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CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.1 RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION-AN OVERVIEW
RFID is only one of numerous technologies grouped under the term Automatic
Identification (Auto ID), such as bar code, magnetic inks, optical character recognition,
voice recognition, touch memory, smart cards, biometrics etc. Auto ID technologies are a
new way of controlling information and material flow, especially suitable for large
production networks.
In RFID systems, an item is tagged with a tiny silicon chip and an antenna; the chip
plus antenna together called a “tag” can then be scanned by mobile or stationary readers,
using radio waves (the “RF”). The chip can be encoded with a unique identifier, allowing
tagged items to be individually identified by a reader (the “ID”). Thus, for example, in a
clothing store, each particular suit jacket, including its style, colour, and size, can be
identified electronically. In a pharmacy, a druggist can fill a prescription from a bottle
bearing an RFID-chipped label confirming the authenticity of its contents. On the highway,
cars with RFID tags on their windshields can move swiftly through highway tollbooths,
saving time and reducing traffic congestion. At home, pets can be implanted with chips so
that lost animals can be identified and returned to their owners more readily. In each case, a
reader must scan the tag for the data it contains and then send that information to a database,
which interprets the data stored on the tag. The tag, reader, and database are the key
components of an RFID system.
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the use of a wireless non-contact radio
system to transfer data from a tag attached to an object, for the purposes of automatic
identification and tracking. Some tags require no battery and are powered by the radio
waves used to read them. Others use a local power source. The tag contains electronically
stored information which can be read from up to several metres (yards) away. Unlike a bar
code, the tag does not need to be within line of sight of the reader and may be embedded in
the tracked object.
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1.2 PRIMARY COMPONENTS OF RFID DEVICES
RFID devices have three primary elements: a chip, an antenna, and a reader. A
fourth important part of any RFID system is the database where information about tagged
objects is stored.
1.2.1 THE CHIP, usually made of silicon, contains information about the item to which it
is attached. Chips used by retailers and manufacturers to identify consumer goods may
contain an Electronic Product Code (“EPC”). The EPC is the RFID equivalent of the
familiar Universal Product Code (“UPC”), or bar code, currently imprinted on many
products. Bar codes must be optically scanned, and contain only generic product
information. By contrast, EPC chips are encrypted with a unique product code that
identifies the individual product to which it is attached, and can be read using radio
frequency. These codes contain the type of data that product manufacturers and retailers
will use to track the authenticity and location of goods throughout the supply chain.
An RFID chip may also contain information other than an EPC, such as biometric
data (a digitized image of a fingerprint or photograph, for example). In addition, some chips
may not be loaded with information uniquely identifying the tagged object at all; so-called
“electronic article surveillance systems” (“EAS”) may utilize 3 radio frequency
communication to combat shoplifting, but not to uniquely identify individual items.
Fig 1.1 – key ring tag
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1.2.2 THE ANTENNA attached to the chip is responsible for transmitting information from
the chip to the reader, using radio waves. Generally, the bigger the antenna, the longer the
read range. The chip and antenna combination is referred to as a transponder or, more
commonly, as a tag. Antennas are available in a variety of shapes and sizes; they can be
built into a door frame to receive tag data from persons or things passing through the door,
or mounted on an interstate tollbooth to monitor traffic passing by on a freeway. The
electromagnetic field produced by an antenna can be constantly present when multiple tags
are expected continually. If constant interrogation is not required, a sensor device can
activate the field.
Often the antenna is packaged with the transceiver and decoder to become a reader
which can be configured either as a handheld or a fixed-mount device. The reader emits
radio waves in ranges of anywhere from one inch to 100 feet or more, depending upon its
power output and the radio frequency used. When an RFID tag passes through the
electromagnetic zone, it detects the reader's activation signal. The reader decodes the data
encoded in the tag's integrated circuit (silicon chip) and the data is passed to the host
computer for processing.
1.2.3 THE READER, or scanning device, also has its own antenna, which it uses to
communicate with the tag. Readers vary in size, weight, and power, and may be mobile or
stationary. Although anyone with access to the proper reader can scan an RFID tag, RFID
systems can employ authentication and encryption to prevent unauthorized reading of data.
“Reading” tags refers to the communication between the tag and reader via radio waves
operating at a certain frequency. In contrast to bar codes, one of RFID’s principal
distinctions is tags and readers can communicate with each other without being in each
other’s line-of-sight. Therefore, a reader can scan a tag without physically “seeing” it.
Further, RFID readers can process multiple items at one time, resulting in a much-increased
(again as compared to UPC codes) “speed of read.”
1.2.4 THE DATABASE, or other back-end logistics system, stores information about
RFID-tagged objects. Access to both a reader and its corresponding database are necessary
before information stored on an RFID tag can be obtained and understood. In order to
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interpret such data, RFID readers must be able to communicate with a database or other
computer program.
1.2.5 CONTROLLER, The controller is the interface between one or more antenna and the
device requesting information from or writing information to the RF tags. There are
controllers for interfacing antenna to PCs servers and networks. The selection of controller
and interface device will affect the antenna’s transmission speed. Some controllers can be
programmed to perform data translation and interrogation. This transfers some of data
processing load from the devices to the controllers.
1.2.6 RADIO FREQUENCY, Communication between RFID tags and readers is also
affected by the radio frequency used, which determines the speed of communications as
well as the distance from which tags can be read. Higher frequency typically means longer
read range. Low-frequency (“LF”) tags, which operate at less than 135 kilohertz (KHz), are
thus appropriate for short-range uses, like animal identification and anti-theft systems, such
as RFID-embedded automobile keys. Systems that operate at 13.56 megahertz (MHz) are
characterized as high frequency (“HF”). Both low-frequency and high-frequency tags can
be passive. Scanners can read multiple HF tags at once and at a faster rate than LF tags. A
key use of HF tags is in contactless “smart cards,” such as mass transit cards or building-
access badges.
The third frequency, Ultra-High Frequency (“UHF”), is contemplated for widespread
use by some major retailers, who are working with their suppliers to apply UHF tags to
cases and pallets of goods. These tags, which operate at around 900 MHz, can be read at
longer distances, which outside the laboratory environment range between three and
possibly fifteen feet. However, UHF tags are more sensitive to environmental factors like
water, which absorb the tag’s energy and thus block its ability to communicate with a
reader.
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Table 1- different frequency bands
Frequency
band
Typical RFID
frequencies
Characteristics Typical
Applications
low
30 – 300 KHz
125 – 134 kHz Short to medium read
range
Inexpensive
Low reading speed
Access control
Animal
identification
Inventory control
Car immobilizer
intermediate
3 – 30 MHz
13.56 MHz Short to medium read
range
Potentially inexpensive
Medium reading speed
Access control
Smarts cards
high
300MHz -3GHz
433 MHz / 2.45
GHz
Long read range
Expensive
Line of sight required
High reading speed
Railroad car
monitoring
Toll collection
systems
Although all RFID systems have these essential components, other variables affect
the use or set of applications for which a particular tag is appropriate. As discussed further
below, key factors include whether the tag used is “active” or “passive”; what radio
frequency is used; the size of the antennas attached to the chip and to the reader; what and
how much information can be stored on a tag; and whether the tag is “read/write” or “read-
only.” These factors affect the read ranges of the systems as well as the kind of object that
can usefully be tagged. They also impact the cost, which is an especially important
commercial consideration when tagging a large volume of items.
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Fig 1.2 – radio wave frequency spectrum
There are three types of RFID tags, differentiated by how they communicate and how
that communication is initiated:
Passive tags have no onboard power source – meaning no battery – and do not initiate
communication. A reader must first query a passive tag, sending electromagnetic waves that
form a magnetic field when they “couple” with the antenna on the RFID tag. Consistent
with any applicable authorization, authentication, and encryption, the tag will then respond
to the reader, sending via radio waves the data stored on it. Currently, depending on the size
of the antenna and the frequency, passive tags can be read, at least theoretically, from up to
thirty feet away. However, real-world environmental factors, such as wind and interference
from substances like water or metal, can reduce the actual read range for passive tags to ten
feet or less. Passive tags are already used for a wide array of applications, including
building-access cards, mass transit tickets, and, increasingly, tracking consumer products
through the supply chain.
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Semi-passive tags, like passive tags, do not initiate communication with readers, but they
do have batteries. This onboard power is used to operate the circuitry on the chip, storing
information such as ambient temperature. Semi-passive tags can be combined, for example,
with sensors to create “smart dust” – tiny wireless sensors that can monitor environmental
factors. A grocery chain might use smart dust to track energy use, or a vineyard to measure
incremental weather changes that could critically affect grapes.
Active tags can initiate communication and typically have onboard power. They can
communicate the longest distances – 100 or more feet. A familiar application of active tags
is for automatic toll payment systems.
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Table 2- passive tag V/s active tag
PASSIVE RFID ACTIVE RFID
POWER SOURCE External(reader provided) Internal (battery)
TAG READABILITY Only within the area covered
by the reader, typically up to
3 meters.
Can provide signals over an
extended range, typically up
to 100 meters..
ENERGIZATION A passive tag is energized
only when there is a reader
present.
An active tag is always
energized.
MAGNETIC
FIELD STRENGTH
High, since the tag draws
power from the
electromagnetic field
provided by the reader.
Low, since the tag emits
signals using internal battery
source.
SHELF LIFE Very high, ideally does not
expire over a life time.
Limited to about 5 years, the
life of a battery.
DATA STORAGE Limited data storage,
typically 128 bytes.
Can store larger amounts of
data.
COST Cheap Expensive
SIZE Smaller Slightly bulky(due to
battery)
The tag type used depends on many factors:8
• Distance between the tag and reader.
• Speed at which tags will pass the reader.
• Environmental obstructions between the tag and reader.
These factors define the requirements of the RFID system and hence the cost of
implementation and on-going support.
The data storage component of a tag typically supports one of the following read-
write capabilities; read-only, write once, or full read-write.
Read-only tags are loaded with data once, typically in the manufacturing process of the
RFID. In addition, this type of tag enables multiple read operations.
Write-once-read-many (WORM) chips enable the user to customize the chip with
information. Data can be loaded with a special write unit in the field that enables an entire
box of chips to be coded with the same data. These, however, are a one-time write operation
that requires a special RFID writing device.
Read-write tags allow repeated write and read operations to the tag. These are the most
expensive type of tags, but are also the most versatile.
.
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CHAPTER 2 – HISTORY OF RFID
It is generally said that the roots of radio frequency identification technology can be
traced back to World War II. The Germans, Japanese, Americans and British were all using
radar—which had been discovered in 1935 by Scottish physicist Sir Robert Alexander
Watson-Watt—to warn of approaching planes while they were still miles away. The
problem was there was no way to identify which planes belonged to the enemy and which
were a country’s own pilots returning from a mission. The Germans discovered that if pilots
rolled their planes as they returned to base, it would change the radio signal reflected back.
This crude method alerted the radar crew on the ground that these were German planes and
not allied aircraft (this is, essentially, the first passive RFID system).
An early published work exploring RFID is the landmark paper by Harry
Stockman, “Communication by Means of Reflected Power”. Stockman stated then that
“Evidently, considerable research and development work has to be done before the remain-
ing basic problems in reflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of
useful applications is explored.”
Under Watson-Watt, who headed a secret project, the British developed the first
active identify, friend or foe (IFF) system. They put a transmitter on each British plane.
When it received signals from radar stations on the ground, it began broadcasting a signal
back that identified the aircraft as friendly. RFID works on this same basic concept. A
signal is sent to a transponder, which wakes up and either reflects back a signal (passive
system) or broadcasts a signal (active system).
The 1960s were the prelude to the RFID explosion of the 1970s. R.F. Harrington
studied the electromagnetic theory related to RFID in his papers including “Theory of
Loaded Scatterers” in 1964. Inventors were busy with RFID-related inventions such as
Robert Richardson’s “Remotely activated radio frequency powered devices,” and J. H.
Vogelman’s “Passive data transmission techniques utilizing radar echoes.” Commercial
activities were beginning in the 1960s. Sensormatic and Checkpoint were founded in the
late 1960s. These companies, with others such as Knogo, developed electronic article
surveillance (EAS) equipment to counter the theft of merchandise. These types of systems
are often use 1-b tags; only the presence or absence of a tag could be detected, but the tags
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could be made inexpensively and provided effective antitheft measures. These types of
systems used either microwave (generation of harmonics using a semiconductor) or
inductive (resonant circuits) technology. EAS is arguably the first and most widespread
commercial use of RFID. Tags containing multiple bits were generally experimental in
nature and were built with discrete components. While single-bit EAS tags were small,
multi bit tags were the size of a loaf of bread, constrained in size by the dictates of the
circuitry.
A decade of further development of RFID theory and applications followed,
including the use of RFID by the U.S. Department of Agriculture for tracking the movement
of cows. In the 1970’s the very first commercial applications of the technology were
deployed, and in the 1980’s commercial exploitation of RFID technology started to
increase, led initially by small companies.
In the 1970s developers, inventors, companies, academic institutions, and
government laboratories were actively working on RFID, and notable advances were being
realized at research laboratories and academic institutions such as Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory, North-western University, and the Microwave Institute Foundation in Sweden.
An early and important development was the Los Alamos work that was presented by
Alfred Koelle, Steven Depp, and Robert Freyman, “Short-Range Radio- Telemetry for
Electronic Identification Using Modulated Backscatter,” in 1975. This development
signalled the beginning of practical, completely passive tags with an operational range of
tens of meters. Large companies were also developing RFID technology, such as
Raytheon’s Raytag in 1973 and Richard Klensch of RCA developing an electronic
identification system in 1975. Research efforts continued as well. R.J. King authored a book
about microwave homodyne techniques in 1978. This book is an early compendium of
theory and practice used in backscatter RFID systems.
Tag technology had improved with reductions in size and improvements in
functionality. The key to these advancements was the use of low-voltage, low power CMOS
logic circuits. Tag memory utilized switches or wire bonds and had improved with use of
fusible link diode arrays by the end of the decade. The 1980s became the decade for full
implementation of RFID technology, though interests developed somewhat differently in
various parts of the world.
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The 1990s were a significant decade for RFID since it saw the wide scale
deployment of electronic toll collection in the United States and the installation of over 3
million RFID tags on rail cars in North America. Important deployments included several
innovations in electronic tolling. The world’s first open highway electronic tolling system
opened in Oklahoma in 1991, where vehicles could pass toll collection points at highway
speeds, unimpeded by a toll plaza or barriers and with video cameras for enforcement. The
first combined toll collection and traffic management system was installed in the Houston
area by the Harris County Toll Road Authority in 1992.
In the 1990’s, RFID became much more widely deployed. However, these
deployments were in vertical application areas, which resulted in a number of different
proprietary systems being developed by the different RFID solutions providers. Each of
these systems had slightly different characteristics (primarily relating to price and
performance) that made them suitable for different types of application. However, the
different systems were incompatible with each other – e.g. tags from one vendor would not
work with readers from another. This significantly limited adoption beyond the niche
vertical application areas – the interoperability needed for more widespread adoption could
not be achieved without a single standard interoperable specification for the operation of
RFID systems. Such standardisation was also needed to drive down costs.
The drive towards standardisation started in the late 1990’s.There were a number of
standardisation efforts, but the two successful projects were:
➜ The ISO 18000 series of standards that essentially specify how an RFID system should
communicate information between readers and tags
➜ the Auto-ID Centre specifications on all aspects of operation of an RFID asset tracking
system, which has subsequently been passed onto EAN.UCC (the custodians of the
common barcode) for international standardisation
The pace of developments in RFID continues to accelerate. The future looks very
promising for this technology. The full potential also requires advancements in other areas
as well such as development of applications software; careful development of privacy
policies and consideration of other legal aspects; development of supporting infrastructure
to design, install, and maintain RFID systems; and other such activities now that RFID has
truly entered the mainstream. At first glance, the concept of RFID and its application seems
simple and straightforward. But in reality, the contrary is true. RFID is a technology that 12
spans systems engineering, software development, circuit theory, antenna theory, radio
propagation, microwave techniques, receiver design, integrated circuit design, encryption,
materials technology, mechanical design, and network engineering, to mention a few.
Increasing numbers of engineers are involved in the development and application of RFID,
and this trend will likely continue. At present, the shortage of technical and business people
trained in RFID is hampering the growth of the industry.
Fig 2.1 – history timeline of RFID
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CHAPTER 3-
RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION- HOW IT WORKS
RFID relies on radio frequency communication. The RFID reader emits energy, in
the form of a radio wave at a particular frequency, which is used to power and to
communicate with the RFID tags. As the radio waves propagate through the environment,
their energy gradually dissipates – so a tag that is beyond a certain distance from the RFID
reader will not be able to pick up enough signal to operate reliably. In other words, the
maximum operating distance between the RFID reader and a tag (also known as the range)
is limited. The exact range depends on a great many factors, including the radio frequency
being used for communication, the power emitted by the RFID reader, sources of radio
interference and objects in the environment that are likely to reflect or absorb radio waves.
A typical range for a passive RFID system will be anywhere between a few centimetres and
a few metres. If a battery is incorporated into the tag, the range is increased dramatically, to
many tens of metres or more.
Since the communication mechanism is based on radio wave propagation, a direct
‘line of sight’ between the reader and the tag is not required. (Contrast this with barcode
systems where the reader must be able to ‘see’ the barcode label.) This means that tagged
objects may be identified even if the tag or even the entire object is not in direct view of the
reader – for example they may be inside packaging or hidden behind other objects. Also,
most modern RFID systems can identify multiple tags in very quick succession (from tens
to hundreds per second). This means that many tagged objects can be read in effect
‘simultaneously’ as they pass by an RFID reader, something that is not easily achievable
with other technologies such as barcodes. Although the relative orientation of the tag and
the reader does alter the operating range to some extent, it is often possible to set up an
RFID system so that this effect is not important – in other words, tagged objects may pass
by a reader with little constraint on their orientation or alignment, another big advantage
over many other identification technologies
A variety of radio frequencies and techniques are used in RFID systems. RFID is
generally characterized by use of simple devices on one end of the link and more complex
devices on the other end of the link. The simple devices (often called tags or transponders)
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are small and inexpensive, can be deployed economically in very large numbers, are
attached to the objects to be managed, and operate automatically. The more complex
devices (often called readers, interrogators, beacons) are more capable and are usually
connected to a host computer or network. Radio frequencies from 100 kHz to 10 GHz have
been used.
The RFID tag includes a small RF transmitter and receiver. RFID tags contain at
least two parts: an integrated circuit for storing and processing information, modulating and
demodulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal, collecting DC power from the incident reader
signal, and other specialized functions; and an antenna for receiving and transmitting the
signal.
The tags are usually built using CMOS circuitry while other technologies can be
used such as surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices or tuned resonators. Tags can send data
to the reader by changing the loading of the tag antenna in a coded manner or by generating,
modulating, and transmitting a radio signal. A variety of modulation and coding techniques
have been used.
15
Fig 3.1- sequence of communication in RFID system
An Electronic Product Code (EPC) is one common type of data stored in a tag (The
Electronic Product Code (EPC) is designed as a universal identifier that provides a unique
identity for every physical object anywhere in the world, for all time). When written into the
tag by an RFID printer, the tag contains a 96-bit string of data. The first eight bits are a
header which identifies the version of the protocol. The next 28 bits identify the
organization that manages the data for this tag; the organization number is assigned by the
EPC Global consortium. The next 24 bits are an object class, identifying the kind of
product; the last 36 bits are a unique serial number for a particular tag. These last two fields
are set by the organization that issued the tag. Rather like a URL, the total electronic
product code number can be used as a key into a global database to uniquely identify a
particular product.
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A typical RFID system can use the principle of modulated backscatter. This is the
same technique used in radar technology. The term backscatter refers to the portion of the
transmitted signal that is reflected back 180 degrees opposite the direction of the incident
signal, as opposed to random scattering that is lost in the space. In this type of RFID system,
to transfer data from the tag to the reader, the reader sends an unmodulated signal to the tag.
The tag reads its internal memory of stored data and changes the loading on the tag antenna
in a coded manner corresponding to the stored data. The signal reflected from the tag is thus
modulated with this coded information. This modulated signal is received by the reader,
demodulated using a homodyne receiver, and decoded and output as digital information that
contains the data stored in the tag. To send data from the reader to the tag, the reader
amplitude modulates its transmitted radio signal. This modulated signal is received by the
tag and detected with a diode. The data can be used to control operation of the tag, or the
tag can store the data. A simple diode detector allows the detection circuitry in the tag to be
simple and consume little power.
Fig 3.2 - Functional blocks for reading data from a backscatter RFID tag.
The reader is on the left, and the tag is on the right.
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Fig 3.3- modulated wave
The above diagram provides a simplified modulated carrier signals from the RFID
tag. A 1 is represented with high carrier level, and a 0 is represented by a low carrier level
(tag coil shunted). The reader demodulates the signals to recover the data.
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CHAPTER - 4
APPLICATION OF RFID
4.1 RFID AND COMMERCE
4.1.1 PAYMENT BY MOBILE PHONES - Since summer 2009, two credit card
companies have been working with Dallas, Texas-based Device Fidelity to develop
specialized microSD cards. When inserted into a mobile phone, the microSD card can be
both a passive tag and an RFID reader. After inserting the microSD, a user's phone can be
linked to bank accounts and used in mobile payment.
Dairy Queen in conjunction with Vivotech has also begun using RFIDs on mobile
phones as part of their new loyalty and rewards program. Patrons can ask to receive an
RFID tag to place on their phone. After activation, the phone can receive promotions and
coupons, which can be read by ViVOtech's specialized NFC devices.
Similarly, 7-Eleven has been working alongside MasterCard to promote a new
touch-free payment system. Those joining the trial are given a complimentary Nokia 3220
cell phone – after activation, it can be used as an RFID-capable MasterCard credit card at
any of 7-Eleven's worldwide chains.
Nokia's 2008 device, the 6212, has RFID capabilities also. Credit card information
can be stored, and bank accounts can be directly accessed using the enabled handset. The
phone, if used as a vector for mobile payment, has added security in that users would be
required to enter a pass code or PIN before payment is authorized.
4.1.2 ASSETS MANAGEMENT - RFID combined with mobile computing and Web
technologies provide a way for organizations to identify and manage their assets. It was
initially introduced to major retail by Craig Patterson, Knoxville, TN. Mobile computers,
with integrated RFID readers, can now deliver a complete set of tools that eliminate
paperwork, give proof of identification and attendance. This approach eliminates manual
data entry.
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Web based management tools allow organizations to monitor their assets and make
management decisions from anywhere in the world. Web based applications now mean that
third parties, such as manufacturers and contractors can be granted access to update asset
data, including for example, inspection history and transfer documentation online ensuring
that the end user always has accurate, real-time data. Organizations are already using RFID
tags combined with a mobile asset management solution to record and monitor the location
of their assets, their current status, and whether they have been maintained.
RFID is being adopted for item-level retail uses. Aside from efficiency and product
availability gains, the system offers a superior form of electronic article surveillance (EAS),
and a superior self checkout process for consumers. The first commercial, public item-level
RFID retail system installation is believed to be in May 2005 by Freedom Shopping, Inc. in
North Carolina, USA.2009 witnessed the beginning of wide-scale asset tracking with
passive RFID. Wells Fargo and Bank of America made announcements that they would
track every item in their data centers using passive RFID. Most of the leading banks have
since followed suit. The Financial Services Technology Consortium (FSTC) set a technical
standard for tagging IT assets and other industries have used that standard as a guideline.
For instance the US State Department is now tagging IT assets with passive RFID using the
ISO/IEC 18000-6 standard.
4.1.3 INVENTORY SYSTEMS - An advanced automatic identification technology based
on RFID technology has significant value for inventory systems. The system can provide
accurate knowledge of the current inventory. In an academic study performed at Wal-Mart,
RFID reduced Out-of-Stocks by 30 percent for products selling between 0.1 and 15 units a
day. Other benefits of using RFID include the reduction of labor costs, the simplification of
business processes, and the reduction of inventory inaccuracies.
In 2004, Boeing integrated the use of RFID technology to help reduce maintenance
and inventory costs on the Boeing 787 Dream liner. With the high costs of aircraft parts,
RFID technology allowed Boeing to keep track of inventory despite the unique sizes, shapes
and environmental concerns. During the first six months after integration, the company was
able to save $29,000 in labour. In 2007, Recall Corporation integrated the use of RFID to
help organizations track and audit their records, to support compliance with regulations
such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act and HIPAA.
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4.1.4 PRODUCT TRACKING - RFID use in product tracking applications begins with
plant-based production processes, and then extends into post-sales configuration
management policies for large buyers.
In 2005, the Wynn Casino, Las Vegas, began placing individual RFID tags on high
value chips. These tags allowed casinos the ability to detect counterfeit chips, track betting
habits of individual players, speed up chip tallies, and determine counting mistakes of
dealers. In 2010, the Bellagio casino was robbed of $1.5 million in chips. The RFID tags of
these chips were immediately invalidated, thus making the cash value of these chips $0.
RFID can also be used for supply chain management in the fashion industry. The
RFID label is attached at the garment at production, can be read/traced throughout the entire
supply chain and is removed at the point of sale (POS).
4.1.5 ACCESS CONTROL - High-frequency tags are widely used in identification badges,
replacing earlier magnetic stripe cards. These badges need only be held within a certain
distance of the reader to authenticate the holder. The American Express Blue credit card
now includes a High FID tag. In Feb 2008, Emirates Airline started a trial of RFID baggage
tracing at London and Dubai airports
4.1.6 PROMOTION TRACKING - To prevent retailers diverting products, manufacturers
are exploring the use of RFID tags on promoted merchandise so that they can track exactly
which product has sold through the supply chain at fully discounted prices.
4.1.7 ADVERTISING - When customers enter a dressing room, the mirror reflects their
image and also images of the apparel item being worn by celebrities on an interactive
display. A webcam also projects an image of the consumer wearing the item on the website
for everyone to see. This creates an interaction between the consumers inside the store and
their social network outside the store. The technology in this system is an RFID interrogator
antenna in the dressing room and Electronic Product Code RFID tags on the apparel item.
21
4.2 RFID AND HEALTHCARE
RFID has made its way into almost all the day to day operations of a Healthcare facility.
4.2.1 PATIENT TRACKING - RFID is being used to track and authenticate patients,
from new born babies to seniors suffering from dementia and everything in between. The
technologies that are being used for patient tracking include almost all the RFID
technologies. LF and HF are used for applications such as bedside care and mother and
baby matching. UHF is being used to monitor patient movement and establish geo-fencing
as required. Active technology is a more robust form of movement and motion tracking.
4.2.2 MEDICATION AUTHENTICATION AND CONTROL - Bedside care has leap
forged the use of bar codes and embraced RFID to ensure the right medication is given to
the right patient. Nursing staff find RFID easier to work with than bar codes and realize the
additional privacy that RFID brings to the process. For example, when the nurse is away
from the computer on wheels (COW) administering medication to a patient the computer
can be programmed to go into screen save mode thus maintaining patient information
confidentiality. Bedside care RFID typically employs contact like HF technology. Nurses or
meds administrators can be virtually tethered to the COW using UHF technology.
4.2.3 WAIT TIME MONITORING - RFID technology is being deployed to monitor
patient wait times in real time. Reusable active technology let’s an ER see exactly the
number of patients in the queue and length of wait time by patient.
4.3 RFID AND AUTOMOTIVE
Microwave RFID tags are used in long range access control for vehicles.
Since the 1990's RFID tags have been used in car keys. Without the correct RFID,
the car will not start.
22
In January 2003, Michelin began testing RFID transponders embedded into tires.
After an 18 month testing period, the manufacturer will offer RFID-enabled tires to
car makers. Their primary purpose is tire tracking in compliance with the United
States Transportation, Recall, Enhancement, Accountability and Documentation Act
(TREAD Act).
Starting with the 2004 model year, a Smart Key/Smart Start option became available
to the Toyota Prius. Since then, Toyota has been introducing the feature on various
models globally under both the Toyota and Lexus brands, including the Toyota
Avalon (2005 model year), Toyota Camry (2007 model year), and the Lexus GS
(2006 model year). The key uses an active RFID circuit allowing the car to detect
the key approximately 3 feet from the sensor. The driver can open the doors and
start the car with the key in a purse or pocket.
4.4 RFID IN INVENTORY SYSTEMS
An advanced automatic identification technology such as the Auto-ID system based
on the Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology has two values for
inventory systems. First, the visibility provided by this technology allows an
accurate knowledge on the inventory level by eliminating the discrepancy between
inventory record and physical inventory. Second, the RFID technology can prevent
or reduce the sources of errors. Benefits of using RFID include the reduction of
labor costs, the simplification of business processes and the reduction of inventory
inaccuracies.
4.5 IDENTIFICATION USING RFID
4.5.1 ANIMAL IDENTIFICATION - A microchip implant is an identifying
integrated circuit placed under the skin of a dog, cat, horse, parrot or other animals.
The chips are about the size of a large grain of rice and are based on a passive RFID
(Radio Frequency Identification) technology. Microchips have been particularly 23
useful in the return of lost pets. They can also assist where the ownership of an
animal is in dispute.
Animal shelters and animal control centers benefit using microchip
identification products by more quickly and efficiently returning pets to their
owners. When a pet can be quickly matched to its owner, the shelter avoids the
expense of housing, feeding, providing medical care, and out placing or euthanizing
the pet. Micro chipping is becoming standard at shelters: many require all out placed
animals to receive a microchip, and provide the service as part of the adoption
package. Animal-control officers are trained and equipped to scan animals.
Fig 4.1 – microchip implant in a sheep
In addition to shelters and veterinarians, microchips are used by kennels, breeders,
brokers, trainers, registries, rescue groups, humane societies, clinics, farms, stables, animal
clubs and associations, researchers, and pet stores. There are also microchip related
appliances such as pet doors which provide programmable controlled access to specific
animals.
Several countries require a microchip when importing an animal to prove that the
animal and the vaccination record match. Microchip tagging may also be required for
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CITES-regulated international trade in certain rare animals: for example, Asian Arowana
are so tagged, in order to ensure that only captive-bred fish are imported.
4.5.2 HUMAN IMPLANTS- Implantable RFID chips designed for animal tagging are
now being used in humans. An early experiment with RFID implants was conducted by
British professor of cybernetics Kevin Warwick, who implanted a chip in his arm in 1998.
Night clubs in Barcelona, Spain and in Rotterdam, The Netherlands, use an implantable
chip to identify their VIP customers, who in turn use it to pay for drinks.
Prisoners to Be Tracked Using RFID
In order to ascertain the position of its staff and prisoners ACT's first prison would
be RFID equipped which would enable real time tracking of staff and prisoners. Now at this
prison, inmates would be fitted with an anklet or a bracelet having a unique identifier and
the security guard would be wearing pagers emitting a radio signal. This would enable pin
pointing of staff and prisoners through triangulation of signals that would be read by
numerous readers. A combination of active and passive tags would be used. This is not only
going to reduce the pressure on prison staff engaged in continuo’s monitoring or watching
CCTVs but also discipline the prison inmates .Certainly it would not only relieve the
headache of the prison authorities but also caution the prisoners that if they entered into any
illegal activity within the prison premises it could land them into soup.
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(a) Hand with the planned location
(b) Just after the operation to insert of the RFID chip
Fig 4.2 – microchip implant in a human
4.6 RFID AND RAILWAY INDUSTRY
Rail Transportation Systems face a complex set of economic and operational challenges
such as competitive freight pricing, maximizing asset utilization, competition with trucking,
controlling capital expenditure levels, industry consolidation and worker safety issues.
RFID technology applications help the rail transportation industry to improve revenue
growth by reducing costs through improved efficiencies in operations, maintenance, asset
utilization, and capacity management.
The RFID systems technology provides exact location and status of any individual
rail car this enables timely, accurate and integral information and decision assistance for the
26
management of train transportation and the customer. RFID provides end-to-end Railroad /
Transit application management services
A RFID Railway system is available in a number of configurations designed to
economically meet a full range of service requirements. Reader systems provide automated
tracking of railcars via RFID tags, and make railcar location information available to
railroads for asset management and other purposes.
Traffic and Passenger Information: The system provides accurate and reliable
information about where a train is located. This real-time information is forwarded
to IT systems and can be used to update the passenger information displays at
stations and terminals.
Operation and Maintenance: Precise information about the configuration of
wagons within a train can be provided automatically by the system. This information
can be integrated with other systems such as track inspection systems, so that the
recorded information can be automatically matched to the actual wagon, thus
eliminating errors.
Location of the Train: The System with the help of the reader determines the
location of the train by reading the tag identity as the train passes over the tag at
speed. This location data is transferred to the onboard system and can be used to
update passenger information automatically
Controlling and Positioning of Trains: Some onboard systems require a precise
position of the train, for example to control stopping positions. The reader accurately
reports the position when the train passes over an ID-tag.
4.7 RFID AND OIL / GAS INDUSTRIES
The oil and gas sector is under mounting pressure to improve operational and
financial results, while continuing to meet the expected demand for energy. Use of RFID
has a proven track record for many other verticals such as retail and access security. The use
of RFID in the Oil and Gas industry is showing some significant positive returns.
27
The use of RFID has crept into almost every sector of the oil and gas industry. RFID
is beginning to be used in exploration and production, throughout the crude supply network,
through the refining process, and is widely accepted in the transportation and distribution
network and is becoming commonplace in the retail side of the business.
RFID is being used to ensure that pipe work joints are properly assembled in the
crude supply chain. Although bar code has been and continues to be used for these
requirements, RFID is proving to be a more reliable way of ensuing the right parts and
torque pressures are being used during the assembly process. RFID tags can withstand harsh
conditions and remain operable long after bar codes would have been washed or worn
away.
Refineries are always looking for ways to ensure that their processes meet safety and
audit requirements. RFID can assist refinery operators to identify key inspection points and
provide the audit trail required to meet audit standards. Adherence to inspection protocols of
critical components such as valves, flanges and pressure settings can be improved using
RFID technology.
RFID is being used throughout the distribution network from managing trucks down
to the actual shipments. RFID is being used to track the movement of trucks to ensure
optimum utilization of expensive capital and labour. Key assets are being tagged and
tracked throughout the entire oil and gas distribution supply chain. RFID is also well suited
for tagging parts that have to be maintained to predetermined routines. May fleet operators
are turning to RFID to make sure such repairs and maintenance are done on schedule but
only when required or specified. RFID tagging is also used to monitor cleaning schedules of
tankers.
The oil and gas sector has a problem common to almost any other business – asset
tracking. The special challenge is that some assets are hard to tag and even harder to track
because of size and geography. Active RFID technology is being used to monitor and
manage inventories and fixed assets in almost any kind of environment.
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4.8 LIBRARIES
Libraries have used RFID to replace the barcodes on library items. The tag can
contain identifying information or may just be a key into a database. An RFID system may
replace or supplement bar codes and may offer another method of inventory management
and self-service checkout by patrons. It can also act as a security device, taking the place of
the more traditional electromagnetic security strip.
Fig 4.3 - RFID tags used in libraries: square book tag, round CD/DVD tag and rectangular
VHS tag.
It is estimated that over 30 million library items worldwide now contain RFID tags,
including some in the Vatican Library in Rome. Since RFID tags can be read through an
item, there is no need to open a book cover or DVD case to scan an item, and a stack of
books can be read simultaneously. Book tags can be read while books are in motion on a
conveyor belt, which reduces staff time. This can all be done by the borrowers themselves,
29
reducing the need for library staff assistance. With portable readers, inventories could be
done on a whole shelf of materials within seconds.
However, as of 2008 this technology remains too costly for many smaller libraries,
and the conversion period has been estimated at 11 months for an average-size library. A
2004 Dutch estimate was that a library which lends 100,000 books per year should plan on a
cost of €50,000 (borrow- and return-stations: 12,500 each, detection porches 10,000 each;
tags 0.36 each). RFID taking a large burden off staff could also mean that fewer staff will
be needed, resulting in some of them getting fired, but that has so far not happened in North
America where recent surveys have not returned a single library that cut staff because of
adding RFID. In fact, library budgets are being reduced for personnel and increased for
infrastructure, making it necessary for libraries to add automation to compensate for the
reduced staff size. Also, the tasks that RFID takes over are largely not the primary tasks of
librarians. A finding in the Netherlands is that borrowers are pleased with the fact that staff
is now more available for answering questions.
A concern surrounding RFID in libraries that has received considerable publicity is
the issue of privacy. Because some RFID tags can be read from up to 100 meters (330 ft),
there is some concern over whether sensitive information could be collected from an
unwilling source. However, library RFID tags do not contain any patron information, and
the tags used in the majority of libraries use a frequency only readable from approximately
10 feet (3.0 m).Further, another non-library agency could potentially record the RFID tags
of every person leaving the library without the library administrator's knowledge or consent.
One simple option is to let the book transmit a code that has meaning only in conjunction
with the library's database. Another step further is to give the book a new code every time it
is returned. And if in the future readers become ubiquitous (and possibly networked), then
stolen books could be traced even outside the library. Tag removal could be made difficult
if the tags are so small that they fit invisibly inside a (random) page, possibly put there by
the publisher.
4.9 MUSEUMS
30
RFID technologies are now also implemented in end-user applications in museums.
An example was the custom-designed temporary research application, "export," at the
Exploratorium, a science museum in San Francisco, California. A visitor entering the
museum received an RF Tag that could be carried as a card. The export system enabled the
visitor to receive information about specific exhibits. Aside from the exhibit information,
the visitor could take photographs of themselves at the exhibit. It was also intended to allow
the visitor to take data for later analysis. The collected information could be retrieved at
home from a "personalized" website keyed to the RFID tag.
4.10 SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES
School authorities in the Japanese city of Osaka are now chipping children's
clothing, back packs, and student IDs in a primary school. A school in Don Caster, England
is piloting a monitoring system designed to keep tabs on pupils by tracking radio chips in
their uniforms.St Charles Sixth Form College in west London, England, started September,
2008, is using an RFID card system to check in and out of the main gate, to both track
attendance and prevent unauthorized entrance. Similarly, Whitcliffe Mount School in
Cleckheaton, England uses RFID to track pupils and staff in and out of the building via a
specially designed card. In the Philippines, some schools already use RFID in IDs for
borrowing books and also gates in those particular schools have RFID ID scanners for
buying items at a school shop and canteen, library and also to sign in and sign out for
student and teacher's attendance.
4.11 SPORTS
RFID for timing races began in the early 1990s with pigeon racing, introduced by
the company Deister Electronics in Germany. RFID can provide race start and end timings
for individuals in large races where it is impossible to get accurate stopwatch readings for
every entrant.
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Fig 4.4 - Champion Chip
In the race, the racers wear tags that are read by antennae placed alongside the track
or on mats across the track. UHF tags provide accurate readings with specially designed
antennas. Rush error, lap count errors and accidents at start time are avoided since anyone
can start and finish any time without being in a batch mode. Passive and active RFID
systems are used in off-road events such as Orienteering, Enduro and Hare and Hounds
racing. Riders have a transponder on their person, normally on their arm. When they
complete a lap they swipe or touch the receiver which is connected to a computer and log
their lap time.
RFID is being adapted by many recruitment agencies which have a PET (Physical
Endurance Test) as their qualifying procedure especially in cases where the candidate
volumes may run into millions (Indian Railway Recruitment Cells, Police and Power
sector).
A number of ski resorts have adopted RFID tags to provide skiers hands-free access
to ski lifts. Skiers do not have to take their passes out of their pockets. Early on skiers were
forced to use systems that required nearly contact - bending over to touch the turn styles.
These systems were based on high frequency (HF) at 13.56 megahertz. While effective at
tracking the skiers they were difficult to use and expensive to deploy. However the bulk of
ski areas in Europe, from Verbier to Chamonix use these systems.
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4.12 TELEMETRY
Active RFID tags also have the potential to function as low-cost remote sensors that
broadcast telemetry back to a base station. Applications of algometry data could include
sensing of road conditions by implanted beacons, weather reports, and noise level
monitoring.
Passive RFID tags can also report sensor data. For example, the Wireless
Identification and Sensing Platform is a passive tag that reports temperature, acceleration
and capacitance to commercial Gen2 RFID readers.
It is possible that active or battery assisted passive (BAP) RFID tags, used with or in
place of barcodes, could broadcast a signal to an in-store receiver to determine whether the
RFID tag (product) is in the store.
4.13 E-PASSPORT
Fig 4.5 – electronic passport
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The first RFID passports ("E-passport") were issued by Malaysia in 1998. In
addition to information also contained on the visual data page of the passport, Malaysian e-
passports record the travel history (time, date, and place) of entries and exits from the
country.
Other countries that insert RFID in passports include Norway (2005),Japan (March
1, 2006), most EU countries (around 2006) including Spain, Ireland and the UK, Australia,
Hong Kong and the United States (2007), Serbia (July 2008), Republic of Korea (August
2008), Taiwan (December 2008), Albania (January 2009), The Philippines (August 2009),
Republic of Macedonia (2010).
Standards for RFID passports are determined by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO), and are contained in ICAO Document 9303, Part 1, Volumes 1 and 2
(6th edition, 2006). ICAO refers to the ISO/IEC 14443 RFID chips in e-passports as
"contactless integrated circuits". ICAO standards provide for e-passports to be identifiable
by a standard e-passport logo on the front cover.
Since 2006, RFID tags included in new US passports will store the same
information that is printed within the passport and also include a digital picture of the
owner. The US State Department initially stated the chips could only be read from a
distance of 10 cm (4 in), but after widespread criticism and a clear demonstration that
special equipment can read the test passports from 10 meters (33 ft) away, the passports
were designed to incorporate a thin metal lining to make it more difficult for unauthorized
readers to "skim" information when the passport is closed. The department will also
implement Basic Access Control (BAC), which functions as a Personal Identification
Number (PIN) in the form of characters printed on the passport data page. Before a
passport's tag can be read, this PIN must be entered into an RFID reader. The BAC also
enables the encryption of any communication between the chip and interrogator.
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4.14 OTHER
Sensors such as seismic sensors may be read using RFID transceivers, greatly
simplifying remote data collection.
Some smart cards embedded with RFID chips are used as electronic cash, e.g. Smart
Trip in Washington, DC, USA, Easy Card in Taiwan, Suica in Japan, T-Money in
South Korea, Octopus Card in Hong Kong, and the Netherlands and Oyster Card on
the London Underground in the United Kingdom to pay fares in mass transit
systems and/or retails. The Chicago Transit Authority recently began using RFID
technology in their Chicago Card.
In August 2004, the Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction (ODRH)
approved a $415,000 contract to evaluate the personnel tracking technology of
Alanco Technologies. Inmates will wear wristwatch-sized transmitters that can
detect attempted removal and alert prison computers. This project is not the first
rollout of tracking chips in US prisons. Facilities in Michigan, California and Illinois
already employ the technology.
Automatic timing at mass sports events “Champion Chip ".
Used as storage for a video game system produced by Mattel, "Hyper scan".
RFID in, designed by Vita Craft, is an automatic cooking device that has three
different sized pans, a portable induction heater, and recipe cards. Each pan is
embedded with a RFID tag that monitors the food 16 times per second while a MI
tag in the handle of the pans transmits signals to the induction heater to adjust the
temperature.
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Fig 4.6 – different application areas of RFID
36
CHAPTER - 5
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RFID
5.1 ADVANTAGES
a. No line of sight requirement.
b. The tag can stand a harsh environment.
c. Long read range. Larger area of coverage. Up to several feet.
d. Portable database
e. Multiple tag read/write.
f. Tracking people, items, and equipment in realtime. Non-line of sight identification
of tags
g. Unattended operations are possible, minimizing human errors and high cost.
h. Ability to identify moving elements that have tags embedded.
i. Can be used in diverse environments, including live stock, military, and scientific
areas.
j. RFID can be used in addition to Bar Code. These two technologies can be
complementing each other.
k. Automatic integration with back end software solutions provide end to end
integration of data in real time.
l. Labor reduction
m. Enhanced visibility and forecasting
n. Improved inventory management.
o. Simultaneous automatic reading.
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5.2 DISADVANTAGES
Bulkier, due to embedding of electronic components in the tag. However, with
advanced techniques, it is possible to reduce the size, and weight of the tags to a
large extent.
Prone to physical/electrical damage due to environmental conditions. For example,
tags that are subjected to space exploration may encounter extreme temperatures.
The tags required to be designed for a given application, and may be costly when
designed for use under extreme environmental conditions.
Dead areas and orientation problems - RFID works similar to the way a cell
phone or wireless network does. Just like these technologies, there may be certain
areas that have weaker signals or interference. In addition, poor read rates are
sometimes a problem when the tag is rotated into an orientation that does not align
well with the reader. These issues can usually be minimized by properly
implementing multiple readers and using tags with multiple axis antennas.
Security concerns - Because RFID is not a line of sight technology like bar coding,
new security problems could develop. For example, a competitor could set up a high
gain directional antenna to scan tags in trucks going to a warehouse. From the data
received, this competitor could determine flow rates of various products.
Additionally, when RFID is used for high security operations such as payment
methods, fraud is always a possibility.
Ghost tags - In rare cases, if multiple tags are read at the same time the reader will
sometimes read a tag that does not exist. Therefore, some type of read verification,
such as a CRC, should be implemented in either the tag, the reader or the data read
from the tag.
38
Proximity issues - Tags cannot be read well when placed on metal or liquid objects
or when these objects are between the reader and the tag. Nearly any object that is
between the reader and the tag reduces the distance the tag can be read from.
High cost - Because this technology is new, the components and tags are expensive
compared to barcodes. In addition, software and support personnel that are needed to
install and operate the RFID reading systems (in a warehouse for example) may be
more costly to employ.
Unread tags - When reading multiple tags at the same time, it is possible that some
tags will not be read and there is no sure method of determining this when the
objects are not in sight. This problem does not occur with barcodes, because when
the barcode is scanned, it is instantly verified when read by a beep from the scanner
and the data can then be entered manually if it does not scan.
Vulnerable to damage - Water, static discharge or high power magnetic surges
(such as from a close lightning strike) may damage the tags.
Global standardization - The frequencies used for RFID in the USA are currently
incompatible with those of Europe or Japan. Furthermore, no emerging standard has
yet become as universal as the barcode. To address international trade concerns, it is
necessary to use a tag that is operational within all of the international frequency
domains.
Data flooding - Not every successful reading of a tag (observation) represents data
useful for the purposes of the business. A large amount of data may be generated
that is not useful for managing inventory or other applications. For example, a
customer moving a product from one shelf to another, or a pallet load of articles that
39
passes several readers while being moved in a warehouse, are events that do not
produce data that is meaningful to an inventory control system.
Event filtering is required to reduce this data inflow to a meaningful
depiction of moving goods passing a threshold. Various concepts have been
designed, mainly offered as middleware performing the filtering from noisy and
redundant raw data to significant processed data.
40
Chapter - 6
FUTURE OF RFID
Almost everything that you buy from retailers has a UPC bar code printed on it.
These bar codes help manufacturers and retailers keep track of inventory. They also give
valuable information about the quantity of products being bought and, to some extent, the
consumers buying them. These codes serve as product fingerprints made of machine-
readable parallel bars that store binary code.
Created in the early 1970s to speed up the check out process, bar codes have a few
disadvantages:
In order to keep up with inventories, companies must scan each bar code on every box of a
particular product.
Going through the checkout line involves the same process of scanning each bar code on
each item.
Bar code is a read-only technology, meaning that it cannot send out any information.
RFID tags are an improvement over bar codes because the tags have read and write
capabilities. Data stored on RFID tags can be changed, updated and locked. Some stores
that have begun using RFID tags have found that the technology offers a better way to track
merchandise for stocking and marketing purposes. Through RFID tags, stores can see how
quickly the products leave the shelves and which shoppers are buying them.
RFID tags won't entirely replace bar codes in the near future -- far too many retail
outlets currently use UPC scanners in billions of transactions every year. But as time goes
on we'll definitely see more products tagged with RFIDs and an increased focus on
seamless wireless transactions like that rosy instant checkout picture painted in the
introduction. In fact, the world is already moving toward using RFID technology in
payments through special credit cards and smart phones.
In addition to retail merchandise, RFID tags have also been added to transportation
devices like highway toll pass cards and subway passes. Because of their ability to store
data so efficiently, RFID tags can tabulate the cost of tolls and fares and deduct the cost 41
electronically from the amount of money that the user places on the card. Rather than
waiting to pay a toll at a tollbooth or shelling out coins at a token counter, passengers use
RFID chip-embedded passes like debit cards.
Radio frequency identification (RFID), the technology of the future, has long
established itself in our everyday lives. It is already deployed in various areas ranging from
efficient inventory management and road toll collection through to timing the performance
of individual participants in mass sporting events. Given RFID’s enormous potential it is
only right that it is on everyone’s lips. RFID chips combine the physical world of a product
with the virtual world of digital data. The technology meets the needs of companies
cooperating in a closely knit value chain. RFID will soon be considered an indispensable
part of the chain. Inefficiencies in the value chain and efforts to shore up internal security
are driving demand for RFID. The retail trade is playing a decisive part in the broad-based
roll-out of RFID projects. RFID represents an all-encompassing structural business concept
that far transcends simply superseding the bar code. Speed of processing, reading error
frequency, data protection and privacy issues, progress in standardisation, and investment
costs are still challenges that will ultimately decide the potential of RFID. RFID projects
focussed on transparency, reliability or speed of processing are particularly successful.
RFID systems will rapidly continue to gain significance. This holds especially in areas
where they can be used to manage processes within the value chain.
Radio frequency identification (RFID) technology builds a bridge between the
physical world of a product and the virtual world of digital data.1 the technology thus meets
the demands of companies cooperating in a closely knit value chain and is being deployed
promisingly in all sectors of the economy. Elgar Fleisch in Zurich already has visions of
RFID emerging as “the internet of things”. He envisions a future in which objects will grow
together to form a global, omnipresent cognitive and nervous system for the real world.
Such grand visions have awakened public interest in RFID.
The idea of RFID is, however, not really brand new. Back in the Second World War
the predecessor of RFID helped the allied forces distinguish between friend and foe when
aircraft and ships approached. RFID is still deployed for military uses today. Beyond
military applications RFID is also in broad civilian use. As it is becoming part of everyday
life, the public takes particular notice of the involvement of the retail trade. More and more
products are being fitted with RFID tags.
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6.1 RFID IN INDIA
Department of Information Technology has its focus on the R&D areas of RFID and
providing RFID based techno solutions to the Indian industries. With this objective, the
ambitious "National RFID Program" project was initiated in April, 2007. The program is
being implemented jointly by IIT, Kanpur, C-DAC, Noida and SAMEER, Mumbai. The
major highlights of the project are software/hardware development, middleware integration
and development of end-to-end solutions. Research component is mainly undertaken by IIT
Kanpur, application development including deployment and support is provided by C-DAC,
Noida while SAMEER Mumbai is focused primarily on RFID antenna design and other RF
related issues. C-DAC and IIT, Kanpur will also undertake RFID related manpower
development programs.
Presently, C-DAC, Noida is in the final stages of developing and testing pilot project
of Parcel Tracking System for Department of Posts. The pilot will be implemented at select
Speed Post Centers in some cities. The software will be later integrated with the existing
Speed-Net software of Department of Posts and the system will be scaled up at other Speed
Post Centers.
SAMEER has provided technical support to CDAC in field trials in terms of RF
characterization/modifications. These include characterization of RFID System, providing
technical assistance in field trials, designing of Reader Antenna for Gen II Tags, Linear
Polarized Planar Antennas and Circular Polarized Antennas and developing RFID System
Using Zigbee Modules.
SIEMENS is currently developing printable plastic-based RFID chips, called
flexible polymer semiconductors. As an IT service provider, Siemens Information Systems
Limited (SISL) provides support in all stages of RFID deployment, from a single source
with certified specialists all over the world.
Benefits at a glance
Benefit analysis of this innovative technology, particularly for supplier and customer
relationships
Traceable ROI analysis and maximum transparency of investment costs
Quick and comprehensive analysis of all major supply chain processes both
internally and with our client’s business partners
43
A clear idea about the strengths and weaknesses of our clioent’s logistics processes
An RFID Starter Kit that includes a complete pilot solution at a fixed price to make
getting started easier
44
REFERENCES
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequency_identification
2. http://www.traser-project.eu/documents/RFID_MITIP2006.pdf
3. http://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry-article/11/1023/rfid-applications1.asp
4. http://mit.gov.in/content/radio-frequency-identification-rfid
5.http://www.siemens.co.in/en/about_us/index/our_business_segments/sisl_energy/
sisl_energy/rfid.htm
6. http://forum.rficdesign.com/YaBB.pl?num=1236337012/2
7. http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/Technology-Article.asp?ArtNum=3
8. Security and Privacy in RFID Applications by Paweł Rotter
45
APPENDIX-A
BARCODE TECHNOLOGY
A barcode is a sequence of dark bars on a light background, or the equivalent of this
with the respect to the light-reflecting properties on the surface. The coding is contains in
the relative widths or spacing of the dark bars and light spaces. Perhaps the most familiar
barcode is the Universal Product Code (UPC) which appears on nearly all of the grocery
items in supermarket today.
A barcode scanner is an optical device that reads the code by scanning a focused
beam of light, generally a laser beam, across the bar code and detecting the variations in
reflected light. The scanner converts these light variations into electrical variations that are
subsequently digitized and fed into the decoding unit, which is programmed to convert the
relative widths of the digitized dark/ light spacing into numbers and/or letters.
The concept of barcode scanning for automatic identification purposes was first
proposed by N.J. Woodland and B. Silver in a patent application field in 1949. The barcode
scanners can be classified into two main categories. They are contact readers and non
contact readers. Contact readers: These devices are normally held in the hands. To read a
barcode this type of readers must either touch the code or come close to it. Non-contact
readers: These devices need not be close to the barcode to read the code. These scanners
use either a moving beam or a stationary beam, but mostly they have a moving laser light
beam. These scanners come in both handheld and fixed mount configurations.
In barcode scanning, depth of field is the distance along the laser beam, centered
around the focal point of the scanner, over which the barcode can be successfully scanned.
The depth of field of a barcode scanner is established by the beam diameter at the focal
point of the scanner, the wavelength of the laser light source, and the size of the minimum
bar width in the barcode being read. Holographic scanning disks used in barcode scanners
are frequently designed to be illuminated with a collimated beam incident normal to the
surface of the holographic disk. How does the barcode scanner read the image? Well, there
is a linear photodiode within the scanner head. This photodiode can read the reflected light
off the lines on the barcode. This reflection is a digital image that is then scanned
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electronically within the devise. When the image is scanned electronically, each bar on the
barcode is converted to the corresponding number or letter.
Figure 1- Barcode technology
Linear bar codes are used in many applications where the use of a simple numeric or
alpha-numeric code can provide the key to a database of "products". The most obvious
limitation is the amount of data that can be stored in a linear bar code, though other
problems can exist with the substrate that the bar code is printed on providing insufficient
contrast or poor ink receptivity which can cause the quality of the bar code to be less than
ideal.
A.1 ADVANTAGE OF BARCODE TECHNOLOGY
1) Use of barcodes provides a fast, easy and accurate mechanism to enter data into a
computer system for data collection or data lookup.
2) Accelerates workflow efficiency and speed ups throughput process
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3) Eliminate data entry errors.
4) Achieve data accuracy in backend host application.
5) The barcode scanner interprets a unique identity of every product.
6) The occurrence of errors is almost zero.
7) The process is time and cost-effective.
8) Access to total production costs is possible.
9) There is a huge saving in the terms of labor effort.
10) Established quality standard.
11) Easy to use.
12) Mature and proven technology.
13) Affordable.
A.2 DISADVANTAGE OF BARCODE TECHNOLOGY
1) Optical line-of-sight scanning.
2) Limited visibility.
3) Incapable of item level tracking.
4) Labor intensive.
5) Susceptible to environment damage and prone to human error.
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A.3 RFID TECHNOLOGY VERSUS BARCODE TECHNOLOGY
Table A – RFID V/s bar technology
Parameter Bar Code RFID
Frequencies used for tag
reading
Optical frequencies Radio frequencies
Type of communication Line of sight communication Non-line of sight
communication
Data Volume Physical limitation exists. It is very
difficult to read a very long barcode.
Can carry relatively large
volume of data.
Range of data
readability
Very limited range, less than a feet or
two.
Can be read up to several
feet.
Cost Cheap Expensive, but likely to cost
less as more industries adopt
the technology.
Physical Size Large Small
Lifespan Unlimited Multi-year lifespan
Counterfeiting Bar Codes may easily be duplicated
and attached to products and are,
therefore, easily counterfeited
Tags are produced with a
unique identity code (UIC) or
serial number from the
manufacturer. This is
embedded digitally on the
microchip and may not be
changed, therefore, making
them extremely resistant to
counterfeiting
Dynamic Updates Once a Bar Code is printed it remains Tags may be written to and 49
frozen. The Code and the process of
attaching the BC is not supportive of
real time updates. It is a labor
intensive process to update any
information on a BC once printed.
offer on board memory to
retain information. This
feature may be used to store
a product calibration history,
preventive maintenance, etc.
Updates may be made within
the blink of an eye and
automatically without human
intervention.
Scanning Bar Code must be presented to the
scanner in an orientation and distance
that is very limited. Individual
reading requires that each box on a
pallet be opened and the item pulled
for presentation to the scanner.
Offers a range from inches to
hundreds of feet and does not
require line of sight. This
means that individual Tags
placed within a carton,
packed in a box and stored
on a pallet may be read. You
do not have to open each box
and present the individual
item.
Simultaneous Scanning Standards have algorithms to support
simultaneous reading of Tags at one
time.
Limited to one bar code at a
time. Unable to support
simultaneous reads.
Reusable Yes No
APPENDIX-B
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OTHER SCANNING TECHNOLOGIES
Besides barcode and RFID technology, there are few of scanner systems which is
used in several field.
B.1 EBT SCANNING TECHNOLOGY
Electron Beam Tomography (EBT) is the only imaging technology approved by the
FDA for the early detection of heart disease.
It uses a high-speed electron beam to scan the heart, non-invasively, for the presence
of calcium deposits. Calcium is a marker for plaque formation, also called atherosclerosis.
By measuring the amount of calcium present in and around your coronary arteries, it can
provide an accurate picture of how much plaque you have accumulated. That's important,
because the more plaque you have, the more likely you are to have a heart attack.
EBT captures images at 1/20th of a second – far faster than imaging technologies
such as CT or MRI. Speed is critically important, because your heart is in constant motion.
EBT is the only non-invasive technology that's fast enough to create a clear picture of
what's happening inside your arteries.
1. EBT is the only scanning technology approved by the FDA to image calcified
plaque.
2. Only EBT has the scientific validation of hundreds of research studies at major
institutions across the nation.
3. Ultrafast CT may expose you to up to ten times the amount of radiation you'd
receive from an EBT scan.
4. EBT is highly targeted on the heart tissue.
5. EBT has proven to be extremely accurate.
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6. EBT is repeatable
B.2 BIOMETRIC SCANNING SYSTEM
The main biometrics systems on the market work by scanning an individual's
fingerprints, hands, face, iris, retina, voice pattern, signature, or strokes on a keyboard.
According to Hogan, finger scanning accounts for 34 percent of biometric system sales,
followed by hand scanning with 26 percent, face scanning with 15 percent, voice scanning
and eye scanning with 11 percent each, and signature scanning with 3 percent. Retinal
scanning—which reads the blood vessels in the back of the eye and requires the user to be
within six inches of the scanning device—is the most accurate system but also the least
likely to enjoy widespread use because of people's natural protectiveness toward their eyes.
When you present your fingerprint or iris, the biometric reader creates a digitised
template which will be used to recognize you in the future. The template is stored, either in
a central system, or on your card. Biometric scanning is already used in many workplaces,
high-tech laptops, and on passports in some European countries. It is also being proposed
for the new Identity Cards which could soon be compulsory in the UK. Biometric scanners
are currently used to register asylum seekers and monitor travelers passing through major
airports.
One benefit of biometrics is that it relieves people from the burden of remembering
dozens of different passwords to company computer networks, e-mail systems, Web sites,
etc. In addition to creating distinct passwords for each system they use or Web site they
visit, people are expected to change their passwords frequently. Employees who have
trouble remembering their passwords may be more likely to keep a written list in a desk
drawer or posted on a bulletin board, thus creating a security risk. But biometrics offers an
easy solution to this problem.
A related problem with passwords is that they do not provide reliable security. In
fact, hackers can download password-cracking software for free on the Internet that will test
the most obvious combinations of characters for each user on a system and often find a way
in. Electronic retailers have found that their prospective customers are aware of the
unreliable nature of password-based security systems.
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CONCLUSION
53
This report has described the fundamentals of operation of radio frequency
identification technology and the application areas in which such systems have traditionally
been used. As the sophistication of the technology increases, and the component costs drop,
there will clearly be an increasing number of application areas in which the technology is
cost-effective. Additionally, the standardisation of a number of aspects of RFID
implementation means that systems deployed in different industries and by different compa-
nies will be interoperable, which further increases the cost-effectiveness of RFID
deployment because the same infrastructure can be shared.
RFID technology is already replacing bar codes in niche applications. Pundits have
high hopes for this technology to be a universal replacement for the barcode. Just like
photocopiers that replaced carbon paper, RFID provides greater options and is rich with
value add possibilities. Since RFID uses digital electronics the cost is dropping dramatically
while benefits improve. As a result, RFID is creating new processes, markets and
opportunities
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