Systems Analysis

Systems Analysis and DesignSystems Analysis and Design

Lecturer: Albert OseiLecturer: Albert Osei

PARIS MODELPARIS MODEL

PHASE IPHASE IPlanning the approachPlanning the approach

One of the main causes of project failure is One of the main causes of project failure is inadequate understanding of the requirementsinadequate understanding of the requirements

one of the main causes of inadequate one of the main causes of inadequate understanding of the requirements is poor understanding of the requirements is poor planning of system analysis.planning of system analysis.

Cont…Cont…

The first step taken by the systems analyst The first step taken by the systems analyst should be to plan the approach carefully, should be to plan the approach carefully, bearing in mind the old saying thatbearing in mind the old saying that

‘‘failure to prepare is to failure to prepare is to prepare to fail!’prepare to fail!’

Cont..Cont..

Before requirement gathering starts, the Before requirement gathering starts, the analyst needs to stand back, recall the analyst needs to stand back, recall the objectives of the project, and consider the objectives of the project, and consider the following three points in order to plan;following three points in order to plan;

What type of information is required?What type of information is required?

What are the constraints on the investigation?What are the constraints on the investigation?

What are the potential problems?What are the potential problems?

CASE StudyCASE Study

Let’s consider an example: You work for a Company Let’s consider an example: You work for a Company based in UK. Your company has just won the following based in UK. Your company has just won the following contract with contract with Nestle Gh. LimitedNestle Gh. Limited. The contract covers:. The contract covers:

– Analysis of Nestle’s current warehousing, stock control and Analysis of Nestle’s current warehousing, stock control and manufacturing systems and the integration of these systems;manufacturing systems and the integration of these systems;

– an investigation of Nestle’s current problems and of future an investigation of Nestle’s current problems and of future strategic plans in this area;strategic plans in this area;

– production of a report outlining your company’s proposals for production of a report outlining your company’s proposals for meeting Nestle’s future systems requirements in warehousing, meeting Nestle’s future systems requirements in warehousing, stock control and manufacturing systems.stock control and manufacturing systems.

Cont..Cont..

Nestle is an international company and has Nestle is an international company and has presence all over the world.presence all over the world.

The company has four manufacturing sites at The company has four manufacturing sites at Accra, Kumasi, Takoradi and Tamale. There are Accra, Kumasi, Takoradi and Tamale. There are warehouses at each manufacturing site; warehouses at each manufacturing site;

Against this background think about how you Against this background think about how you would plan this investigation.would plan this investigation.

It will be good to think about the:It will be good to think about the:

The critical information you require before the The critical information you require before the investigation starts;investigation starts;

HOW you will get that information;HOW you will get that information;WHAT techniques will be appropriate;WHAT techniques will be appropriate;

What are the constraint- to the project and the What are the constraint- to the project and the company.company.

Planning is the answer….Planning is the answer….

PlanningPlanning

As part of the planning process, analysts must As part of the planning process, analysts must ensure that:ensure that:– He understand the objectives and terms of reference He understand the objectives and terms of reference

agreed with the client;agreed with the client;

– He must be aware of constraints that affect the He must be aware of constraints that affect the analysis process;analysis process;

– they plan the research, initial contact and other tasks they plan the research, initial contact and other tasks to be completed duringto be completed during

– the investigation and manage time appropriatelythe investigation and manage time appropriately

Objectives &Objectives & Terms of Reference Terms of Reference

To understand more about the client’s To understand more about the client’s expectations, you need to ask a number of expectations, you need to ask a number of key questions at the beginning of the key questions at the beginning of the analysis phase of the project:analysis phase of the project:

– Who initiated the project?Who initiated the project?– What is their role in the organisation?What is their role in the organisation?– What are their objectives for the project?What are their objectives for the project?– What are the company objectivesWhat are the company objectives

Cont..Cont..

Once you know the answers to these Once you know the answers to these questions, you can begin to understand questions, you can begin to understand the context in which the analysis is to be the context in which the analysis is to be carried out.carried out.

Projects are usually initiated to meet Projects are usually initiated to meet organisational need:organisational need:

– Senior management:Senior management: strategic planning and strategic planning and decision making decision making

– Line managers:Line managers: system to support their activities system to support their activities

– The IT dept:The IT dept: cost-efficiency, new technologies or cost-efficiency, new technologies or

method of workingmethod of working

Whatever the case might be, management of Whatever the case might be, management of organisation expect to benefit, e.g:organisation expect to benefit, e.g:

increased profitability;increased profitability;

improved cash flow;improved cash flow;

more effective utilisation of resources,more effective utilisation of resources,

improved customer service leading to customer improved customer service leading to customer satisfaction.satisfaction.

faster access to management information;faster access to management information;

better management controlbetter management control

Analyst will be in good position to address Analyst will be in good position to address management’s problems if they are able to management’s problems if they are able to prioritized the OBJECTIVE. To help in;prioritized the OBJECTIVE. To help in;

Planning the analysis phasePlanning the analysis phase

Writing proposal after the analysisWriting proposal after the analysis

The stated objectives of the client are The stated objectives of the client are usually recorded in the terms of reference.usually recorded in the terms of reference.

main areas included in the terms of main areas included in the terms of reference.reference.

System boundaries-(Scope)System boundaries-(Scope)

ConstraintsConstraints

ObjectivesObjectives

PermissionsPermissions

DeliverablesDeliverables

System BoundariesSystem Boundaries

SystemSystem boundary boundary define the area of the define the area of the organisation under investigation and may organisation under investigation and may also specify the limit of any new system also specify the limit of any new system Implemented as a result of the project.Implemented as a result of the project.

Should be a paragraph or a series of dot Should be a paragraph or a series of dot points, describing where the points, describing where the process/system/operation/issue to be process/system/operation/issue to be studied begins and ends studied begins and ends


Restrict the project, or the solution, in many Restrict the project, or the solution, in many ways. May be expressed in terms of;ways. May be expressed in terms of;

Fig 1.0: Constraints on possible solution

ObjectivesObjectives

An unambiguous statement of the An unambiguous statement of the expectations of those in the client’s expectations of those in the client’s organisation who have initiated the project. organisation who have initiated the project. These may be broken down by function or These may be broken down by function or department. department.

Well-defined objectives are clear and Well-defined objectives are clear and measurable.measurable.

PermissionPermission

This will indicate who in the client’s This will indicate who in the client’s organisation is responsible for the organisation is responsible for the supervision of the project.supervision of the project.

and, if permission needs to be granted – and, if permission needs to be granted – for example to extend the scope of the for example to extend the scope of the analysis – who has the authority to do so.analysis – who has the authority to do so.

Points of contact and the appropriate Points of contact and the appropriate reporting structure may also be defined.reporting structure may also be defined.

DeliverableDeliverable

A description of the deliverable or end A description of the deliverable or end products of the investigation.products of the investigation.

Usually they fall into making Usually they fall into making recommendation for: recommendation for: – solving a problem; solving a problem; – improving a process or a system; improving a process or a system; – making a change; making a change; – creating a new system creating a new system

USES OF TRUSES OF TR

PlanningPlanningReference point for the projectReference point for the projectResolving conflicts that may ariseResolving conflicts that may arise

Thus;Thus;

Must exist, if none exist, create it and Must exist, if none exist, create it and agree with the clientagree with the client


After understanding the After understanding the TRTR and the and the ObjectiveObjective

It’s important that all constraints are understood It’s important that all constraints are understood in order to help with planning and to avoid in order to help with planning and to avoid problemsproblems

Constraints may be set by the customer to limit Constraints may be set by the customer to limit the options that may be presented as part of the the options that may be presented as part of the system proposals.system proposals.

They may be expressed in the TRThey may be expressed in the TR

They may be expressed in terms They may be expressed in terms of;of;– TechnologTechnology: software or y: software or

hardwarehardware

– EnvironmentEnvironment: skilled or unskilled : skilled or unskilled users, place of use..users, place of use..

– Timescale: Timescale: delivery time base delivery time base on customer/gov policyon customer/gov policy

– Budget:Budget: cash available for the cash available for the purchase of hardware or purchase of hardware or software, limitations on the software, limitations on the operation budgetoperation budget

– Scope:Scope: area under investigation, area under investigation, system boundarysystem boundary

Fig 1.1: Constraints on possible solution

Other constraints are:Other constraints are:..

Fig 1.2: Constraints on investigation -help in selecting the right fact-finding approach

Getting ReadyGetting Ready for Detailed Analysis for Detailed Analysis

In order for analysts to be well prepared for the later In order for analysts to be well prepared for the later stages of systems analysis, and to increase their stages of systems analysis, and to increase their credibility in interviews with client staff and credibility in interviews with client staff and stakeholders more time needs to be spent on research stakeholders more time needs to be spent on research during the planning stageduring the planning stageThis means:This means:

Understanding the TRUnderstanding the TRReviewing relevant documentsReviewing relevant documents

– Contract documentsContract documents– Annual reportsAnnual reports– Organisation structuresOrganisation structures

Identify the types of information you will need to collect during your Identify the types of information you will need to collect during your investigationinvestigationThe areas to be investigated The areas to be investigated

Following are examples of topics that the analyst may wish to investigate:Following are examples of topics that the analyst may wish to investigate:

GrowthGrowth– What plans does the organisation have for future growth, What plans does the organisation have for future growth, – what would be the information requirements to support this growthwhat would be the information requirements to support this growth

Functionality.Functionality. – What are the major areas of the businessWhat are the major areas of the business– the functions – that will be investigated during the system, the functions – that will be investigated during the system, – and what are the client’s requirements for the functionality of the system?and what are the client’s requirements for the functionality of the system?

Procedures. Procedures. – What procedures, standards and guidelines govern the way in which the What procedures, standards and guidelines govern the way in which the

organisation conducts its business organisation conducts its business – are they recorded somewhereare they recorded somewhere

Volumes.Volumes. – What are the volumes of data that pass through the system? What are the volumes of data that pass through the system?

how many orders are processed by the sales department in a week?how many orders are processed by the sales department in a week?How many amendments are made to customer records each month?How many amendments are made to customer records each month?

FluctuationsFluctuations. . – What bottlenecks or hold-ups are there in the system, What bottlenecks or hold-ups are there in the system, – Where and when do these occur in the current system? Where and when do these occur in the current system? – What steps are taken to deal with these?What steps are taken to deal with these?

Information requiredInformation required. . – What information is currently required by the business in order to carry out its What information is currently required by the business in order to carry out its

functions effectively, functions effectively, – what are the sources of this information? what are the sources of this information? – What information, if available, will it benefits the organisation?What information, if available, will it benefits the organisation?

EnvironmentEnvironment. . – In what type of environment is the business conducted In what type of environment is the business conducted – how does this affect the way in which information is exchanged?how does this affect the way in which information is exchanged?

ProblemsProblems..– In the view of users, what are the main problems with the system,In the view of users, what are the main problems with the system,– what are the implications of these problems, what are the implications of these problems, – how can the problems be overcome?how can the problems be overcome?

In planning the approach to analysis, an In planning the approach to analysis, an important area to consider is the: important area to consider is the: – First face-to-face contact with the client.First face-to-face contact with the client.

Why Face-to-face Why Face-to-face ContactContact

To gather requirementsTo gather requirements

To build a good relationship with the client To build a good relationship with the client

To establish the analyst’s credibilityTo establish the analyst’s credibility

Face-to-face Face-to-face Meeting EthicsMeeting Ethics

In all meetings with users, the following guidelines In all meetings with users, the following guidelines represent good practice:represent good practice:– Focus on confidentiality, integrity, respect and confidence-Focus on confidentiality, integrity, respect and confidence-

building.building.– Recognise expertise in the users and welcome their input.Recognise expertise in the users and welcome their input.– Have as a key objective the need to build the client’s Have as a key objective the need to build the client’s

confidence.confidence.– Keep everybody informed. This includes client contacts and Keep everybody informed. This includes client contacts and

project staff.project staff.– Be discreet and diplomatic.Be discreet and diplomatic.– Double-check any information gathered.Double-check any information gathered.

There are many tasks to complete during There are many tasks to complete during systems analysis however there are systems analysis however there are limited time;limited time;

Time management is one of the factors to Time management is one of the factors to be taken into considerationbe taken into consideration

It should be budgeted for, managed and It should be budgeted for, managed and usedused

To help you manage your time as effectively To help you manage your time as effectively as possible, here are some guidelines:as possible, here are some guidelines:– ListList objectives and set priorities.objectives and set priorities.– Make a daily ‘to do’ listMake a daily ‘to do’ list– Handle paper only once.Handle paper only once.– Set and keep deadlinesSet and keep deadlines

– Ask yourself frequently ‘What’s the best use of my time rightAsk yourself frequently ‘What’s the best use of my time right now?now?’’– Always carry a notebookAlways carry a notebook

– Do it now (The right time is now..)Do it now (The right time is now..)..

The Feasibility StudyThe Feasibility Study

The objectives of a feasibility study are to find out if the project The objectives of a feasibility study are to find out if the project can be done (...is it possible?...is it justified?) and to suggest can be done (...is it possible?...is it justified?) and to suggest possible alternative solutionspossible alternative solutionsA feasibility study should provide management with enough A feasibility study should provide management with enough information to decide:information to decide:

– Whether the project can be done;Whether the project can be done;– Whether the final product will benefit its intended users;Whether the final product will benefit its intended users;– What are the alternatives among which a solution will be chosen (during What are the alternatives among which a solution will be chosen (during

subsequent phases)?subsequent phases)?– Is there a preferred alternative?Is there a preferred alternative?

After a feasibility study, management makes a go/no-go After a feasibility study, management makes a go/no-go decision.decision.

Thus, analyst should concentrate on Thus, analyst should concentrate on providing answers to four key questions:providing answers to four key questions:

– How much -How much - The cost of the new system.The cost of the new system.– What -What - The objectives of the new system.The objectives of the new system.– When When -- The delivery timescale.The delivery timescale.– How -How - The means and procedures used to The means and procedures used to

produce the new system.produce the new system.

What to studyWhat to study

Things to be studied during the feasibility study phaseThings to be studied during the feasibility study phase ::The present organizational systemThe present organizational system– users, policies, functions, objectives,...users, policies, functions, objectives,...

Problems with the present system – Problems with the present system – – inconsistencies, inadequacies in functionality, performance,...,inconsistencies, inadequacies in functionality, performance,...,

Objectives and other requirements for the new systemObjectives and other requirements for the new system – What needs to change?What needs to change?

Constraints, including non-functional requirements on the systemConstraints, including non-functional requirements on the system– preliminary passpreliminary pass

Possible alternativesPossible alternatives – the current system is always one of thosethe current system is always one of those

Advantages and disadvantages of the alternativesAdvantages and disadvantages of the alternatives

Things to conclude: Feasibility of the project and the preferred alternativeThings to conclude: Feasibility of the project and the preferred alternative ..

Types of FeasibilityTypes of FeasibilityOperational Operational – Define the urgency of the problem and the acceptability of any solution; If the Define the urgency of the problem and the acceptability of any solution; If the

system is developed, will it be used? Includes people-oriented and social issues: system is developed, will it be used? Includes people-oriented and social issues: internal issues, such as manpower problems, labour objections, manager internal issues, such as manpower problems, labour objections, manager resistance, organizational conflicts and policies; also external issues, including resistance, organizational conflicts and policies; also external issues, including social acceptability, legal aspects and government regulations.social acceptability, legal aspects and government regulations.

TechnicalTechnical– Is the project feasibility within the limits of current technology? Does the Is the project feasibility within the limits of current technology? Does the

technology exist at all? Is it available within given resource constraints (i.e., technology exist at all? Is it available within given resource constraints (i.e., budget, schedule,...)budget, schedule,...)

Economic Economic ((Cost/Benefits AnalysisCost/Benefits Analysis))– Is the project possible, given resource constraints? Are the benefits that will Is the project possible, given resource constraints? Are the benefits that will

accrue from the new system worth the costs? What are the savings that will accrue from the new system worth the costs? What are the savings that will result from the system, including tangible and intangible ones? What are the result from the system, including tangible and intangible ones? What are the development and operational costs?development and operational costs?

ScheduleSchedule– Constraints on the project schedule and whether they could be reasonably met.Constraints on the project schedule and whether they could be reasonably met.

Operational Feasibility:Operational Feasibility:The PIECES FrameworkThe PIECES Framework

The PIECES framework can help in identifying operational problems to be The PIECES framework can help in identifying operational problems to be solved, and their urgency:solved, and their urgency:

PPerformance -erformance - Does current mode of operation provide adequate Does current mode of operation provide adequate throughput and response time?throughput and response time?

IInformation - nformation - Does current mode provide end users and managers with Does current mode provide end users and managers with timely, ‘to the point’, accurate and usefully formatted information?timely, ‘to the point’, accurate and usefully formatted information?

EEconomy-conomy- Does current mode of operation provide cost-effective information Does current mode of operation provide cost-effective information services to the business? Could there be a reduction in costs and/or an services to the business? Could there be a reduction in costs and/or an increase in benefits?increase in benefits?

CControl - ontrol - Does current mode of operation offer effective controls to protect Does current mode of operation offer effective controls to protect against fraud and to guarantee accuracy and security of data and information?against fraud and to guarantee accuracy and security of data and information?

EEfficiency-fficiency- Does current mode of operation make maximum use of available Does current mode of operation make maximum use of available resources, including people, time, flow of forms,...resources, including people, time, flow of forms,...

SServices-ervices- Does current mode of operation provide reliable service? Is it Does current mode of operation provide reliable service? Is it flexible and expandable?flexible and expandable?

How do end-users and managers feel about the problem How do end-users and managers feel about the problem (solution)?(solution)?

It's not only important to evaluate whether a system It's not only important to evaluate whether a system can can work but work but also evaluate whether a system also evaluate whether a system will will work.work.

A workable solution might fail because of end user or A workable solution might fail because of end user or management resistance.management resistance.– Does management support the project?Does management support the project?– How do the end users feel about their role in the new system?How do the end users feel about their role in the new system?– What end users or managers may resist or not use the system?What end users or managers may resist or not use the system? People tend to resist change. Can this problem be overcome? People tend to resist change. Can this problem be overcome? If so, how?If so, how?– How will the working environment of the end users change?How will the working environment of the end users change?– Can or will end users and management adapt to the changeCan or will end users and management adapt to the change

Technical FeasibilityTechnical FeasibilityIs the proposed technology or solution Is the proposed technology or solution practical?practical?

Do we currently possess the necessary Do we currently possess the necessary technology?technology?

Do we possess the necessary technical Do we possess the necessary technical expertise, and is the schedule reasonable?expertise, and is the schedule reasonable?

Is relevant technology mature enough to be Is relevant technology mature enough to be easily applied to our problem?easily applied to our problem?

– Some firms like to use state-of-the-art technology, Some firms like to use state-of-the-art technology, but most firms prefer to use mature and proven but most firms prefer to use mature and proven technology.technology.

– A mature technology has a larger customer base A mature technology has a larger customer base for obtaining advice concerning problems and for obtaining advice concerning problems and improvements.improvements.

Assuming that required technology is Assuming that required technology is practical, is it available in the information practical, is it available in the information systems shop? If the technology is available, systems shop? If the technology is available, does it have the capacity to handle the does it have the capacity to handle the solution.solution.

If the technology is not available, can it be If the technology is not available, can it be acquired?acquired?

Schedule FeasibilitySchedule FeasibilityWe may have the technology, but that doesn't mean we have We may have the technology, but that doesn't mean we have the skills required to properly apply that technology. True, all the skills required to properly apply that technology. True, all information systems professionals can learn new technologies. information systems professionals can learn new technologies. However, that learning curve will impact the technical However, that learning curve will impact the technical feasibility of the project; specifically, it will impact the schedule.feasibility of the project; specifically, it will impact the schedule.

Given our technical expertise, are the project deadlines Given our technical expertise, are the project deadlines reasonable? Some projects are initiated with specific reasonable? Some projects are initiated with specific deadlines. You need to determine whether the deadlines are deadlines. You need to determine whether the deadlines are mandatory or desirable. If the deadlines are desirable rather mandatory or desirable. If the deadlines are desirable rather than mandatory, the analyst can propose alternative than mandatory, the analyst can propose alternative schedules.schedules.

It is preferable (unless the deadline is absolutely mandatory) to It is preferable (unless the deadline is absolutely mandatory) to deliver a properly functioning system two months late than to deliver a properly functioning system two months late than to deliver an error-prone, useless information system on time! deliver an error-prone, useless information system on time! Missed schedules are bad, but inadequate systems are worse!Missed schedules are bad, but inadequate systems are worse!

Economic FeasibilityEconomic Feasibility

The bottom line in many projects is economic The bottom line in many projects is economic feasibility.feasibility.

During the early phases of the project, economic During the early phases of the project, economic feasibility analysis amounts to little more than feasibility analysis amounts to little more than judging whether the possible benefits of solving judging whether the possible benefits of solving the problem are worthwhile.the problem are worthwhile.

As soon as specific requirements and solutions As soon as specific requirements and solutions have been identified, the analyst can weigh the have been identified, the analyst can weigh the costs and benefits of each alternative.costs and benefits of each alternative.

This is called a This is called a cost-benefit analysiscost-benefit analysis..

Cost/Benefit AnalysisCost/Benefit Analysis The purpose of a cost/benefit analysis is to answer The purpose of a cost/benefit analysis is to answer

questions such as:questions such as:– Is the project justified (because benefits outweigh costs)?Is the project justified (because benefits outweigh costs)?– Can the project be done, within given cost constraints?Can the project be done, within given cost constraints?– What is the minimal cost to attain a certain system?What is the minimal cost to attain a certain system?– What is the preferred alternative, among candidate solutions?What is the preferred alternative, among candidate solutions?

Examples of things to considerExamples of things to consider::– Hardware/software selectionHardware/software selection– How to convince management to develop the new systemHow to convince management to develop the new system– Selection among alternative financing arrangements (rent/lease/purchase)Selection among alternative financing arrangements (rent/lease/purchase)

Difficulties - discovering and assessing benefits and costs; Difficulties - discovering and assessing benefits and costs; theythey– can both be intangible, hidden and/or hard to estimate, it's alsocan both be intangible, hidden and/or hard to estimate, it's also– hard to rank multi-criteria alternativeshard to rank multi-criteria alternatives

Feasibility study reportFeasibility study reportA report is written after the studyA report is written after the study

The content should include:The content should include:

Fig 1.3: Feasibility study report content

BackgroundBackground

Terms of reference.Terms of reference.

Reasons for the studyReasons for the study

This section will outline the background to This section will outline the background to the project and the way it relates to the the project and the way it relates to the stated objectives of the organisation.stated objectives of the organisation.

The current situationThe current situation

Overview of current situation.Overview of current situation.

Problems and requirements identified.Problems and requirements identified.

Proposed solutionProposed solutionA description of the requirements of a new system along withA description of the requirements of a new system along with a number of options explaining how this solution might be a number of options explaining how this solution might be implemented. Each option will address:implemented. Each option will address:

Technical implicationsTechnical implications– how it meets the requirements, the hardware and software needed.how it meets the requirements, the hardware and software needed.

Operational implicationsOperational implications – the impact the solution will have on the business in terms of human, the impact the solution will have on the business in terms of human,

organisational and political aspects.organisational and political aspects.

Cost implications Cost implications – both initial (capital) and continuing (operational). There are a number of both initial (capital) and continuing (operational). There are a number of

methods of assessing the costs of solutions. In the feasibility report, the methods of assessing the costs of solutions. In the feasibility report, the analyst should use the cost assessment method specified by the client.analyst should use the cost assessment method specified by the client.

Cost–benefits analysisCost–benefits analysis

A comparison of costs and benefits A comparison of costs and benefits prepared using whatever evaluation prepared using whatever evaluation technique is favoured by the organisation.technique is favoured by the organisation.

RecommendationsRecommendationsA brief statement that presents the main points of the A brief statement that presents the main points of the previous sections of the report. previous sections of the report.

3 types of recommendation can be made in a 3 types of recommendation can be made in a feasibility report:feasibility report:

– Advising the client to progress with the full detailed Advising the client to progress with the full detailed analysis. If this is the case, a plan would also be included analysis. If this is the case, a plan would also be included for this phase of the project.for this phase of the project.

– Advising the client to review the terms of reference or the Advising the client to review the terms of reference or the scope of the study before proceeding further or making any scope of the study before proceeding further or making any judgement on feasibility.judgement on feasibility.

– Advising the client to scrap the project as it is not feasible; Advising the client to scrap the project as it is not feasible; the resources could be better spent elsewhere.the resources could be better spent elsewhere.

Once the feasibility report has been Once the feasibility report has been delivereddelivered

Assuming that the recommendation made Assuming that the recommendation made by the analyst is to proceed, the detailed by the analyst is to proceed, the detailed systems analysis phase can beginsystems analysis phase can begin

To start the investigation the following needs to be done;

– collect information about the current system– record the problems & requirements – building up a picture of the required system

Next…Asking Questions & Collecting Data