Department of Economics and Finance, University of Wyoming.
He has over 25 years experience as an environmental and resource economist, working on natural resource and development issues as well as the interface between economics and ecology.
He has served as a consultant and policy analyst for a variety of national, international and non-governmental agencies, including many UN organizations and the World Bank.
Who is the author?
Main goal of this paper
1. To illustrate the current state of identifying, assessing, and valuing the key ecosystem services of Estuarine Coastal Ecosystems.
2. What is the current state of progress in integrating knowledge about the “Ecological production function”.
3. Economic valuation methods to value changes in services in terms of Impacts on human welfare.
Integrating knowledge
Coral reef
Sea Grass
Salt marshes
Mangrove
Sand Beaches Dunes
5 Critical Estuarine Coastal Ecosystems
Coral reefs
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archivo:Coral_reef_locations.jpg
http://en.bestpicturesof.com/gelatinous%20zooplankton
Raw materials (lime) Coastal protection
Maintenance of fisheries Nutrient cycling
Tourism, Recreation, Education, Research
Coral Reef Services
The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system, composed of more than 2900 coral reefs and more than 900 individual islands
http://cool-travel-vacations.blogspot.com/2008/07/great-barrier-reef-spans-almost-350000.html
Northeast of Queensland, Australia, some 2 million tourists come to the Great Barrier Reef every year. In 2005, it was estimated that this tourism generated 5.1 Billion
Australian dollars, up from 4 Billion Australian dollars in 2003.
Lime
http://www.healthtotem.com/en/coral/c_safe.html http://imageshack.us/f/193/2321342412.png/
Coral Reef Stressors
Overfishing
http://sitemaker.umich.edu/gc2sec7labgroup3/over-fishing
Dynamite fishing
http://plaza.ufl.edu/bettie/coralreef.html
Sumatra Tsunami
http://www.enterprisemission.com/hyperquake.htm
Where dynamite fishing had occurred suffered 70% greater wave heights than undisturbed areas during the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami (Fernando et al. 2005).
Cyanide Fishing
http://www.braaschphotography.com/pages/077.htm
Tropical islands disappearing as a result of coral mining and sea level rise
Indian Ocean’s Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
http://theseamonster.net/2011/05/tropical-islands-disappearing-as-a-result-of-coral-mining/
Eutrophication
Baltic Sea
http://coastalchallenges.com/category/eutrophication/
underwater image is from the southern coast of Finland, photo (c) 2010 Erkki Siirila.
Finland
Gulf of Oman
The Gulf of Oman scientists found almost 500 square kilometers of coral reef simply overwhelmed a massive algae bloom. The researchers found that almost 95% of the coral under the surface of these blooms died rapidly under the foreign conditions.
http://electrictreehouse.com/aglae-blooms-are-killing-coral/
Coastal Development, dredging and sedimentation
An aerial view of the coastline along Hawaii Kai on the Hawaiian Island of Oahu where organic sediment is one of the major threat to the reef.
Photograph: Ed Darack/Corbis http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/sep/02/coral-catastrophic-future
Biological Invasion In 1992, Hurricane Andrew smashed an aquarium tank in Florida. About a half-
dozen spiny, venomous lionfish washed into the Atlantic Ocean…
Originally from the Pacific Ocean, the spiny, venomous lionfish can kill three-quarters of an Atlantic coral reef's fish population in just
five weeks (Hixon, 2005) http://www.worldzootoday.com/2009/08/11/spreading-lionfish-invasion-threatens-bahamas/
Bleaching
Seagrass Beads
Shallow marine estuarine habitats
Soft substrates (mud, sand, cobble)
~ 11% of surface light
Wave-sheltered conditions
http://www.seagrasswatch.org/seagrass.html
Seagrasses Services
Coastal protection
Erosion control
Water purification
Maintenance of fisheries
Carbon sequestration (~50% of carbon burial in the ocean)
Tourism, recreation, education and research
Australia Seagrass
Action http://www.seagrasswatch.org/training.html
Planning http://ian.umces.edu/bill/pdfs/seagrass_in_australia.pdf
Loss of 12,700 ha of seagrasses in Australia is associated with lost fishery production of AU$23, 000 (McArthur and Boland 2006)
Seagrass Stressors
1. Eutrophication
2. Overharvesting
3. Sediment runoff
4. Algal blooms
5. Commercial fisheries
6. Aquaculture practices
7. Vegetation disturbance
8. Global warming
Seaweed farming on seagrass beds at Bwejuu beach island of Zanzibar Tanzania http://www.photographersdirect.com/buyers/stockphoto.asp?imageid=1522468
Salt Marshes http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_marsh
• Intertidal grasslands
• Low energy-wave protected shorelines
• Continental margins
• Sharp zonation of plants
• Low species diversity
• High primary and secondary production
Salt Marshes Services • Coastal protection • Erosion control • Water purification • Maintenance of fisheries • Carbon sequestration • Tourism, recreation, education, and research
http://saltmarshlife.com/salt-marsh/ecology.html
Longton Marsh Ribble Estuary England
Ribble Estuary on England’s west coast, annual net income from grazing in a salt marsh nature reserve is: £15.27/ha yr (King and Lester 1995).
Louisiana USA $785 to $15 000/acre year in savings
on wastewater treatment
http://comiteresources.net/wa_bernard.asp
Salt Marshes Stressors Biological invasions
Eutrophication
Climate change
Sea level rise
Increasing air and sea surface temperatures
Increasing CO2 concentrations
Altered hydrologic regimes
Marsh reclamation
Vegetation disturbance
Pollution
Oil contamination Louisiana Marshes
Grant to study effects of oil and dispersants on Louisiana salt marsh ecosystem: http://www.physorg.com/news201229977.html
The coast of Louisiana is lined with extensive salt marshes whose foundation is two species of Spartina grass. Credit: USGS
Mangroves
• Coastal Forests
• Saline tidal areas
• Sheltered bays, estuaries, and inlets
• Tropic and subtropics
• 50-75 woody species
• 1970=75% of coastlines
• 35% is lost
• Disappearing rate = 1-2% annually
Mangrove food web (Ecosystem processes and function)
http://www.mesa.edu.au/habitat/chall04.asp
Mangroves Services
1. Raw materials and food
2. Coastal protection
3. Erosion control
4. Water purification
5. Maintenance of fisheries
6. Carbon sequestration
7. Tourism, recreation, education and research
Mangrove Channel Cabo Rojo, P.R.
Mangrove Stressors
• Deforestation for aquaculture expansion 52% (Shrimp farms 38%)
• Industrial lumbrer and woodship
• Freshwater diversion
• Reclamation of land
• Herbicides
• Agriculture
• Salt ponds
Pondicherry, India Salt Pond: https://picasaweb.google.com/KolamTamilNadu2008/TamilNaduTourJanuary2009
Lumber and charcoal
Women harvesting mangrove wood in Cameroon. Photo courtesy of Feka and Manzano (2008).
Singapoore de-barked logs for carcoal production. http://wildshores.blogspot.com/2009/04/how-is-
charcoal-made-from-mangroves.html
Mangroves in Thailand
Many of the coastal provinces in Thailand have mangrove forests. However, the number of mangroves over the last 30 years or so have decreased greatly. In 1961 there were 909,346 acres of mangrove forests. By 2002 this number had reduced to only 593,052 acres. This is mainly due to urbanization, agriculture and aquaculture. In Samut Prakan, many mangroves were destroyed to make room for shrimp farms, factories and housing estates.
http://www.thai-blogs.com/2009/08/10/mangrove-reforestation-in-samut-prakan/
Sand Beaches and Dunes
Low-lying coastal margins
Sand transported by ocean waves
Vegetation
Dynamic geomorphic
structures
Marine and terrestrial components
Cover roughly 34% of the worlds ice-free coastlines.
Dunes of Isabela, Puerto Rico
Sand Beaches and Dunes Services
1. Raw materials 2. Coastal protection 3. Erosion control 4. Water catchment and
purification 5. Maintenance of wildlife 6. Carbon sequestration 7. Tourism, recreation,
education and research
Meijendel dunes in The Netherlands http://www.boerhaavextern.nl/SPNHC2009/LightNEasy.php?page=Fieldtrips
The Greater St Lucia Wetland Park has 8 inter-linking ecosystems and is considered the most definitive Eco-tourist experience. The vegetated coastal dunes are estimated to be 25 000 years old and are the highest dune forests (exceeding 180 m in height) in the World. There are 36 snake species, 80 dragonfly species, 526 bird species, 110 butterfly species; 114 species of fish….
http://www.lidikolodge.co.za/wb/pages/home/the-greater-st-lucia-wetland-park.php
Sand Beaches and Dunes Stressors
Mining Human use
Species invasions Climate change
http://www.jstor.org/pss/25098214
Coastal Dune Mining Maphelane Dunes , South Africa
(Photo. Paul Dutton) http://www.satsa.com/Downloads/ZWF%203rd%20Appeal%20Ref%202811%20B.htm
One regular summer day at beach in Haeundae Beach South Korea
Conclusion Toward a management action plan
• More interdisciplinary studies (sea grass beads and sand dunes have not been assessed properly)
• Destruction of these ECEs can no longer be viewed as costless
• In many developing countries, local government should involve co-management
• Encourage ecological restoration
Conclusion Toward a management action plan
• Time and space variability
• Interconnection (single “seascape”)
• Rate of degradation + human drivers
• Monetary value vs. survival (infinite value)
Why should we put monetary value to coastal estuarine ecosystems? Can we consider a good approach to set an infinite monetary value and focus on restoration and sustainable management?
FAO thematic paper: The role of coastal forests and trees in protecting against coastal erosion
http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ag127e/AG127E09.htm