The lexical approach and lexical priming(1)

The Lexical Approach and Lexical Priming – a comparison of English and Chinese

Michael HoeyUniversity of Liverpool

Lexical Approach conference, The University of Westminster, May 11th 2013

The Lexical Approach

has been criticised for1. Ignoring how language is learnt2. Having no theoretical underpinning

It is open to criticism for3. Applying only to Indo-European languages







Three goals

In this paper, however, I want to show that1. The Lexical Approach is entirely compatible

with (and supported by) reliable psycholinguistic evidence

2. The Lexical Approach is supported by at least one worked-out linguistic theory

3. The features of language that the Lexical Approach makes use of are as present in Chinese as they are in English

Three goals





Three goals





Three goals

In this paper I want to show that1. The Lexical Approach is entirely compatible




How do we learn language? Some key psycholinguistic experiments

Most of the psycholinguistic literature used by applied linguists is more linguistic than psychological. But there are two research developments from the psycholinguistic tradition that may be of relevance:semantic primingrepetition priming


Most of the psycholinguistic literature used by applied linguists is more linguistic than psychological. But there are two research developments from the psycholinguistic tradition that may be of relevance:semantic primingrepetition priming (with thanks to Michael Pace-Sigge)


Most of the psycholinguistic literature used by applied linguists is more linguistic than psychological.But there are two research developments from the psycholinguistic tradition that may be of relevance:semantic primingrepetition priming

Semantic primingIn semantic priming experiments, informants are shown a word or image (referred to as the prime) and then shown a second word or image (known as the target word).

The speed with which the target word is recognized is measured. Some primes appear to •slow up informants’ recognition of the target and others appear to •accelerate informants’ recognition of the target

Semantic priming

For example,the prime word wing will have no effect on the recognition of the word directorwill typically inhibit the recognition of the word pig and will typically speed up the recognition of the word swan.

Semantic priming


Semantic priming


Semantic priming

For example,the prime word milkwill have no effect on the recognition of the word available,will typically inhibit the recognition of the word horse but will speed up the recognition of the word cow.

Semantic priming


Semantic priming


Semantic priming


At the moment, this is probably not true of beef, which draws attention that we are talking about linguistic experience, not world knowledge.

Semantic priming


At the moment, this is probably not true of beef, which draws attention that we are talking about linguistic experience, not world knowledge.

Semantic primingPioneering semantic priming work was conducted by Meyer and Schvaneveldt (1971), who demonstrated that priming was scientifically demonstrable.

Their work was followed through by Shelton and Martin (1992) (among others), who appear to show that semantic priming only works when the priming word and the target are associated in the informant’s mind. McRae and Boisvert (1998) argue however that if the words in question have closely related meanings there will be a priming effect even without association.





What is the significance of this to the language learner?

We have proof that words are closely linked to each other in the listener’s mind, and that words that are closely linked can be recognised more quickly (and presumably used more quickly).

This doesn’t fit well with the idea that words are slotted into grammatical frames.



This doesn’t fit well with the idea that words are slotted into grammatical frames.



This does fit well with the lexical approach.


Most of the psycholinguistic literature used by applied linguists is more linguistic than psychological. There are two research developments from the psycholinguistic tradition that may be of relevance:semantic primingrepetition priming


Most of the psycholinguistic literature used by applied linguists is more linguistic than psychological. There are two research developments from the psycholinguistic tradition that may be of relevance:semantic primingrepetition priming

Repetition priming

Repetition priming is rather different from semantic priming, in that the prime and the target are identical.

Experiments with repetition priming centre around exposing informants to word combinations and then, sometimes after a considerable amount of time and after they’ve seen or heard lots of other material, measuring how quickly or accurately the informants recognize the combination when they finally see/hear it again.

Repetition priming

For example, a listener may be shown the word SCARLET followed by the word ONION. A day later, if s/he is shown the word SCARLET again, s/he will recognise ONION more quickly than other words. The assumption must be that s/he remembers the combination from the first time, since the words SCARLET ONION will only rarely have occurred before (if ever).

Repetition priming


Repetition priming


Repetition priming

Key papers on these facets of repetition priming are those of Jacoby and Dallas (1981), who observed greater accuracy in the identification of the target, and Scarborough, Cortese, and Scarborough (1977), who noted a faster response time.

Forster and Davis (1984) observed that these effects of repetition priming were more noticeable when the words in question were of low frequency in the language.

Repetition priming

Key papers on these facets of repetition priming are those of Jacoby and Dallas (1981), who observed greater accuracy in the identification of the target, and Scarborough, Cortese, and Scarborough (1977), who noted a faster response time.

Forster and Davis (1984) observed that these effects of repetition priming were more noticeable when the words in question were of low frequency in the language.

Repetition priming

Repetition priming potentially provides an explanation of both semantic priming and collocation.If a listener or reader encounters two words in combination, and stores them as a combination, then the ability of one of the words to accelerate recognition of the other is explained. If the listener or reader then draws upon this combination in his or her own utterance, then the reproduction of collocation is also explained.

Repetition priming


Repetition priming


Three goals





Three goals


with (and supported by) reliable psycholinguistic evidence DEFINITELY



Three goals





Problems with many existing theories of language1. Fluency is harder to explain than creativity2. There is no single language but lots of varying

languages masquerading as a single language, but most theories try to ignore this.

3. When we hear or read a word with multiple meanings (i.e. almost every word in common usage), we know which meaning is meant – but how?

4. Collocations are universal, but grammars largely operate as if they don’t exist

5. They don’t account for collocation (the partly arbitrary tendency of words to co-occur, e.g. growing fears, developing conflict)



















4. Collocations are universal, but grammars largely operate as if they are trivial


Accounting for collocation has to be central to any account of fluency and therefore to any theory of language with psychological plausibility

and must centre around how words are learnt

Accounting for collocation has to be central to any account of fluency and therefore to any theory of language with psychological plausibility

and must centre around how words are learntd must centre around how words are learnt

The Lexical Priming claim

Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we note subconsciously

• the words it occurs with (its collocations),• the grammatical patterns it occurs in (its

colligations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its

semantic associations),



• the words it occurs with (its collocations),• the grammatical patterns it occurs in (its

colligations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its


hardworked hardtried hardfought harddie hardfound it hardprayed hardraining hardsqueezed hard

hardworked hardtried hardfought harddie hardfound it hardprayed hardraining hardsqueezed hard

hardhard to believehard to understandhard to imaginehard to explainhard to followhard to hearhard to rememberhard to bear

hardhard luckhard linehard factshard evidencehard liveshard waterhard labourhard winterhard currency

word collocates with against and a

a word against has a semantic association with sending & receiving communication

(e.g. hear a word against)

send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with denial

(e.g. wouldn’t hear a word against)

word collocates with against and a or your(s)

a word against

your word against mine

a word against)

word collocates with against and a or your(s)

a word against

your word against mine

a word against)

ears collocates with eyes 22510%

and alsoears and noseears, nose and throatears and eyesears and hands ears and nostrilsetc

ears collocates with eyes 22510%


Crucially, once a priming has been created, it is itself subject to further priming,

e.g. eyes and ears is primed for most of us to collocate with act as

the Bank of China, which acts as Peking’s eyes and ears among Hong Kong’s banking community

14 out of 124 lines of eyes and ears in the Guardian corpus (11%)

Crucially, once a priming has been created, it is itself subject to further priming,

e.g. a word against is primed for most of us to co-occur with sending & receiving communication



• the words it occurs with (its collocations),• the meanings with which it is associated (its






word collocates with against and a





ears collocates with 2294eyes 225 10%


ears co-occurs with 2294eyes 225 10%


ears 2294eyes 225 10%

and alsosquashy fingers and crinkly earsswollen ankles and painful ears

buck teeth and cauliflower earsbulbous nose and big earslong tail and pointed earsetc

ears 2294eyes 225 10%

and alsosquashy fingers and crinkly earsswollen ankles and painful ears

buck teeth and cauliflower earsbulbous nose and big earslong tail and pointed earsetc

ears 2294eyes 225 10%

and alsoclose the eyes and put the ears to workfollow my nose and keep my ears openshielding his eyes and covering his ears

zaps the eyes and blasts the earsbiting our nails and covering our earsetc

ears 2294has a semantic association with

PARTS OF BODY

at least 525 cases 23%

ears 2294has a semantic association with

PARTS OF BODY

at least 525 cases 23%




semantic associations), • the pragmatics it is associated with (its

pragmatic associations),




semantic associations), • the pragmatics it is associated with (its

pragmatic associations),

reason is often denied

That’s not the reason why…For no particular reason…For some reason or other…Whatever the reason…

consequence tends to be negativee.g. the grim consequence, one dire

consequence, a bleak consequence

result tends to be positivee.g. a great result, the perfect result, a fine

result



denial + send/receive a word against has a pragmatic association with hypotheticality

(e.g. wasn’t prepared to say a word against)










Whenever we encounter a word (or syllable or combination of words), we also note subconsciously

• the grammatical patterns it is associated with (its colligations),

• the genre and/or style and/or social situation it is used in,

• whether it is used in a context we are likely to want to emulate or not




• the genre and/or style and/or social situation it is used in,

• whether it is used in a context we are likely to want to emulate or not

consequence tends to be indefinitee.g. another consequence, one consequence, a

consequence

result tends to be definitee.g. this result, the result

reason and result tend not to be possessede.g. the reason was…, the result was…

reasons and results can be possessede.g. my reasons were…, our results

denial + send/receive a word against colligates with modal verbs


denial + send/receive a word against also colligates with human subjects and human prepositional objects













• the genre and/or style and/or social situation it is used in




• the genre and/or style and/or social situation it is used in

denial + send/receive a word against is used in reasonably colloquial English.

The Lexical Priming (textual) claim


• whether it is typically cohesive (its textual collocations)

• whether the word is associated with a particular textual relation (its textual semantic associations)

• the positions in a text that it occurs in, e.g. does it like to begin sentences? Does it like to start paragraphs? (its textual colligations),

The Lexical Priming (textual) claim





denial + send/receive a word against is not used in cohesion, i.e. you don’t get successive repetitions of word or verbs of communication in a text.

denial + send/receive a word against is not used in cohesion, i.e. you don’t get successive repetitions of word or verbs of communication in a text.

Lexical Priming and the Properties of Text: claim 1:

Every lexical item (or combination of lexical items) may be typically be primed to occur as part of a cohesive chain or avoid such a chain (its textual collocations)

Lee Yuan-tseh humbles ChenURGED TO RESIGN: Former Academia Sinica president Lee Yuan-tseh wrote

that the president should seriously consider stepping down for the sake of the nation’s stability

President Chen Shui-bian has expressed his gratitude for former Academia Sinica president Lee Yuan-tseh’s advice after the Nobel laureate wrote an open letter to Chen asking him to consider resigning, the Presidential Office said yesterday.In a press release, the Department of Public Affairs said Chen had said that the question of whether he stays in office or steps down is of little significance to him personally, but that he would still listen to different voices on the matter.

Lee issued the letter on Thursday from Paris, where he is attending a conference. In his letter, Lee called on Chen to seriously consider resigning for the sake of the nation’s stability following the indictment of first lady Wu Shu-jen on corruption and forgery charges. Describing the indictment as “a vital challenge for the long-term reform and establishment of Taiwan’s democratic core values,” Lee, who previously served as head of a group of national policy advisers to the president, said that Chen and the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) “must choose between their party and the entire country.”

Lee said Taiwan now faces one of its most serious challenges in its democratic history, resulting from Wu’s indictment and Chen’s alleged misuse of a public funds.











Lexical Priming and the Properties of Text: claim 1a:

Every lexical item (or combination of lexical items) may be typically primed to occur with particular types of cohesion































So as we read, and identify the cohesion, we are primed both for the collocations, colligations and semantic associations

AND ALSO

for the cohesive relationships between the occurrences of the item or between the item and other items

(or for the absence of such relationships).

If there is no difference in principle between being primed by a single text and primed on many occasions by many different texts,then maybe the same is true in reverse – perhaps there is no difference in principle between cohesion WITHIN a text and cohesion BETWEEN texts.

There is no difference in principle between being primed by a single text and primed on many occasions by many different texts.then maybe the same is true in reverse – perhaps there is no difference in principle between cohesion WITHIN a text and cohesion BETWEEN texts.












Every lexical item (or combination of lexical items) may be typically primed for occurring as part of a specific type of semantic relation (its textual semantic associations)

The claim is that every lexical item (or combination of lexical items) may be positively or negatively primed for occurring as part of a specific type of semantic or pragmatic relation or in a specific textual pattern,

e.g. contrast, comparison, time sequence, cause-effect, exemplification,

Problem-Solution, Gap in Knowledge filling.

The semantic relations or discourse patterns a word may be primed to associate with may be

• textual, i.e. the relations between clauses or parts of clauses or between larger chunks of text

• interactive, reflecting and incorporating relations between a speaker and a listener of the kind described in conversational analysis

denial + send/receive a word against is used in contexts where someone has been or is about to be criticised

McCarthy (1998) notes that got is associated with the Problem element of Problem-Solution patterns.

Hunston (2001) likewise notes that the combination may not be is associated with contrast between ideal and more achievable.

She also notes that feted as is associated with contrast.

Of 100 examples of sixty in my data,41 occurred in a contrast relation, 37 occurred within the Problem component of a

Problem-Solution pattern 16 occurred in a non-contrastive comparison relation 21 instances not accounted for.

(They add up to more than 100 because of the possibility of a clause being in more than one textual relation).

Of 100 instances of ago at the beginning of a clause,

55 occurred in a contrast relation 16 occurred in some kind of comparison

relation.

(The proportions rise still further if instances of not long ago and as long ago as are discounted.)

Of 100 cases of today , 35 occurred in contrast relations, though most

of the contrasts crossed sentence boundaries. 23 occurred in time sequence relations. 9 were associated with proposals of some kind 9 were associated with a statement of purpose

of some kind.

So texts prime our vocabulary for us, as we saw earlier

AND

our vocabulary is in turn primed to organise texts for us












Every lexical item (or combination of lexical items) may be typically primed to occurring in a special position in a text, e.g. at the beginning of sentences – or paragraphs! (its textual colligations)

denial + send/receive a word against is typically used at the end of a sentence

According to a theory...

We can use according to a to illustrate where we have arrived.

according collocates with against and a





according collocates with to and a





according to ahas a semantic association with sending & receiving communication




according to a has a semantic association, in newspapers, with research sources

(e.g. according to a study)



according to a research source has, in newspapers, a pragmatic association with reporting something bad has a pragmatic association with denial




according to a research source has, in newspapers, a pragmatic association with reporting something bad has a pragmatic association with denial




according to a research study is often followed in newspapers by a which clause colligates with modal verbs



according to a research study has the colligation in newspapers of being often followed by a which clause



according to is not used in cohesion, i.e. you don’t get successive repetitions of word or verbs of communication in a text.

according to has the textual collocation of rarely being repeated directly but of being paraphrased in subsequent paragraphs as said, told etcrepetitions of word or verbs of communication in a text.

according to a research source

according to a research source has the textual semantic association of being usually part of a claim-evidence relation

according to a research studysecond half of the sentence, often the end of the sentence. used at the end of a sentence

according to a research study has the textual colligation of being very strongly associated in newspapers with

(a) first sentence of the news story(b) second half of the sentence, often the end of

the sentence.

according to a research study has the genre characteristic of being used in newspaper English.

So...

Lexical priming can take account of• Collocation• Semantic association• Pragmatic association• Colligation (i.e.grammar)• Textual collocation• Textual semantic association• Textual colligation• Genre

Three goals





Three goals



2. The Lexical Approach is supported by at least one worked-out linguistic theory YES


Three goals





English versus Chinese

NOT SHARED• Fairly clear boundary between

words and morphemes• Intonation as a discourse

feature• Time and number marked

grammatically

?NOT SHARED• No clear boundary between

words and morphemes• Tone as a feature of the

lexicon• Time and number marked

lexically

The Lexical Priming claimsAs we have more and more encounters with the word, syllable, or word combination, we come to identify • the word or words that characteristically accompany

it (its collocations), • the grammatical patterns with which it is associated

(its colligations), • the meanings with which it is associated (its semantic

associations), • and the pragmatics with which it is associated (its

pragmatic associations).

The Lexical Priming claims

How about Chinese?


How about Chinese?

Work of Xiao & McEnery

hăo appears to collocate with hăo rénhăo shūhěn hăohăo bù hăohăo fēng jĭng

hăohăo rénhăo shūhěn hăohăo bù hăohăo fēng jĭng





The Lexical Priming claimAs we have more and more encounters with the word, syllable, or word combination, we come to identify • the word or words that characteristically accompany






How about Chinese?

bìng appears to associate with negation

tā jīnwăn bìng bù xiăng chūqù(He doesn’t want to go out this evening actually) (from Collins Mandarin Chinese Dictionary, 2009)

wŏ bìng bù yuànyi gēn tā yīqǐ zhù(I really am not willing to live with him) (from Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar: a Practical Guide by Claudia Ross & Jing-hen Sheng Ma, 2006)

wŏ bìng bù xiăng pī píng nǐ(I’m not actually criticising you) (from A Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin Chinese by Richard Xiao, Paul Rayson & Tony McEnery)




wŏ bìng bù xiăng pī píng nǐ(I’m not actually criticising you) (from A Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin Chinese by Richard Xiao, Paul Rayson & Tony McEnery




wŏ bìng bù xiăng pī píng nǐ(I’m not actually criticising you) (from A Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin Chinese by Richard Xiao, Paul Rayson & Tony McEnery




wŏ bìng bù xiăng pī píng nǐ(I’m not actually criticising you) (modified from A Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin Chinese by Richard Xiao, Paul Rayson & Tony McEnery, 2009)

bìng appears to associate with pronouns

tā jīnwăn bìng bù xiăng chūqùwŏ bìng bù xiăng pī píng nǐwŏ bìng bù yuànyi gēn tā yīqǐ zhùzhè bìng bú suàn tài huài(this is not too bad).



’





The Lexical Priming claimsAs we have more and more encounters with the word, syllable, or word combination, we come to identify • the word or words that characteristically accompany





semantic association

How about Chinese?

hòuhuǐ 2294

has a semantic association with

UNWANTED OUTCOMES OF ACTIONS TAKEN

hòuhuǐ wŏ cuòwù mistakehòuhuǐ wŏ cuò errorhòuhuǐ wŏ zuìguò sinhòuhuǐ shāngwáng casualtieshòuhuǐ shìgù (car) accident

hòuhuǐ 2294


UNHAPPY ACTION TAKEN (OR HAPPY ACTION NOT TAKEN) BY SPEAKER

hòuhuǐ wŏ cuòwù mistakehòuhuǐ wŏ cuò errorhòuhuǐ wŏ zuìguò sinhòuhuǐ shāngwáng casualtieshòuhuǐ shìgù (car) accident

hòuhuǐ 2294



wŏ hòuhuǐ fàn cuòwù making a mistakehòuhuǐ wŏ cuò errorhòuhuǐ wŏ zuìguò sinhòuhuǐ shāngwáng casualtieshòuhuǐ shìgù (car) accident

hòuhuǐ 2294



wŏ hòuhuǐ fàn cuòwù making a mistakewŏ hòuhuǐ chū cuò committing an errorhòuhuǐ wŏ zuìguò sinhòuhuǐ shāngwáng casualtieshòuhuǐ shìgù (car) accident

hòuhuǐ 2294



wŏ hòuhuǐ fàn cuòwù making a mistakewŏ hòuhuǐ chū cuò committing an errorwŏ hòuhuǐ méi qù… not goingwŏ hòuhuǐ tīng tā de huà listening to his/her words

hòuhuǐ 2294



wŏ hòuhuǐ fàn cuòwù making a mistakewŏ hòuhuǐ chū cuò committing an errorwŏ hòuhuǐ méi qù… not goingwŏ hòuhuǐ tīng tā de huà listening to his/her words

diàn electricity, powerfrequency ranking

huà phone 338yǐng movie 658shì TV 696năo computer 1118tī lift, elevator 3938bīngziāng fridge 13089

frequency rankings from Xiao et al (2009)

diàn frequency ranking















diàn electricity, powerfrequency ranking

huà phone 338yǐng movie 658shì TV 696năo computer 1118tī lift, elevator 3938bīngxiāng fridge 13089






grammatically




lexically





grammatically




lexically

Morphemes/syllables

Sub-components of the word do not have the freedoms that words have and may not always be meaningful. Not all morphemes are syllablesNot all syllables are morphemesMorphemes are lexico-grammatical Syllables are phonetic

So how about the priming of word components?

(The closest analogy in English to the character in Chinese?)

So how about the priming of word components?

(The closest analogy in English to the character in Chinese?)

The primings of -eries

In the combined corpora of the Guardian and the BNC, there were 118,932 tokens of words ending –eries.

There were 142 separate tokens.

snotteries splatteries miseriessludgeries slickeries dysenteriesgrotesqueries gaucheries camperiesflummeries flatteries

eries associates with NASTY SUBSTANCE and occurs within (arguable) UNPLEASANTNESS

11 out of 142 = 8%

adulteries trickeries treacheriesmockeries snobberies ruderiesbitcheries skulduggeries savageriesdebaucheries robberies quackeriespruderies lecheries butcheriesenslaveries ruderieschicaneries

Cf. burglarieseries associates with CRIME/SIN/SOCIAL FAULT and

also occurs within CRIME/SIN/SOCIAL FAULT

24 of 142 = 17%

adulteries trickeries treacheriesmockeries snobberies ruderiesbitcheries skulduggeries savageriesdebaucheries robberies quackeriespruderies lecheries butcheriesenslaveries ruderieschicaneries

Cf. burglarieseries associates with CRIME/SIN/SOCIAL FAULT and

also occurs within CRIME/SIN/SOCIAL FAULT

24 of 142 = 17% . So 25% - CRIME/SIN/SOCIAL FAULT/ UNPLEASANTNESS

wineries potteries tanneriessaddleries rotisseries creperiesrefineries perfumeries patisseriesouzeries noodleries bakeriesmeaderies smokeries hatcherieshaberdasheries? fisheries distilleriescreameries collieries canneriesbreweries butteries fromageriesboulangeries piggeries orangeriesnurseries [in one sense]

28 out of 142 = 20%

WHICH MEANS THAT 45% OF TYPES OF eries ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THREE MEANINGS





grammatically




lexically



words and morphemes????• Intonation as a discourse


grammatically




lexically















bìng appears to associate with negation(also a pragmatic association)tā jīnwăn bìng bù xiăng chūqù

(He doesn’t want to go out this evening actually) (from Collins Mandarin Chinese Dictionary, 2009)



colligation PREMODIFICATION & winecombines with

collocation dry & wineand

semantic association FLAVOUR & wineand

pragmatic association INSTRUCTION, ADVICE, REQUEST













colligation combines with

collocation and

semantic associationand

pragmatic association

IS THIS TRUE OF CHINESE TOO?

colligation combines with

collocation and

semantic associationand

pragmatic association

IT SEEMS SO

colligation jīntiān : no subject or verbcombines with

collocation lěngand

semantic association TEMPERATURE

andpragmatic association EVALUATION IN

CONVERSATION





CONVERSATION





CONVERSATION





CONVERSATION

English versus ChinesedifferenceNOT SHARED• Fairly clear boundary between



grammatically in the verb

s this another differenceNOT SHARED• No clear boundary between



contextually around the verb

tā jīnwăn bìng bù xiăng chūqùwŏ bìng bù xiăng pī píng nǐwŏ bìng bú yuànyi gēn tā yīqǐ zhùzhè bìng bú suàn tài huài

u’


u’


u’


In some dialectshăo = I agreeháo = I’m not sure I agree


Comparerèally = I agreeréally = I’m not sure I agree

u’

I suggest that English and Chinese are learnt the same way by children – as tunes, where the tunes are associated with collocations.

In Chinese the tunes are eventually decomposed into tones because of the tightness of the association of lexis and tone – but there are residual tunes.

I suggest that English and Chinese are learnt the same way by children – as tunes, where the tunes are associated with collocations.

In English the tunes are eventually generalised into intonation because of the looseness of the association of lexis and tone – but there are residual tones.

Three goals





Three goals




3. The features of language that the Lexical Approach makes use of are as present in Chinese as they are in English PROBABLY





has been FALSELY criticised for1. Ignoring how language is learnt2. Having no theoretical underpinning




It is NOT open to criticism for3. Applying only to Indo-European languages




IT IS SAFE TO USE




IT IS SAFE TO USE – BUT WE ALWAYS KNEW THAT, DIDN’T WE?

Thank you for listening

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The lexical approach and lexical priming(1)