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European Journal of Work andOrganizational PsychologyPublication details, including instructions for authorsand subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/pewo20

On the positive and negativeeffects of emotion work inorganizationsDieter Zapf a & Melanie Holz aa Department of Psychology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany

Available online: 17 Feb 2007

To cite this article: Dieter Zapf & Melanie Holz (2006): On the positive and negativeeffects of emotion work in organizations, European Journal of Work and OrganizationalPsychology, 15:1, 1-28

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On the positive and negative effects of emotion work

in organizations

Dieter Zapf and Melanie HolzDepartment of Psychology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University,

Frankfurt, Germany

Emotion work (emotional labour) is defined as emotional regulation requiredto display organizationally desired emotions by the employees. It has receivedincreased attention because it is relevant in the service industry where socialinteractions with customers, clients, or patients are a significant part of the job.Empirical studies found equivocal effects on psychological well-being whichindicates that emotion work is a multidimensional construct with dimensionshaving positive and negative health effects. In the present studies, the followingaspects of emotion work were differentiated: emotional regulation requirements:(1) the requirement to display positive emotions; (2) the requirement to displaynegative emotions, (3) the requirement to be sensitive to clients’ emotions; (4)emotional dissonance: the expression of emotions that are not felt. Analyseswere based on a representative sample (N¼ 184) of service workers andanother sample of service workers (N¼ 1158) consisting of call centre agents,hotel and bank employees, and kindergarten teachers. The data showed thatemotional dissonance was the stressful aspect of emotion work, whereas thedisplay of positive emotions and sensitivity requirements also had positiveeffects on personal accomplishment. The requirement to express negativeemotions had little effect on burnout. Neuroticism had little impact on therelations between emotion work and burnout.

In most economic societies service work plays an important role now. In theEuropean countries, for example, more than 50% of the workforce comprisesservice workers (Paoli, 1997). Consequently, the psychological analysis ofservice work has received increased attention in recent years (e.g., Nerdinger,

Correspondence should be addressed to Dieter Zapf, Department of Psychology, Johann

Wolfgang Goethe-University Frankfurt, Mertonstr. 17, D-60054 Frankfurt, Germany.

Email: D.Zapf@psych.uni-frankfurt.de

An earlier version of this article was presented as a poster at the 25th international congress

of Applied Psychology, July 7 – 12, 2002, Singapore. Parts of the present study were supported

by the German Federal Ministry of Work and Social Affairs and the Hessen Ministry of Social

Affairs.

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF WORK AND

ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

2006, 15 (1), 1 – 28

� 2006 Psychology Press Ltd

http://www.psypress.com/ejwop DOI: 10.1080/13594320500412199

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1994; Zeithaml & Bitner, 2000). One of the core aspects of service work is thesocial interaction with customers or clients. Here, as in any social interaction,the requirement to regulate one’s emotions plays a central role. Hochschild(1983) coined the term ‘‘emotional labour’’ for this requirement. Sheinvestigated the work of flight attendants and showed that a substantial partof the job was dealing with the passengers and their emotions.

Based on qualitative findings, Hochschild (1983) argued that highemotional demands had negative effects on psychological and physicalhealth. Whereas most but not all empirical studies so far were able todemonstrate such negative effects of emotional labour, the empiricalfindings with regard to positive effects were much more inconsistent. Insome studies, the frequency of emotion display was positively related towell-being; in others it was not. In particular, it has been argued that thedisplay of positive emotions has positive consequences. However, only a fewstudies have explicitly measured the requirement to display positiveemotions. But again, empirical results were inconsistent. The present paperintends to contribute to this still open question. We will present the test ofan overall model using structural equation modelling. In particular, we willfocus on the relationship between emotional job requirements andpsychological strain rather than on behavioural or emotion regulationstrategies and its consequences. We will distinguish between the requirementto display positive and the requirement to display negative emotions and wewill also investigate the requirement to sense emotions of the interactionpartner. This has only occasionally been done in the literature so far.Finally, we will systematically consider negative affectivity (NA) in theseanalyses, thus responding to an important methodological discussion inpsychological stress research. We are not aware of any study that took allthese aspects into account. In the following we will first describe amultidimensional framework of emotion work. Based on the existingliterature we will then develop hypotheses regarding the positive andnegative effects of emotion work on burnout.

Emotional labour or emotion work (Zapf, 2002) is an important aspect ofemployee – client interactions. ‘‘Client’’ is used here to refer to any personwho interacts with an employee, for example, patients, children, customers,passengers, or guests. Expressing appropriate emotions during face-to-faceor voice-to-voice interactions is a job demand for many employees in theservice industry. Service workers are required to manage their emotions as apart of their job. Certainly, service workers cannot be assumed to be alwaysin a good mood. Rather, they may sometimes be bored and they may allmore or less frequently encounter situations eliciting negative emotions suchas anger, fear, or disappointment. Emotion work as part of the job,however, implies the display of organizationally desired emotions even inthese unpleasant situations. Accordingly, emotion work has been defined as

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the psychological processes necessary to regulate organizationally desiredemotions as part of one’s job (e.g., Grandey, 2000; Hochschild, 1983;Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987; Zapf, 2002).

Hochschild (1983) argued that carrying out emotion work for long hourswouldovertax the serviceproviders’ abilities to showthedesiredemotions.Theywould go on smiling, but they would not feel the expected emotions. Thisdiscrepancy between displayed and felt emotions she called ‘‘emotionaldissonance’’. Hochschild maintained that showing emotions not felt at thatmoment would—in the long run—lead to the alienation of one’s feelings, whichwould cause psychological ill health. In her qualitative interviews with flightattendants, she found a variety of negative health consequences of emotionwork such as psychosomatic symptoms, and alcohol and sex problems.

Other studies, however, did not uniformly find these negative effects, andsome even found positive effects of emotion work. Therefore, researchersstarted to develop models differentiating various dimensions of emotion work.Most of these models comprised dimensions referring to the frequency ofemotion display and/or emotional dissonance (e.g., Brotheridge & Grandey,2002; Grandey, 2000; Morris & Feldman, 1996, 1997; Schaubroeck & Jones,2000). This also applies to the concept used in the present study. Moreover,applying Hackman’s (1969) distinction of job analysis approaches we followedthe behaviour requirement approach, thus focusing on the situational jobrequirements (see also Diefendorff & Richard, 2003; Schaubroeck & Jones,2000) rather than on the individual work behaviours or emotion regulationstrategies (e.g., Brotheridge & Lee, 2002; Cote & Morgan, 2002; Glomb &Tews, 2004). We differentiated between various dimensions of emotion workrequirements (Zapf, Vogt, Seifert, Mertini, & Isic, 1999): (1) the requirementto display positive emotions (abbreviated as ‘‘positive emotions’’), (2) the re-quirement to display and handle negative emotions (‘‘negative emotions’’),(3) the requirement to sense the emotion of the interaction partner (‘‘sensitivityrequirements’’), and (4) the dissonance between felt and displayed emotions(‘‘emotional dissonance’’).

In line with most empirical studies (e.g., Adelmann, 1995; Brotheridge &Lee, 2003; Morris & Feldman, 1997) the frequency of emotional display wasconsidered to be an important aspect of emotion work. Factor analyses(Zapf, Vogt et al., 1999) demonstrated the necessity of distinguishingbetween being required to show positive and negative emotions. This is sobecause the necessity to display positive and negative emotions is notuniformly high or low across occupations. Rather, it depends on specific jobrequirements. For a call centre agent, the requirement to show negativeemotions will be relatively infrequent (e.g., Zapf, Isic, Bechtoldt, & Blau,2003). In contrast, a frequently cited example for a job comprising afrequent requirement to show negative emotions is the case of a bill collector(Sutton, 1991). Another example may be an undertaker, who has to express

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seriousness and grief during a funeral. The requirement to display negativeemotions should not be mistaken for letting out one’s negative emotions inan uncontrolled manner. Rather, the controlled expression of anger may beused to make clear that one is seriously affected by something or that one istaking something very seriously. For example, a nurse may use controlledanger to make clear that she does not want to be touched by a patient. Akindergarten teacher may use anger to stop children fighting, etc. Whereasthere are some studies which also included the requirement of positiveemotions display (e.g., Diefendorff & Richard, 2003; Schaubroeck & Jones,2000), the requirement to express negative emotions has been considered inqualitative studies (Stenross & Kleinman, 1989; Sutton, 1991) but onlyrarely in quantitative studies.

The expression of organizationally desired emotions is not an end initself. Emotions are shown to have an influence on clients (Cote, 2005;Kruml & Geddes, 2000; Pugliesi, 1999). Expressing emotions is one possibleway to influence the clients’ feelings. To be able to influence the clients’emotions, their accurate perception is an important prerequisite. In socialinteractions, information provided by the emotion display of the interactionpartner is used to guide one’s own response (Elfenbein, Marsh, & Ambady,2002). Therefore, sensitivity requirements as the necessity to be sensitive andto consider the emotions of clients is another aspect of the emotion workconcept (Zapf, Vogt et al., 1999). Sensitivity requirements are low if thereare no or only few interactions with clients or if an employee can displayorganizationally desired emotions independent from the clients’ feelings, forexample, in the case of highly scripted interactions. Sensitivity requirementsare high, if knowledge of the clients’ emotions is a prerequisite for one’s ownemotional reaction.

Finally, as in some of the other studies on emotion work, we included theconcept of emotional dissonance (e.g., Abraham, 1998; Kruml & Geddes,2000; Morris & Feldman, 1996, 1997; Nerdinger & Roper, 1999; Zapf, Vogtet al., 1999; Zerbe, 2000). Emotional dissonance occurs when an employee isrequired to express emotions which are not genuinely felt in the particularsituation. A person may feel nothing when a certain emotion display isrequired, or the display rule may require the suppression of undesiredemotions and the expression of neutrality or a positive emotion instead of anegative one. Emotional dissonance was found to be resulting from externaldemands rather than being a reaction to emotion display or a behaviouralstrategy (Zapf, Vogt et al., 1999). We assume that surface acting which isa response focused strategy to express an emotion which is not felt(cf. Grandey, 2000; Hochschild, 1983) is an adequate and probably themost frequently used emotion regulation strategy to respond to emotionaldissonance as a situational demand, e.g., if the situational demand is to befriendly to an arrogant customer. However, the service provider may also not

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be willing to put on the expected friendly face. Rather he or she may lookneutral or even angry, thus showing emotional deviance (Rafaeli & Sutton,1987) as another possible response. In cases, the service provider may eventry to overcome his or her negative inner feelings, which corresponds to theconcept of deep acting (Hochschild, 1983). In the work of Hochschild, it wasemotional dissonance that was hypothesized to lead to the alienation of one’sfeelings which in turn caused various psychological strains.

The positive and negative effects of emotion work will be investigatedwith regard to burnout (e.g., Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). This concept wasintroduced as an individual reaction to high emotional demands in humanservice work. It can be understood as an indication that employees are nolonger able to manage their emotions adequately when interacting withclients. Burnout is a syndrome consisting of three aspects: emotionalexhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment(Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Emotional exhaustion measures one’s feelingof being burnt out, frustrated, and perceiving working with people to bedemanding. Depersonalization comprises the tendency to treat clients likeobjects and to become indifferent and apathetic with regard to clients.Personal accomplishment includes the feeling of having the competence todo things and of being able to meet one’s aspirations in one’s job.

Explanations for the positive and negative effects of emotion work onburnout can be given at two different levels (cf. Cote, 2005). First, at theinteraction level, the emotion work aspects can be seen as indicators ofpositive or negative social interactions with clients. Second, explanations atthe conceptual level of emotion regulation relate to processes andmechanisms inherent in the emotion work concept (Grandey, 2000; Zapf,2002; see below). In the following we will discuss the potential positive andnegative effects of the emotion work aspects on burnout both at the level ofsocial interactions and the level of emotion regulation.

Starting with the negative effects, studies consistently found correlationsbetween emotional dissonance (or variables which share some features withemotional dissonance such as suppressing negative emotions or surfaceacting) and psychological strain (e.g., Abraham, 1998; Brotheridge &Grandey, 2002; Grebner et al., 2003; Heuven & Bakker, 2003; Lewig &Dollard, 2003; Morris & Feldman, 1997; Nerdinger & Roper, 1999;Schaubroeck & Jones, 2000; Zapf, Vogt et al., 1999; Zerbe, 2000). Inparticular, relations between emotional dissonance and emotional exhaus-tion were found in the studies of Heuven and Bakker (2003), Lewig andDollard (2003), Morris and Feldman (1997), Nerdinger and Roper (1999),Zapf, Vogt et al. (1999), and Zerbe (2000). Similar results were found foremotional dissonance and depersonalization (Dormann & Zapf, 2004;Dormann, Zapf, & Isic, 2002; Zapf, Vogt et al., 1999). A variety ofexplanations exists for this result. An explanation at the interaction level is

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that emotional dissonance is related to emotional exhaustion because it is asensitive qualitative indicator of unpleasant and stressful interactions withclients. Clients may be aggressive, they may confront the service providerwith disproportionate expectations, or they may behave in an uncivilmanner. These behaviours have been related to psychological strain (e.g.,Ben-Zur & Yagil, 2005; Dormann & Zapf, 2004; Duffy, Ganster, & Pagon,2002; Spector, 1997) and emotional dissonance may be a good indicator tocover these different kinds of negative social interactions with clients orcustomers.

Moreover, at the level of emotion regulation, Gross and colleagues(Gross, 1998; Gross & John, 1997; Gross & Levenson, 1997) argued thatemotion regulation—as any process of self-regulation (see Muraven, Tice, &Baumeister, 1998)—has its psychological costs. Emotional dissonance oftenmeans the suppression of negative emotion and there is evidence thatemotion suppression is related to the sympathetic activation of thecardiovascular system (Gross & Levenson, 1997) which has been shown tobe associated with poor health, adjustment, and coping responses(Pennebaker, 1990). Finally, Brotheridge and Lee (2002) suggested thatsurface acting which is one way to react if the required emotions do notconform to the emotions actually felt, may threaten one’s authenticity (seealso Erickson & Wharton, 1997). This comes close to Hochschild’s (1983)notion that emotional dissonance generates feelings of estrangement fromthe self, which is supposed to be related to psychological strain.

Emotional dissonance may also lead to the (chronic) detachment of otherpeople’s feelings which may be related to depersonalization. Thus, based onthese explanations both at the interactional and the conceptual level and inline with previous research, we hypothesized that emotional dissonance ispositively related to emotional exhaustion (Hypothesis 1a) and depersona-lization (Hypothesis 1b).

With regard to the frequency of being required to display emotions,contradictory hypotheses exist. Some authors proposed that these require-ments have negative health effects (Hochschild, 1983; Morris & Feldman,1996); others (Schaubroeck & Jones, 2000) proposed a positive effect for therequirement to display positive emotions.

Overall, we assume that emotional job requirements, i.e., the requirementof the job to display positive or negative emotions and to sense the emo-tion of the client, depend on the existence of display rules (rules for theexpression of emotions), the frequency and the duration of service interactionsas well as on the quality of these interactions, i.e., whether the clients arebehaving positively or negatively (Grandey, 2000; Morris & Feldman, 1996;Zapf, 2002). We further assume that there is a positive relation betweenemotional requirements and health outcomes as long as these requirements arematched by the personal prerequisites of the service provider. However, if

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emotional requirements exceed certain limits, then the likelihood increases thatthe emotions which have to be expressed do not match the emotions felt at thatmoment corresponding to the definition of emotional dissonance. It followsthat any negative effect of the requirement to display positive or negativeemotions on burnout should be mediated by emotional dissonance (Hypoth-esis 2). That is, a full mediation effect is hypothesized, which implies that thereshould be no direct negative effects of the requirement to display positiveemotions (Hypothesis 2a) or negative emotions (Hypothesis 2b) on emotionalexhaustion or depersonalization if emotional dissonance is included as amediator. This mediator effect of emotional dissonance has not yet beensystematically investigated in the literature.

There is a variety of reasons why emotion work should also have positiveeffects on psychological well-being. At the level of social interactions it canbe argued that if service providers successfully meet the requirement todisplay and sense emotions, this will have positive effects. In particular, itwill contribute to the feeling of self-efficacy or personal accomplishment.Based on the literature on the affiliation motive it can be assumed thatdealing with other people and expressing emotions when interacting withthese people satisfies needs for affiliation, status, and recognition, forexample, by showing altruistic behaviour (e.g., Bierhoff, 1990; Hill, 1987).Stenross and Kleinman (1989) reported that detectives positively assessedinterrogations with criminal suspects because this played a central role forgoal achievement, namely, solving a case. This also included the display ofnegative emotions, e.g., when using the ‘‘good cop – bad cop’’ technique.Pugh (2001) and Tsai (2001) found that the display of positive emotions wasrelated to customer satisfaction and customers’ positive affect which may beindicators of successful service interactions. These processes may contributeto feelings of personal accomplishment.

At the conceptual level of emotion regulation, the expression of emotioncan either be thought of as a spontaneous or automatic process experiencednot to be effortful at all (cf. Scherer & Wallbott, 1990; Zapf, 2002; emotionalharmony according to Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; passive deep actingaccording to Hochschild, 1983), but contributing to a social situation withpositive consequences for the employee concerned. Moreover, the inten-tional expression of positive emotions usually increases the probability ofthe interaction partner to show reciprocal positive emotions in return (Cote,2005; Wiemann & Giles, 1997). This can be perceived as positive feedbackcontributing to the employee’s satisfaction and self-esteem. Emotionalcontagion (Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1994) has also been discussed asa mechanism how the display of positive interactions in service encounterscan influence the clients’ emotions and thus contribute to a positiverewarding interaction (Pugh, 2001). Adelmann (1995) referred to thefacial feedback hypothesis to argue for positive effects of emotion work

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(cf. Strack, Stepper, & Martin, 1988). On a qualitative level, Tolich (1993)described supermarket clerks who enjoyed showing prescribed emotions inthe form of jokes or entertainment of customers who chose their checkoutlines.

Empirically, findings with regard to positive effects are inconsistent.Wharton (1993) found a positive relation between emotional labour and jobsatisfaction. Cote and Morgan (2002) were able to demonstrate a causaleffect of expressing positive emotions on job satisfaction in a longitudinalstudy. Morris and Feldman (1997) found positive effects of duration onemotional exhaustion and job satisfaction, but similar negative effects of thefrequency of interaction. However, these effects all disappeared in multipleregressions where emotional dissonance was included. Lewig and Dollard(2003) did not find any positive effect. Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) andDiefendorff and Richard (2003) found a positive effect of the requirement toexpress positive emotions on job satisfaction. Schaubroeck and Jones (2000)found a respective negative effect instead of the hypothesized positive effecton physical symptoms. Based on the theoretical considerations and theexisting empirical findings we hypothesized that the requirement to displaypositive (Hypothesis 3a) and negative emotions (Hypothesis 3b) and to sensethe emotions of the interaction partner (Hypothesis 3c) are positively relatedto personal accomplishment.

So far we described interactions in which service providers automaticallyshow the required emotions. If, however, the required emotions are notautomatically shown, then the person may respond with deep acting to bringthe felt emotions in line with the required emotions. When using deep actingas an emotion regulation strategy, an individual actively tries to experiencethe required emotion (Grandey, 2000; Hochschild, 1983). This may havesimilar effects as if the emotions were displayed automatically (in line withHypotheses 3a – b). Accordingly, Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) reportedpositive relations between deep acting and personal accomplishment in theirstudies. Alternatively, the required emotion may not be spontaneously felt,but will be displayed. This corresponds to the definition of emotionaldissonance. Thus, we hypothesize that the emotional job requirements todisplay positive (Hypothesis 4a) or negative emotions (Hypothesis 4b) arerelated to emotional dissonance. Hypothesis 4 follows from Hypothesis 2,which assumes that there is no direct effect of the emotion work requirementvariables on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, but that theseeffects are mediated by emotional dissonance.

Moreover, if sensitivity requirements are too high they may overtax theemployees’ abilities to be sensitive because of the continuous necessity toconcentrate and process information while communicating with the client.Therefore, we hypothesize that there are also direct effects on emotionalexhaustion (Hypothesis 5a) and depersonalization (Hypothesis 5b).

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In recent years, stress researchers started to control stressor – strainrelationships for negative affectivity (NA). NA has often been equated withneuroticism (Burke, Brief, & George, 1993; Watson & Clark, 1984), and ithas been interpreted as a general dimension that lowers the threshold toexperience negative emotions. Some authors have argued that NArepresents a nuisance variable that directly affects stressor – strain relations(e.g., Burke et al., 1993). According to this view, individuals high in NA tendto view both their working conditions and their health conditions morenegatively than individuals low in NA, thus producing an artificialcorrelation between the variables.

At the theoretical level, it can be argued that individuals high in NA tendto experience negative emotions more frequently. They will be more oftenexposed to emotional dissonance because the display of positive emotions istypically required in most service interactions. Moreover, applying the‘‘stressor creation mechanism’’ (Spector, Zapf, Chen, & Frese, 2000) to thepresent context implies that individuals high in NA tend to create orcontribute to social conflicts with clients thus creating or contributing to anegative quality of this interaction in which negative emotions areexperienced instead of the positive ones frequently required by theorganizational display rules.

Studies show that the burnout dimensions are associated with NA orneuroticism (Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Moreover, although individualswith a tendency to experience negative emotions should report moreoccasions where positive emotions are required but negative emotions arefelt (emotional dissonance), we hypothesize that these mechanisms do notsubstantially decrease the relation between emotional dissonance andemotional exhaustion and depersonalization. This results from the fact ofthe emotional dissonance measure in the present study is intended to describeaspects of the work situation rather than subjective reactions. Usually, suchmeasures are only little affected by NA as a nuisance factor (Spector et al.,2000). We did not expect NA to affect the emotional requirements becausethese are mainly determined by the display rules and the frequency andduration of service interactions. Moreover, the instrument used in this studyaimed at measuring the work environment thereby trying to minimize theinfluence of individual cognitive and emotional processing in the measure-ment process (Frese & Zapf, 1988). There is evidence that under thesecircumstances, the effects of NA on stressor – strain relations are only smallin terms of Cohen’s (1992) effect size criteria (Spector et al., 2000). So far,several studies on emotion work included neuroticism or NA. Brotheridgeand Grandey (2002) and Diefendorff and Richard (2003) found an effecton demands to suppress negative emotions. In contrast, Schaubroeck andJones (2000) found a relatively strong effect of trait negative affect ondemands to suppress negative emotions (r¼ .48). Thus, we hypothesized that

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NA or neuroticism should have a positive effect on emotional dissonance andburnout (Hypothesis 6). However, NA should not affect the relation betweenemotional dissonance and burnout in a significant way. In summary, we willtest the following hypotheses, which are also shown in Figure 1:

Hypothesis 1: Emotional dissonance will be positively related toemotional exhaustion (H1a) and depersonalization (H1b).Hypothesis 2: There are no direct effects of the requirement to displayemotions on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. Rather, theeffects are mediated by emotional dissonance.Hypothesis 3: The requirement to display positive (H3a) and negativeemotions (H3b) and the requirements to sense the emotion of the client(H3c) are positively related to the feeling of personal accomplishment.Hypothesis 4: The requirements to display positive (H4a) or negativeemotions (H4b) will also be related to emotional dissonance.Hypothesis 5: There will be a direct effect of sensitivity requirements onemotional exhaustion (H5a) and depersonalization (H5b).Hypothesis 6: NA has a small effect (according to Cohen’s, 1992, effectsize criteria) on emotional dissonance, but will not change the relationbetween emotional dissonance and burnout (H6).

Figure 1. Hypothesized relations between emotion work and burnout.

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METHOD

Samples

In this study we will report analyses based on two samples. The first sampleconsisted of employees working in different service sectors (‘‘servicesample’’) and the second was based on a randomly drawn sample(‘‘representative sample’’).

The service sample consisted of four subsamples. The first subsample wascollected in the hotel business. With the help of the ‘‘BerufsgenossenschaftNahrung’’ (professional food association), 20 hotels in an area in SouthWest Germany were included in the study. Of the participants, 15% had a‘‘Hauptschulabschluss’’ (lower stream school leaving certificate), 29% had‘‘mittlere Reife’’ (middle stream school-leaving certificate), 44% had‘‘Abitur’’ (high school diploma qualifying for university entrance), and11% some type of university degree. Only a minority of 18% did not have aspecific vocational education related to the hotel business. The secondsubsample consisted of participants who were employed in 14 call centres ofvarious firms. This subsample consisted of employees who all had voice-to-voice contacts with clients. Of the participants, 74% had a high schooldiploma qualifying for university entrance (Abitur) or some kind ofuniversity degree, 76% received calls but did not call clients themselves(inbound); the remainder were preoccupied with both calling and receivingcalls (inbound and outbound). The third subsample was collected in sevenbanks. Of the participants, 43% had a specific banking vocational educationand another 32% a university degree. The majority of the subsample (97%)had more than 2 years of job experience. The final subsample consisted ofemployees collected in 70 of the 140 public kindergartens in one ofGermany’s large cities. The kindergartens were systematically selected toobtain the full variety of kindergartens for the subsample. The subsampleconsisted of almost 50% of the total workforce of the city’s publickindergartens. Of the participants, 22% possessed some kind of universitydegree, 35% had visited vocational schools for kindergarten teachers, and74% had received some kind of high school degree. In all, 87% had somekind of specific education for their job and 94% of the subsample had morethan 2 years of job experience. Due to missing values, the data of N¼ 1024participants could be used for structural equation modelling (SEM).Characteristics of the subsamples are summarized in Table 1.

The second sample (representative sample) consisted of participants fromtwo large German cities who worked at least 30 hours a week, who were notself-employed, and whose German was reasonably good so that they wereable to fill in the questionnaire. Participants were randomly chosen from acitizen database. They received a letter asking for participation. After somedays the potential participants were contacted by telephone. Many people

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were excluded because they did not fulfil the criteria mentioned above. Wecontacted 767 persons who fulfilled the criteria for participation; 405persons sent back the questionnaire anonymously, which corresponded to aresponse rate of 52.8%. This estimation was the lower bound of the responserate, because among the 767 persons contacted some refused to take part inthe study and finished the telephone call before the researchers received allthe information required to decide whether the person fulfilled all criteria forparticipation. Two raters rated the jobs of these participants whether theywere service jobs. There were three participants where the raters disagreed;these were excluded from the sample. They identified 184 service jobs, whichis 45.4% of the total sample. Of these 184 participants full data wereavailable from 175 participants because of missing data.

Mean age of the representative sample was 40.9, ranging from 19 to 70years; 37.8%were women.Moreover, 55.9%were in possession of some kindof high school degree, and 23% attended modern secondary school, 19.8%had a lower stream school leaving certificate, 1.8% who had no certificate atall, and 35.6% had some kind of university degree; 79% reported to havefinished a professional training relevant for their current job. On average(median category), they had worked for 15 – 20 years; they had worked intheir current job for approximately 2 – 5 years of this period of time.

TABLE 1Description of the service sample

Subsample n

Response

rate in % Mean age

Percentage

women Occupations

Hotels 175 29 80% between

18 and 32b71 Frontline officers,

waiters or

waitresses,

administrative

staff

Call centre 250 50 31 75 Call centre agents

in banking,

insurance,

airline industry

Bank 122 –a 37 50 Banking

employees

Kindergartens 611 67 39 94 Kindergarten

teachers, social

workers,

technical staff

Total sample 1158 – 36c 88

aDistribution of questionnaires was organized by the institutions. They were not able to report

the response rate.bTo ensure anonymity, we were only able to use age categories (18 – 22, 23 – 28; . . . .63 – 67).cCategory mean was used for the hotel subsample to compute overall mean age.

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Instruments

Emotion work/emotional labour was measured using the FrankfurtEmotion Work Scales1 (FEWS 3.0; Zapf, Mertini, Seifert, Vogt, & Isic,1999; Zapf, Vogt et al., 1999).

. Positive emotions refer to the requirement to show pleasant emotions(example item: ‘‘In your job how often does it occur that you have todisplay pleasant emotions towards your clients?’’).

. Negative emotions ask for the necessity of displaying and dealing withunpleasant emotions (example item: ‘‘How often does it occur in yourjob that you have to display unpleasant emotions towards yourclients?’’).

. Sensitivity requirements examine whether empathy or knowledge aboutclients’ current feelings are required by the job (example item: ‘‘Doesyour job require paying attention to the feelings of your clients?’’).

. Emotional dissonance refers to the display of unfelt emotions and tothe suppression of felt but organizationally undesired emotions(example item: ‘‘How often does it occur in your job that one hasto display positive emotions that do not correspond to what is felt inthis situation?’’).

For most of the FEWS scales there was a five-point response scale for mostitems ranging from ‘‘very rarely/never’’ (1), ‘‘rarely (once a week)’’ (2),‘‘sometimes (once a day)’’ (3), ‘‘often (several times a day)’’ (4), to ‘‘veryoften (several times an hour)’’ (5).

Burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accom-plishment) was measured using the Maslach Burnout Inventory –Germanversion of Bussing and Perrar (1992). Emotional exhaustion measures one’sfeeling of being burnt out, frustrated, and perceiving working with people tobe very demanding. Depersonalization comprises the tendency to treatclients like objects and to become indifferent and apathetic with regard toclients. Personal accomplishment includes the feeling of having thecompetence to do things and of being able to meet one’s personalaspirations. The burnout items were answered on a seven-point scale.

Neuroticism was taken from a bipolar adjective-rating list to measure thefive-factor model of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1985). The measure wasbased on the 45-item bipolar adjective-rating list developed by Ostendorfand colleagues (Ostendorf & Angleitner, 1992) in the version of Schallbergerand Venetz (1999). The authors demonstrated that this reduced version was

1A German, English, French, or Spanish version of the instrument can be obtained from the

first author on request.

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satisfactory in terms of factorial structure and internal consistencies ofscales. The scale for neuroticism used in this study consisted of six bipolaritems on a 6-point scale, with each pole ranging from 1 and 6¼ ‘‘very’’, 2and 5¼ ‘‘quite’’, and 3 and 4¼ ‘‘rather’’.

Reliabilities of the scales were sufficient or good in most cases. They wererelatively low for the requirement to display positive and negative emotions.Note, however, that these scales are both relatively short and that they showhigh correlations to some other scales. Depersonalization also showed lowreliabilities in other studies (Bussing & Perrar, 1992). Means and standarddeviations of the above mentioned variables are presented in Table 2, andthe intercorrelations are presented in Table 3.

Statistical analyses

First we tested the model presented in Figure 1 using structural equationmodelling (SEM). In this model, causal coefficients will be estimated forparameters referring to hypotheses 1 – 6. We were not interested in causalmodels regarding the burnout components (see Golembiewski, Munzenrider,& Stevenson, 1986; Leiter & Maslach, 1988; van Dierendonck, Schaufeli,& Buunk, 2001). Therefore, latent correlations among the residuals of thesevariables were estimated. We also estimated latent correlations among theresiduals of the emotional requirement variables. The analyses were carriedout with LISREL 8.3 (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1996) using the maximum

TABLE 2Psychometric data of study variables

No. of

items

Service sample Representative sample

Range Mean SD Coeff.a Mean SD Coeff.a

Requirement to

display positive

emotions

3 1 – 5 3.44 0.82 .52 3.09 1.03 .72

Requirement to

display negative

emotions

4 1 – 5 2.96 0.93 .68 2.65 0.93 .76

Sensitivity

requirements

3 1 – 5 3.44 1.03 .85 3.26 1.26 .91

Emotional

dissonance

5 1 – 5 3.12 0.79 .80 3.15 0.79 .75

Neuroticism 6 1 – 6 2.83 0.66 .85 2.83 0.83 .82

Emotional

exhaustion

9 0 – 6 1.54 1.04 .88 1.32 0.87 .82

Depersonalization 5 0 – 6 1.02 0.99 .65 1.07 0.98 .81

Personal

accomplishment

8 0 – 6 3.61 0.89 .79 3.59 1.34 .73

14 ZAPF AND HOLZ

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TA

BL

E3

Inte

rco

rre

lati

on

of

stu

dy

va

ria

ble

s

12

34

56

78

910

1.Age

.09

.13

.06

.06

7.03

.29

.14

.01

7.03

2.Gender

7.08

7.08

.09

7.06

7.04

7.23

7.04

.08

.07

3.Requirem

entto

display

positiveem

otions

7.20

7.08

.46

.61

.41

.04

.14

.15

.22

4.Requirem

entto

display

negativeem

otions

7.00

7.13

.37

.48

.21

7.03

.04

.15

.18

5.Sensitivityrequirem

ents

7.05

7.09

.51

.48

.30

.04

.14

.13

.25

6.Emotionaldissonance

7.30

.02

.41

.15

.29

.06

.22

.36

.09

7.Neuroticism

.03

7.09

7.08

7.05

7.02

.09

.38

.15

7.35

8.Emotionalexhaustion

7.01

7.10

.11

.20

.19

.27

.31

.54

7.27

9.Depersonalization

7.19

.10

.12

.10

.11

.36

.15

.52

7.21

10.Personalaccomplishment

.01

.00

.34

.16

.30

.06

7.28

7.16

7.10

Servicesample

(N¼1152)¼lower

triangle;r4

.07are

significantatp5

.01.

Representativesample

(N¼184)¼upper

triangle;r4

.14are

significantatp5

.05;r4

.18are

significantatp5

.01.

Gender:female¼1;male¼2in

both

samples.

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likelihood method to examine the covariance matrix of the variables.Chi square statistics, goodness of fit (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit (AGFI),root means square error of approximation (RMSEA), the Akaike informa-tion criterion (AIC), and the normed fit index (NFI) were used to assess themodel fit (Bentler, 1980; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1996; Schermelleh-Engel,Moosbrugger, & Muller, 2003). Experts (e.g., Schermelleh-Engel et al., 2003)suggest the following criteria to indicate a good model fit: w2/df � 2; GFI �.95; AGFI� .90; RMSEA� .05; and NFI� .95. AIC should be smaller thanthe AIC for the comparison model.

RESULTS

We started testing models with effects of the requirement to express positiveand negative emotions on exhaustion and depersonalization (direct effectsmodel), but without effects on emotional dissonance. We then tested the fullmediation model with effects of the requirement to express positive andnegative emotions on emotional dissonance. Third, we tested a model withboth direct and mediator effects. The model with the direct effects showed apoor fit in both samples, w2¼ 172.37, df¼ 7, p¼ .0; AIC¼ 230.37 in theservice sample; w2¼ 33.39, df¼ 7, p¼ .0 AIC¼ 91.39 in the representativesample. In contrast the postulated full mediation model corresponding to thehypotheses and the theoretical model as presented in Figure 1 showed areasonable fit for the service sample, w2¼ 47.70, df¼ 9, p¼ .0; GFI¼ .99;AGFI¼ .95; RMSEA¼ .065; AIC¼ 101.70; NFI¼ .98, and a very goodfit for the representative sample, w2¼ 6.03, df¼ 9, p¼ .74; GFI¼ .99;AGFI¼ .97; RMSEA¼ .0; AIC¼ 59.98; NFI¼ .98. The direct effects modeland the full mediation model are not nested. Therefore, only the AIC couldbe used to compare the models. The AIC was clearly lower for the fullmediation model thus rejecting the direct effects model. In a next step wecompared the full mediation model with a model with both direct andmediator effects. This model is nested with the full mediation model. Notsurprisingly, these models showed a very good fit (for the service sample,w2¼ 24.55, df¼ 5, p5 .01; GFI¼ .99; AGFI¼ .96; RMSEA¼ .062; AIC¼86.55; NFI¼ .99; for the representative sample, w2¼ 2.36, df¼ 5, p¼ .80;GFI¼ 1.00; AGFI¼ .98; RMSEA¼ .0; AIC¼ 64.36; NFI¼ .99. The modelcomparison was not significant for the representative sample, Dw2¼ 3.62,df¼ 4; p4 .05, and it was just significant for the service sample, Dw2¼ 23.15,df¼ 4; p5 .05. For the service sample more detailed analyses revealed asignificant effect of the requirement to express negative emotions onemotional exhaustion, but no effects of this variable on emotionaldissonance. We then computed an optimized model where all parametersnot significant in both samples, were fixed to zero. The effects concernedcomprised the effect of negative emotions on personal accomplishment and

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emotional dissonance as well as the effect of sensitivity requirements ondepersonalization. Moreover, we used the maximum modification index ofthe LISREL program to improve the model for the service sample. For thissample, the modification index suggested a relation between positiveemotions and neuroticism. Because cause – effect structures were unclear,we modelled a correlation between the residuals of these variables. Moreover,we added a causal effect of sensitivity requirements on emotional dissonanceand a causal effect of emotional dissonance on personal accomplishment.Both optimized models were very good and met all criteria for a good modelfit: for the service sample, w2¼ 12.19, df¼ 8, p¼ .14; GFI¼ 1.00; AGFI¼ .99;RMSEA¼ .023; AIC¼ 68.19; NFI¼ .99; for the representative sample,w2¼ 5.12, df¼ 11, p¼ .93; GFI¼ .99; AGFI¼ .98; RMSEA¼ .0;AIC¼ 55.12; NFI¼ .99. The results are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2 shows the expected correlations among the emotionalrequirement variables and among the burnout variables, which were similarin both samples. Moreover, it shows that most, though not all hypotheseswere supported by the empirical data.

Figure 2. Relations between emotion work and burnout: Empirical results (optimized model).

Results for the representative sample in parentheses.

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Emotional dissonance had the expected effects on emotional exhaustion(H1a) and depersonalization (H1b). In the service sample, there was an addi-tional small negative path on personal accomplishment that was unexpected,but which also indicated the negative nature of emotional dissonance.

In the service sample, the requirement to display positive emotions showedboth a direct effect on personal accomplishment indicating its positive effectson health (H3a), and an indirect effect on depersonalization and emotionalexhaustion mediated by emotional dissonance (H2), indicating its negativeeffects. Similar results were found for the representative sample. However,here the effect on personal accomplishment was in the expected direction, butnot statistically significant.

The requirement to display negative emotions had only an unexpected directeffect on emotional exhaustion in the service sample. In the representativesample the effect was in the opposite direction, but not statistically significant.Moreover, there was neither an effect on emotional dissonance nor on personalaccomplishment. Thus, with regard to negative emotions display,Hypotheses 2(mediator effect), 3b, and 4b were not supported by the data.

Sensitivity requirements showed the hypothesized positive effect onpersonal accomplishment (H3c) in both samples. Moreover, it had a directeffect on exhaustion in both samples; however, there was no direct effect ondepersonalization. Thus, there was support for Hypothesis 5a for emotionalexhaustion, but not for depersonalization (Hypothesis 5b). In addition, apositive effect of sensitivity requirements on emotional dissonance wasfound in the service sample which was not expected.

With regard to neuroticism, the effects on burnout followed assumptions.The effect on emotional dissonance (H6) was small in the service sample asexpected; and it was nonsignificant in the representative sample. Comparedwith a model without neuroticism, the maximum reduction of coefficientsoccurred for the effect of emotional dissonance on emotional exhaustion,which was .03 in both samples. In addition, there was a small correlationbetween positive emotions and neuroticism which was not expected.

The explained variance of the dependent variables in the servicesample (representative sample in parentheses) was .16 (.18) for emotionaldissonance, .19 (.18) for emotional exhaustion, .14 (.13) for depersonaliza-tion, and .20 (.18) for personal accomplishment.

Finally, for the service sample, the question arose whether it wasjustifiable at all to collapse the four subsamples into one large sample orwhether different models would show up if the subsamples were treatedseparately. Because we had no hypotheses of what kind of differencesbetween the subsamples one could expect, we carried out overall tests andtested a so-called invariant model, which assumed that in all subsamples thesame patterns and parameter estimates would occur. This model wascompared with a model assuming the same pattern but allowing different

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parameter estimates. We tested the theoretical model corresponding to thehypotheses displayed in Figure 1 but added the direct effect of therequirement to display negative emotions on emotional exhaustion, whichturned out to be significant in the optimized model. For the invariant modelw2 was 525.51, df¼ 116, p¼ .0; for the same pattern model it was 86.02,df¼ 32; RMSEA¼ .08, NFI¼ .97, GFI¼ .98. The difference, Dw2¼ 439.43,df¼ 84, p 5 .01, clearly rejected the invariant model. Parameter estimates ofthe subsample analysis are summarized in Table 4. The data show thatsimilar patterns occurred at the subsample level. Due to the smaller samplesizes some of the coefficients were in the expected direction, but notsignificant or only marginally significant at the 10% level. Interestingly, thepositive effect of negative emotions on emotional dissonance, which was notsignificant at the total sample level, was now significant and in the directionas expected. For the direct effect of the requirement to display negativeemotions on emotional exhaustion, both positive and negative effectsoccurred at the subsample level. The weak respectively nonsignificant effects

TABLE 4Parameter estimations in subsamples

Independent variables

Dependent

variables

Positive

emotions

Negative

emotions

Sensitivity

requirements

Emotional

dissonance Neuroticism

Emotional dissonance

Call centre .29** .09þ .21**

Bank .13þ .33** 7.02

Hotel .48** .20** .00

Kindergarten .22** .33** .12**

Emotional exhaustion

Call centre .06 .11* .42** .38**

Bank 7.11þ .09þ .12* .39**

Hotel 7.10* .12* .22** .22**

Kindergarten .12** 7.06 .27** .21**

Depersonalization

Call centre .07 .38** .12*

Bank .16* .16* .24**

Hotel 7.01 .28** .11

Kindergarten .01 .26** .10**

Personal accomplishment

Call centre .20** .02 .06 7.41**

Bank .13 .10 .20* 7.26**

Hotel .37** 7.07 .18* 7.22**

Kindergarten .17** 7.02 .21** 7.21**

**p5 .01, *p5 .05, þp5 .10, one-sided.

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of the requirement to sense emotions on emotional exhaustion anddepersonalization showed inconsistent findings at the subsample level. Thiswas also so for the effect of neuroticism on emotional dissonance. In sum, alleffects that were significant at the total sample level for the service sampleand the representative sample, were also significant or in the expecteddirection at the subsample level. Effects that could not consistently beenfound in the service sample and the representative sample were alsoinconsistent at the subsample level.

DISCUSSION

In this article we investigated the positive and negative effects of emotionwork on burnout. We applied a multidimensional concept of emotion workconsisting of emotional work requirements comprising the requirement todisplay positive and negative emotions and the requirement to sense theemotions of the interaction partner. Moreover, emotional dissonance wasdefined as the misfit between felt and expressed emotions in a serviceinteraction (Zapf, Vogt et al., 1999). Empirical studies did not always findthe negative effects of emotion work originally hypothesized by Hochschild(1983). Rather, both positive and negative, however inconsistent, effectswere found in the literature (e.g., Adelmann, 1995; Brotheridge & Grandey,2002; Morris & Feldman, 1997; Schaubroeck & Jones, 2000). In this articlewe hypothesized that the emotion work requirements have positive effects ifthe requirements to cope with the service interactions can be met by theemployees. However, they are expected to show negative effects if personalprerequisites are overtaxed. Emotional dissonance was hypothesized to havethe properties of a job stressor, i.e., a negative effect on emotionalexhaustion and depersonalization. Finally, it was hypothesized that therelations between emotion work and burnout hold when the relations arecontrolled for neuroticism.

These hypotheses were investigated in a sample of service workersconsisting of four subsamples and in a representative sample of serviceworkers taken from a randomly drawn sample of employees. Thehypotheses were mainly supported by the empirical data. The requirementto display positive emotions had the expected positive effect on personalaccomplishment in the service sample, in the representative sample the effectwas positive and almost reached Cohen’s (1992) criterion for small effectsizes, but was not significant. In both samples, there were strong effects ofthe requirement to display positive emotions on emotional dissonance.

The hypotheses regarding negative emotions were only partly confirmed.First, there were no effects on emotional dissonance in the overall samples.However, the expected effects occurred in the subsample analysis. Second,there was no effect on personal accomplishment. Instead, a small direct,

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however inconsistent, effect on emotional exhaustion was found. Thehypotheses regarding sensitivity requirements were mostly supported by thedata. They showed a positive relation with personal accomplishment andthey showed a direct effect on emotional exhaustion, but no direct effect ondepersonalization. Moreover, there was a small effect on emotionaldissonance that was not expected. Neuroticism did not affect thehypothesized relations between emotion work and burnout in a significantway. Almost the same relations could be found if the analyses were donewithout neuroticism. In particular, the effect of neuroticism on emotionaldissonance was only small and close to zero in the representative sample.Moreover, all effects that were significant at the total sample level for theservice sample and the representative sample, were also significant or in theexpected direction at the subsample level.

These results support previous findings on positive and negative effects ofemotion work (e.g., Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Dieffendorff & Richard,2003; Zapf, Vogt et al., 1999). The advantage of the present analyses is thesimultaneous analysis of effects. They are in linewith various studies that foundnegative effects of emotional dissonance or related concepts (Abraham, 1998;Grebner et al., 2003; Kruml &Geddes, 2000; Lewig &Dollard, 2003;Morris &Feldman, 1997; Nerdinger & Roper, 1999; Schaubroeck & Jones, 2000; Zapf,Vogt et al., 1999). The findings also support the models of Brotheridge and Lee(2002) andGrandey (2003) who demonstrated the central role of surface actingfor the negative effects of emotion work. In the present article, we focused onemotional demands rather than emotion regulation strategies. However, wefound a similar mediating role for emotional dissonance as the authors foundfor surface acting.

Moreover, the present analyses provide an explanation why empiricalfindings were sometimes contradictory with regard to the effects of thefrequency of emotion display. First, we differentiated between therequirement to express positive and negative emotions. The few studies weare aware of that used positive emotions display found positive effects, withthe exception of Schaubroeck and Jones (2000). The requirement to displaynegative emotions is job specific, whereas the requirement to display positiveemotions is required in almost every service job. Therefore, if therequirements to express positive and negative emotions are not differen-tiated, results may differ depending on the importance of expressing negativeemotions in a particular job. Moreover, the data show that there are bothdirect and indirect effects of positive emotions mediated by emotionaldissonance. Our explanation for this finding is that the direct effect ofpositive emotions on personal accomplishment represents those interactionswhere the required positive emotions have been automatically felt or wherethe strategy of deep acting has been applied successfully, both resulting insuccessful authentic emotions display, whereas the indirect effect mediated

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by emotional dissonance represents those interactions where the positiveemotions are not felt and are either not shown at all or are displayed usingsurface acting. Surface acting as a strategy, however, was related toemotional exhaustion both in questionnaire studies (Brotheridge &Grandey, 2002; Grandey, 2003; Kruml & Geddes, 2000) as well as in diarystudies (Totterdell & Holman, 2003; Tschan, Rochat, & Zapf, 2005). Theresults of the present study may also provide an explanation for theunexpected negative effects of the demands to express positive emotions inthe Schaubroeck and Jones study. In this study, the demand to suppressnegative emotions instead of emotional dissonance was used, which is amore specific concept. There are cases where positive emotions should beshown but nothing is felt. In the diary study of Tschan et al. (2005) in whichdata were analysed at the interaction level, negative emotions were felt in42.2% when a positive emotion display was required, and nothing was felt in47% when a positive emotion display was required. These 47% would becontrolled if emotional dissonance were used, but not when the demand tosuppress negative emotions were used. In addition, in the study of Glomband Tews (2004) faking positive emotions had a similar negative effect onexhaustion as had suppressing negative emotions. Thus, the negative effectsof cases where a positive emotion display is required but nothing is felt, maybe responsible for the negative results of the demands to express positiveemotions in the Schaubroeck and Jones study.

The results with regard to the requirement to display negative emotionsdid only partly support the hypotheses. There were no effects on emotionaldissonance and personal accomplishment. There are several explanations.First, the requirement to display negative emotions is much lower than therequirement to display positive emotions (cf. Table 2). Thus, given thatpositive emotions have to be displayed anyway, the requirement to displaynegative emotions may be too infrequent to have an effect. Moreover, thedisplay of negative emotions as a strategy in a service interaction is certainlynot the first thing to do. Rather, it is a requirement in a difficult situationwhere negative emotions are likely to prevail on both sides. Therefore, thereis little need to fake the negative emotions on the side of the service provider.Rather, one can assume that they are probably authentic in such situations.Thus, in the occupations analysed in this study, emotional dissonance basedon the requirement to display negative emotions which are not felt, shouldoccur too seldom to have a significant effect.

A possible interpretation of the positive effect on emotional exhaustion inthe service sample is that situations requiring the display of negativeemotions are stressful per se, for example, because one has to deal withaggressive clients. Such effects may only appear in occupations where therequirement to display negative emotions is of importance. Probably thisapplies more frequently to human service jobs. The fact that the majority of

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the service sample belongs to the human services whereas this is not the casein the representative sample, may explain why the positive effect occurredonly in the service sample. More detailed analyses are required here.

Sensitivity requirements had the positive effects as expected. Moreover,there was a small effect on emotional dissonance in the service sample, whichwas not hypothesized. Since this effect could not be replicated in therepresentative sample, we will not discuss this effect. Moreover, there is adirect effect of sensitivity requirements on emotional exhaustion indicatingthat the more complex interactions tend to overtax the employees’ abilitiesto cope with these interactions.

Finally, controlling for neuroticism hardly changed the other relations.Therefore, common method variance explanations based on NA and relatedvariables are not a likely explanation for the relations found in the presentstudy. In terms of content explanations, neuroticism as a personalityvariable obviously has only little impact on emotion work – burnoutrelationships. Whereas the effect of neuroticism on emotional exhaustionis comparable to some other studies, the effect on emotional dissonance islower than in most other studies. The fact that neuroticism had so littleimpact on the analyses conveys the impression of emotional dissonance tobe a description of job conditions rather than a subjective reaction primarilydetermined by personal characteristics. Based on emotion theories such asthe affective events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) or the concept ofemotion regulation (Gross, 1998; Gross & Levenson, 1997), we propose thatin service encounters (as in other situations) the elicitation of emotionswhether positive or negative or whether an emotion is elicited at all, isprimarily determined by the situation: the frequency, duration, and qualityof the service interaction and the presence of display rules. Note that themeasure of emotional dissonance in this study is oriented to describe thesituation. It is asked, for example, whether positive emotions have to beshown in situations where nothing or even negative emotions are felt. Thisconcept of emotional dissonance rests upon the assumptions that positive ornegative emotions are relatively uniformly elicited in positive or negativesituations.

However, it does not assume that individuals respond in the same way.The concept of emotional dissonance would allow that a person respondswith surface acting that would sustain the discrepancy between felt anddisplayed emotions, it would allow deep acting to overcome the discrepancy,and it would permit emotion deviation as well, that is, not showing therequired emotion at all.

There are some limitations in the study. First, the studies are cross-sectional, which allows the analysis of relations but not cause and effect. Wetried to consider this by modelling latent correlations among the residuals ofthe emotional requirements and among the burnout variables. In this article,

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it cannot be analysed whether emotion work affects burnout or the otherway around. A review of the literature shows that effects of psychologicalstrain on psychological stressors are not infrequent (Zapf, Dormann, &Frese, 1996). For the present study, it makes sense to assume thatemotionally exhausted service employees are less able to display positiveemotions making effects of emotional exhaustion on emotional dissonancemore likely. Longitudinal studies are necessary, to shed more light on thesecausal structures. We already mentioned that NA as a nuisance factor is nota likely explanation for the data of this study. The relations betweensensitivity requirements, personal accomplishment, and emotional exhaus-tion, where sensitivity requirements have both positive and negative effectson psychological health in a hypothesized way, speak against simpleresponse bias explanations such as social desirability.

The strengths of the present study is that the service sample is relativelylarge compared to other studies on emotion work. Moreover, the secondsample was randomly drawn, which is also not very frequent in this researchfield. Most of the hypothesized effects could be replicated in a second sample.One of the main goals of the present studies is to disentangle the effects ofemotional requirements on burnout, thereby analysing the mediating effectsof emotional dissonance and separating positive and negative effects bysimultaneous computations using SEM. The analyses show, for example,that the significant zero-order correlations between the requirement todisplay positive emotions on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization arefully mediated by emotional dissonance. They also show that the effects ofnegative emotions display on accomplishment can fully be explained by thecorrelation among the emotional requirements variables.

This study has shown that emotion work is related to burnout, and thatthe instrument used in this study has been useful to differentiate positive andnegative effects of emotion work. Longitudinal studies are now required tofurther analyse the causal structure among these variables.

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Manuscript received September 2005

Revised manuscript received September 2005

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