Nepal infrastructure journal of ser de-n 2013

A Journal on Rural Infrastructure Development

Society of Engineersʼ for Rural Development, Nepal (SERDeN)

Vol. 4, Issue 4, Bhadra 2070

Local Infrastructure for Livelihood Improvem

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We would like to congratulate to our Immediate Past President (Executive Member) Er. Bhupendra Bahadur Basnet, Director General, DoLIDAR

for his remarkable professional achievements and getting NEA prestigious award "Martial Nawaraj Bista Memorial Award"

on the auspicious occasion of 51st Engineers’ Day 2070 celebration.

Society of Engineers for Rural Development, Nepal (SERDeN)

Hearty Congratulation

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"WE EXPRESS OUR HEARTY GREETINGS FOR THE SUCCESS OF DoLIDAR DAY

ANDTHE SEMINAR ON

ENHANCEMENT OF QUALITY IN RURAL INFRASTRUCTURE"

An Overview ofRural Access Improvement and Decentralization Project (RAIDP)

Project Districts: (58 district): - Road and Trail Bridge districts: (30) - Only Trail Bridge districts: (28 )

Objective of the Project:

The project development objective is for resident of participating district of the recipient to utilize improved rural trans-port infrastructure and services in order to have enhanced access to social services and economic opportunities.

Project Starting Date: August 15, 2005

Project Closing Date: December 31, 2013

Major Component of the Project:

Total Project Cost & Expenditure

Total Project Cost: 81.50 Million USD• IDA Financing: 77 (original 32+ AF 45) Million USD• GoN Financing: 4.5 million USD

Total Expenditure as of July 15, 2013 : 5349 Million NRs.

Physical Target and Progress

Total Expenditure & Disbursement Status as of July 15, 2013

(a) Rural Transport Infrastructure Development:

- All weather roads in 30 districts - Dry season roads in 7 districts - Motorable bridge in 12 districts - Trail Bridge construction 58 districts - Community Infrastructure Program in 30 districts - Rural Roads Maintenance in 30 districts

(b) Capacity Building and Advisory Services (CBAS) Component:

- Training - Rural Transport Service Study & Policy Development - Planning - Implementation Support

Project components

Upgrading/Rehabilitation of Existing Rural Roads (AWR)Construction of motorable River CrossingConstruction of Trail bridges (TB)Construction of Dry season roads in hill districts (DSR)Community Infrastructure (CI)Land transfer

Initial Target

1165 km10 nos

317 nos211 km

Revised Target

1740 km17 nos

705150 km647 nos

Progress as of July 15, 2013

1358 km7 nos

564 nos130 km550 nos

193 hector

1


Patron

Er. Bhupendra Bahadur BasnetDirector General

Advisor

Er. Bhim Prasad UpadhyayaDeputy Director General

Er. Ram Krishna SapkotaDeputy Director General

Er. Jeevan Kumar ShresthaDeputy Director General

EditorsEr. Uma Shankar SahEr. Binod Bhattarai

Er. Ishwar Chandra MarahattaEr. Sudina Kuikel

Er. Nisha Rijal

Cover & Lay-outM'sMouse

[email protected]

Poverty reduction and economic prosperity is the ultimate goal of the nation. For this achievement, it is necessary for all people to get the basic services. Development of infrastructures like rural road network, motorable bridges, water supply and sanitation schemes, irrigation, trial bridges, school buildings and community buildings has a significant role in achieving the goal. The proper development of infrastructure in rural areas improves rural economy and quality of life. It promotes better productivity, increased agricultural incomes, adequate employment, easy access for health, education and market centers etc. Presently, construction of rural infrastructures has been undergone vigorously. Analyzing the present scenario it can be felt that focus lies only on increasing the quantity of such rural infrastructures. Good quality infrastructure remains a major challenge for sustainable development. It has to be understood that without proper attention on quality aspect the infrastructure may fail to contribute in awful development process rather end up with wasteful spending. It is the duty of all development activists to ensure quality of works and make it meaningful.

Society of Engineers for Rural Development, Nepal (SERDeN) from its publication of “Rural Infrastructure” journal has been continuously sharing ideas and technology applicable for the rural development in Nepal through different theme of the articles. It is our pleasure to publish 4th issue of the “Rural Infrastructure” Journal. We attempted to include the articles of every aspect of rural development, with major focus on quality works in this issue.

We would like to thank all the authors for the invaluable articles provided, advertisers and everyone involved in bringing this journal at this stage for their valuable support, guidance, encouragement and help. We accept of same in upcoming days.

Your valuable comments and suggestions will be highly appreciated.

Note: The content within the articles in this journal are the views of Authors, that is why the editorial board is not responsible for the content in the articles.

EDITORIAL

Publisher

Society of Engineers' for Rural Development, Nepal

(SERDeN)Pulchowk, Lalitpur

Email: [email protected]

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Contents

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'Enhancement of Quality of Local Infrastructures' 8 Er. Ram Krishna Sapkota

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RURAL ROAD NETWORK IN NEPAL: A MASSIVE CHALLANGE AHEAD TO IMPROVE & MAINTAIN 25 Er. Hare Ram Shrestha

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Nepal Rural Road Standard 2055, 1st Revision 2069 38 Er. Ganga Bahadur Basnet

Small Irrigation Experiences in DoLIDAR/Local Bodies 42 Er. Kumar Thapa, SDE

Bridge Information Management System (BIMS) and Its application in Local Road Bridge Building 47 Er. Madhav Prasad Bhattarai Hari Pokharel

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d'Qm (Open Defecation Free) If]q 3f]if0ffsf] k|efj tyf

v'nf bL;f d'Qm If]q 3f]if0ff kZrft ug'{kg]{ sfo{x? 54 Er. Lok Nath Regmi

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An Overview of RRRSDP/ Lalitpur 67 Er. Kamal Jaishi

A method for road network definition in hilly areas of Nepal 72 Dr. Er. Jagat K. Shrestha

Local Infrastructure for Livelihood Improvement (LILI) – Project Introduction 78 Mr. Bhagat Bahadur Bista

Quality Control Issues in RAIDP Sub-Projects 80 Er. Shankar Prasad Pandit

Step forwards for Rural Road Maintenance 84 Er. Maheswor Ghimire

Overview of Rural Roads 88 Er. Sahadev Bahadur Bhandari

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OTTA SEAL EXPERIENCE IN NEPAL 97 Er. S.G. Joshi Er. A.K. Jha

Innovative Water Supply Technologies for Reaching the Hard-to-Reach Population of Western Nepal 107 Er. Shankar Prasad Pandit Guneshwar Prasad Mahato

Water Management: A Vital Component for the Sustainability of Rural Roads in Nepal 111 Er. Sharad Manandhar

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Celebrating the Record: 5000+ Trail Bridges in Nepal 119 Tulasi Nepal

Gender equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) – A Key issue in the infrastructure Development 123 Bam Bahadur Thapa

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Practical Approaches to Transboundary Water Resources Sharing for Resilient South Asian Region 133 Er. Bhesh Raj Thapa

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The Existing Road Maintenance funds: South Asia and Nepalese Contest 149 Er. Ram Parajuli

A Brief Introduction on Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) 156 Er. Raju Shrestha

Nepalese women and the Civil engineering profession 162 Er. Sudina Kuikel Er. Nisha Rijal

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Effect of Transportation on Construction Project in Dolpa: A Case Study 169 Er. Surendra Ghimire

Quality Control and Assurance System in Trail Bridge Construction 174 Er. Resham Jung Singh Er. Smita Sharma Singh

Successful Experience of Land Acquisition for Rural Road: An Anthropological Perspective 182 Shambhu Prasad Kattel, Ph. D.

ACCESS TO NORTH-SOUTH ROADS AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEPAL 188 Er. Santosh Kumar Gupta

“SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN KATHMANDU” 192 Er. Ramesh Ranabhat

Needs of Infrastructure planning and Proper urbanization 201 Er. Kamal Neupnae

Urgent Need of Procurement Management Information System (PMIS) – For Improving Public Procurements 209 Er. Shree Ram Dhakal

Water Safety Plan (WSP) for Sustainability and Livelihood improvement 214 Er. Ganga Datta Nepal

Functionality and sustainability of the community managed DWSS in Mid and Far-Western Region of Nepal 224 Indra Raj Badu

Mobilization of Non-Government Organizations in WASH Scheme Quality Improvement: Experiences of Rural Village Water Resources Management Project (Under DoLIDAR) 229 Narayan Prasad Wagle

Cobble Stone Pavements; Green Pavement Initiatives for Low Volume Rural Roads in Nepal 233 Er. Rajesh Sharma

RVWRMP is fulfilling the multiplethirst of rural people in Bajura District 241 Raju Shrestha

Micro Hydropower Project: As Rural Infrastructure as well as Social Superstructure (Practical experiences from RVWRMP supported Micro Hydropower Projects in Far Western Development Region, Nepal) 246 Er. Roshan Bikram Shah Er. Janak Bhattarai

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clt sl7gfO / dx+uf] k/ ] sf] 5 . k|fljlws, bIf Pj+ lzlIft pRr:t/ Lo hgzlQmsf] sdL / xb} cfPsf] 5 . jiff{df cfl>t v] tLk|0ffnLsf sf/ 0f dg;'g / v8] / Ln] j;] {gL s[lif pTkfbg clglZrt Pj+ k|lts"n x'G5 . cg] s hfthflt, efiffefifL, wd{, j0f{Joj:yf, cf:yf, / fhgLlts ljrf/ ljljwtf ePsf dflg;x? ePsf] d'n's x'gfn] ;dGjo / ;fdGh:otf hf/ L / fVg ufx|f] k/ ] sf] 5 klg elgG5 . s] of] xf] t <

To:t} , cf} Bf} lus Pj+ k"lhut pTkfbgsf nflu cfjZos sRrf kbfy{sf] sdL ePsf] n] / f] huf/ L ;[hgf ug{ ;lsPsf] 5} g . hg;+Vofsf] j[l4 / tLj| ;x/ Ls/ 0fsf] ;d:ofn] cdgrog / ;fdflhs ;b\efj sfod ug{ xDd] kb} { cfPsf] 5 . cfly{s ljsf;sf nflu vf+rf] x'g] ef} lts, cfly{s, ;fdflhs k"jf{wf/ sf] ;'ljwfx? 5} gg\ . bIf, lzlIft JolQmx? cljsl;t e] sdf uO{ j:g jf sfd ug{ sf] xL dfGb} gg\ . g] kfnLx? Tolt j'l4 ePsf hft klg xf] Ogg\ . l5d] sL d'n'sx?sf] xfdLk|lt sf] aqmb[li6 Pj+ x} sdjfbL Jojxf/ gx6\gfn] g] kfnnfO{ pGglt ug{ yk cK7\of/ ] f kb} { uPsf] ] 5 eGg] klg dflgG5 . s] of] xf] t <

o;} u/ L, oxf ;/ sf/ x? cl:y/ Pj+ l56f] l56f] kl/ jt{g x'G5g\ . nfdf] ;do;Dd Psdgf ;/ sf/ jGg / rNg ;s] g . clt s] Gb|Ls[t zf;g k4lt 5 . oxfFsf g] tf, of] hgfsf/ , kl/ of] hgfsf/ , j'l4hLjL, sd{rf/ L, pBf] uklt, Jofkf/ L, gful/ s ;dfhsf ;b:o Pj+ lhDd] jf/ egfpbfx? ;a} oL o:tf algjgfp s'g} g s'g} sf/ 0f bzf{P/ cfkm\gf cIfdtf / :jfy{dfly kbf{ xfNb} cfPsf 5g\ . s] ;fRr} oL sf/ sx?n] ubf{ g] kfn bl/ b| / oL sf/ stTj Joxf] g'{ gk/ ] sfn] cGo d'n'sx? ;d[4 ag] sf x'g\ t< To:tf] k'li6 x'b} g .

l5d] sL e"6fg klg e'kl/ j] li6t ;fgf] b] z xf] , Toxf oxfFh:tf] k|hftflGqs zf;g / bIf hgzlQm klg 5} g . t/ , p g] kfn eGbf t] Aa/ wgL 5 . o'/ f] ksf bh{gf} d'n'sx? e'kl/ j] li6t Pj+ ;fgf 5g\ t/ , lgs} ;d[4 5g\ . ljZjsf @)) ;oeGbf a9L b] zdWo] cfsf/ / hg;+Vofsf] lx;fjn] !%) d'n'sx? g] kfneGbf ;fgf ePklg wgL 5g\ . g] kfn ljZjdf g cfsf/ df, g hg;+Vofdf ;fgf] d'n's eGg ldN5 . e"kl/ j] li6ttf / ul/ aL, cfsf/ / ul/ aLaLr 7f] ;, ;f] emf] ;DjGw klg / x] sf] k|dfl0ft x'b} g .

hfkfg, l;+ufk'/ , o'/ f] ksf cg] sf} d'n'sh:tf ljZjsf sltko d'n'sx?df k|fs[lts >f] tx? 5} gg\, t/ tL wgL ePsf 5g\ . g] kfndf k|fs[lts >f] tsf] sdL 5} g, t/ ul/ a 5 . :jL6\h/ Nof08 klg ;fgf] e'kl/ j] i7Lt kxf8L d'n's xf] hxf, lgs} ;Lldt hdLgdf s] jn jif{sf] $ dlxgf dfq v] tL ug{ ;+ej x'G5 . t/ , p;n] lj:t[t Pj+ j} 1flgs 9+udf kz'kfng Jofj;fojf6 ljZj:t/ Lo b'Uw ;fdfu|L pTkfbg u5{ . sf] sf] ] cfsf] v] tL ToxfF x'b} g t/ , ljb] zjf6 ToxL sRrf kbfy{ cfoft u/ L ljZjsf] pTs[i6 rsn] 6sf] pTkfbs ub} { ljZj ahf/ cf] u6] sf] 5 . hfkfg cfsf/ df g] kfn eGbf 9fO{u'0ff 7"nf] , % u'0ff w] / } hg;+Vof ePsf] , ;/ sf/ rf8f] rf8f] kl/ jt{g eO/ xg] , g] kfnh:t} k/ Dk/ fut k"jL{o dfGotfsf] ;fdflhs k2lt ePsf] kxf8L d'n's xf] . k|fs[lts >f] t / sRrf kbfy{df p;nfO{ k|s[ltn] 7u] sf] 5 . t/ , k|foM;a} sRrf kbfy{x? cfoft} u/ ] / hfkfg ljZj:t/ sf dfkb08sf ;fdfgx? pTkfbg Pj+ lgof{t u/ L ljZjsf] 7"nf] cy{tGq ePsf] wgL d'n's aGg ;s] sf] ] 5 . k|fs[lts >f] t jf sRrf kbfy{ / v] tLof] Uo hldg kof{Kt gx'b} df, kxf8L jf hg;+Vof w] / } x'b} df, b] z ul/ j x'g'kb} {g . oL b] zx?n] k|dfl0ft u/ ] sf 5g\ .

ljsl;t hfkfg, cd] l/ sf, j] nfot, / l;ofh:tf d'n'sdf k'u] sf g] kfn nufotsf ljsf;zLn Pj+ ul/ j d'n'ssf k|ltefzfnL hgzlQmn] cfkm"nfO{ k|lt:kwf{df pTs[i6 k|dfl0ft ub} { ToxfFs} :yfoL jfl;Gbfx?nfO{ kl5 kf/ ] sf 5g\ . g] kfnLx?sf] dl:tis / k|ltef lgDg:t/ sf] 5} g eGg] o;n] k'li6 u/ ] sf] 5 . dl:tis Ifdtfdf wgL x'b} df d'n's ul/ a x'b} g eGg] o;jf6 lg:sif{ lg:sb} g .

k"lh+sf] sdL ljsl;t d'n's nufot hxfFklg 5 . ljZj ahf/ df rnfodfg k"+lh hlt klg pknJw 5 . To; k+"lhnfO{

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cfslif{s ug{ ;Sg] v'jL / jftfj/ 0f agfpg'df g} vf; ;d:of gLlxt 5 . k"lh hlxn] klg ;Ifd, bIf, r':t k|zf;g Pj+ ;:tf] hgzlQm ePsf] :yfgtkm{ cfslif{s x'g] u5{ . rfxgf, OR5fzlQm x'g] / cg's"n jftfj/ 0f jgfpg ;s] ] h;n] klg ljZj ahf/ df pknJw k+"lhnfO{ ca ;lhn} leqfpg ;S5 . e"d08nLs[t cy{tGqdf k+"lhsf] sdLsf] ;d:of oltj] nf 5b} + 5} g .

1fg / k|ljlw gx'b} df ul/ j xf] Ob} g eGg] k|df0f blIf0f sf] l/ of xf] . p;n] cfkm\gf] ;d[l4tkm{sf] ofqfsf] k|f/ lDes r/ 0fdf ljb] zL 1fg / k|ljlwsf] e/ k"/ cfoft u/ ] / pTkfbsTj / pTkfbg a9fpb} cfoftLt 1fg / k|ljlwnfO{ ;dofg's"n :jb] zdf kl/ is[t kf/ ] / wgL jg] sf] xf] . k|ljlw cfoftdf Ps 8n/ nufgL u/ ] / ;sn / fli6«|o cfodf p;n] ^) 8n/ clej[l4 ug{ ;Sof] . ;xL Pj+ rgfvf] ?kn] pkof] u ubf{ cfoftLt k|ljlw dx+uf] kb} {g .

;b'kof] u gu/ ] / , ug{ grfx] / jf ghfg] / xf] , g] kfndf bIf hgzlQmsf] sdL klg b] lvb} g . d'n'sdf ePsf $) eGbf j9L ;+Vofsf OlGhlgol/ +u sn] hx?jf6 dfq j;] {gL ^ xhf/ :gfts OlGhlgo/ :jb] zd} pTkfbg eO/ x] sf] 5 . clxn] @@ xhf/ OlGhlgo/ ;lxt #% xhf/ lj1fg / k|ljlwsf pRr:t/ Lo hgzlQm oxf ePsf] tYof+s 5 . t/ , :jfy{j;\ bIf, pRr:t/ Lo hgzlQmsf] oxf sdL 5 eGg] / 6 Psflt/ nufOb} 5 eg] , csf] {tkm{ b'ef{Uoj;\ :jb] zdf ltgnfO{ pko'Qm sfd / jftfj/ 0f glbP/ ljb] lzg' kg] { jfWofTds kl/ l:ylt yf] kl/ Psf] 5 jf yf] kl/ b} 5 .

ef} lts k"jf{wf/ , ;dofg's"n lzIff / k|ljlwsf] b|"t ljsf; g} / fli6«|o ;d'Ggltsf nflu hf] 8lbg' kg] { k|d"v If] q x'g\ . >f] tsf] ;d:of b] vfP/ oL If] qnfO{ ;bf cgb] vf ul/ b} cfPsf] 5 . cfw'lgs k|ljlwsf] d2tn] lxhf] sf c;+ej Jofjwfgx? cfh ;'lNem;s] sf 5g\ . t/ , o; d'n'ssf lhDd] jf/ x?df cem} k|ljlwzlQm g} ;d[l4sf] ckf/ Dkl/ s c4Llto ;+efjgfsf] s'GhL xf] eGg] 1fg / r] tgf v'n] sf] ] kfOb} g . logn] lj1fg / k|ljlwk|lt / f] if / logLk|lt a} 1flgs, k|fljlw1x?n] ] 3[0ffsf] u|GyL kfn] sf b'vMb\ cj:yf ljBdfg b] lvG5g\ .

ljZjk|l;4 ;dfhzf:qL DofGs/ cf] N;gn] p:t} p:t} k|fs[lts / ef} uf] lns kl/ l:ylt ljBdfg ePsf d'n'sx? dWo] cd] l/ sf-wgL_ / o;sf] l5d] sL d] lS;sf-ul/ a_, blIf0f sf] l/ of-wgL_ / o;sf] l5d] sL pQ/ sf] l/ of-ul/ a_, klZrd hd{gL -wgL_/ o;sf] l5d] sL tTsflng k"jL{ hd{gL-ul/ a_aLr ;d[l4sf] :t/ t'ngf u/ L Osf] gf] lds k;{k] lS6e hg{n -!((^_df cfkm\gf] cg';+wfgfTds ;f] w k|sflzt ub} { eg] sf 5g\, æhldg, >lds, k+"lh / k|ljlwh:tf pTkfbgsf k/ Dk/ fut >f] t;fwg pknJwtfsf] leGgtfn] s'g} d'n's wgL jf ul/ a x'g] ub} {g . o; ljkl/ t, oyfy{df ljBdfg / fhgLlts gLlt / ;+:yfut ;+:s[lt, k|s[of Pj+ Joj:yfx?n] km/ s kf5{ .Æ OlGhlgol/ +u PS;n] G;M sNr/ n P08 cu{gfOh] zgn km\ofS6/ k':tsdf 8f] gfN8 lqml:6oG;gn] 7f] s'jf u/ ] sf 5g\, æTof] d'n's h;n] , cfkm\gf OlGhlgo/ / k|fljlw1x?nfO{ 7Ls 9+un] k|lzlIft kf5{, clg dgf] j} 1flgs Pj+ ef} lts cfo kfpg] ;'lglZrttf u/ ] / ltgnfO{ k'/ :s[t u5{, To;n] dfq pRr u'0f:t/ sf pRr k|ljlwo'Qm pTkflbt a:t' / ;] jfx? cGt/ f{li6«o ?kdf jGb–Jofkf/ n] dfq l6Sg jf afRg ;+ej x'g] k|lt:kwf{Tds clxn] sf] ljZj cy{tGqdf emd] nf a] xf] g'{' kb{} g .Æ

c/ asf] d?e"lddf h:tf] k] 6«f] lnod kbfy{sf] ckf/ vfgLsf] cs:dft lr6\7f s;f] gknf{ eg] / lbjf:jKg b] Vg] xf] eg] cs} { s'/ f, gq, j} 1flgs, OlGhlgo/ / k|fljlw1x?n] s'g} e"ldsf kfpg g;Sg] ] jf c;+Gt'i6 eO/ xg] , ljBdfg g] kfnL / fhgLlts, k|zf;lgs,;fdflhs jftfj/ 0f Pj+ ;+:s[lt Pj+ ;+:sf/ ePsf] d'n'sn] ;d[l4sf] cfzug'{ Aoy{ 5 . cf] N;g / lqml:6oG;gsf lg:sif{n] oxL eg] sf] xf] . / fhgLlts ;+:sf/ nfO{ lj1fg / k|ljlwsf] ljsf; cg's"n kfg] { ljifotkm{ ;'b"/ lIflthdf klg cem} s'g} lrGtg ;'? x'g ;s] sf] gkfOg' / , ;Dk"0f{ Wofg hlt cGo k|ljlwOt/ yfªg] s'/ ftkm{ dfq df] l8g' a} 1flgs k|lt:kwL{ cGt/ fi6«| hutdf d'n'ssf] cl:tTj vt/ fdf kml;;s] sf] uDeL/ nIf0f xf] . wlg jf ul/ a d'n's s] aGg] Tof] s'/ f g] tfx?sf] r] tgfdf g} e/ kbf] { / x] 5 . hxfF tL la1fg / k|ljlwk|] dL 5g\ Toxf ;d[l2 x'G\5 . hxfF 5} g Toxf bl/ b|L x'G5 . [email protected]

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Er. Ram Krishna SapkotaDeputy Director General

MoFALD/DoLIDAR

'Enhancement of Quality of Local Infrastructures'

Definition of qualityThe following are some of the definitions in the broader terms on quality which however focus on meeting customers' requirements/expectations:

1) Quality is the degree to which a product or service meets or exceeds a customer's requirements and expectations.

2) Quality is the degree of goodness (Oxford Dictionary). Quality is the fitness for purpose (J. M. Juran)

3) Quality is the conformance to requirements/specifications consistently, in all products. (P. Crosby). This is the Japanese concept.

4) Quality is the consistent conformation to expectation.

5) Quality is the doing things right the first time.

6) Quality is the totality of characteristics of any entity that bear on its ability to satisfy stated and implied needs.

ABSTRACT

Quality is something that meets customer's requirement and expectations. Anyone can ask a question on quality. In fact, the definition of quality is very broad. We often hear/say: quality (and yes quantity) of drinking water in Kathmandu is very poor, quality of our education is degrading, quality of health services in our country is poor, quality of government services is below standards, quality of infrastructures is poor, quality of technical staff is poor, quality of life is very low and so on and so forth.

Additionally, there are frequent news in the national newspapers related to the quality of public works all over the country. Quality assurance of public works in Nepal is therefore very important due to the high cost of quality related issues like complaints, lawsuits (CIAA, court case), finger pointing, time and cost overruns, claims and other cost of quality issues on a routine basis. In this context, 'quality of public works' means different things to different people because of their different perceptions on it. This article therefore, in general, tries to elaborate on quality related issues in the context of public works in Nepal. Moreover, it outlines the causes of having poor quality public works, and remedial measures to be taken by the government institutions towards improving the performance on quality followed by conclusions and recommendations.

Key words: quality, quality assurance, quality control, public works, local infrastructure

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Public Works Public works are a broad category of projects, financed and constructed by the government, for employment, health, education and safety and recreational uses in the greater community. In other words, they are intended to improve the well being or the living standards of the general public. They include utilities, roads and bridges, water supply and sanitation, schools and hospitals, irrigation and river training, municipal buildings and other social infrastructures, and usually long-term physical assets and facilities. Public works also refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services. Public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by the government for the public.

Investing in public works projects in order to stimulate the general economy has been a popular policy measure since the economic crisis of the 1930's. Almost all the governments undertake public works projects in order to create jobs and stimulate the economy in their countries. Reflecting increased concern with sustainability, ecology and quality of life, efforts to move towards sustainable infrastructure undoubtedly requires quality of public works.

It is the common perception of the people that the quality of public works in general has been ever deteriorating. In order to improve the performance of the government, it is a high time to assess the root causes behind this reality and adopt relevant policy measures to solve the problem.

Quality of Public Works Projects1) Major portion of the government budget goes on public works. Its quality significantly

matters for 'value for money'.

2) Quality of Public Works in a broader context is a prerequisite for access to regional and global economy and a key determinant of competitive advantage.

3) Without improving the quality of public works substantially, infrastructure itself cannot become an essential driver of competitiveness. Quality public works is critical for efficient functioning of the economy (e.g. high transport cost, due to poor infrastructures, of our export to international markets).

4) Infrastructure reduces the effect of distance between suppliers and consumers in and outside Nepal, with the result of truly integrating the national and international economy.

5) Public works with standard quality reduces income inequalities and poverty in a variety of ways by increasing community’s ability to connect to core economic activities and social services.

It is often said that the lack of infrastructure in Nepal represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Infrastructure

Photo 1: Employment Generation by Road Works (RRRSDP- Chitwan)

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investments and maintenance has been very expensive, especially due to landlocked, rural and sparsely populated settlements.

It is argued that capital investment in public works can be used to reduce unemployment, Photo 1. Governments makes an investment in public works because of the overall benefit to society when there is a lack of private sector benefit or the risk is too great for a private company to accept on its own.

Public Works and Infrastructures Infrastructure is basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function such as roads, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, telecommunications, and so forth, essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions." It is an important term for judging a country or region's development. This is the reason why developed countries has been investing a significant amount of their GDP in the infrastructure.

Obviously, the best design of infrastructure like a typical rural road is the effective implementation, Photo 2. There is no meaning of having best infrastructure development plans and programs until and unless they are implemented efficiently and effectively. In order to deliver sustainable infrastructures, the public works contract needs to be implemented effectively. For this to happen, timely supervision plays vital role. Our major weakness, as general public frequently expressed their resentment, has been weak enforcement of rules and regulations and non effective implementation. Effective implementation requires adequate supervision at different levels of execution. Construction supervision, in general, has to adopt the following:

1) Follow construction quality (materials, workmanship and construction process) requirements written in technical specifications.

2) Once the construction contract has been signed between the client/owner and the contractor, all authorizations have been obtained, and all pre-construction submittals have been received from the contractor, the project manager issues an "Order to begin construction".

3) Regularly schedule 'Management Meetings' and obtain contact information for the contractor and all interested parties.

4) Obtain a detailed 'Work Schedule' from the Contractor and obtain proof of certification, insurance and bonds. Examine 'Shop Drawings' submitted by the Contractor and receive reports from the materials 'Quality Control Laboratory'.

5) When required, review change requests by the contractor, and issue construction directives and variation orders. Supervise testing and commissioning and follow work progress and authorize partial payments.

6) When substantially completed, inspect the work and prepare a list of deficiencies. If there are deficiencies, instruct the contractor to rectify within the given time.

7) Verify that all operating and maintenance manuals, as well as warranties, are complete. Prepare "as built" drawings.

8) Make a final inspection, issue a certificate of final completion, and authorize the final payment. Monitor if there are any defects in Defect Liability Period (DLP).

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Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC)The terms “quality assurance” and “quality control” are often used interchangeably to refer to ways of ensuring the quality of works. The terms, however, have different meanings. Principally, QA refers to the actions, procedures, and methods employed at the management and senior technical levels to observe and ensure that prudent quality procedures are in place and are being carried out and desired result of a quality infrastructure is achieved. Moreover, QA is done to confirm that a QC program is effective and it provides feedback on which further development of the QC program can be made. Quality control makes sure that things are going according to plan. The dictionary defines quality control (QC) as

1) The inspection, analysis and action required to ensure quality of output to specifications; 2) The operational techniques and the activities used to fulfill and verify requirements of

quality;

QC includes the activities as constant supervision by experienced individuals, providing clear decisions and directions, immediate review of completed activities for accuracy and completeness, and accurate documentation of all decisions, assumptions, and recommendations.

Quality control procedures, if followed, should ensure that the work is done correctly the first time. Quality control is an ongoing deliberate process, planned and carried out consultants. Quality control is based on the belief that:

1) It should ensure that the work is done correctly the first time.2) Quality is achieved by focusing on preventing problems or errors rather than reacting/

correcting to them.3) Quality is achieved by qualified individuals performing all work functions.

Quality is achieved by providing proper training of personnel and ensuring that all personnel remain current on the knowledge and skills needed for their position.

Findings of Fortune Magazine’s Study Related to Performance of Employees: This is quite relevant example to demonstrate how quality is achieved. USA Service winners

1) Selectively recruit and keep good people2) Thoroughly train employees in quality service3) Motivate and reward for quality performance4) Aggressively monitor quality performance

If we can adopt/learn from these four means of ensuring quality in our construction business, much

Photo 2: Improving Road Surface with Black Top (RRRSDP- Bhaktapur)

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of the finger pointing and law cases can be prevented and quality infrastructures be delivered.

Japan’s Approach to QualityThe following are some of the primary strategies, used by Japanese to achieve superior quality, which can be replicated in our context:

1) Production department’s responsibility for quality.

2) Process quality control - the workers are the quality inspectors.

3) Line stops - each worker has the authority to stop the production line to correct quality problems.

4) 100% check – check every completed product.

5) No - crisis atmosphere.

6) Housekeeping – a neat and clean work environment.

7) Easy - to - see quality and just- in- time inventory control .

Quality ProceduresSystematic methods to assure construction quality have little value, especially in our context where law and order is weakening for a decade or so, if they are not properly managed by a quality system. However, quality of public works can be achieved by putting strong emphasis on the following five measures:

1) Document Control: To ensure employees have the correct procedures and the procedures are properly maintained.

2) Audits: To verify quality procedures are being followed right from the planning to implementation and then to operation and maintenance of the facility through technical, social, financial, and performance audits.

3) Non-conformance Tracking: To monitor and track quality issues to ensure that construction defects are rectified in time.

4) CAPA (corrective action and preventative action): To correct defective processes (i.e. quality procedures) when detected via audits and non-conformance tracking to prevent defects from reoccurring.

5) Management Review: Reviewing quality and taking the appropriate action to improve the system.

The Pervasive Role of QualityQuality has a broader role in everyday life and in every business in general and vital role in the construction business in particular. The following flow diagram illustrates its benefits.

Why is quality of infrastructures deteriorating? It is often said that the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries like Nepal represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive,

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especially in such as areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries like Nepal. However, there can be numerous reasons behind not having quality of local infrastructures in Nepal. Some of the most important reasons/root causes include the following:

1) Inadequate technical capacity of the contractors/clients resulting not only deficient planning and design but also inadequate supervision at the field level.

2) Generally, highly qualified contractors are selected for execution in paper but works is carried out by contractors who do not have the capacity to carryout and complete the entire job in time.

3) Poor enforcement of procurement laws by contracting parties.

4) Frequent transfer of key persons of the project at the implementation/central level.

5) Grossly inadequate monitoring from the supervisory level.

6) Very low bidding by the contractors thereby very hard to deliver quality of works.

7) Tendency of contractors to avoid the tests to confirm the compliance.

8) Delayed budget and program. Inadequate budget to complete the job in time. Looking at very short term benefits.

9) Intention to earn easily without effort. Practice of 'take it as granted.'

10) Coercion and intimidation during bidding and contract administration.

11) Protection from non professionals for non performing contractors.

12) Work in the eleventh hour, when time is run out contractors are more pressed to complete the job.

13) Nonexistent of quality culture in the construction business. Easy access to decision making/influencing authority due to weak chain of command.

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14) Grossly inadequate professional integrity.

15) Poor workmanship resulting forgotten value add aspect.

Some practical measures to enhance quality of local infrastructures:1) Assess technical capacity of the contractors/clients and then strengthen this through

intensive training/mentoring.

2) Stop subletting of contracts. This has been a major problem in most of the contracts in Nepal.

3) Timely decision at site is a must. For this to happen, there must be full authority for the Project Manager to make necessary decisions. Project manager should have full authority to administer the contract as per international practice.

4) There should be provision of site office and necessary logistics to carry out supervision at the field level in large contracts

5) Strong enforcement of procurement laws. This is one of the prerequisites for creating conducive environment in one hand and to ensure value for money on the other.

6) Establish/promote strong technical chain of command. This is very important in the technical field. Ignorant or non responsive chain of command not only creates loss of 'value for money' but also anarchism.

7) Fair competition among bidders is prerequisite. There should be some clear provisions to disqualify very low bidders. Let us learn from the neighboring countries, how they have been addressing the problem.

8) Key persons of the project should be retained during the entire project period to keep up the institutional memory and make them accountable for the results.

9) Extensive monitoring is required from the supervisory level because there is one saying " you get what you inspect not what you expect".

10) Basic tests should be made mandatory before any payment (of course to confirm the compliance with technical specifications). There should be Materials testing laboratories established in each district and one central laboratory to monitor them and develop in house capacity.

11) Provide physical security against coercion and intimidation during bidding and contract administration.

12) Good performing and professional contractors who deliver quality infrastructures in time are required to be honored/recognized.

13) We have to discourage the general mindset of 'take it as granted'

14) Every position has certain special role to perform. That role should not be undermined.

15) We have to focus on preventing problems or errors as far as practicable rather than reacting/correcting to them. Because, reactive or corrective measures have always been costly than the preventive ones.

16) There should be qualified and experienced individuals in a project performing all work functions.

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Conclusion and RecommendationsEnsuring quality of local infrastructures has not been always easy basically in a country like ours in transition where maintaining law and order and chain of command within the organizational context is weak. However, we can overcome the obstacles by adopting the following:

1) It is often said that 'you get what you inspect not what you expect'. This is more effective in construction business. It demands robust monitoring and evaluation mechanism.

2) Managing construction time is very important. Delivery of local infrastructures in time means realizing the benefits by the beneficiaries in time.

3) Every members of the construction team is required to do the job right the first time.

4) Mobilize entire team that consists of clients, consultants and contractor to strive for excellence.

5) Contractors need to strive towards continuous improvement in the delivery of quality public work. It is high time to change our culture to learn how to work systematically.

6) It is very important to gain sustained commitment from the top management to combat undue pressure (if any) otherwise it directly or indirectly inhibits achieving quality of local infrastructures.

7) Contractors and users committees have to overcome the “let’s just get it done” mentality.

8) There is a need to overcome “60’s” mentality, where “it’s only wrong if we get caught”.

References

1) Progress Monitoring Notes2) “Performance Management” Training Handouts, Micheal Lowe, 2011, Kathmandu3) Class Handouts (M.Sc. Env. Engineering, IOE, TU), Prof. Dr. Khemnath Dallakoti 4) Management, Eighth Edition, by Ricky W. Griffin5) Management: Principles and Functions by John M. Ivancevich et al.6) QMS Handouts By Raja Ram Pote Shrestha (ISO - EMS Consultant)7) ISO 9000 Series 8) Quality related materials from the websites -Wikipedia.

We Congratulate Society of Engineers for Rural Development, Nepal (SERDeN)

for the publication of 4th volume of journal "Rural Infrastructure"

on the auspicious occasion of 16th Anniversary of DoLIDAR

and extend our best wishes for it's success in

contributing towards rural development of Nepal.

Shyam Kumar TamangProprietor

Trishuli Construction Company P. Ltd.Balaju, Kathmandu

16


!= Oltxf;sf] x/ ] s sfnv08df Pp6f dfGotf :yflkt 5M af} l4s If] qn] b] zsf] :jflwgtf tyf hgtfsf] ;d[l4 / ;'vdo hLjgsf] af/ ] df lrGtg ug{'k5{, lasNk vf] Hg'k5{, o;sf] nflu cfjZos kxn ug'{ k5{ . clxn] klg of] sYo TolQs} hLjGt tYosf] ?kdf / x] sf] 5 . jf} l4s ;d'bfosf] e"ldsfn] ;dfh ablng] u5{, of] ;a{sflng egfO{ xf] . ablng] s'/ f eg] sf] oyfl:yltaf6 hLjgnfO{ ;xh, ;/ n / ;d[4 agfpg] eGg] xf] . s] eof] eg] hLjg ;'vdo x'G5< k|fo ;a} sf km/ s km/ s ts{x? xf] nfg . cfjZostf / cf} lrTotfn] k'li6 u/ ] sf ;'lawfx? pkef] u ug] { cj:yf ;Dejt ;a} sf] rf;f] sf] laifo xf] / o;af6 ;'vdo hLjg k|fKt x'G5 eGg] xf] .

@= g] kfndf hxfhsf] lasNknfO{ k|of] u gug] { xf] eg] / fhwfgLaf6 k"j{ jf klZrd ofqf ug{ a;÷dfO{qmf] dfq r9\g' kg] { afWotf 5 / aiff{bsf] ;dodf o:tf] ofqf klg slx klx/ f] / slx af9LFn] ubf{ aLrdf st} cj?4 x'g] vt/ f e} / xg] u5{ . u|fld0f If] qsf] si6s/ hLjgsf] JofVof ;w} e} / x] sf] 5 . cGo k"jf{wf/ x? ;d] t Go'g 5g / ePsf klg bogLo cj:yfdf 5g\ . ;'vdo hLjgsf] rrf{ x'g] u5{ t/ lalzi7 Ifdtf ePsf af} l4s ;d'bfo ;d] t lhlhljiffsf] nflu si6;fWo k|oTg ul/ / x] sf] 5 . o:tf] eofjx cj:yfdf lasNksf] vf] hL ug{ af} l4s If] qaf6 kxn ug'{ cfjZos 5 .

#= ljsf;sf] cjwf/ 0ff hLjg;+u hf] l8Psf] x'G5 . k|ljlwsf] b|'tt/ ljsf;n] ljZjsf ;a} 7fpx?df ;xh kxF'r ePsf] 5 . e"d08lns/ 0fsf] sf/ 0faf6 hgzlQmsf] ljr/ 0f Jofks 5 . 5f] 6f] ;dodfg} Ps b] zdf sfd ul/ / x] sf] dfG5] ;'ljwf / cj;/ x? x] / ] / csf] { b] zdf u} xfN5 . laut s] lx aif{ b] lv g] kfnaf6 klg 7'nf] ;+Vofdf sfdbf/ x? lab] z u} / x] sf 5g\ . o;/ L lab] zLosf g] kfnLx? :jb] z kms{bf Po/ kf] 6{ b] lv g} dgdf v'Nb'nL nfUg yfN5 . Po/ kf] 6{sf] Joj:yfkg gldn] sf] nfU5, jflx/ lg:sbf 6] S;Lsf] Jojxf/ / Joj:yfkg c:jefljs nfU5, af6f] 3f6f] lau|] sf] cj:yf, 6«flkms cJoj:yf cflbn] lbSs agfp5 . 3/ cfOk'Ubf 3/ sf] l:yltn] dg lvGg x'gyfN5, kfgL aQL 6] lnkmf] g zf} rfno, efG5f cflb Jojl:yt ePsf] x'b} g . ljsf;nfO{ a'e\mg] of] Pp6f pbfx/ 0f xf] .

$= laleGg ;ef / uf] li7x?df ;/ sf/ L tyf u} / ;/ sf/ L sd{rf/ Lx?, Joj;foLs JolQmx? tyf k] zfut laz] if1x?n] k"jf{wf/ ljsf; ;DalGw l;4fGtx?, lgdf{0f, dd{t tyf ;Def/ ug] { laifodf ljifb JofVof u5{g . ljZjsf laleGg 7fpx?df s] s;/ L k"jf{wf/ ljsf; ePsf 5g\ eGg] pbfx/ 0faf/ ] rrf{ ub{5g\ . gLlt lgdf{0f / Joj:yfkgdf ;+nUg / xg] x?sf o:tf rrf{x? rf;f] sf laifox? x'G5g\, t/ klg g] kfn h:tf b] zx?df gof af6f] aGof] , s] lx dlxgfdfg} lau|] sf] ;dfrf/ cfp5, vfg] kfgLsf] wf/ f grn] sf] b] lvG5, 7'nf cfof] hgfx? clgZroaf6 u'lh|G5g\ . lsg o:tf] x'G5< ljsf;nfO{ a'e\mg] of] csf] { pbfx/ 0f xf] .

%= ljsf;nfO{ al:t ljsf;;+u hf] 8] / x] g] { ul/ Psf] klg 5, zx/ L ljsf; / u|fdL0f ljsf; . zx/ df afSnf] hg;+Vof / xg] / Toxf ;] jf / ;'lawfsf] ljt/ 0f, kmf] x/ Joj:yfkg, cfjfudg / ;'/ Iffsf] Joj:yfkg cflb u+eL/ laifox? x'g\ . ufpx?df 5l/ P/ / x] sf] hg;+VofnfO{ ;] jf / ;'lawfsf] Joj:yfkg TolQs} u+eL/ laifo xf] . ufpdf 5l/ P/ / x] sf] al:tx? Plss[t x'Fb} hfbf zx/ df kl/ 0ft x'g] qmd klg :jefljs xf] . sf7df08f} h:tf] / fhwfgL zx/ df af6f] 3f6f] , vfg] kfgL, 9nlgsf;, 6] lnkmf] g, :s"n tyf c:ktfnsf] cJoj:yfkgn] oxfsf jfl;Gbfx?sf] dg lrdf] 6\g] u5{ . / fhwfgL;+u hf] l8Psf u|fdL0f If] qx?df g vfg] kfgL 5 g lah'nL, g af6f] 3f6f] 5 g :s"n c:ktfn . g] kfnsf b'u{d ufpx?df cj:yf s:tf] xf] nf< ljsf;nfO{ a'e\mg] of] csf] { pbfx/ 0f xf] .

O{= k|f=8f= e/t/fh kxf/L8Lg, O=c=;+=, lq=lj=

u|fdL0f ljsf;sf] cjwf/0ff s] xf]<

17


^= g] kfnsf] ;Gbe{ s] 5 t< la=;+= @)^* sf] hgu0fgfn] g] kfnsf] hg;+Vof @,^$,($,%)$ b] vfPsf] 5 . h;dWo] pRr lzIff k|fKt u/ ] sf] -P;Pn;L eGbf dfly cWoog u/ ] sf_ hg;+Vof !^,%@,^@$ / x] sf] 5 . of] ;+Vof hDdf hg;+Vofsf] ^=@#& k|ltzt dfq xf] . of] ;+Vofsf] $* k|ltzt eGbf al9 -&(^@##_ zx/ df a;f] jf; ub{5g eg] em08} %@ k|ltzt-*%^#(!_ dflg;x? u|fdL0f If] qdf a:5g\ . csf] { / f] rs kIf eg] sf] g] kfndf zx/ L hg;ª\Vof sl/ a !&=)& k|ltzt -$%@@^!!_/ x] sf] b] lvPsf] 5 -hgu0fgf la=;=@)^*_ / u|fdL0f hg;Vof *@=(# k|ltzt-@!(&!*(#_ / x] sf] 5 . zx/ L hg;+Vofsf] em08} !&=^) k|ltzt jf} l4s hg;+Vof 5 eg] u|fdL0f hg;+Vofdf of] k|ltzt s] jn #=*(& k|ltzt dfq 5 . of] tYofs+n] s] b] vfp5 eg] af} l4s hg;+Vof zx/ df s] lGb|t / x] sf] 5 . o:tf] hg;+Vof ljt/ 0fsf] cj:yfdf ljsf; s;/ L ;Dej x'G5, rf;f] sf] ljifo xf] .

&= g] kfnsf] ljsf; eg] sf] g] kfnL hgtfsf] ;'vdo hLjg :yflkt ug] { s'/ f xf] . zx/ df a;f] jf; ug] {nfO{ k'/ \ofpg' kg] { ;] jf / ;'lawfx?sf] ljt/ 0f tyf Joj:yfkg h?/ L 5 eg] sl/ j *# k|ltzt hg;+VofnfO{ Go'gtd ;] jf / ;'lawf pknJw u/ fpg] s'/ f TolQs} hl6n laifo xf] . g] kfnsf] ljsf; ug] { eg] sf] u|fdL0f If] qdf a;f] jf; ug] { hgtfsf] hLjg:t/ psf:g] s'/ f xf] .

*= ljsf; eg] sf] ef} lts ljsf; dfq eg] / a'e\mg' x'b} g, o;nfO{ cfly{s, ;fdflhs tyf ;f:s[lts ljsf;sf] ?kdf a'e\mg' k5{ . zx/ of ufp sf] ljsf; eGgfn] Toxf a;f] af; ug] { hgtfsf] kof{Kt cfDbfgL x'g', Ps cfk;df ;b\efj, ;lxi0f'tf, d] nldnfk tyf ;/ ;xof] u x'g', cfcfkmgf ;f:s[lts klxrfgnfO{ ;d[4 agfpb} n} hfg' eGg] a'e\mg' k5{ . ;d[4 g] kfn lgdf{0f ug{' cfhsf] cfjZostf xf] . of] eg] sf] b] zsf] cy{tGqnfO{ cfwf/ e"t kl/ jt{g ug'{ xf] . cyf{t, hgtfx? ul/ aLsf] / ] vf eGbf dfly / xg] 5g\, ;a} sf] ;'/ lIft :jf:y x'g] 5, ;'/ Iff Joj:yf alnof] x'g] 5, o;sf] ;fy} b] zsf lalzi7tfsf If] qx?sf] k|ltikwL{ Ifdtfsf] ljsf; eO{ u'0f:t/ o'Qm pTkfbg x'g] 5 . ljsf; eg] sf] olx xf] . o;sf] k|flKtsf] nflu of] hgfa4 k|oTg h?/ L 5 . o:tf] k|oTgaf6 dfgj hLjg k|s[lt / ;dfh ;+u d} qLk"0f{ / xb} ;/ n / ;'ljwfo'Qm9+uaf6 rNb5 . ;du|tfdf ljsf; eGgfn] To:tf] ;dfh hxf ;fdflhs Gofo :yflkt 5, hxf ;'/ lIft :jfYosf] cj:yf 5, ;'/ Iffsf] k"0f{fe'lt 5, / jftfj/ 0f / h} jLs ljljwtf sf] ;'/ Iffdf kof{Kt Wofg lbO{Psf] x'G5 . o:tf] ;dfhsf] Joj:yf lbuf] cy{ Joj:yf, k|ljlwsf] pRrtd k|of] u tyf ;'zf;gaf6 x'g ;S5 .

lbuf] ljsf;sf] l;4fGt

k|s[ltsf] l;df leq hLjgljftfj/0f, k|fs[lts ;|f]tx? /

h} jLs ljljwtf d}qLljftfj/0f ;'wf/lcfpbf] lk8Lsf] nflu ;|f]tsf]

Joj:yf

;an, :j:y / Gofok"0f{ ;dfhlhgtfsf cfsf+Iffx?sf] kl/k"lt{lJolQmut ;d[l4, ;fdflhs

;b\ efj / ;dfj]l;tfnfO{ k|a4{gl;a}sf] nflu a/fa/L cj;/sf]

kxF'r Joj:yf

lbuf] cy{ Joj:yfl;jn, l:y/ / lbuf] cy{tGql;a}sf nflu ;d[l4 / cj;/lk|b'if0fstf{af6 ;fdflhs

tyf jftfj/0f Ifltsf] e/0fl;|f]tx?sf] bIftfk"0f{ k|of]u

jL1fg ;Ddt gLlt lgdf{0fl;jn a}1flgs k|df0fx?sf]

cfwf/df gLltx? th'{df / sfof{Gjog

la}1flgs clgZrotf, ;fdflhs k|a[lQ / d'No dfGotfx?nfO{ u|x0f

;'zf;gsf] k|a4{gl;dfhsf x/]s txdf

k|efjsf/L ;xeflud'ns zf;g Joj:yfsf] k|a4{g

lhgtfsf] ;[hgzLntf, phf{ / ljljwtfsf] ;+nUgtf

18


(= ljsf;sf] nIf eg] sf] k|s[ltsf] l;df leq hLjgnfO{ ;xh agfpg] tyf ;jn :j:y / Gofok"0f{ ;dfh lgdf{0f ug] { xf] . o;sf] nflu lbuf] cy{ Joj:yf, jL1fg ;Ddt gLlt lgdf{0f / sfof{Gjog tyf ;'zf;gsf] k|a4{g ug'{ k5{ . ljsf;sf] of] l;4fGt cg'?k g] kfnsf] vfsf tof/ ug'{ h?/ L 5 .

!)= g] kfnsf] ;Gbe{df ul/ aL lgjf/ 0fsf] k|lqmofnfO{ ult lbg] / hghLljsfsf] nflu cfjZos ;|f] t tyf ;fwgx? pTkfbg ug] { tyf ;fdflhs, cfly{s, / fhgLlts, ;f:s[lts tyf jftfj/ 0fLo cj;/ x?nfO{ Jofks jgfpg] s'/ f lbuf] ljsf; xf] -of] hgf cfof] u, @)!@_ . o;sf nflu lzIffsf] e"ldsf dxTjk"0f{ 5 . ;an / ;d[4 g] kfn eg] sf] / fi6«Lo cy{tGqdf cfwf/ e"t kl/ jt{g x'g' k5{ . hgtfsf] hLjg ul/ aLsf] / ] vf eGbf dfly x'g' k5{, plgx?sf] lzIff / :jf:Yo pRr:t/ sf] x'g' k5{, b] zsf] ;'/ Iff Joj:yf dha'b x'g'k5{, g] kfnsf] cfwf/ e"t ;fdYo{sf If] qx? U'0ffTds?kdf ljsf; x'g'k5{ . o;af6 pTkfbg a'l4 x'g] / ljZj ahf/ df lgof{t a9\g] 5 . @! cf} + ztfAbLsf] ;d[4 g] kfnsf] kl/ sNkgf ;fsf/ kfg{ kf} / lv xftx?nfO{ ;jn agfpg' k5{ / ;[hgzLn dl:tisx?nfO{ ;d[4 agfpg' k5{ .

!!= s'g} klg b] z Toxfsf k"j{hx?sf] clarlnt k|oTg tyf plgx?sf] kl/ sNkgfaf6 lgdf{0f x'g] ub{5 . Pp6f lk8Ln] cfk\mgf ;'Gb/ pknlAwx? csf] { lk8LnfO{ x:tfGt/ 0f ub} { hfG5, / x/ ] s gofF lk8Ln] tL pknlAwx?nfO{ cufl8 a9fpg] nIo agfpb5 . d'n'ssf] ;d[l4 eg] sf] b] z ljsl;t / fi6«sf] ?kdf k|s6 x'g] xf] . o;sf] nflu g] kfn cfly{s tyf k|fljlws?kdf ljsfl;t x'g' k5{ .

!@= s'g} klg b] z ljsl;t / fi6«sf] ?kdf pleg] ;"rsx? eg] sfM / fi6«sf] k"FhL, hgtfsf] ;d[l4 / cGt/ fi6«Lo d+rdf b] zsf] :yflkt :yfg, x'g . / fi6«Lo kF"hLnfO{ b] vfpg] yk ;"rsx? 5g\, h:tf] ls, s'n u|fxYo pTkfbg, s'n / fi6«Lo pTkfbg, e"StfgLsf] ;Gt'ng, a} b] lzs d'b|f ;+lrtL, cfly{s a[l4b/ , k|ltJolQm cfo, O{Toflb . o;sf] ;fy} Jofkf/ sf] cfsf/ , ljZj Jofkf/ df ePsf] l;o/ x?af6 klg b] zsf] cy{tGqsf] zlQm k|ltlalDat x'g] u5{ . o;af6 slt k"FhL lgdf{0f x'G5 / hDdf x'G5 eGg] cfsng ug{ ;lsG5 .

!#= cfly{s ;"rsx?sf] lalzi7 dxTj x'g] u5{, t/ klg ltlgx?n] ;dfhsf] Pp6f dfq tl:j/ lbG5g\ . h:tf] ls, k|lt JolQm cfon] hgtfsf] xftdf ePsf] k"FhLsf] ;+s] t ub{5, t/ k|lt JolQm cfo eg] sf] wgL / ul/ a aLrsf] cf} ;t b/ ePsf] n] o;n] ;a} hgtfsf] xftdf Tolt / sd 5 eGg] b] vfpb} g . ;+Vof / tYofs+x? b] Vbf lgs} k|efjsf/ L x'G5g, t/ ;fwf/ 0f hgtfsf y'k|} lk8fx? tL tYofs+x? leq n'Sg] u/ ] sf k|df0fx? k|;:t} e] l6g] u/ ] sf 5g\ . ;du|tfdf b] lvg] tl:j/ sf] 5'6\6} ;Gbe{df dxTj x'g] u5{, t/ b] zsf] ;d[l4sf] s'/ f ubf{ x/ ] s gful/ ssf] Wofg lbg' h?/ L 5 . gfu/ Lssf] hLjg s;/ L rn] sf] 5 eGg] x] Ssf x'g' k5{ . h:tf] ls, ;a{;fwf/ 0f hgtfsf] :jefljs hLjg rn] sf] 5 5} g, p;n] cfk\mgf 5f] / f5f] / Lx?sf] nfngkfng / lzIff lbIff pko'Qm 9+un] -;e|fGt9+un] xf] O{g_ ug{ ;s] sf] 5 5} g, / f] uJoflw gePsf] lb3{ hLjg p;sf] 5 5} g, p;sf] Go'gtd ;'lawf ePsf] hLjg wfGgsf nflu cfjZos / f] huf/ L 5 5} g, O{Toflb . ;+ejtM of] g} ;d[4 g] kfnsf] kl/ sNkgf xf] .

!$= o;} u/ L w] / } ;"rsx?nfO{ hgtfsf] jf:tljs cj:yfsf] k|ltljDasf] ?kdf x] l/ G5, h:tf] sL, hgtfsf] cfxf/ / kf] if0f tTjsf] cj:yf, cf} ;t cfo', afn d[To'b/ , vfg] kfgL tyf ;/ ;kmfO{sf] Joj:yf, a;f] jf;sf] Joj:yf, / f] u Joflwsf] cj:yf, ckfu+tf, cg'Tkfbgsf If] qx?, :jf:y pkrf/ dflysf] kx'Fr, ;fIff/ tf, :s"n ;'lawf, pRrlzIffsf] cj:yf, O{Toflb . oL ;a} ;"rsx? ;sf/ fTds ePtf klg plTkl8t, ul/ a tyf lae] bdf / x] sf hgtfx?sf cfFz' tyf z':s] / fx?nfO{ ;Daf] wg gubf{ ;Dd g] kfn / fi6«sf] ?kdf pleg ;Sb} g . ;w} h;f] ul/ aL lgjf/ 0f, lg/ If/ tf pGd'ng, / f] u d'lQm, c;dfg cj;/ sf] cGTo, O{Toflb cleofgx? ;/ sf/ af6 e} / x] sf] xf] , t/ klg b] z ljsf;sf] nIo k|fKt x'g ;ls/ x] sf] 5} g . o;sf] ljkl/ t ul/ aL / a] / f] huf/ L al9/ x] sf] cj:yf 5 . ;a} g] kfnLnfO{ cfly{s?kdf dfly gp7fP ;Dd o:tf cleofgsf] s'g} cy{ / xb} g . ;a} g] kfnLsf] ;'/ lIft / ;'vdo jt{dfg x'g'k5{ / eljio k|lt cfzfjfbL x'g] cj:yf x'g'k5{ . ;+ejt ;a} n] vf] h] sf] g] kfn o:t} xf] .

!%= zx/ L ljsf; / u|fdL0f ljsf;n] of] tYonfO{ ;Daf] wg ug'{ k5{ .

19


!= k[i7e"ld

s'g} klg b] zsf] lbuf] ljsf; / ;dl[4sf nflu vfB ;'/ Iff, pmhf{ ;'/ Iff / hn;|f] t ;'/ Iff dxTjk"0f{ c+ux? x'g\ . oL tLg If] qsf] ;jntf / b'j{ntfn] cGo If] qx? h:t} lzIff, :jf:Yo, pBf] u, ef} lts k"jf{wf/ cflbsf] ljsf;sf] ult tyf lbzfnfO{ lgwf{/ 0f ub{5 . k|ltJolQm cfo, dfgj ljsf; ;'rsf+s nufotsf ;d[l4sf ;'rsf+sx?df g] kfnsf] :yfg ljZjsf] tNnf] !%–@) k|ltzt jl/ kl/ / x] sf] 5 . csf] {lt/ ljZjsf] bf] ;|f] / kfFrf} + 7"nf] cy{tGq ePsf] rLg / ef/ tsf] aLrdf xfdL / x] sf 5f} + . o;y{ d'n'ssf] ljsf; / cl:tTjnfO{ hf] ufO{ / fVg ;d] t Pp6f lehgsf ;fy oL If] qx?sf] ljsf;df xfdLn] Wofg lbg} kb{5 . o;/ L dfq d''n'ssf] cfly{s ;fdflhs ?kfGt/ 0f ;Dej x'G5, g] kfnL hgtfsf] lhjg:t/ nfO{ dfly psf:g ;lsG5 . vfBfGg tyf hn;|f] tsf ljifox? klg plQs} dxTjsf x'Fbfx'b} klg o; n] v eg] phf{ cem ljz] if u/ ] / ljB'tLo phf{ / ;Da[l4;+u s] Gb|Lt / x] sf] 5 .

@= cfo / phf{

ljZjdf k|ltjif{ k|ltJolQm phf{ vkt cf} ;tdf ^* luuf h'n -!,^@* kilogram of oil equivalent, kgoe_ hlt / x] sf] 5 eg] Pl;ofsf] xsdf of] c+s #& luuf h'n -**) kgoe_ hlt 5 . g] kfnsf] k|ltjif{ k|ltJolQm phf{ vkt s] jn !% luufh'n -#%) kgoe_ a/ fa/ dfq 5 . lrq ! df ljZjsf !!@ j6f b] zx?sf] k|ltJolQm cfo / pknAw phf{ vktsf] 8f6fnfO{ b] vfOPsf] 5 . o; lrqn] phf{ vkt / pQm b] zsf] k|ltJolQm cfosf] aLrdf ;dfg'kftLo k|ToIf ;DaGw x'Fbf] / x] 5 eGg] s'/ f b] vfpFb5 . cyf{t\ phf{ vkt a9L x'g] b] zsf] cfly{s ;+al[4 klg a9L / cfly{s ;+al[4 sd ePsf b] zx?df phf{sf] pknAwtf / vkt klg sd x'g] s'/ f o;af6 :ki6 b] lvG5 .

lrq !M k|ltJolQm cfo / phf{ vktsf] ;DaGw;|f]tM International Energy Agency (IEA), 2005

O{= 8f= nIdL b]jsf]6fsfo{sf/L cWoIf

a'9Lu08sL hnljB't cfof]hgf ljsf; ;ldlt

g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df ;+a[l4 / phf{

20


To;} u/ L lrq @ df ljZjsf !!@ j6f b] zx?sf] k|ltJolQm cfo / ljB'tLo phf{ vktsf] ;DaGwnfO{ b] vfOPsf] 5 . o; lrqaf6 ljB'tLo phf{ vkt / cfly{s ;+al[4sf] aLrdf klg k|ToIf ;DaGw / x] sf] b] lvG5 . ljB'tLo phf{ eg] sf] phf{sf] pGgt :j?k xf] . g] kfndf o;sf] cf} ;t pkof] u s/ La !)) lsnf] jf6 cfj/ -ogL6_ dfq 5 . hals ljsl;t b] zx?df of] vkt !) ;f} + xhf/ o"gL6;Dd eO/ x] sf] tYo oxL lrq @ df b] lvG5 .

lrq @M k|ltJolQm cfo / ljB'tLo phf{ vktsf] ;DaGw;|f]tM International Energy Agency (IEA), 2005

lrq # df g] kfndf jt{dfg cj:yfdf vkt eO/ x] sf phf{sf ;|f] tx? b] vfOPsf] 5 . g] kfndf bfp/ f g} phf{sf] d'Vo ;|f] t / x] sf] tYo o; lrqdf :ki6;Fu b] Vg ;lsG5 . bfp/ fn] d'n'ssf] s"n phf{sf] &*Ü hlt dfu k"lt{ u/ ] sf] kfO{G5 . s[lifhGo / kz'hGo kbfy{af6 (Ü hlt / cfofltt k|] 6«f] lnod kbfy{af6 *Ü hlt phf{sf] dfu k"lt{ eO/ x] sf] cj:yf clxn] / x] sf] 5 . jt{dfg cj:yfdf ljB'tLo phf{sf] of] ubfg eg] @Ü eGbf klg sd / x] sf] 5 . ;fy} gjLs/ 0fLo phf{sf] ljsf; gu0o dfqfdf dfq ePsf] tYo lrq # n] b] vfpFb5 .

lrq #M g] kfndf k|of] u x'g] ljleGg k|sf/ sf phf{;|f] tM g] kfnsf] phf{ l/ kf] 6{ @))^, hn tyf zlQm cfof] u

21


lrq $ df If] qut k|of] hgdf eO/ x] sf] phf{sf] vkt b] vfOPsf] 5 . g] kfndf 3/ fo;L k|of] hgdf nueu ()Ü phf{ vr{ eO/ x] sf] cj:yf clxn] / x] sf] 5 . cf} Bf] lus tyf s[lif h:tf pTkfbg d'ns tyf oftfot Pj+ Jokf/ –Joj;fo h:tf ;] jf d'ns If] qdf eg] gu0o dfqfdf dfq phf{ vkt eO/ x] sf] tYo klg o; lrqaf6 b] lvG5 . o;af6 xfd|f] cy{tGq pTkfbgd'vL geP/ lgjf{xd'vL / x] sf] b] lvG5 .

lrq $M phf{sf] If] qut k|of] u;|f] tM g] kfnsf] phf{ l/ kf] 6{ @))^, hn tyf zlQm cfof] u

dflysf] tYofÍx?nfO{ ;/ ;tL{ x] bf{ / cfly{s ;+j[l4;+u phf{nfO{ hf] 8\bf tnsf s'/ fx?df xfd|f] Wofg k'Ug h?/ L b] lvG5 .

c_ cfly{s ;+j[l4sf nIox?sf] lgwf{/ 0f cf_ phf{sf ;DaGwdf

-s_ k|ltJolQm phf{ vkt a9fpg' kg] {-v_ phf{sf] pGgt ;|f] tx?sf] ljsf;df hf] 8 lbg'kg] {-u_ phf{sf] k|of] u pTkfbgzLn sfo{df nufpg' kg] { -3_ lbuf] cfly{s ljsf;sf nflu lbuf] ?kdf phf{sf] pknAwtfsf] Uof/ ] G6L x'g'kg] {

#= d'n'ssf] nflu cfjZos phf{

s'g} klg d'n'snfO{ cfjZos kg] { phf{ p;sf] cfly{s ljsf; / hLjg:t/ nfO{ s'g :t/ df k'¥ofpg] eGg] s'/ f;+u ;DalGwt x'G5 . o;y{ g] kfnsf] ;Gbe{df klg ca cfjZos kg] { phf{sf] s'/ f ubf{ log} cfwf/ df ljZn] if0f ug'{ pko'Qm x'G5 . ;+a[4 g] kfn agfpg] kl/ sNkgf g] kfnsf ;a} / fhgLlts kf6L{x?n] u/ ] klg Plss[t g] kfn sDo'lgi6 kf6L{ -dfcf] jfbL_ n] dfq 7f] ; ?kdf cfˆgf uGtAox?sf] lgwf{/ 0f u/ ] sf] kfOG5 . h; cg';f/ p;n] cfufdL !) jif{df g] kfnL hgtfsf] hLjg:t/ nfO{ dWod:t/ df, @) jif{df pRr:t/ df tyf $) jif{df clt pRr:t/ df k'¥ofpg] nIo / fv] sf] 5 . of] eg] sf] cfufdL !) jif{df k|To] s g] kfnLsf] ;/ b/ cfo k|ltjif{ #,))) 8n/ sf] xf/ fxf/ Ldf tyf cfufdL @) / $) jif{ leq of] cfonfO{ qmdzM !*,))) / $),))) 8n/ ;Dd k'¥ofpg] eGg] xf] . o;nfO{ g} cfwf/ dfg] / cfpFbf jif{x?df g] kfndf slt phf{ pTkfbg / k|of] u ug'{kb{5 eGg] cfFs8f oxf k|:t't ul/ Psf] 5 .

22


lrq ! df b] vfOPsf] k|ltJolQm cfo / phf{ vktsf] ;DaGwsf cfwf/ df cfufdL !), @) / $) jif{df g] kfnLsf] hLjg:t/ nfO{ dfly pNn] v ul/ P adf] lhd k'¥ofpgsf nflu cfjZos kg] { k|ltAolQm / hDdf phf{ tflnsf ! df lbOPsf] 5 . o;af6 cfufdL !), @) / $) jif{df qmdzM $!, !#* / @&^ million ton of oil equivalent (mtoe) a/ fa/ sf] phf{ cfjZos kg] { blvG5 . To;} u/ L o;af6 cfufdL !), @) / $) jif{df qmdzM !), @% / $% xhf/ d] ufjf6 ljB'tLo phf{ d'n'sdf rflxg] blvG5 -tflnsf @_.

tflnsf !M eljiosf nflu cfjZos phf{sf] l:ylt

jif{k|ltJolQm cfo

-8n/ _hg;+Vof -xhf/ df_

k|ltJolQm cfjZos phf{ (kgoe)

hDdf cfjZos phf{ (mtoe)

cfufdL 10 3,000 35,868 1,143 41

20 18,000 41,742 3,309 138

40 jif{ 40,000 51,891 5,314 276

tflnsf @M eljiosf nflu cfjZos ljB'tLo phf{

jif{k|ltJolQm cfo k|ltJolQm cfjZos ljB'tLo phf{ cfjZos ljB'tu[xsf] Ifdtf

-8n/ _ (KWh) (MW)

cfufdL 10 3,000 1500 10,000

20 18,000 5,500 25,000

40 jif{ 40,000 10,000 45,000

$= ljB'tLo phf{ pTkfbg / k|of] u

phf{x? dWo] ;aeGbf pGgt ?ksf] phf{ ljB'tLo phf{ xf] . cfk\mg} d'n'sdf pknAw k|r'/ hn;|f] taf6 pTkfbg ug{ ;lsg] phf{ hnljB't ePsfn] cfufdL jif{x?df d'ntM hnljB'tsf] ljsf;df ljz] if hf] 8 lbg' kg] { blvG5 . u} / hnfzoo'Qm cfof] hgfx?af6 pTkfbg x'g] ljh'nLsf] dfqf lxpFbsf] ;'Vvfofddf hl8t IfdtfeGbf lgs} sd cyf{t hl8t Ifdtfsf] Ps ltxfO b] lv cfwfcflw hltdfq x'g hfG5 . o;y{ hnfzoo'Qm (Storage Type) tyf u} / hnfzoo'Qm (Run of the River) cfof] hgfx?sf] ;Gt'lnt ljsf; u/ ] / dfq hnljB't pTkfbg clwstd pkof] uL (Optimized) x'g;S5 . o;/ L dfq jiff{ofd / lxpFbsf] ;'Vvfofddf b] lvg] ljB't cfk"lt{sf] c;Gt'ngnfO{ ;Daf] wg ug{ ;lsG5 . o;/ L x] bf{ hnfzoo'Qm tyf u} / hnfzoo'Qm hnljB't cfof] hgfx?sf] cg'kft $)M^) ljsf; u/ ] df / pbfx/ 0fsf nflu tn tflnsf # df lbOP adf] lhd ljleGg ljB'tu[xx? ;+rfng u/ ] df jif{el/ g} Psgf;n] ljB't cfk"lt{ ug{ ;lsg] b] lvG5 .

tflnsf #M ljB't u[x ;+rfng tflnsf

ofd hnfzoo'Qm (S)

u} / hnfzoo'Qm (R)

s'n pknAw ljB't

jiff{ofd S/ 4: 10% R: 60% 70% of (S+R)

lxpFbofd S: 40% R/ 2*: 30% 70% of (S+R)

Ifdtf 40% of (S+R) 60% of (S+R)

* lxpbofddf hnljB't pTkfbg cfwf pTkfbg x'G5 eg] / lnFbf S = hnfzoo'Qm cfof] hgfsf] Ifdtf, R = u} / hnfzoo'Qm cfof] hgfsf] Ifdtf

23


;fy} b|'tt/ lsl;dn] eO/ x] sf] k|ljlwsf] ljsf;nfO{ x] bf{ afof] UofF;, dfOqmf] xfO8«f] , ;f} o{phf{ tyf jfo'phf{sf] ljsf; ;xh aGb} hfg] b] lvG5 . o;af/ ] df csf] { 5'6\6} ljZn] if0fsf] h?/ t b] lvG5 .

ljB'tLo phf{sf] pTkfbgzLn If] qdf ul/ g] k|of] un] dfq d'n'ssf] cfly{s ;fdflhs ?kfGt/ 0f ;Dej x'G5 . ljZjsf ljleGg d'nssf] tYof+snfO{ x] bf{ -pbfx/ 0fsf nflu s] xL b] zx?sf] tYof+s lbOPsf] 5_ cfufdL jif{x?df tflnsf $ jf lrq % df lbOP cg';f/ sf] pkof] u ug'{kg] { b] lvG5 .

tflnsf $M phf{sf] If] qut k|of] u -∞_

k|of] u yfONof08 sf] l/ of hfkfgg] kfn

xfn cfufdL 10 20 40 jif{

cf} Bf] lus 37 44 39 3.5 20 30 40

oftfoft 37 22 27 3.8 10 18 29

s[lif 4 3 3 0.8 10 7 3

Joj;flos 5 15 13 1.5 11 11 11

3/ fo;L 16 11 15 90.3 47 31 14

cGo 1 5 3 0.2 2 3 3

s"n 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

;|f] tM International Energy Agency (IEA), 2005 tyf g] kfnsf] phf{ l/ kf] 6{ @))^, hn tyf zlQm cfof] u

lrq %M k|If] lkt phf{sf] If] qut k|of] u

%= pk;+ef/

g] kfndf k|of] u x'g] phf{x?df bfp/ fsf] of] ubfg &*Ü / x] sf] 5 . t/ xfd|f] jgh+unsf] Ifdtf eg] s] jn $*Ü dfq phf{ k"lt{ ug{ ;Sg] / x] sf] 5 -yfkf / yfkf, !((%_ . lbuf] ?kdf xfdL jgh+unaf6 ^% nfv 6g bfp/ f lng;S5f} + t/ jflif{s dfu !%) nfv 6g / x] sf] b] lvG5 -WECS, 2006; Shrestacharya, 2002_ . kmn:j?k jgh+unn] lbg ;Sg]

24


Ifdtf eGbf a9L dfqfdf bfp/ f s6fgL x'g] u/ ] sf] sf/ 0fn] jif] {gL g] kfnsf] jgIf] q 3l6/ x] sf] 5 . o;sf] kl/ 0ffd af9L, klx/ f] h:tf k|fs[lts k|sf] kx? jif} { lkR5] a9L/ x] sf 5g\ . cyf{t\ jftfj/ 0fdf x|f; cfO/ x] sf] 5 . bfp/ f, s[lifhGo cjz] if tyf uf] a/ h:tf phf{sf] ] k|of] u vfgf ksfpg] , 3/ nfO{ Gofgf] kfg] { h:tf 3/ fo;L k|of] hgdf x'g] ub{5 . o:tf sfdaf6 lg:sg] k|b'lift w'jfFn] dlxnf tyf afnaflnsfsf] :jf:Yodf ;d] t xflg k'¥ofO/ x] sf] 5 . ;fy} k] 6«f] lnod kbfy{sf] cfoftdf jif] {gL c/ af+} ?kofF ljb] lzPsf] dfq xf] O{g pRr ;/ sf/ L cg'bfgsf] gfpFdf c/ af} + ?kofF ;d] t u'dfpg' k/ ] sf] 5 . o;n] d'n'ssf] cy{tGqnfO{ g} w/ fzfoL agfO/ x] sf] 5 .

lbuf] ?kdf phf{sf] pknAwtf xfl;n ug{ b] zleq g} pknAw ;|f] t;fwgaf6 pTkfbg ug{ ;lsg] phf{ ljsf;df ljz] if ?kn] hf] 8 lbg' kb{5 . jftj/ 0fLo ;+/ If0f tyf hg:jf:ynfO{ dWogh/ / fVb} casf lbgx?df k/ Dk/ fut phf{sf] k|of] unfO{ hlt ;lsG5 sd ub} { nfg' h?/ L 5 . cfofltt phf{sf] klg ;s] ;Dd sd k|of] u ug'{ plrt x'G5 . o;y{ xfd|f] d'n'ssf] kl/ k|] Iodf hnljB'tLo tyf gjLs/ 0fLo phf{sf] ljsf;df hf] 8tf] 8sf ;fy nfUg'sf] ljsNk b] lvb} g .

;Gbe{ ;fdfu|L

lg] kfnsf] phf{ l/ kf] 6{ @))^, hn tyf zlQm cfof] ulyfkf, e] v a= / k|wfg, e/ t a=, ;g\ !((%,hn;|f] t ljsf;M g] kfnL b[lisf] 0f, sf] gfs{ k|sfzg, sf7df+8f} , g] kfn, lInternational Energy Agency (IEA), 2005lSEDO, 2009, The Sustainable Energy Development Office (SEDO), the Government of Western Australia.lShrestacharya, A. 2002, Energy Economics of Nepal, Udaya Books, Kathmandu. lTaskforce, 2009, bz jifL{o hnljB't ljsf; of] hgf th'{df sfo{bn, 2065lWRI (World Resources Institute), ;g\ @))@, http:/ / earthtrends.wri.org/ visited August 2009

phf{sf o"lg6x? / ltgx?sf] aLrsf] ;DaGw kgoe kg of oil equivalent toe ton of oil equivalent 1 toe = 1000 kgoe = 41.868 *10^9 J = 11630 KWhmtoe million toe 1 mtoe = 10^6 toeKWh Kilowatt hour 1 KWh = 3.6 * 10^6 JGWh Gigawatt hour 1 GWh= 10^6 KWhJ Joule






Lekh Bahadur BasnetProprietor

Tani Nirman Sewa P. Ltd.Battisputali, Kathmandu

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Er. Hare Ram ShresthaMIE (Civil, India), M. Sc. (Env Mgmt.), M. Phil. (Env. Sc.)

Executive Director: Sustainable Infrastructure Development Foundation (SIDeF)President: Society of Consulting Architectural and Engineering Firms (SCAEF) Nepal

Past Vice President : Nepal Engineers Association (NEA)

RURAL ROAD NETWORK IN NEPAL: A MASSIVE CHALLANGE AHEAD TO IMPROVE & MAINTAIN

1 INTRODUCTIONTransport facilities help to develop the access of rural-urban linkages. Rural transport reduces isolation, stimulates marketing activities, improves public services and thus rural connectivity is key component of rural development. Nepal's rugged terrain prevents people from moving with ease. Nepal’s road network and quality are among the lowest in South Asia. More than one-third of its people live in more than two hours walk from the nearest all-season road; In addition, some 60% of road network and most rural roads are not operational during rainy season. Hence improving fair weather roads to an all-weather standard and implementing a maintenance system is essential for Nepal’s economic growth and social welfare.

Planning, implementation and operation and maintenance of district level transport infrastructure are the responsibility of the District Development Committees (DDCs) with the assumption that the DDCs can effectively mobilize the local resources and acquire people’s participation. Now 50944 km length of rural road networks have been constructed (DoLIDAR, 2012). These lengths do not include urban roads in municipal area. Rural roads is expected to integrate the rural area in main stream of country's overall economic activities reducing the isolation and hence providing access to deliver all the basic government services - health, education and thereby improving the livelihood of the rural people.

History of Development of Strategic Road in NepalThe historical evidence shows that the Gorkhali rulers had devised a number of arrangements for maintaining lines of transport and communications from Kathmandu to different districts. As mentioned by Regmi (1987) these arrangements could be described under two main headings: An east-west track through the hill region and postal service for the transportation of official mail and supplies. However, Rana rulers (until 1950), according to Regmi (1987), refrained from constructing large-scale transportation infrastructure because they were afraid that economic development should provide a motive for the British to annex the Kingdom. Road construction initiative took place after the fall of Rana Regime. The major emphasis on the construction of a strategic road network during the period of 1950 – 1975 gradually changed and the country started to focus on constructing roads of regional importance.

Nepal's first highway Tribhuwan Rajpath connecting Birgunj and Kathmandu was constructed by Government of India, completed in 1956. The agreement among the Governments of India, United States of America and Nepal in 1958 to establish the Regional Transportation Organization (RTO) for building roads was an organised and planned way on a long term basis, was the first effort in the history of Nepalese motorized road construction in Nepal (Zimmermann and Rajbhandari, 1995).

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The RTO formulated a 20-year program to build north-south roads connecting Indian cities and railheads along the border. After the collapse of RTO in 1962, Nepal continued its effort to invite donors and build roads. Second highway Siddhartha Rajmarga connecting Sunauli and Pokhara was constructed by Government of India. The earlier policy of emphasizing north-south roads was replaced by the east-west roads like the East-West Highway (1026 km) and Prithivi Raj Marg (Naubise - Pokhara, 176 km). With the internal resources of Nepal and contributions received from the major donor countries and agencies like India, China, USSR, UK, USA, Switzerland, Japan, World Bank (WB) and Asian Development Bank (ADB), Nepal developed the present strategic road networks, which is now at the range of ten thousand kilometres. Strategic Roads Network (SRN) are planned, implemented and maintained by Department of Roads (DOR).

Initiative and Development of Rural Roads With the construction of national highways, second priority was given to construct the feeder roads linking major market towns and district headquarters with the national highways. National highways and feeder roads are strategic roads. After the construction of feeder roads network, construction of district roads started in various part of the country since 1980ies. Government initiative started the rural access programme with the formation of Local Development Construction Committee in 1977. Later Programme was named as "Goreto Ghodeto Aayojana (Foot Trail Mule Trail Project) in 1989. Local people initiated the construction of rural roads in the beginning and accelerated further since early 1990ies by the local bodies like DDCs and VDCs. Department of Roads, DDCs and MLD started funding the construction of rural roads. Programme was named as Local Development Construction Project in 1994 till the formation of Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR) under Ministry of Local Development.

Before formation of DoLIDAR, during eighties some district and regional integrated rural development projects were started e.g. Rapti Integrated Rural Development Project (supported by USAID), Koshi Hill Agricultural Rural Development Project (KHARDP, Supported by UK), Palpa Development Project (PDP, supported by GTZ and SDC), Dhading Development Project (DDP, supported by GTZ). Though these projects were focussed on agriculture, due to high demand of local people, these projects had to undertake some rural roads projects. Rapti project constructed Ghorahi - Pyuthan Road, PDP initiated three roads in Plapa - Aryabhanjyang - Rampur, Harthok, - Chhahara and Banstari - Jhadewa roads. DDP initiated two roads in Dhading - Dhadingbesi - Salyantar and Bhimdhunga - Lamidanda roads. These roads played a pioneer role in showing the need of rural roads in other districts too. With growing demand of rural roads, formation of new dedicated department was necessitated and DoLIDAR was formed under Ministry of Local Development in 1997.

After the formation of DoLIDAR, construction of rural roads in district level got momentum throughout the country. Road sector programme was named as Local Development Construction and Agricultural Roads Project in 2000. Road sector programme was named as Agriculture and Local Level Road Project in 2005. Later to streamline the rural road funding sector wide approach is adopted and termed as Rural Transport Infrastructure Sector Wide Approach Programme from 2009. Thus rural road programme passed its course from three decades. Now, with the VDC grant started since last few years rural road construction is increased suddenly and significantly. Though road construction started haphazardly, even without conducting the survey works road construction started hiring dozers, local people with their initiative started roads, especially in hill districts.

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2 RRN PRESENT SCENARIOThere are two distinct scenario of road status in Terai and hill districts. Terai districts have all three categories of roads - blacktop, gravel and earthen roads. Whereas, most of the roads in hill districts are earthen. For example total rural roads in Morang district is 1233 kms, in which 953.65 kms gravel road, 22.72 km is black top and 257.51 km is earthen roads. In terms of percentage - gravel roads occupy 77.29% of road is gravel, 21% and blacktop road is 1.84%. Sindhupalchowk, a hill district, has the highest road length among the hill district with 1778 km of total road length. But, no blacktop road yet and only 15 km. of gravel roads exist in the district. Therefore, most of the roads are fair weather. Thus the priority of road works and maintenance is different in Terai and hill roads.

National Total: According to the DoLIDAR (2012) Rural Road Record, total rural road length is 50944 kms. Earthen road is 34766 kms, gravel road 14602 and blacktop road is 1576 km. Thus, earthen road is 68%, gravel road 29% and blacktop road is 3 % only. This is sizeable road length of rural road with 34.61 km road length per 100 square km of land area of Nepal. Actually this figure will be more if the land area of plain and hill only is counted deducting the inhabitable land area of snow clad mountains. This figure is quite high if all roads could be made all weather. Since 68% road length is earthen road, which is pliable during fair weather of 8 months only. Many of these roads are not operational during fair weather too, due to incompleteness, especially the rocky cliff and absence of river crossings. Therefore people are deprived of the year round access.

Implementation Need of RRNThere is huge funding gap between required budget and available budget for road woks. Actual demand of completing the remaining works i.e widening, structural works (retaining walls), side and cross drainage works is very high for almost all the roads. At the same time upgrading demand and requirement of roads to gravel standard is also very high.

Many of the important district roads, which are now within the first five top priority roads in DTMP were started to construct as early as 30 years ago. Begnas - Bhorletar Road, Kaski was initiated in 2036 B.S, 34 years ago. Many of the roads in hill district, public vehicles are operational during fair weather only since last 10 to 15 years. People have strong urge to make these roads to gravel standard. It is realised that due to absence of year round operation, many potential economic activities are hindered. For example an entrepreneur in Bhorletar in Kaski district planned to put a juice factory, but he was reluctant, because he fears his investment will not yield the benefit unless there is uninterrupted all weather road round the year.

Cases of implementation of roads activities have different priorities in various districts, Implementation priorities could be broadly grouped in three categories - Terai, districts, hill districts and mountain districts.

Terai districts: Most of the terai districts are in need of;

l Proper establishment of all sets of maintenance mechanism - routine, recurrent and periodic maintenance for gravel standard road.

l Completion of structural works, especially the side drain and cross drain works. l River and rivulets crossing structures e.g. culverts, smaller to long span bridges. l Upgrading of road surface to blacktop standard.

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Hill districts: Many hill districts have initiated the roads construction and most of the roads are in the state of under-construction. Construction of many top priority roads were started long ago, since 20 to 30 year, are partially operational since last few years. Majority of other roads, particularly initiated by VDCs in hill districts in recent years are dozer roads. These roads are of poor quality, poorly aligned and many roads are not even surveyed.

To make the priority roads, operational at least during fair weather of 9 months, requirement of such roads in hill districts are;

l Road surface spot improvement works in problematic area. l Widening of road width wherever it is very narrow, which are incomplete particularly in

rocky area. l Structural works and retaining walls. l Construction of side and cross drains in required places. l River and rivulets crossing structures e.g. culverts and bridges l Establishment of maintenance mechanism.

To make top priority roads to all weather operational, proper gravel works throughout the road length is required. Various surface pavement method is applied in Sindhupalchowk district - river gravel, stone soling, cobble soling etc. But stone soling is widely practiced with good workmanship with long experiences. Cost is similar to river gravel in lower hills, whereas in higher altitude and ridge area stone soling is cheaper than river gravel.

Dozer roads, which are mostly initiated by VDCs in recent years, are more problematic. These roads are to be treated as new construction. Interventions requirement of these roads are;

l Assessment of alignment itself and corrections of alignment so that any investment made now onwards are not wasted.

l Retaining structures l Widening to the required road width. l Construction of side and cross drains in required places. l Spot improvement of road surface to operate during fair weather

If these roads are to be made all weather, depending on the potential and demand of traffic volume, such roads are to be upgraded to gravel standard.

DDC is starting to employ length man for routine maintenance work. All weather roads as a reliable access to various services, entrepreneurs are encouraged to establish the permanent nature of economic and business activities. Investors are likely to invest their business, agricultural activities and economic activities along the vicinity of all weather roads.

Earlier road work was based on adhoc basis and budget allocations of roads were influenced by the political parties. Maintenance of gravel road is understood as spreading of gravel, no detail mechanism of grading, watering, cambering and rolling is practiced in rural roads of terai.

New DTMP Guidelines was prepared for DoLIDAR with the support of RTI Sector Maintenance Pilot. All the districts are investing in hundreds of roads with limited fund. Thus fund provided to each road used to be insignificant in terms of requirement. No roads are in complete state. District Road Core Network (DRCN) concept is introduced in new DTMP Guidelines. This rule has

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become a good tool to bring to the politician to agree on identifying the priority roads to fund to the meaningful scale.

3 PROBLEMS & CHALLANGESBudget required and available has huge gap for RRN. Roads are incomplete due to inadequate budget. Due to less funding, minor works are done in small section, which is easily washed out during monsoon and get damaged by operation of vehicle, which actually is repeating every year, has in turn made roads more expensive.

In steeper area, full road width is not obtained to gain more road length. This is causing the difficulty for the vehicle. Political influence is still prevalent in allocating funds for roads.

Problem is still with RBN fund to follow their specific rules. DDCs are hesitant to use RBN fund fulfilling the various conditions for the relatively smaller fund received from RBN.

District Assembly takes place mostly in Falgun, budget allocation is rearranged/reallocated and only after that, road work is initiated. Fund is released on Chaitra every year, works starts from Baisakh and during monsoon. Works is done during monsoon. This has created difficulties in managerial and financial problems and ultimately led to poor quality of works and sometime lead to financial irregularity.

Monitoring of road works could not be done as required due to absence of fund required to send staff for monitoring. No separate fund is allocated for monitoring works. Dedicated fund is required for monitoring of works.

Low bidding is major problem to maintain quality of work. Contractor is bidding at low rate, this make difficult to complete construction work on time.

Sometime formation of User committee is difficult as the parties have disputes and do not accept each other. Difficult to follow engineering norms for smaller fund, especially for the works that require machine works e.g. roller.

4 RRN ASSET VALUE:According to the recent Rural Road Inventory published by DoLIDAR, total road length of the country is 50944 km. Earthen road is 34766 kms, gravel road 14602 and blacktop road is 1576 km. Earthen road is 68%, gravel road 29% and blacktop road is 3 % only. Unless the road surface is upgraded to gravel level, people will deprive of all weather access.

Many roads are constructed by the local contribution in the beginning. Some hill districts have road asset of more than Rs. 2 billion (Sindhupalchowk district). Thus more assets are created than the actual fund invested by the government for rural road sector. Both UC and contractor model is used. Some works are appropriate to work through contractors' e.g. structural works and pavement works requiring use of machine. Track opening and widening works from UC is appropriate, whereas structural works is appropriate from contractors.

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RRN ASSET VALUE

Table 1: National total of rural road length and equivalent asset value Terai

Road lengthKm

Rate per kmNRs. (Million)

AmountNRs (Million)

Earthen 8204 3 24,612.0 Gravel 12320 5 61,600.0 Blacktop 938 7 6,566.0 Hill Earthen 21540 2 43,080.0Gravel 2119 6 12,714.0 Blacktop 637 10 6,370.0 Mountain Earthen 5023 3 15,069.0Gravel 162 9 1,458.0 Blacktop 1 12 12.0 Total 50944 171,481.0

Thus, tentatively rural road asset of 171 billion is created so far in the country, which is significant. To bring to the earthen road to complete earthen level road in hill and mountain roads, same amount is further required e.g. 43 billion and 15 billion. If the asset created could be preserved and could be further developed to all weather level, accessibility and mobility of the rural people will be greatly enhanced.

COST TO UPGRADE

Terai

To upgrade to gravel level To upgrade to blacktop levellength

KmRate/KmMillion

CostMillion

length Km

Rate/KmMillion

CostMillion

Earthen 8204 2 16408 8204 2 16408Gravel 0 12320 2 24640Blacktop 0 0Hill 0 0Earthen 21540 4 86160 21540 3 64620Gravel 0 2119 3 6357Blacktop 0 0Mountain 0 0Earthen 5023 6 30138 5023 4 20092Gravel 162 4 648Blacktop 0Total 132,706.0 132,765.0

But to bring to all these roads to gravel level as all weather roads, additional cost of 133 billion is required. To bring to black top level further additional cost of another 133 billion is required.

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5 THE ISSUES Due to fewer budgets, some works get damaged; therefore works are to be complete type for permanent nature. Budget release is during the onset of monsoon and works is to be carried out during monsoon.

Due to spot gravel and section works, vehicle ply during monsoon too, though road is not gravel throughout. All RRs are not under DDC, DOR is still involved in RR. Maintenance demand is very high, fund is not enough. Clear demarcation of maintenance works could not be established due incomplete state of roads.

Major agricultural product in hills and mountains during summer is potato. Unless the road is all weather operational farmer has to transport the potato by porter, which cost very high eight to ten times higher. Therefore to reduce the transportation cost and to maximize the farmer's profit maximised, all weather road is needed.

Works are not good due late release of budget - at the end of fiscal year only. DDC is compelled to release the fund, without actually completing the work in field in consideration of works that will be presumably completed by UC.

Maintenance of roads toward systematic approach is slowly taking place, DDC/DTO slowly starting toward quality control works in rural road sector. In the districts, where rural road projects e,g. RAIDP,

Many district roads are now slowly being all weather roads, local people are operating vehicle fair weather day during monsoon even in earthen roads where many spot improvement is carried out. In such roads, now bridges are also to be constructed. Gravel road need bridges to make the roads all weather.

Thus a huge challenge lies to meet the peoples' aspiration and expectation to make the road all weather. This is very important task of the programme to integrate the rural area to the main stream of national development.

Constructions of new roads were the high priority until recent past years. Now the priority is shifted to complete the roads undertaken earlier. But maintenance aspect of road is not the major concern of people and being shadowed.

Local people could not get full benefit from road until the road is built to all weather level. If the road operate throughout the year, full access to health, education and market is possible and the livelihood of could be improved. Connectivity and productivity should be maintained. After connection of road, productivity will also increased of rural area and local product goods supply to market centre. If village connected by road. All weather roads has begun demonstrating its impacts through the reduction of travel time to reach the nearest town and social amenities. Similarly, travel behavior of the beneficiaries has changed due to easier access to work place and nearest town.

Transportation cost of goods in the hill districts is highly fluctuating in fair weather roads in the same area due to unavailability of service during monsoon season

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There are some new trends of shifting towards non-agricultural activities in the project areas. With the improvement of roads, migration in search of work has increased in various districts of Tarai. Employment opportunities through new business sector i.e. grocery shops, store houses, poultry farming, etc have recently started in many areas.

As routine maintenance requirement, length man system is started for the maintenance works in many districts. Mostly five km for one length man, employed for 3 to 4 months during monsoon. In some cased local business community is also sharing. Emergency maintenance is also getting attention of the local people. This shows some commitment from local level. But recurrent and periodic maintenance is not yet understood in district level, which needs to be emphasised.

6 RECOMMENDATION Some programmes and projects in DoLIDAR have shown the good trend in institutionalising the maintenance system for rural roads under DDC and DTO. Therefore, it is recommended that the projects should focus on maintenance mechanism to internalise in DDC and DTO to manage the rural road asset created in the districts.

Capacity building activities of DTO and DDC and local community needs to be conducted in the form of training and exposure visits. For institutional strengthening of DTO and DDC, road related lab and equipment to be set up in the district - roller and mechanical equipment a lab etc. Posts of technical staffs (engineers, sub-engineers etc) are to be increased for adequate monitoring of maintenance works. Capacity building activities includes survey equipment/logistics, lab, transportation, man power, relevant training, exposure visits etc.

Important district roads are being funded for many years, mostly more than 15 year ago. But these roads are not in complete state yet. Therefore a Project Concept to complete the roads within 5 year as a "project" type is to be introducing in pilot basis. Priority roads are to be constructed for all weather standards to operate whole the year. Recently introduced District Road Core Network (DRCN) concept could be instrumental in identifying the important roads in district, but it is found that, present trend of fund allocation could not meet the completion of core network of district is also. Therefore further important roads need to be identified among the core network and these roads are to be brought to all weather standards for first five years period.

DTICC should also function as a strong monitoring body. Present tradition of adhoc monitoring is not effective. Monitoring scheduled should be developed so that systematic and transparent monitoring could be established. Monitoring works has become very week activities and not getting enough attention. Therefore clear provision of budget for monitoring is needed.

Performance based contract is recommended to introduce in pilot basis. This could function well in Terai road.

Lack of timely release of fund has become major headache of all RTI stakeholders. This has created hassle to complete the work during the end of fiscal year, which is coincided with monsoon. Therefore fund should be released in the beginning of fiscal year for the smooth implementation of RTI works.

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Smaller and piece works get damaged. Unattended road sections between spot improvements of stone soling or gravel are seen damaged. Therefore it is recommended to continue the sections, rather than distributing to insignificant portions.

REFERENCES1 DoLIDAR 2069 (2012) "Gramin Sadak Abhilekh" (Rural Road Archive), DoLIDAR, Kathmandu.

2 DoLIDAR 2013 "Nepal Rural Road Standard, 2055 1st Revision 2069", Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development, DoLIDAR, Kathmandu.

3 DoLIDAR 2066 "Rural Transport Infrastructure Sector Wide Approach (RTI SWAp) Implementation Directives 2063, 1st Revision 2066," Ministry of Local Development, DoLIDAR, Local Development Construction and Agricultural Road Project, Kathmandu.

4 Shrestha H. R. Et.al. 2011 "District Transport Planning Trend in Nepal" International Conference on Sustainable Development of Transport System, H.R. Shrestha and U. K. Shrestha, 20-22 October 2011, Kathmandu.

5 DoLIDAR 2066 "RTI SWAp Programme Implementation Directives 2066" DoLIDAR/MLD, Kathmandu.

6 Regmi, M.C, 1987. An Economic History of Nepal (1846-1901). Varanashi, India: Nath Publishing House.

7 Zimmermann, J. and Rajbahandari, B.C., 1995. A Historical Overview of Expansion of Roads in Nepal and Development of Department of Roads. Lalitpur, Nepal: A Paper Presented in a Talk Program on 5 June, 1995 in Swiss Development Cooperation.

We Congratulate Society of Engineers for Rural Development, Nepal (SERDeN) for the publication of 4th volume of journal "Rural

Infrastructure" on the auspicious occasion of 16th Anniversary of DoLIDAR and extend our

best wishes for it's success in contributing towards rural development of Nepal.

Dalanath AdhikariProprietor

Adhikari Nirman Sewa Pvt. Ltd.Hansapur, Gorakha

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ljifo k|j] zul/ jLsf] kl/ efiff, JofVof / j'emfO{df ljljwtf 5 . ul/ jLnfO{ d"ntM cfly{s ?kdf ljZn] if0f ug{] ul/ G5 . ;fdflhs kIf klg ul/ jL lgofNg plQs} dxTjk"0f{ 5 . ul/ jLsf] ;dfwfg ljsf; sfo{s|dsf] ;3gtfdf lge{/ x'G5 . oxL ;TonfO{ dgg u/ L ul/ aLnfO{ ;'Id tj/ n] j'em\g] sf] lz; o; n] vdf ul/ Psf] 5 . ;fy} ;dfwfgsf pkfo klxNofpg] k|of; klg ul/ Psf] 5 . ljsf; Joj:yfkgdf nfdf] ;+nUgtf / x] sf] ;Gbe{df Pp6f JolQmnfO{ ul/ aLn] s;/ L lyr] sf] x'G5 / Tof] s'g ?kdf k|s6 e} / x] sf] x'G5 eGg] k|Zgsf] ;dfwfg o; n] vdf vf] Hg] k|of; ul/ Psf] 5 . ul/ aLnfO{ h'g cfofdaf6 j'em\g] / a'emfpg] k|of; ul/ Psf] 5 ,ToxL;+u tfbfTDotf / fVb} pkfox? klxNofpg] k|of; klg ul/ Psf] 5 . ul/ jL jf/ ] o; n] vdf cleJoQmM wf/ 0ff :ynut cEof; / cg'ejdf cfwfl/ t 5g . ul/ aLsf] lgjf/ 0f PsfÍL k|of; / Psn pkfojf6 ;+ej 5} g . jx' ljwffnfO{ ;+jf] wg ug{] w] / } lgsfosf] ;fd"lxs k|of;, ;dGjo / ;] jf u|fxLsf] ;xeflutf Pj+ :jfldTj jf] wjf6 dfq ul/ jL ;+u n8L pknlJw xfl;n ug{ ;lsG5 . h:tf] / f] u–To:t} pkrf/ eg] h:t} h'g k|s[ltsf] ul/ aL 5 ToxL ;'xfpbf] k|efjsf/ L pkfon] dfq ul/ jL 36fpgdf ljsf; k|bfossf] Wofg s] lGb|t x'g' kb{5 . n] vssf] cg'e"ltdf cfwfl/ t ul/ aL jf/ ] sf] j'emfO{{nfO{ kf7s ;dIf k'/ \ofpg] / lgjf/ 0sf pkfonfO{ jx;df Nofpg] o; n] vsf] p2] Zo / x] sf] 5 . n] vjf/ ] k|fKt x'g] k|ltlqmof ;'emfjn] ul/ aLnfO{ j'em\g] tl/ sf / of] ;+u h'Wg] pkfo Plsg ug{ ;3fp k'/ \ofpg] ljZjf; ul/ Psf] 5 .

Ufl/ jLsf ax' cfofdljsf;sf] zq' ul/ jL xf] . ul/ jL sfod / x] ;Dd ljsf; ePsf] cg'e"lt ug{ ;lsb} g . To;} n] ul/ jL lgjf/ 0f, Go"gLs/ 0f jf 36fpg] sfo{sf nflu ljsf;sf s[ofsnfk ;dfwfg x'g ;S5g . ul/ jLsf jf/ ] df :ki6 j'emfO{ x'g ;s] df dfq ul/ jL 36fpg] pkfo klxNofpg / cjnDjg ug{ ;lhnf] x'G5 .

ul/ jLnfO{ 7fFp ljz] if / JolQm ljz] if b'j} kIfjf6 ljZn] if0f ug'{ kg{] x'G5 . 7fFp ljz] ifsf] ul/ aL ljZn] if0f ubf{ To; 7fFpsf] cjl:ylt, Toxf ;Ddsf] kx'Frsf] cj:yf / ToxfF ljBdfg ef} lts k"jf{wf/ nfO{ x] g'{ kg{] x'G5 . s'g} 7fFpsf] cjl:yltnfO{ xfdL 7fFp ;f/ L ug{ ;Sb} gf} . Tof] 7fFp ToxL / xG5, hxfF Tof] cjl:yt 5 . To;} n] To; 7fFpdf dfgj lgld{t ;'ljwf k'/ \ofP/ xfdL ljsf;sf] cg"el"t u/ fpg ;S5f} . ljsf;sf ;'ljwfsf nflu 7fFpsf] cjl:ylt cg's"n÷;'ud jf k|lts"n÷b'u{d s] s:tf] 5, To;nfO{ Wofgdf / fv] / ef} lts ;'ljwf lj:tf/ ug{ ;lsG5 . o;/ L ef} lts ;'ljwf lj:tf/ ubf{ k|s[ltn] To; 7fFpsf nflu lbPsf ;'Gb/ pkxf/ x?nfO{ gvnaNofO{ k|fs[lts ;Dkbfsf] ;+/ If0f / dfgj lxtdf ltgsf] pkof] u ug{ ;Sg] u/ L ug'{ kb{5 .

s'g} 7fFpsf] ljsf;sf] k} nf] zt{ c? ljsl;t 7fFp ;+u hf] l8g' g} xf] . To:tf] hf] 8fO{ -Connectivity_ ;8s, ;+rf/ , / ljB't h:tf cfwf/ e"t k"jf{wf/ ;+u x'g ;s] df To; 7fFpsf] ljsf; ug{ ;lhnf] x'G5 . tt\kZrft pQm 7fFpnfO{ l;+rfO{ ;'ljwfo'Qm jgfP/ pTkfbg s] Gb| jgfpg ;lsG5 .To:tf pTkfbgx? s[lif, jg, kz' / vfgLhGo, lgdf{0f ;fdu|L jf hn >f] tjf6 lgsflng] phf{sf nflu x'g ;S5g . o;/ L hf] 8fO{ -Connectivity_ / pTkfbsTj -Productivity_ b'j} kIfjf6 s'g} 7fFpnfO{ Jojl:yt ug{ ;s] df To;

/d]z s'df/ clwsf/Lpk;lrj÷k|d'v

of]hgf tyf j}b]lzs ;xof]u ;dGjo zfvf ;ª\3Lo dfldnf tyf :yfgLo ljsf; dGqfno

Ufl/jLsf ax' cfofd / lgjf/0fsf pkfo

35


7fFpdf ljsf;n] ult lnG5 . To:tf] ljsf;sf] ultn] To; 7fFpsf jfl;Gbfdf ljsf; k|ltsf] wf/ 0ff ;sf/ fTds jGg ;S5 . ;f] 7fFp ul/ jLsf] cj:yfjf6 ;DkGgtf tkm{ pGd'v x'Fb} hfg ;S5 .

ul/ jLsf] ;DjGwdf ljZn] if0f ug'{ kg{] csf{] kf6f] eg] sf] JolQm ljz] ifdf / x] sf] ul/ jL -Poverty at Personal Level_ xf] . ;fdfGotof JolQmdf ePsf] ul/ jLnfO{, dfkg ubf{ s'g} JolQmsf] cfly{s, ;fdflhs x} l;otjf6 ljZn] if0f ug{] ul/ G5 . 5f] 6s/ Ldf cfwf/ e"t cfjZostfdf p;sf] kx'Fr ;jn 5 5} g eg] / x] g{] ul/ G5 . clxn] ;Ddsf] x] / fO{ cfly{s ;Ifdtf / ;fdflhs ;'wf/ df p:sf] kx'FrnfO{ g} k|d'v cfwf/ dfgL p:sf] ul/ jLsf] cj:yf Plsg ug{] ul/ Psf] 5 . k|lt lbg ;/ b/ ! -Ps_ cd] / LsL 8n/ eGbf sd cfDbfgL ug{] nfO{ lg/ k] If ul/ jLsf] / ] vfd"gL / x] sf] cj:yf eGg] cGt/ fli6«o dfGotf 5 .

t/ ul/ jL ljZn] if0fnfO{ cem km/ flsnf] jgfpg cfjZos ePsf] 5 . ljsf;df sfo{ ubf{sf] cg'ej sf cfwf/ df s] eGGf ;lsG5 eg] s'g} ;fdfGo gful/ snfO{ p leqsf] ul/ jL p ;+usf] ul/ jL / p;sf] jl/ kl/ sf] u/ L tLg cfofdjf6 ljZn] if0f ug'{ kb{5 .

JolQm leqsf] ul/ aL -Poverty within a Person_s'g} JolQmn] cfˆgf] gfd jtfpg g;Sg] , ul/ jL lgjf/ 0fsf ljsNk / f] Hg g;Sg] , 8/ fPsf] cj:yfdf k|:t't x'g] , sdhf] / 5' eGg] , c1fgtf b;f{pg] / s'g} klg ljifodf ;/ f] sf/ g/ fVg] dfgl;stfjf6 u|:t ePsf] kfOG5 eg] ;f] JolQm cfkm' leqsf] ul/ jLjf6 cfs|fGt ePsf] ?kdf j'em\g' kb{5 . :jefj} n] Pp6f JolQm dfgl;s ?kdf ul/ j xF'bf p:n] ef} lts ?kdf ;DkGgtf xfl;n ug{ ;Sb} g . To;} n] ;j{k|yd JolQm leqsf] ul/ jLnfO{ lgofn] / To;nfO{ x6fpg] pkfo klxNofpg h?/ L 5 .

JolQm ;+usf] ul/ aL -Poverty with a Person_s'g} JolQm ;+usf] ul/ jLnfO{ klg km/ flsnf] eP/ ljZn] if0f ug'{ kb{5 . s'g} JolQm cfwf/ e"t ;Ifdtfjf6 jl~rt eP/ p;n] lzIff cfh{g ug{] cj;/ kfpg ;s] sf] 5} g, :jf:Yo pkrf/ sf] ;'ljwf pkef] u ug{ ;Sb} g, :jR5 lkpg] kfgL k|of] u ug{ kfPsf] 5} g, j;f] jf;sf nflu 3/ 5} g, vfgnfO{ vfB ;fdu|L 5} g, z/ L/ 5f] ̂g] sk8f 5} g, k|fs[lts >f] t ;fwgdf kx'r 5} g, / f] huf/ L pknAw 5} g, cfkm"n] rlr{g kfpg] hUuf 5} g, kF"hL / ljlQo ;] jf b] lv 6f9f 5, ;fdflhs ;] jfjf6 ljd'v 5, k"jf{wf/ pkof] udf kx'r 5} g, ;fdflhs, cfly{s,/ fhg} lts s[ofsnfkdf ;xeflutf 5} g eg] lgZro klg p;nfO{ cfkm';+usf] ul/ aLn] lylrPsf] JolQmsf] ?kdf a'em\g' kg{] x'G5 .

JolQmsf] jl/ kl/ sf] ul/ aL -Poverty around a Person_s'g} JolQmsf] jl/ kl/ sf] ul/ jL jf/ ] klg bl[i6 lbg' h?/ L 5 . ljsf;sf] ljt/ 0fdf lje] b, jl~rtLs/ 0f, c;dfgtf, cGofo, c;'/ Iff h:tf k|j[lt b] lvG5g . To;sf] k|ToIf c;/ JolQmsf] ul/ jLdf kg{ hfG5 . ljsf;df b] lvg] :jfyL{kgf -Selfishness- c?nfO{ ;d] 6g grfxg] , cfkm'n] dfq} k|ltkmn kfpg nfnlot x'g] rl/ q_ n] ul/ jLnfO{ ulx/ fpg d2t ub{5 . t;y{ Pp6f JolQmsf] p leqsf] ul/ jL, p ;+usf] ul/ aLsf] jf/ ] df dfq xf] Og p;sf] jl/ kl/ sf] ul/ aLnfO{ ;d] t lgofn] / ljZn] if0f ug{ h?/ L x'G5 .

o;/ L ul/ jL lgjf/ 0fsf ;Gbe{df s'g} 7fFp / s'g} JolQmsf] ljZn] if0f ul/ ;s] kl5 Tof] 7fFp / ToxfFsf afl;Gbf -Place and People_ nfO{ Wofgdf / flv ul/ aL 36fpgsf nflu ljsf;sf pkfox? klxNofpg' kb{5 .

ul/ jL 36fpg] s] lx pkfox?ul/ aLsf] ;DjGwdf ckgfOPsf] j'emfO{sf] tl/ sfnfO{ Wofgdf / fv] / g} ul/ aL lgjf/ 0fsf pkfox? klxNofpg ;lsG5 . o; ;+be{df ul/ aL ljZn] if0fsf tLg cfofdnfO{ dWogh/ u/ L pkfox? ;'emfOPsf] 5 .

36


lJolQm leqsf] ul/ aL lgjf/ 0f ug{] pkfoul/ aL ;+u h'Wg JolQmut ;Ifdtf, ;fxz, nugzLntf, ;dk{0f h:tf u'0fx? JolQmdf x'g' kb{5 . o; ;Gbe{df JolQmsf] rfl/ lqs kIfnfO{ ;b} j OdfGbf/ , ;Tolgi7f, k|ltj4 Pj+ kl/ kSjtf o'Qm u'0fn] ;DkGg x'g] u/ L JolQmTj lgdf{0f ug{] k|of; ug'{ kb{5 . o;/ L lgdf{0f ul/ Psf] lrl/ qsf] hudf, JolQmsf] IfdtfnfO{ lgvfb{] s'g} ljifosf] of] hgf agfpg] , sfo{qmd cfof] hg ug{ ;Sg] , ;d:of ;dfwfg ug{] , / fd|f] ;+u ;+rf/ ug{ ;Sg] h:tf Ifdtf lgh JolQmdf ljsf; u/ fOg' kb{5 . JolQmn] ;b} j kf/ :kl/ s a'emfO{ / ;xof] u ug{] efjgf / fVg' kb{5 .

s'g} klg sfo{sf] nflu of] hgf agfpg] , To;sf] ;do tflnsf lgwf{/ 0f ug{] clg sfof{Gjog ug{] zLk JolQmdf x'g' kb{5 . oL ;j} sf nflu ljsf; k|bfosn] ckgfPsf] / 0fgLlt, k|0ffnL / ;+/ rgf ;xof] uL x'g' kb{5 .

lgisif{df JolQm leqsf] ul/ aL lgjf/ 0fsf] pkfo p:sf] ;zQmLs/ 0f -Empowerment_ xf] . ;zQmLs/ 0fsf dfWodjf6 JolQm leqsf] ul/ aL 36fpg] k|of; ubf{ rl/ q, Ifdtf, j'emfO{, zLk / ;xof] uL jftfj/ 0fsf kIfdf ;} 4flGts / Jojxfl/ s 1fg lbO{ JolQmsf] 1fg, zLk / dgf] j[lQnfO{ pkof] uL, u'0fsf/ L / ;sf/ fTdfs jgfpg'' kb{5 .

lJolQm;+usf] ul/ aL lgjf/ 0f ug{] pkfoJolQm ;+usf] ul/ aL 36fpg] pkfo eg] sf] p:sf] ;Ifdtfdf clej[l4 ug'{ xf] . s'g} klg cfwf/ e"t cfjZostf kl/ k"lt{sf nflu JolQmnfO{ ;Ifd agfpg p:sf] cfly{s cj:yf ;b[9 kfg'{ xf] . cfwf/ e"t s'/ fdf kx'Fr j9fpg cfly{s ;fwgsf] g} vfFrf] kb{5 . cfly{s ;fwg xfl;n ug{] cj;/ Tolt j] nf dfq ;+ej 5, h'g jvt ljsf; k|bfosn] k|To] s gful/ ssf] ljsf; kfpg] xsnfO{ ;'lglZrt ub{5 , hgtf, pgLx? j;f] jf; ug{] 7fFp / pgLx?n] rfx] sf] ljsf;sf] k|sf/ nfO{ ;+jf] wg ub{5, ;j} hgtfnfO{ ;d] 6] / pgLx?sf] ;xeflutfdf ljsf; sfo{qmd ;+rfng ub{5', pTkfbg ;xof] uL / >d k|wfg k"jf{wf/ sf of] hgfx? ;+rfng ub{5, 5f] 6f] ;dodf w] / } k|ltkmn lbg] :yfgLo ;+efjgf / To;sf] :yfgLo jhf/ ;+usf] tfnd] nsf cfwf/ df cfod'ns sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ub{5 / lo ;j} df ul/ aLsf] kx'r ;'lglZrt ul/ G5 . clgdfq JolQmn] cfo cfh{g ug{ yfN5, p:sf] sdfO{n] cfwf/ e"t ;] jf tyf j:t' vl/ bsf] vr{ wfGg ;S5 / qmdzM JolQm cfkm';+usf] ul/ aLjf6 d'Qm eO{ ;DkGgtf tkm{ pGd'v x'b} hfG5 . To;} n] lgisif{df s'g} JolQm ;+usf] ul/ aLnfO{ x6fpg] eg] sf] ljsf; k|bfosn] cfo cfh{g tyf / f] huf/ L -Income Generation and Employment_ j[l4 ug{] sfo{qmddf hf] 8 lbg' g} xf] .

lJolQmsf] jl/ kl/ sf] ul/ aL 36fpg] pkfoljj] s, Gofo / ;dfgtfsf] dfWodjf6 JolQmsf] jl/ kl/ sf] ul/ aL 36fpg ;lsG5 . o; ;Gbe{df ljsf; k|bfosn] d"ntM ;b} j ljj] s k|of] u u/ L ljsf;sf] Gofof] lrt ljt/ 0f ug'{ kb{5 . ljt/ 0fdf lje] b / c;dfgtf ug{ x'b} g . s'g} 7fFpdf k'Ug] ljsf;sf s[ofsnfkn] s;} nfO{ nfe u|fxL / s;} nfO{ d'sbz{s jgfpg x'b} g . ul/ aLsf] ljt/ 0fnfO{ x] bf{ ef} uf] lns cfwf/ df >f] t s] Gb| b] lv 6f9fsf j:tLdf ul/ aLsf] rfk j9L ePsf] b] lvG5 . n} lËs ljZn] if0fjf6 k'?if eGbf dlxnfdf ul/ aLsf] ;d:of j9L b] lvG5 . o:t} hftLo cfwf/ df blnt ;d'bfodf ul/ aL j9L 5 . nf] kf] Gd'v, l;dfGtLs[t ;d'bfodf klg ul/ aL JofKt 5 . pk] lIft plTkl8tnfO{ ul/ aLsf] k|of{osf] ?kdf x] g{] ul/ G5 . of] cj:yfsf] lg/ fs/ 0f eg] sf] ljsf;sf] ljt/ 0fdf Gofo lbg' xf] . Gofo ;+kfbgsf] cfwf/ ;dfgtf g} xf] .

lgisif{df JolQmsf] jl/ kl/ sf] ul/ aL 36fpg] pkfo cyf{t JolQm lje] b, jl~rtLs/ 0f, cGofo , c;dfgtf, c;'/ Iff h:tf ljsf; cj/ f] ws Jojxf/ jf6 d'Qm eO{ h'g ;'s} 7fFpdf klg JolQm JolQm jLrsf] ljsf;sf cj;/ nfO{ ;dtf d"ns jgfpg] pkfosf] ?kdf Gofo / ;dfgtfdf cfwfl/ t eO{ ljsf; ljt/ 0f ul/ g' kb{5 . o;sf] nflu ljsf; k|bfosn] ljj] ssf] k|of] u ug'{ kb{5 . ;w} ;xL sfd ug'{ kb{5 . ljsf; ;DjGwL 1fg, zLk, / cg'ejnfO{ :yfgLos/ 0f ug'{ kb{5 . n} lËs Gofo, ;fdflhs Gofo, cGt/ k':tf Gofo / of] hgf :yndf Gofo x'g] u/ L sfd ug'{ kb{5 .

37


ljsf; Joj:yfkgdf nf] stflGqs / ;xeflutf d"ns k4tL cjnDag ul/ g' kb{5 . hgtfnfO{ cf/ Destf{ / 5gf} 6stf{sf] ?kdf Jojxf/ ug'{ kb{5 . ljsf; k|bfos ;xof] uL / ;xhstf{ jGg' kb{5 . ljsf;sf] jf/ ] df ;f] Rbf, s'/ f ubf{ jf sfof{Gjog ubf{ hgtf, pgLx? j;f] jf; ug{] 7fFp / ljsf;jf/ ] pgLx?n] k|fKt ug{ vf] h] sf] p2] ZonfO{ ;+u} x|boËd ug'{ kb{5 . ljsf; k|bfosnfO{ ;do, -Time_ ;do lrgL pkof] u ug{] j'l4 -Talent_ / j[l4nfO{ pkof] u ug{ ;xof] uL pks/ 0f -Tool_ nfO{ ;+u} ;+of] hg u/ L ljsf; sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ug'{ kb{5 .

ul/ aLnfO{ ;dfwfgd'vL jgfpg j'emfO{df ?kfGt/ 0ful/ aLsf af/ ] df rrf{ ubf{ of] Hofb} hl6n ljifo ePsf] dx;'z x'G5 . o;nfO{ ;dfwfgd'vL jgfpg ;j{k|yd o; jf/ ] sf] j'emfO{ ;/ n / Joj:yfkg ug{ ;lsg] x'g' kb{5 . o; lglDt s] xL s'/ fdf Wofg lbg} kg{] x'G5 . h:tf] :yfgLo txdf pknJw k|fs[lts >f] t / ;fwg Pj+ ToxfFsf jfl;Gbfdf ePsf] cefj jf/ ] sf] l/ Qmtf klxrfg ul/ g' kb{5 . k|To] s 7fFp / hgtfdf ePsf] ljsf; ljt/ 0fsf] ;"rgf Plss[t u/ L To;df ;j} sf] kxF'r x'g] u/ L x/ ] s jif{ k|sfzg / k|zf/ 0f ul/ g' kb{5 . o:sf] lhDd] jf/ L df} h'bf cj:yfdf uf=lj=;= / lh=lj=; n] jxg ug'{ plrt x'G5 . ul/ aL ;d:ofd'vL jGb} 5 eGg] s'/ fsf] j'emfO{ ;+rf/ hutsf] ;+k|] if0fn] lgb{] z ug{] u/ ] sf] kfOG5 . To;} n] ;+rf/ If] qn] ul/ aL lgjf/ 0fdf ePsf] ljsf; k|of;sf / fd|f kIfnfO{ km} Nofpg] / g/ fd|f kIfnfO{ cf} Nofpg] ug'{ kb{5 . cyf{t / fd|f t To;} / fd|f, g/ fd|fnfO{ kf] sf] 6\ofpg' kb{5 eGg] Psf+sL ;f] rjf6 æ/ fd|f] sfd km} Nofpg] , g/ fd|f] sfd, cf} Nofpg] Æ km/ flsnf] ;f] rnfO{ Jojxf/ df ptfg'{ kb{5 . o;f] ubf{ / fd|f] sfd u/ ] / klg k|z+;Lt / dof{lbt x'g g;s] sfx? k|z+;f / dof{bf kfP/ uf} / jflGjt x'g] 5g eg] g/ fd|f] sfd u/ ] sfx? k|lti7f u'd] sf] cg'e"ltn] cfoGbf ;r] t e} / fd|f] sfd tkm{ g} pGd'v x'g] 5g . o; qmddf ljsf; k|bfosn] hgtf s] lGb|t e} sfd ug{] jfgL / ;+rf/ d} qL Jojxf/ k|s6 ug'{ kb{5 . ljsf; cjnf] sgstf{sf ?kdf / x] sf ;+rf/ If] q, / fhlglts bn / gful/ s ;dfhn] ;sf/ fTds ;f] r, Pj+ cu|b|i6f dfgl;stf Pj+ ljsf; ;xof] uL e"ldsfsf ;fy ljsf;nfO{ x] g'{ kb{5 . ljsf; u|fxL hgtfn] ;dfj] zL ;xefuLtf 4f/ f ljsf;sf] :jfldTj u|x0f ug{] rl/ q b] vfpg ;Sg' kb{5 .

lgisif{ul/ aLnfO{ Pp6f cfofd jf6 dfq x] / ] / o;sf] k'/ f ?k b] lvb} g . To;} n] jx' cfoflds ljZn] if0f ug{ h?/ L 5 . o;} u/ L ul/ aL 36fpg] pkfox? klg jx'kIfLo 5g . tyflk lgisif{df olb ljsf;nfO{ ul/ aL u|:t txdf k'/ \ofO{ Ifdtf ljsf;sf] sfo{qmdn] ;j} JolQmnfO{ ;d] 6g] , cfo cfh{g tyf / f] huf/ Ld"ns sfo{qmdn] ;j} 3/ kl/ jf/ nfO{ ;d] 6g] / cfwf/ e"t k"jf{wf/ ljsf;n] ;j} ufpF hf] l8g] / tL 7fpdf k"jf{wf/ sf] ;'ljwf pknJw x'g] xf] eg] ul/ aLnfO{ 36fpg ;lsG5 / ;DkGgtf pGd'v cj:yfdf k'/ \ofpg ;lsG5 .






Bahadur ThingProprietor

Bahadur Thing Nirman Sewa P. Ltd.Balaju, Kathmandu

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The Nepal Rural Road Standards (NRRS) were introduced in 2055 B.S to set the classification and geometric design standards for the Local Road Network (LRN) to be followed by all those involved in the development of the network, including Users, User Committees, VDCs, DDCs, DTOs, DoLIDAR and its development partners.1

The classification and geometric design was revised in 2010 during the preparation of interim guidelines for District Transport Master Plan (DTMP) for the SWAp Pilot Districts, when existing district roads were reclassified as District Roads ‘A’ and all previous village roads were reclassified as District Roads “B” with no change in their geometric design parameters.

In March 2012 the Nepal Road Sector Assessment Study was completed together with recommendations regarding simplifying the DTMP to make it easier to understand, cheaper to implement and less time consuming. This review concluded that LRN investment should change its approach to new construction and concentrate on upgrading to a core network of maintainable, all-weather roads linking the District Centre to the VDC HQ’s office or growth centre. This core district road network is defined as the minimum network necessary to ensure maintainable, all-weather access to all VDC HQs. If VDC HQs have not yet been connected to this network, new roads will need to be constructed. All roads not included in the core network will become village roads.

The all-weather construction of the core network has meant that the design speeds of the district roads has had to be increased and this has prompted a review of the geometric design standards for LRN. It has also provided DoLIDAR with the opportunity to make changes designed to tackle issues relating to road safety, climate change and disaster risk reduction.

Major changes in Nepal Rural Road Standards 2055, Ist Revision 2069 are listed on following subject matters.

l Design capacity l Design speed l Road way width l Shoulder width l Total right of Way l Setback distance from Road land boundary / RoW to Building line on either side

1 The standards for Strategic Road Network – National Highways, Feeder Roads, which are under the jurisdictions of Department of Roads (DoR) are excluded in this document but are available in the ‘Nepal Road Standard (2027) – Second Revision’.

Er. Ganga Bahadur BasnetSDE, DoLIDAR

Nepal Rural Road Standard 2055, 1st Revision 2069

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l Minimum safe stopping sight distance l Lateral Clearance between roadside object and the edge of the shoulder l Minimum radius in horizontal curve l Hairpin Bends l Gradient l Co-ordination of horizontal and vertical alignment l Passing Zone and Lay-bys arrangement l Carriageway width at culvert/bridge l Level of embankment above HFL l Traffic sign and road safety

S.No. Design ParametersDistrict Road

(Core Network) Village Road (VR)Comments

Hill Terai Hill Terai

1 Design capacity- in both directions(Vpd /P.C.U per day)

200 (400)

400 (800)

100 (200)

200 (400)

2 Design speed (km per hour) Ruling-25Min-20

Ruling-50Min-40 15 30

3 Road way width (m)

7.0 7.5

4.0 4.5

• Given road way width are excluding drain; parapet and top width of retaining wall.

• If an available existing road way width is more than defined and carriageway has paved surface, distance between side drain and pavement edge can be maintained partially as hard shoulder and earthen shoulder.

5.25 6.75

4.5 6

4

Carriageway width (m)

5.5 5.5

3 3

• The carriageway width of District Road (core network) is 3.75 m but it can be reduced to 3 m where traffic intensity is less than 100 motorised vehicles per day and where the traffic is not likely to increase due to situation like dead end, low habitation and difficult terrain.

• Desirable road surface for District Road (Core Network) is gravel or paved, whereas, for Village road is unpaved or gravel.

• If a village Road carries traffic volume more than 100 motorised vehicles per day, the carriageway width will be 3.75 m and other parameters upgrade accordingly.

• District road (core network) with volume of traffic > 400 ADT, single lane width may not be adequate for operation, therefore, should go for higher lane width of 5.5 m

3.75 3.75

3 3

5 Shoulder width, either side (m)

0.75 1

0.5 0.75

0.75 1.5

0.75 1.5

6 Total right of Way (RoW) (m) 20 20 15 15

• In case of DRCN 10 m RoW on either side from road centre line

• In case of VR 7.5 m RoW on either side from road centre line

• If in any case existing RoW is more than defined value, existing available value shall be adopted as a right of way.

Setback distance from Road land boundary / RoW to Building line on either side (m)

6 6 3 3

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8 Minimum safe stopping sight (m) 20 45 15 30

Since, opposing vehicle occupies the same lane in single lane road; it should be designed for intermediate site distance. However, it might be difficult to design the horizontal alignment with intermediate sight distance for hill terrain.

9 Lateral Clearance between roadside object and the edge of the shoulder (m)

Normally-1Min–0.5

Normally-1.5Min -1

Normally -1Min –0.5

Normally-1.5Min -1

5 m vertical clearance should be ensured at all underpasses, and similarly at overhanging cliffs. The vertical clearance should be measured in reference to the highest point of carriageway However, in case of overhead wires; poles etc. shall be at least 7.0 m above the road surface.

10 Minimum radius in horizontal curve (m)

Ruling min -20Min-2.5

Ruling min -90

Min-6010 30

At sharp horizontal curve, it is necessary to widen the carriageway to provide safe passage of vehicles–refer 10.4 of text part of standard.

11

Hairpin Bends

Minimum spacing between Hairpin Bends (m) 100 100 100 m spacing is desirable but it may be less as per

site condition

Minimum radius of curve (m) 12.5 10

Minimum Road way width at apex (m)

5.5 for 4.5 roadway width

6.25 for 5.25 roadway width

5 for 4 roadway

width

Maximum gradient (%) 4 4

Minimum gradient (%) 0.5 (max 1)

0.5 (max 1)

Desirable minimum gradient for this purpose is 0.5%, if the side drains are lined and 1% if unlined.

Maximum super elevation (%) 10 10

Minimum transition curve length (m) 15 15

12 Ruling gradient (%) 7 5 7 5

If non-motorised vehicles are in significant number in traffic stream then due consideration need to be given to the pulling power of animal drawn vehicles and ruling gradient need to be limited up to 3%.

13 Limiting gradient (%) 10 6 10 6

14 Exceptional gradient (%) 12 7 12 7

15Limitation of maximum gradient length (m) above average gradient of 7%

300 - 300 -

16

Maximum recovery gradient (%) to be applied after gradient in excess of 7% for a minimum recovery length of 150 m

4 4

17 Maximum gradient at bridge approach (%) 6 5 6 5

In Terai, If non-motorised vehicle like bullock cart, Tricycle are in traffic stream then maximum gradient limit to 3%.

18Minimum gradient on hill roads (for better drainage) (%)

0.5 (max1 - 0.5(max1) - Desirable minimum gradient for this purpose is

0.5%, if the side drains are lined and 1% if unlined.

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19 Co-ordination of horizontal and vertical alignment

• Sharp horizontal curve should be avoided at or near the apex of the summit vertical curve or the lowest point of the valley curve.

• Horizontal and vertical alignment should coincide with each other as far as possible and their length should be more or less equal. If this is difficult for any reason, the horizontal curve should be somewhat longer than the vertical curve.

• The degree of curvature should be in proper balance with the gradients. Excessive curvature in a road with flat grades, do not constitute balanced design and should be avoided.

20

Cross slope in carriageway camber (%)

Earthen(existing) 5 5 5 5 • Shoulder having the same surface as the

carriageway should have the same cross slope • Unpaved shoulder on paved carriageway should

be at least 0.5% steeper than the cross fall of carriageway. However, 1% more slope than the carriageway is desirable.

Gravel 4 4 4 4

Bituminous Seal Coat 3 3 - -

21

Passing Zone, Dimensions (width x length) (m x m)

The width of carriage way should be 5.5 m and length is about 12 m along outside edge and 30 m along inside i.e. towards the carriageway side and each end it should be tapered gradually towards the carriageway.

Lay-bys, Dimension (width x Length) (m x m)

Minimum bus lay-bys width shall be additional 3 (i.e. total min carriageway width is 6 m) and the length is about 12 m along outside edge and 30 m along inside i.e. towards the carriageway side and at each end it should be tapered gradually towards the carriageway.

22 Passing zone strips at interval of (m) (maximum) 300 500 300 500

• Lay-bys are provided as an where needed. • The location of passing place depends on the

sight distance–should provide at or near blind and sharp summit curve; the likelihood of vehicles meeting between passing places; and the potential difficulty of reversing.

23

Carriageway width at culvert/bridge (m) (Single lane) 4.25 4.25 4.25 4.25 • Measured from inside to inside of parapet walls

or kerbs • Additional width for footpath can be considered

as per site requirement, volume of pedestrian flow.

Carriageway width at culvert/bridge (m) (Intermediate lane)

6 6 - -

24 Level of embankment above HFL (m) 1 (0.5 min) 1 (0.5 min) 0.5 0.5 1 m is desirable but minimum is 0.5 m

25 Traffic sign and road safety

• Different regulatory and warning signs for narrow road width; sharp and blind curve; stop sign at the junction should be provided in rural roads, which are in maintainable state. For detail dimension follow traffic manual published by DoR, August 1997.

• All-weather road should have kilometre post. The shape and size of kilometre post can be used as given in DoR standard design, published in January 1978.

• Delineator post or other low cost delineating device such as earth filled bitumen drum etc. or low cost safety barrier such as gabion barrier should be provided along the sharp curve and blind curve, which has big ( > 3 m) drop on valley side.

• In case of intersection with other road, since the higher category of road will normally have wider right of way provision, the intersection is to be flared along the higher category of road and rural road should generally meet the other road at right angle junction, whereas, it should have clear line of sight, minimum 45 m along the rural road and 100 m along the higher category road and should discourage settlement development within this area of intersection.

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1. BackgroundAgriculture is the major sector of Nepalese economy. About 80% of populations depend on agriculture sectors employment (ie crops, vegetables, fruits and livestock), which contributes about 33% of gross domestic product (GDP). Nepal's poverty reduction strategy recognizes that agricultural growth is essential for attaining broad-based growth and improving the livelihoods of most Nepalese. Agriculture in Nepal depends largely on monsoon rains from June to September, when 75% of annual rainfall occurs. Regulated and controlled irrigation is therefore critical to improving agricultural productivity, particularly in the long dry season, but also during dry spells in the wet season that can reduce crop yields. Of the 2.60 million hectares (ha) of land under cultivation, 1.80 million ha is irrigated, of which 1.40 million ha lies on the Terai, or plains. The remaining 0.40 million ha is in river valleys, upland valleys, and terraces on hills and mountains. Many remote districts of Nepal are facing food deficiency for more than half the year. The situation becomes worst when they face the acute draught in some year. Thus, irrigation is important to sustaining the country’s economy. While irrigation has been practiced by Nepalese farmers for decades in traditional way, there is considerable need both to expand the currently irrigated area and to improve the efficiency of existing systems. The efforts of these small farmers are not adequate to meet their demand. Large irrigation sub projects are not technically feasible either due to non availability of water sources or due to small cultivable command area. Hence small irrigation schemes have paramount importance to satisfy the demand of marginal farmers having small land holdings.

2. Irrigation and Local Infrastructure Development PolicyAccording to Irrigation Policy 2003 and LID policy 2004, small irrigation system is that which have irrigation area less than 25 hectare in the hills and mountains and less than 200 hectors in the terai plains. Ground water irrigation such as shallow tube wells and non-conventional irrigation systems (such as drip, sprinkler etc) also categorized as small irrigation systems.

Nepal's Irrigation Policy of 2003 has the following broad objectives: (i) year-round irrigation; (ii) strengthened WUAs for the sustainable management of existing systems; and (iii) enhanced knowledge, skills, and institutional capability for all working in the subsector, including government staff, WUAs, and NGOs. The policy clearly states that the development of large and medium-sized projects is the responsibility of the Department of Irrigation. Both the Irrigation Policy and the Local Infrastructure Development Policy of 2004 call for small irrigation systems to be implemented by WUAs and "local bodies". The Local Infrastructure Development Policy specifies that DDCs should each establish seven technical units, including one for irrigation and flood control.

Government of Nepal has adopted decentralization and local self governance policy to empower local bodies to take responsibility of local development through local self governance Act (LSGA) 2055 and

Er. Kumar Thapa, SDEIrrigation River Control and Other Infrastructure Development Section, DoLIDAR

Chairperson, Society of Engineers' for Rural Development, Nepal (SERDeN)

Small Irrigation Experiences in DoLIDAR/Local Bodies

43


Regulation 2056. LSGA 1998 envisions that local bodies are responsible to prepare and implement project relating to the small irrigation, soil erosion and river control within district. Decentralization doctrine says that the small irrigation project shall be managed by the water users association (WUA) through local bodies. Small irrigation programs devolved from the Department of Irrigation (DoI) to the District Development Committee (DDC) through DoLIDAR under MoFALD from the F/Y 2066/2067.

Irrigation Policy and LID Policy envision investment in small-scale irrigation development as the means to maintaining local level food security and alleviating rural poverty. The policy entrusts the responsibility of small-scale irrigation development to the local bodies with Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR) under Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development (MoFALD) at the central level. The MoFALD/DoLIDAR is also responsible for policy and implementation guideline formulation for harmonizing implementation on small irrigation projects.

3. Planning ProcessThe executing agency for the small irrigation program is MoFALD through DOLIDAR, the central implementing agency for central-level activities. The DDCs are the Project implementing agencies at the district level and DTOs provide technical backstopping in infrastructure development at the district level.

Small irrigation implementation guideline has made and circulated to all 75 districts to harmonize planning and implementation process of small irrigation program. The guideline has provision for formation of district level small irrigation project selection committee in each district which facilitates and support DDC for the planning and monitoring of small irrigation. The committee indentifies and prioritizes maximum 6- 8 small irrigation projects, programs and recommends to the DDC for final selection and approval. Basically the DDC follow the participatory planning process which is a bottom-up and there are various steps in approach steps of identifying demands through a series of participatory meetings organized at settlement level to District level.

In the local bodies have very good experiences in participatory planning process in local level but still local bodies are facing many problems during the planning process and adopting adhoc based planning process. Due to high demand of small irrigation projects from communities, these days few DDCs are selecting more than specified number of project and even not following properly implementation guideline instructions. Finally such decisions will impact on sustainability of small irrigation projects.

4. Small Irrigation Project and Program under Local Bodies Small scale irrigation development is a new initiative within DoLIDAR, local bodies and needs consolidation and harmonization with other sectors. Capacity development of DDCs and DTOs personnel to take up irrigation development is another important issue. Especially DDC has allocated the budget for new construction, rehabilitation and periodic maintenance of small irrigation projects. Majority chunk of the budget allocate and spent in rehabilitation and up grading of the irrigation system. Considering the sustainability and ownership of small irrigation projects, irrigation and program and project are implemented through water user’s association/committee in collaboration with local bodies own fund. By focusing on the construction and rehabilitation of farmer managed irrigation schemes (FMIS), small irrigation project interventions are designed to achieve quick impacts for higher level of income derived from increased cropping intensity, customized cropping patterns, higher yields and marketing of food crops. The small irrigation project and program are as follows;

44


4.1 Small Irrigation and River Control ProgramThe small irrigation sub sector program is implementing with unconditional grant in 75 districts through the DDCs with the technical support of District Technical Office (DTO). For the systematic planning and implementation, District Irrigation Master Plan (DIMP) is to prepare in all districts based on agriculture and water resource potential. DIMP has been prepared for three districts and preparation of a technical guideline for small-scale irrigation development is currently underway. It is important to prepare district wise inventory of small irrigation in order to ascertain the number, distribution and area coverage. Preparing a District Irrigation Master Plan can help establish database system and prioritize the irrigation development within the districts. Government of Nepal (GoN) has been allocating budget for small-scale irrigation development in each fiscal year beginning 2010-2011. At present, the allocated amount is limited to Rs. 2 to 4 million per district. The allocation of funds for small irrigation development, however, has been meager. Due to limited funds it has been impossible to meet the demand made by local communities. DoLIDAR has taken a lead in developing implementation guidelines for small-scale irrigation development programme and conducted training to enhance the capacity of the DTO personnel to implement small-scale irrigation development. Under the small irrigation and river control program, the trend of allocation of conditional grant is shown in below figure

Allocation of budget trend in Small irrigation Program (Million)

Figure: New construction of Tamrang small irrigation project, Kabilas, Chitwan

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4.2 Community Irrigation Project (CIP) Community Irrigation Project (CIP) uthrough grant assistance of Asian Development Bank (ADB) is being implemented under the DoLIDAR, covering 12 districts in mid western and far western regions. The project districts are Kanchanpur, Kailali, Dang, Kapilvastu, Doti, Salyan, Rukum, Rolpa, Pyuthan, Bajhang, Jumla and Mugu. Over a period of six years (2011-2017) the program envisions to support the livelihood of disadvantage groups through development about 300 surface irrigation schemes and 100 shallow tube well clusters covering 17,000 ha.

4.3 Local Infrastructure for Livelihood Improvement (LILI) ProjectLILI has been initiated with aim of improving food, security and incoming by providing better access to water for irrigation to poor farmers with predominantly marginal landholding in selected food deficit areas. Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR) in collaboration with HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation Nepal has been implementing Local Infrastructure for Livelihood Improvement (LILI) project. The project is funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). Total Budget for 5 years Phase-II (2009 – 2014) is NRs. 906.01 million. The goal of the project is to increase income and food security of rural farmers by providing irrigation facilities to 4’000 hectares (ha) land of 27’000 households in Achham, Dailekh, Jajarkot, Kalikot, Ramechhap, Okhaldhunga and Khotang Districts. By the end of July 2013, constructions of 394 irrigation schemes are already completed irrigating 3'107hectares of 20’195 households of which more than 60 per cent farmers belong to disadvantaged groups. Constructions of 150 irrigation schemes and detail surveys of 300 schemes are planned for the FY 2070/71.

5. Issues and ChallengesThere are more issues and challenge in small irrigation. With the experience of small irrigation main issues and challenges are mentioned below.

l Small irrigation, defined by irrigation policy has not been a focus of government assistance but is an important subsector for poverty reduction.

l Small irrigation need continued policy and program support (financial and technical) from central and local governments, donors and development agencies.

l Small irrigation programs and projects are implementing three different government organizations (DDC, Irrigation Division office and Agriculture Development Office) in local level. So there is lack of coordination between line agencies.

l Small irrigation projects and programs are not integrated with agriculture software programs. There is no experience in agriculture promotion and support programs i.e. micro finance, cooperatives, social mobilization, agriculture development and marketing in a single organization.

l Small irrigation is getting less priority during planning, implementation and monitoring and evaluation. Since developing small irrigation also requires a relatively new approach; participatory planning, design and development; there is a need for training a cadre of professionals with specific responsibility for Small-scale irrigation development.

l Sustainability of small irrigation system is related to the issue of scale, its strengths and limitations at the levels of landscape, community and political boundary must be analyzed.

l Nepal has many technological options when it comes to small irrigation system. They include

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small surface diversion and earthen canals, plastic ponds, micro irrigation (drip and sprinkler), low-lift treadle and rover pumps, and multiple-use systems.

l Impact of climate change, particularly the rise in temperatures and the increasing variability of rainfall, threatens to reduce water availability and reduce performance of small irrigations.

l Agriculture flat and fertile land change into the urbanization and other change process threats to local food production and livelihood security and conservation and management of both agriculture land and irrigated areas.

l Overall economy development of the country mainly depends on the agriculture products. Majority agricultural based population still out of the access of market and market based livelihood opportunities because of poor road net works in the rural part of the country.

l Investment in small irrigation creates value in sustaining the livelihood and economy of rural population through its role in enhancing, stabilizing and diversifying agricultural productions.

l High demand of small irrigation programs and project from communities and allocation budget is very less compare to the demands. So it is required to increase significant amount of budget for employment generation and increase production and productivity of agriculture products.

l Role and responsibility of the DDCs and DTOs should be clearly demarcated. Basically DDCs are responsible for planning, monitoring and evaluation and DTOs are responsible for implementation and quality control of project. Still there is contradiction in role and responsibility between DDCs and DTOs. Sustainability of the small irrigation system needs capacity building of DoLIDAR, DTOs and WUAs.

l Sustainability of small irrigation systems requires that the issues of water rights and social justice be addressed within the context of natural, social and political systems.

l District irrigation inventory and District Irrigation Master Plan (DIMP) should prepare for systematic planning and implementation of small irrigation projects in all districts. Small irrigation projects should be prioritized based on rural road connectivity, agriculture potential and water resource potential.

l Prioritize small irrigation projects and program should be implemented after detailed survey, designed and cost estimated.

l Cost effective technology development particularly suitable for hills and mountains.

l Investment in small irrigation development must be supported by protection of water sources and promotion of conservation technologies to enhance sustainability and productivity of irrigated agriculture. Cost effective technology development particularly suitable for hills and mountains.

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Hari PokharelGIS Expert, LRBSU

Er. Madhav Prasad BhattaraiSDE, DoLIDAR

Chief, Local Bridge Section / Coordinator, Local Road Bridge Program (LRBP)Coordinator, TBSWAp

Bridge Information Management System (BIMS)and Its application in Local Road Bridge Building

1 Background Local Roads Bridge programme (LRBP) is implemented since February 1, 2011 under the Bilateral Agreement between Govern ment of Nepal and Swiss Government.

The initiation of Local Roads Bridge Programme (LRBP) has come from the understanding that one of the major causes of rural poverty in Nepal is lack of access to the markets and service centers due to the absence of adequately maintained local roads and bridges connecting them. Without the reliable motorable crossings on the rivers, people living in the area are not able to get maximum benefit from the roads constructed and also the investments made in road are not fully utilized. The programme aims to improve the living conditions of local people by facilitating them with better access and improved mobility.

2 ContextLocal Roads Bridge Section/ DoLIDAR at central level and DDCs/ DTOs are responsible for planning and management of local roads bridge specific activities and information. After implementation of Local Roads Bridge programme, it has been realized that there are many issues in information management at central and local level. In the absence of proper management system bridge prioritization and selection process is done fairly and transparent way. There is no system to inform the status of their bridge demand. In the bridge design and construction phase there is no proper quality control mechanism and monitoring system in practice. Regarding constructed bridges, there is no inventory. It is very difficult to plan and monitor the maintenance activities of bridges.

Considering the need of proper bridge information management system Local Roads Bridge Unit (LRBSU) is planning for the development of web-based Bridge Information management System (BIMS) to systematize the bridge demand, screening/prioritizing process, design, construction management and maintenance. This is for maintaining integrated bridge inventory database system to share with the stakeholders and wider user communities.

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3 Bridge Information Management System (BIMS), Bridge Information Management System (BIMS), is the web based information management, sharing and dissemination of Local Roads Bridges. This is an integrated database system of local roads motorable bridges. This includes the different modules of bridge demand, bridge prioritization/ selection, construction and maintenance of local roads bridges. Database will be stored in the LRBSU server and it will disseminate through LRBP website during this project period. After completion of the project, whole system will be owned by LBS/ DoLIDAR.

Figure 1: Prototype system Architecture for BIMS

4 Objective of BIMS: Overall objectives behind the development of online BIMS are summarized in the following points:

lProper database/ information management local roads bridges at central and district levellShare the local roads bridge specific information with the public and stakeholders lSystematize the bridge demand and selection processlEnsure the latest information available to everyonelIncorporate with appropriate access right display different information to different users lInformation available anytime and anyplace with internet ready computerslProvide concurrent access to the users

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5 Expected Outcomes:Outcome 1: DDCs/ DTOs and LBS/ DoLIDAR adopt bridge demand prioritization and selection process.

The system incorporates the bridge demand prioritization and selection criteria. System prioritizes the bridge demand. It is assumed that the concerned authority proceeds for design and construction from prioritized bridges. During the programme period Local Roads Bridge Support Unit (LRBSU) together with LBS/DoLIDR will monitor the system. LRBSU supports for design services for prioritized bridges and MFALD, LBS/DoLIDR allocates the budgets based on the system prioritized list.

Outcome 2: District and Central level authorities have improved information management system for Local Roads Bridges.

In the absence of BIMS there is no proper system for managing bridge related information. Currently, the bridge related information is managed locally using different system and data format by different users. After implementation of BIMS, national level bridge demand list and designed and constructed related data of local roads bridges will be in the system. LBS/DoLIDAR will monitor the system use by the district and provides feedback on the databases and information they have entered in the system.

6 Modules in the proposed BIMSBIMS includes different four modules with different stages of bridge demand-selection-construction management and maintenance workflow.

Module 0: Long List of Bridge DemandModule 1: Bridge Demand/ Screening and Prioritization Module 2: Bridge Design and technical specificationModule 3: Construction ManagementModule 4: Maintenance History

Long List of Bridge DemandThis is a part of bridge demand and stores the data of bridge demand of local roads bridges from all districts. This will only stores list of the bridge in demand with some information. User will have the opportunity to view the bridge list according to the selected districts.

Bridge Demand module Screening and Prioritization This module stores the local roads bridge demands from different districts. It incorporates the approved bridge screening prioritization criteria and hence the system prioritizes the bridge demand in different 3 stages of bridge screening process. It will provide the web based bridge demand entry form which can be access by authorized user for example: DDCs/DTOs. The user can view the prioritize list of bridges in different stages and the user interface will provide the simple query window so that user can make query in the database and can view the result through interface.

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Figure 2: Prototype system for Bridge demand module in BIMS

Bridge Design and technical specification ModuleWhen the bridge gets prioritize it proceeds to detail survey and design. In this module design inputs and parameters are incorporated. User interface provides the different input forms of bridge design through the web. Authorized user has facilities to change the certain design parameters, but the system can records when and who has modified the design parameters. All the technical information like span arrangement, foundation type, together with the detail cost estimation is also incorporated in this module. Through the user interface user can make query bridge type, span arrangement, and foundation type etc. Furthermore user can generate the bridge design technical reports through user interface for the specific bridge.

These modules also provide the information and documents related to local roads bridge design guidelines, norms and standards developed under the Local Roads Bridge Programme (LRBP).

Figure 3 Prototype system for Bridge design and technical specification module in BIMS

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Bridge construction management ModuleThis is the most important module of bridge information management system. When a bridge proceeds to construction and it is highly important to record the regular construction supervision and quality control information systematically. This consist the database related to bridge construction management.

User interface provides the inputs forms such as worker details, construction updates, and construction supervision and quality control reports. Authorized user, for example site engineers/ Sub-engineers can submit the reports through the web based forms. User interface provides the query window and options for generating the reports with construction progress and quality control. Also it provides the facility to generate the bridge construction progress report, overview of the prototype is shown in the figure below:

Figure 4 Prototype system for bridge construction management module in BIMS

Maintenance History ModuleThis modules consists the entire history of the maintenance of the bridges. The system automatically generates the alert list of bridges to be maintained or repaired. It provides the entry form through the user interface to updates the regular and periodic maintenance activates of the bridge. Maintenance activates can be recorded in the database system using web based user interface. In the module the system categorizes the district wise bridge list waiting for minor/major maintenance. System automatically sends the auto-generated emails with bridge list to be checked to the authorities at local and central level. This provides the query window so that user can make query related to the maintenance history of the specific bridge. User can generate the reports regarding basic technical specification of bridge and the maintenance history of the specific bridge

Bridge type specific local roads motorable bridges maintenance manual and guides will make available to the users.

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Figure 5 Prototype system for maintenance history module in BIMS

7 Accessibility control and level of Users Based on the accessibility the users are categorized in different levels

For example:Admin User (control the entire system)Local authority/ site engineers/ LBS (Data inputs, report submission, querying, viewing)General Public / wider global community (querying and viewing information)

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8 Institutional Arrangements

SN Organization/ Institutions Roles/ Responsibilities Remarks

1 DDCs lSupports in collecting bridge demands data lSubmit the bridge demand made by the public to the DDC council for approvallMonitor the district Bridge inventory database

2 LBS/DTO lRecord the bridge demand of the district in the system and regular updatelRecord bridge design – bridge construction management information in the

system, lImplement BIMS is practical action ( e.g. planned for bridge design, construction

based on the system prioritized list )

3 LBS/DoLIDAR lImplementation of BIMS in practical action – resource planning ( e.g. allocate budget for prioritized bridge etc.)

lMaintain and update the information of centrally executed bridges in the systemlCoordinate with DDCs/ DTOs for information / system update lMonitoring of overall system implementation by district authoritylImplement data sharing policies lOverall system management

4 MFALD/DoLIDAR lMonitoring LBS/DoLIDAR managed information and information system lFormulate and implement data sharing policies

5 LRBP lDevelopment of the system and system implementationlAssist LBS/DoLIDAR and DDCs/DTOs for system implementation lCapacitate LBS/DoLIDAR and DDCs/DTOs for the use of BIMS

6 DOR lGet access on local roads bridge specific information and use this information as reference for planning of bridges under DoR.

7 Other Projects lUse local roads bridge specific data from BIMS and reduce duplicity in planning.lBe informed about the local roads bridges specific activities/ information.

9 Benefits and Beneficiaries The benefits using BIMS can be summarized as

lSources for fact base Reporting lBridge specific investment, technology used, bridge design techniques, bridge construction

management and quality control mechanism can be analyzed using the system lCommon platform for bridge specific information management and sharing.

Beneficiaries: The beneficiaries for the system are envisioned at different level:

WHO? WHY?Policy Level l Formulating Policies, Future planning & resource allocationExecution and Management Level

l implement fair bridge selection process, design and implement standards, monitoring : Physical - Financial progress, management of information and fact base reporting, to reduce duplication ( for example: LBS/ DoLIDAR, DDCs/ DTOs)

l Access of information, follow the norms and standards (for example: Consultant, Contractor, and bridge professionals)

Public Level/ Wider Audience

l View information and be informed about the status of demand they made. l Be informed about the activities of the state in the sector of local roads bridges

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Er. Lok Nath RegmiSDE, DoLIDAR

g]kfndf ;/;kmfO tyf :jR5tfsf]] cj:yf, v'nf bL;f d'Qm (Open Defecation Free) If]q 3f]if0ffsf] k|efj tyf v'nf bL;f d'Qm If]q 3f]if0ff kZrft ug'{kg]{ sfo{x?

;/ ;kmfO u'? of] hgf @)!! cg';f/ g] kfndf @@ j6f lhNnfx? Dff %) k|ltzt eGbf a9L 3/ w'/ Ldf zf} rfnosf] ] k+x'r k'u] sf] ] , #( j6f lhNnfx? Dff @) b] vL %) k|ltzt 3/ w'/ Ldf zf} rfnosf] ] k+x'r k'u] sf] / !$ j6f lhNnfx? Dff @) k|ltzt eGbf sd 3/ w'/ Ldf zf} rfnosf] ] k+x'r k'u] sf] lyof] . / fli6«o tYofs+ laefusf cg';f/ la=;+=@)^( ;Dd cf} ;t zf} rfnosf] kx'Fr ePsf] 3/ w'/ L ^@ Ü 5 .

g] kfndf ;/ ;kmfO tyf :jR5tfsf ;jfndf lgDgfg';f/ tYox? / x] sf] kfOG5 M

l;/ ;kmfO{;Fu ;DalGwt / f] ux?sf] nflu dfq / fli6«o jflif{s cf} ifwf] krf/ vr{ ? # cj{ ^) s/ f] 8 eGbf a9L / x] sf] 5 .

l;/ ;kmfO{;Fu ;DalGwt / f] usf sf/ 0f dflg;sf] pTkfbgzLntf 36] / jflif{s !) cj{ ?k} ofF / fi6«n] gf] S;fg Joxf] g'{ kl/ / x] sf] 5 .

l% jif{ eGbf d'lgsf !) xhf/ % ;o g] kfnL afnaflnsfx? jflif{s ?kdf emf8fkvfnfsf sf/ 0f db{5g\ h'g c;n :jfR5tf / ;/ ;kmfO hGo cfgLjfgL ckgfP/ / f] syfd ug{ ;lsGYof] (UNICEF-2008) .

lkfgL hGo / f] uaf6 k|efljt la/ fdLx?n] ;+;f/ e/ df pknJw c:ktfnsf] %) Ü z} of el/ Psf] x'G5 (The Human Waste and Water Aid-2002) .

l;+;f/ e/ df x/ ] s lbg emf8f kvfnfsf sf/ 0faf6 dfq ^ xhf/ afnaflnsfx?sf] Hofg uO{/ x] sf] x'G5 . o;sf] cy{ k|lt306f @%) afnaflnsf / k|lt ldg] 6 $ afnaflnsfx? db{5g\ (Council for Water and Sanitation-2003) .

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l*) Ü wgL dflg;sf] ;/ ;kmfO ;'ljwfdf kx'Fr 5 eg] u/ La dflg;x?sf] kx'Fr !@ Ü dfq / x] sf] kfO{G5 .

l;g\ !(*) tfsf agfO{Psf ^ Ü rkL{x? dWo] $ Ü rkL{ dfq pkof] udf cfPsf] lyof] .

l;g\ @))( df rkL{ lgdf{0f ePsf] If] q $^ Ü ;Dd k'u] sf] lyof] eg] To;df $) Ü dfq k|of] u ePsf] lyof] .

l#@ jif{sf] cjlwdf ;g\ !(*) b] lv @)!# sf] clk|n ;Dd ;/ ;kmfOsf] kx'+r ^@ Ü ePsf] 5 .

lcfiff9 @)&) ;Dd * lhNnf / # lhNnfx?sf ;a} If] q v'nf lb;f d'Qm [Open Defecation Free) ] 3f] if0ff ePsf 5g .#(!% uflj;x? dWo] s/ Lj ()) j6f uf=lj=;=x? / !) j6f gu/ kfnLsfx? dfq v'nf lb;f d'Qm [Open Defecation Free] 3f] if0ff ePsf 5g h'g s/ La @) Ü dfq x'g cfpF5 .

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ls/ La #) j6f :yfgLo tyf cGt/ / fli6«o ;+3;+:yfx? ;/ ;kmfOsf] If] qdf sfd ug{ ;+nUg / lxcfPsf 5g\ .

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v'nf bL;f d'Qm (Open Defecation Free) If] q x'g] cj:yfM

v'nf lb;f eGgfn] v'nf 7fpFdf lb;f ug] { / To;nfO{ To;} 5f] l8lbg] sfo{nfO{ hgfpFb5 . v'nf lb;f d'Qm eGgfn] v'nf ?kdf lb;f gug] { cj:yfnfO{ a'lemG5 . lb;fdf lem+uf k:g g;Sg] u/ L vfN8f] df 9sg nufOPsf] cj:yfn] v'nf lb;f d'Qm hgfpF5 . t/ 9sg gePsf] vfN8f] df lb;f ;+sng u/ ] klg To; cj:yfn] v'nf lb;fo'Qm cj:yf hgfpF5 . s'g} tf] lsPsf] :yfgnfO{ v'nf lb;f d'Qm egL 3f] if0ff ug{sf nflu b] xfosf ;"rs÷cfwf/ x? sfod ePsf] x'g'kb{5 M

ltf] lsPsf] If] qdf s'g} klg ;dodf v'Nnf lb;f gb] lvg' .

l;'wfl/ Psf] ;/ ;kmfO -rkL{_ ;'ljwfdf ;a} 3/ w'/ Lsf] kx'Fr x'g'sf] ;fy} tL ;'ljwfx?sf] k"0f{ ;b'kof] u, ;+rfng / dd{t ;+ef/ eO/ x] sf] x'g'kg] { .

ltf] lsPsf] If] qdf cjl:yt ;a} ;fj{hlgs ;+3;+:yfx? h:t} ljBfno, sfof{nox? cflbdf rkL{ ;'ljwf pknAw x'g' .

o;sf cltl/ Qm v'nf lb;f d'Qm 3f] if0ff k|lqmofsf r/ 0fdf b] xfosf kIfx?nfO{ k|f] T;flxt ul/ g'kb{5 M

l;a} 3/ w'/ Ldf ;fa'g / ;fa'g / fVg] a§f ;lxtsf] xftw'g] :yfgsf] pknAwtf /

ltf] lsPsf] If] qdf kz'hGo kmf] xf] / , 7f] ; / t/ n kmf] x/ d} nfsf] Joj:yfkg nufot jftfj/ 0fLo ;/ ;kmfO sfod / x] sf] .

v'nf bL;f d'Qm [Open Defecation Free) If] q 3f] if0ff kl5 b] lvPsf ;sf/ fTds k|efjx? M

g] kfndf ;/ ;kmfO{ u'?of] hgf @)^* ;fndf nfu' ePk5L k"0f{ ;/ ;kmfO{ cleofg cGt{ut v'nf lb;f d'Qm If] q 3f] if0ff ug] { sfo{qmd ltj| ?kdf cuf8L a9] sf] 5 . o;} qmddf klZrdf~rnsf ( lhNnfsf !* uf=lj=;= sf !*) 3/ w'/ LnfO{ Sample lnO{ u/ ] sf] sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/ tf cWoog ubf{ lgDgfg';f/ k|efj k/ ] sf] kfOPsf] 5 M–

l;Dk"0f{ a:tL g} ;kmf ;'U3/ b] lvPsf] 5, hjsL ljutdf hj kmf] x/ sf] uGw cfp5, tj a:tL cfof] egL yfxf kfOGYof] .

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lAoQmLut ;/ ;kmfO{ tyf jftfj/ 0fLo ;/ ;kmfO{df ;'wf/ ePsf] kfOof] .

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l;g @))^ df % aif{ d'lgsf ^! k|ltzt lzz'sf] d[To' ePsf] df @)!! Dff %$ k|ltzt sf] d[To' ePsf] -NDHS 2011 cg';f/ _

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l kz'hGo kmf] xf] / , 7f] ; / t/ n kmf] x/ d} nfsf] Joj:yfkg nufot jftfj/ 0fLo ;/ ;kmfO{ sfod / x] sf] .

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l;du| ?kdf ;/ ;kmfO{ tyf :R5tf ;DalGwt k'0f{ cfgL jfgLdf ;s/ fTds kl/ jt{g ePsf] kfOof] .

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o; r/ 0fdf bLuf] ;/ ;kmfO / :jfR5tf ;'ljwf Pj+ afgL Jojxf/ sf] ljsf;sf nflu ul/ Psf ;a} Joj:yfx? ;dfj] z x'G5g\ . oBlk ;DalGwt ;d'bfo÷g=kf=÷uf=lj=;=cfkm} +n] g} v'nf lb;f d'Qm 3f] if0ff kl5sf ;/ ;kmfO / :jfR5tf ;DaGwL ljleGg dfkb08 klxrfg u/ L nfu" ug] { ePtf klg s'g} lglZrt If] qdf k"0f{ ;/ ;kmfOsf] cj:yf xfl;n ug{ b] xfosf ;"rsx? Xfl;n x'g] u/ L sfof{Gjog ug'{ kg] { M

s_ ;/ ;kmfO tyf :jfR5tf ;DaGwL afgL Jojxf/ sf d'Vo kf“r ;"rsx? M

lrkL{sf] lgoldt k|of] u .

ldxTjk"0f{ cj:yfx?df ;fa'g kfgLn] xft w'g] cEof; .

l3/ fo;L txdf lkpg] kfgLsf] ;'/ lIft Joj:yfkg / z'l4s/ 0f .

lJolQmut ;/ ;kmfO÷:jfR5tf sfod ug] { -lgoldt ?kdf gª sf6\g] , g'xfpg] , n'uf w'g] , b} lgs skfn sf] g] {, bfFt dfem\g] cflb_ /

l3/ leq / aflx/ sf t/ n / 7f] ; kmf] xf] / d} nfsf] plrt Joj:yfkg .

v_ 3/ fo;L ;/ ;kmfO M

llb;f ug{sf] nflu ;a} 3/ w'/ Ldf rkL{ / xftw'gsf] nflu ;fa'g / fVg] :yfgsf] plrt Joj:yf x'g'kb{5 .

lrkL{;kmf ug] { a|;, s'rf] , lhjf0f'/ ls6f0f' gfzs kbfy{ cflb pknAw x'g'kb{5 .

lvfg] s'/ f / kfgL 5f] lkPsf] x'g' kb{5 .

l3/ sf] sf] 7f, cfFug / 3/ jl/ k/ L lgoldt ;/ ;kmfO x'g' kb{5 .

l3/ kfn'jf kz'k+IfL / fVg Jojl:yt uf] 7/ 6x/ f x'g' kb{5 .

l3/ af6 lgisfl;tkmf] xf] / kfgL hDdf ug] {÷;f] :g] vfN8f] 5f] lkPsf] x'g' kb{5 .

l;kmf / z'4 lkpg] kfgL pknAw x'g' kb{5 .

57


l7f] ; kmf] xf] / d} nf ;+sng ug{÷kmfNg afN6Lg÷vfN8f] pknAw x'g' kb{5 .

l;'wfl/ Psf] r'nf] ÷jfof] UofF;sf] pknAwtf -P] lR5s_ x'g' kb{5 .

u_ ;+:yfut ÷ jftfj/ 0fLo ;/ ;kmfO M

l;a} ;+3;+:yfdf :jR5÷;kmf / k|of] ustf{ d} qLrkL{,;fa'gkfgLn] xft w'g] ;'ljwf / kmf] xf] / lgisfzgsf] plrt Joj:yf x'g'kb{5 .

l;a} ljBfnodf afn, n} lËs / ckf+Ë d} qL kfgLsf] ;'ljwf, rkL{ / ;fa'g ;lxtsf] xft w'g] ;'ljwfsf ;fy} dlxgfjf/ L Joj:yfkgsf] nflu ;d] t ;'ljwf ePsf] x'g'kb{5 . x/ ] s ljBfno xftfleq kmf] xf] / kmfNg] vfN8f] sf] klg clgjfo{ Joj:yf x'g'kb{5 .

l;a} ;+:yfx?n] cf–cfˆgf] ;+:yfsf] kl/ ;/ leqsf] / jl/ kl/ sf] jftfj/ 0f ;kmf / :jR5 / fVg' kb{5 .

;d'bfo :t/ / 3/ fo;L :t/ df ;/ ;kmfO{ / :jR5tf eg] sf] lg/ Gt/ ?kdf e} / xg'' kg] { ;'ljwf ePsf] n] v'nf lb;f d'Qm If] q 3f] if0ff eP kl5 klg cGo ;/ ;kmfO{ / :jR5tf ;DalGw k'0f{ cfgL jfgL kl/ jt{g ug{ lg/ Gt/ ?kdf :yfgLo :t/ d} cg'udg ;+oGq tof/ ug'{ kg] { b] lvG5 . cg'udg ;+oGqsf] kl/ rfngaf6 v'nf lb;f d'Qm cj:yfnfO{ lbuf] ?k lbg / k'0f{ ;/ ;kmfO{ o'Qm ;d'bfo÷j8f÷uf=lj=;÷lhNnf agfO/ fVg ;xof] u k'Ub5 .




Tirkha Ram KhadkaProprietor

B.L.T. Construction & Suppliers P. Ltd.Kohalpur-3, Banke

58


k[i7e"ldnf] stGqnfO{ cfwf/ e"t :t/ b] lv g} alnof] agfpg, :yfgLo ;j{;fwf/ 0f hgtfx?nfO{ 3/ b} nf] df ;] jf ;'ljwf pknAw u/ fpg / :yfgLo k"jf{wf/ ;] jfsf] lgdf{0f u/ L :yfgLo Ifdtf a9fpg g] kfndf :yfgLo lgsfox?sf] :yfkgf ePsf] xf] . :yfgLo lgsfox?sf] k|efjsf/ Ltf tL lgsfox?n] k|jfx ug] { ;] jfx?sf] u'0f:t/ df lgjf{x / x] sf] x'G5 . :jefljs ?kn] ;] jf k|jfx nufotsf sfo{ ;+rfngdf cfly{s nufot >f] t ;fwgx?sf] cfjZostf kb{5 . :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P] g, @)%% df s] xL cfwf/ e""t txsf >f] t kl/ rfng ul/ cfDbfgL ug{ ;Sg] u/ L :yfgLo lgsfox?nfO{ lhDd] jf/ L ;'lDkPsf] 5 . t/ k|efjsf/ L >f] t kl/ rfngsf] sdLsf sf/ 0f :yfgLo lgsfox? cem} klg >f] t aGbf] a:t ug{ k"0f{ ?kdf g} s] Gb|Lo ;/ sf/ sf] d'v tfSg afWo 5g\ . cfkm\gf] If] qsf] ljsf; nufgLsf nflu cfkm} >f] tsf] aGbf] a:t ug{ ;Sg] ;Ifdtf ljsf; gx'Fbf ;Dd ;du| :yfgLo :jfoQtfsf] cEof;df c;/ kg] { dfq xf] O{g nf] stGqsf] cfwf/ :tDesf ?kdf / x] sf :yfgLo lgsfox? g} sdhf] / x'g] cj:yf b] vf k/ ] sf] 5 .

:yfgLo lgsfosf] :yfkgf / e"ldsfg] kfnsf] cGtl/ d ;+ljwfg, @)^# df ;fj{hlgs lxtsf] ;Da4{g ug] { / :jfoQ zf;gsf] dfWodaf6 hgtfnfO{ zf;gdf clwsflws dfqfdf ;lDdlt x'g] cj;/ h'6fO{ nf] stGqsf nfex?sf] pkef] u ug{ ;Sg] Joj:yf sfod ug'{ / fHosf] p2] Zo x'g] elg lgb] {zs l;4fGtsf ?kdf :jLsf/ ul/ Psf] 5 . ;fy} ;f] xL ;+ljwfgsf] / fHosf] 9fFrf / :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g v08df ;xdlt / ;xeflutfsf cfwf/ df :yfgLo lgsfox?sf] u7g ul/ g] , ljs] Gb|Ls/ 0f / lgIf] k0fsf cfwf/ df :yfgLo lgsfosf] lgjf{rg ul/ g] nufotsf ljifo pNn] v x'g'sf ;fy} :yfgLo ljsf;sf nflu :jfoQ zf;g ;DaGwL lgsfonfO{ ;Ifd agfpg ;fwg / >f] tsf] kl/ rfng, ljlgof] hg / ljsf;sf] k|ltkmnsf] ;Gt'lnt tyf Gofof] lrt ljt/ 0fdf ;dfgtf sfod / fvL :yfgLo :t/ sf of] hgfsf] klxrfg, th'{df / sfof{Gjogdf ;DalGwt :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g ;DaGwL lgsfonfO{ g} hjfkmb] xL agfpg sfg"gdf Joj:yf eP adf] lhd g] kfn ;/ sf/ / :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g ;DaGwL lgsfo jLr lhDd] jf/ L / / fhZj kl/ rfng tyf afF8kmfF8 x'g] 5 . o;/ L / fhZj kl/ rfng / afF8kmfF8 ubf{ d'n'ssf] ;Gt'lnt / ;dfg ljt/ 0f x'g] u/ L lk5l8Psf ju{ / ;d'bfosf] ;du| pTkfbgsf nflu ljz] if Wofg lbg'kg] { 5 .

:yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P] g, @)%% df ljs] Gb|Ls/ 0f / lgIf] lkt sfo{ lhDd] jf/ Lsf ;DaGwdf :yfgLo lgsfosf e"ldsfnfO{ :ki6 ug] { k|of; ul/ Psf] 5 . k|:tfjgfdf ljs] Gb|Ls/ 0fsf] dfWodaf6 ;fj{ef} d;Qf ;DkGg hgtfnfO{ zf;g k|lqmofdf clwsflws dfqfdf ;lDdlnt x'g] cj;/ h'6fO{ k|hftGqsf nfex?sf] pkef] u ug{ ;Sg] Joj:yf ug] {, Gofok"0f{ >f] t ljt/ 0f, :yfgLo Ifdtf ljsf;df s] Gb|Lt ug'{sf ;fy} ;f] P] gdf :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;gsf l;4fGt tyf gLltsf ?kdf oL 5j6f ljifox?nfO{ hf] 8 lbO{Psf] 5 .

l clwsf/ , lhDd] jf/ L / >f] t ;fwgsf] lgIf] k0f ;lxtsf] :yfgLo lgsfo,l :yfgLo lgsfodf hjfkmb] xL ;+:yfut ;+oGqsf] :yfkgf,l :yfgLo lgsfonfO{ ;'lDkPsf lhDd] jf/ L jxg ug{ cfjZos >f] t ;fwgsf] clwsf/ ;'Dkg] ,l :yfgLo lgsfon] ] lgIf] lkt sfo{ ;'zf;go'Qm tj/ n] ug,] {l :yfgLo g] t[Tj ljsf; / l ;fem] bf/ L / lbuf] ljsf; .

/d]zs'df/ s];Lpk;lrj, ;ª\3Lo dfldnf tyf :yfgLo ljsf; dGqfno

k|fs[lts >f]tsf] Joj:yfkgdf :yfgLo lgsfosf r'gf}tLx?

59


:yfgLo lgsfo vf;u/ L lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltn] cfkm\gf] If] q leq s[lif, vfg] kfgL, hnlnB't / oftfoft tyf cGo k"jf{wf/ nufot ;du| If] qsf] ljsf; dfkm{t :yfgLo hgtfsf] ck] Iff / cfjZostf ;Daf] wg ug{ gLlt, of] hgf tyf ah] 6sf] Joj:yf u/ L sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ug'{ kg] { lhDd] jf/ L tf] lsPsf] 5 . :yfgLo lgsfonfO{ tf] lsPsf] Jofks lhDd] jf/ L / jt{dfg hgtfsf Jofks ck] Iffx?sf] ;Daf] wg ug{ :yfgLo lgsfox?nfO{ kof{Kt >f] tsf] cfjZostf kg] { b] lvG5 . o:tf] >f] t of t s] Gb|Lo ;/ sf/ af6 k|bfg ug] { cg'bfg a9fP/ of :yfgLo tj/ df clwsflws / fhZj kl/ rfng u/ ] / ug{ ;lsG5 .

:yfgLo tj/ df vf;} cfly{s pkof] udf cfpg g;s] sf] , Jojl:yt ?kn] kl/ rfng ug{ g;lsPsf] / ;+efjgfsf] If] qsf ?kdf / x] sf] 9'+uf, lu6\6L / jfn'jf hGo k|fs[lts >f] tx? :yfgLo lgsfo d'Vo ?kn] lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf / fhZjsf d'Vo >f] t ag] sf 5g\ . o:tf k|fs[lts >f] tx?sf] kl/ rfng ug{ gLltut, Ifdtfut, k|lqmofut tyf Jojxfl/ s hl6ntfx?sf sf/ 0f :yfgLo lgsfox?n] ;xh / cfzfltt >f] t kl/ rfng ug{ g;s] sf] cj:yf 5 .

:yfgLo hgtfsf] Jofks ck] Iff / ljsf;sf] :yfgLo cfjZostfsf cfwf/ df lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltx?sf] vr{sf] d'Vo dfWood g} :yfgLo k"jf{wf/ If] qdf ul/ g] nufgL g} xf] . :yfgLo k"jf{wf/ gLlt, @)^! n] :yfgLo k"jf{wf/ sf ?kdf d'Vo ?kdf 5 j6f If] qut sfo{qmdx?nfO{ ;d] 6\g] k|of; u/ ] sf] 5 . h; cGtu{t :yfgLo oftfoft, l;+rfO{ tyf gbL lgoGq0f, n3' hn ljB't tyf j} slNks phf{, vfg] kfgL, 9n lgsf; tyf ;/ ;kmfO, cfjf;, ejg tyf zx/ L ljsf;, kmf] x/ d} nf Joj:yfkg / ;fdflhs k"jf{wf/ cGtu{tsf ljljw of] hgf tyf sfo{qmdx? ;d] l6Psf 5g\ . oL ljifo If] qsf cltl/ St :yfgLo dfu tyf s] Gb|Lo bfloTj cGtu{tsf ljljw sfo{qmdx/ df klg :yfgLo lgsfosf] >f] t pkof] u x'g] u/ ] sf] 5 .

:yfgLo lgsfosf >f] tx?:yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P] g, @)%% n] ufpF ljsf; ;ldlt, gu/ kflnsf / lhNnf ljsf; ;ldlt h:tf :yfgLo lgsfox?n] s] Gb|Lo ;/ sf/ af6 k|fKt cg'bfg, tf] lsP cg';f/ sf] / fhZj afF8kmfF8af6 k|fKt x'g] / sd, C0f tyf a} b] lzs ;+:yfaf6 k|fKt x'g] / sdsf cnfjf ljleGg lsl;dsf s/ , ;] jf z'Ns tyf b:t'/ nufotsf >f] tx? p7fpg kfpg] Joj:yf u/ ] sf] 5 . :yfgLo lgsfo sf] ifdf hDdf x'g] oL >f] tx?af6 :yfgLo lgsfon] kl/ ifbaf6 :jLs[t u/ fO{ th'{df ul/ Psf] cfjlws jf aflif{s of] hgfsf cfwf/ df / f] huf/ L k|a4{gdf 6] jf k'Ug] , pTkfbsTj a9fpg] , :yfgLo zLk / Ifdtfsf] k|a4{g ug] {, jftfj/ 0f ;+/ If0f ug] { / lk5l8Psf ;d'bfosf] lxt x'g] cfof] hgf ;+rfng u/ L ;du| ?kdf :yfgLo lgsfodf / xg] jfl;Gbfsf] ;d[l4 / ljsf; ug'{kg] { s'/ fdf hf] 8 lbO{Psf] 5 .

9'+uf, lu6\6L, jfn'jfM :yfgLo lgsfosf] k|d'v cfGtl/ s >f] tk|fs[lts >f] tsf] pkef] u / pkof] udf :yfgLo hgtfsf] xs jf k|fyldstf :yfkgf x'g'kg] { dfGotfnfO{ :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P] gn] ;d] 6\g] k|of; u/ ] sf] 5 . :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P] g, @)%%sf] bkmf–@!% df lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltn] nufpg kfpg] s/ cGtu{t cfkm\gf] If] qdf tf] lsPsf] b/ df 9'+uf, :n] 6, jfn'jf tyf cGo >f] tx?df lhlj;n] s/ nufpg kfpg] , cfkm\gf] If] q leqsf gbLgfnfsf] jfn'jf, lu6L, 9'+uf, :n] 6, bxQ/ , axQ/ ljlqm ug{ ;Sg] / cGo k|fs[lts >f] tsf] / f] oN6L jfkt g] kfn ;/ sf/ nfo{ k|fKt x'g] / fhZjsf] afF8kmfF8sf] / sd tf] lsP adf] lhd k|fKt ug{ ;Sg] Joj:yf u/ ] sf] 5 .

:yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P] g, @)%% nfu" x'g' k"j{sf] cj:yfdf 9'+uf, lu6L, jfn'jf nufotsf k|fs[lts >f] tsf] kl/ rfng ljifodf TolQ ljjfb / rf;f] / flvPsf] lyPg . oL >f] tx?af6 a9\bf] / fhZj k|fKtL, :yfgLo / fhZj lgodgdf sdhf] / k|zf;g, :yfgLo lgsfodf hgk|ltlglwsf] ljlxgtf, hg;fwf/ 0fx?af6 jftfj/ 0fLo rf;f] df a9f] Q/ L / cGt/ lgsfout va/ bf/ L- ;jf] {Rr cbfnt, ;+a} wflgs c+ux?, ;+;bLo ;ldlt, :jtGq k|] z nufot_ h:tf ljifon] lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltx?n] p7fpFb} cfPsf] 9'+uf, lu6L, jfn'jf nufot k|fs[lts >f] t kl/ rfngsf ljifodf Hofb} rf;f] a9\g yfn] sf] kfO{G5 .

60


l;=g+= cf=a= )^#÷)^$

cf=a= )^$÷)^%

cf=a= )^%÷)^^

cf=a= )^^÷)^&*

cf=a= )^&÷)^* **

cf=a= )^*÷)^(**

t/ fO{sf @! lhNnfx?sf] k|fKt cfo -? xhf/ df_

@!,&$,!* #*,!#,$# $(,%!,(@ (%,&),^$ (),!*,!! *@,^@,(#

tflnsf g+= !, 9'+uf, lu6\6L, jfn'jfhGo >f] t kl/ rfngaf6 s] xL lhlj;x?n] k|fKt cfDbfgL

>f] tM :yfgLo ljsf; dGqfnosf ljleGg k|ltj] bg tyf :yfgLo lgsfo ljQLo cfof] usf] ljQLo ljZn] if0f k|ltj] bg @)^(,-* k|yd 5 dlxgfsf cfwf/ df k|If] k0f ul/ Psf] . ** 9'+uf, lu6\6L, jfn'jf nufot ;Dk"0f{ tj/ af6 k|fKt cfGtl/ s cfDbfgL_

9'+uf, lu6L, jfn'jfhGo k|fs[lts >f] tsf] cj:yf x] bf{ ;fdfGo a[l4 ePsf] b] lvPtfklg o;df lgoldttf b] vf kg{ ;s] g . ctM o; >f] tnfO{ cl:y/ k|fs[lts >f] tsf ?kdf klg x] g{ ;lsG5 . t/ fO{sf @! lhNnfx? hxfF k|fs[lts >f] tsf ?kdf 9'+uf, lu6L, jfn'jfaf6 a9L / fhZj cfh{g x'G5 ljut kfFr aif{sf] >f] t k|fKtLsf] cj:yf x] bf{ cf= a= )^#.^$ df sl/ j @@ s/ f] 8 cfh{g ePsf] df ljut cf=a=)^*.^( df cfO{ k'Ubf *# s/ f] 8 hlt / fhZj t/ fO{sf @! lhNnfn] cfh{g u/ ] sf] b] lvG5 . o; >f] taf6 k|fKt x'g] / fhZj t/ fO{sf lhNnfdf a9L x'g] / lxdfnL, w] / } kxfl8 lhNnfdf o:tf] / fhZj p7\g] g} gu/ ] sf] cj:yf 5 .

cf=a= g] kfn ;/ sf/ af6 uPsf] hDdf :yfgLo lgsfo cg'bfg

-? xhf/ df_

lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf] sfof{nosf] cfGtl/ s cfo -?

xhf/ df_

hDdf lhlj; sf] ifdf hDdf x'g] / sddf cfGtl/ s cfosf]

k|ltzt

cf=a= )^^÷)^& #!,^%,)),)) !,$*,)),)) $=^&

cf=a=)^&÷)^* ##,!*,)),)) @,(%,)),)) *=*(

cf=a= )^*÷)^( #@,(*,)),)) #,@!,)),)) (=&#

tflnsf g+=@ g] kfn ;sf/ af6 hfg] s] Gb|Lo cg'bfgdf lhlj; cfGtl/ s cfosf] lx:;f

>f] tM cfly{s ;j] {If0f@)^(÷)&) .

g] kfn ;/ sf/ af6 :yfgLo lgsfox?df hfg] cg'bfg -lhNnf ljsf; ;ldlt, uflj; / gu/ kflndf ;d] t_ sf] cg'kft / ;a} h;f] >f] taf6 lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf] sfof{non] k|fKt ug] { cfGtl/ s / fhZjsf] cj:yf x] bf{ :yfgLo lgsfox? cfkm"nfO{ cfjZos kg] { >f] tsf] cf} ;tdf !) k|ltzt eGbf klg sd dfq cfGtl/ s >f] t kl/ rfng ug] { u/ ] sf] b] lvG5 . ha ;Dd >f] tdf s] Gb|Lo ;/ sf/ sf] lge{/ tf sfod / xG5 ;xL cy{df ljs] Gb|Ls/ 0fsf] cEof; x'g ;Sb} g . s] Gb|Lo cg'bfg ;+u} cfpg] zt{, lgb] {zg / lgoGq0fsf sf/ 0f :yfgLo lgsfon] cfkm\gf k|fyldstfdf nufgL ug{ g;Sg] / clwsf/ jf zlQmsf] k|of] udf klg al~rt x'g' kg] { cj:yf klg b] vf k/ ] sf] 5 .

;d:of tyf jt{dfg cj:yf9'+uf, lu6\6L, jfn'jf nufotsf k|fs[lts >f] tx?sf] bf] xgaf6 jftfj/ 0fdf ulDe/ c;/ k/ ] sf] ljifodf Jofks rf;f] a9] kl5 Joj:yflksf ;+;b k|fs[lts >f] t / ;fwg ;ldltn] @)^^ ;fndf Ps cWoog k|ltj] bg k] z u¥of] . o;} ljr g] kfn ;/ sf/ dGqLkl/ ifbsf] ldlt @)^^.(.@( sf] lg0f{ofg';f/ :yfgLo ljsf;, jftfj/ 0f, cy{, l;+rfO{, jg dGqLx? ;b:o / tfTsflng / fli6«o of] hgf cfof] usf pkfWoIf ;b:o;lrj / x] sf] Ps ;ldlt u7g e} k|ltj] bg k] z u/ ] sf] / ;f] k|ltj] bg cWoog u/ L g] kfn ;/ sf/ nfO{ l;kmfl/ z ug{ :yfgLo ljsf; ;lrjsf] ;+of] hsTjdf Ps cWoog sfo{bn u7g e} ;f] bnn] ;d] t l;kmfl/ z k] z u/ ] sf] lyof] . oL ;ldltsf l;kmfl/ z ;d] tsf cfwf/ df @)^& ;fndf s] xL ;do oL >f] tx?sf] tf] lsPcg';f/ pTvgg\ / lgsf;L / f] Ssf ;d] t / flvPsf] lyof] . kl5 qm;/ Joj;foLx?sf] bjfj / sfg"gL pkrf/ sf sf/ 0f sltko :yfgaf6 ;f] sfo{ v'nf ul/ of] .

9'+uf lu6\6L jfn'jf nufotsf k|fs[lts >f] tx?sf] pkof] u / Joj:yfkg ;DaGwdf ;jf] {Rr cbfntsf] ldlt @)^&.$.@! km} ;nfn] k|fs[lts >f] t ;a} g] kfnLx?sf] ;femf ;DklQ ePsfn] o;sf] pkof] u ;fj{hlgs lxt x'g] sfo{df dfq ug] {

61


/ k|fs[lts >f] tsf] pTvgg, k|of] u ubf{ jftfj/ 0fdf k|lts"n c;/ gkg] { u/ L dfq ;+rfng ug'{k5{ ;fy} s'g} cfof] hgf ;+rfng ubf{ jftfj/ 0fLo k|efj / k/ LIf0f d"Nof+sg u/ ] / dfq ;+rfng ug'{k5{ egL pNn] v ePsf] ;fy} g] kfn ;/ sf/ af6 Ps sfo{bn u7g u/ L ;f] bnn] lbPsf] l;kmfl/ zsf cfwf/ df jftfj/ 0fLo kIfnfO{ Wofg lbO{ o; ljifodf cGo sf/ jfxL cl3 a9fpg pNn] v ePsf] df jftfj/ 0f dGqfnosf ;x ;lrjsf] ;+of] hsTjdf ;a} ;/ f] sf/ jfnf lgsfosf k|ltlglw / x] sf] Ps ;ldlt u7g e} ;f] ;ldltn] lbPsf] k|ltj] bgsf cfwf/ df s] Gb|Lo cg'udg ;ldlt / lhNnf :tl/ o cg'udg ;ldltnfO{ k|efjsf/ L agfpg k|of; ul/ Psf] . k'gM o; ;DaGwdf @)^(÷)@÷@* df ;Ddflgt cbfntaf6 slkna:t' / c3f{vfFrL lhNnfsf ;DaGwdf pQm l/ 6 lgj] bgdf k|:t't l/ 6 lgj] bgdf pNn] v ePsf] ;a} If] qaf6 pTvgg\ Pj+ ;+sng ul/ Psf / f] 8f, 9'Ëf / afn'jfsf] ljb] z lgsf;L ug] { sfo{ k"0f{ ?kn] tTsfn aGb ug'{ egL cfb] z hf/ L ePsf] / kl5 tL lhNnfsf xssf ;d] t lgsf;L ug{ km's'jf ePsf] / xfn :yfgLo lhNnf :tl/ o cg'udg ;ldltsf] lg0f{o / jftfj/ 0f k|efj d"Nof+sg k|ltj] bgsf cfwf/ df sfdsf/ jfxLx? x'Fb} cfPsf 5g\ .

;af] {Rr cbfntsf] cfb] z, ;+;bLo ;ldltsf k|ltj] bg / g] kfn ;/ sf/ 4f/ f ul7t ljleGg ;ldlt jf sfo{bnsf] l;kmfl/ zsf cfwf/ df 9'+uf lu6\6L jfn'jf pTvgg jf ;+sng ubf{ jftfj/ 0f ;+/ If0f P] g / lgodfjnL cg';f/ tf] lsPadf] lhd k|f/ +les jftfj/ 0fLo k/ LIf0f -cfO{O{O{_ jf jftfj/ 0fLo k|efj d"Nof+sg -O{ cfO{ P_ u/ ] / dfq ;f] sfo{ ug{ lgb] {zg eP cg';f/ ;+3Lo dfldnf tyf :yfgLo ljsf; dGqfnon] @)^@ ;fnb] lv xfn;Dd s/ Lj $)) j6f k|f/ +les jftfj/ 0fLo d"Nof+sg -cfO{O{O{_ l/ kf] 6{ :jLs[t ul/ ;s] sf] 5 . t/ klg t/ fO{sf lhNnfx?af6 cem} klg clgolGqt ?kdf 9'+uf, lu6L, afn'jfsf] pTvgg x'g] u/ ] sf] , 9'+uf, lu6L, afn'jfsf] cg'udg k|efjsf/ L x'g g;s] sf] / k|ltj] bgdf tf] lsP cg';f/ cfO{O{O{ tyf O{ cfO{ P k|ltj] bgx?sf] k|efjsf/ L sfof{Gjog x'g g;s] sf] eGg] u'gf;fx? klg sfod} 5g\ . ;fy} 9'+uf, lu6L, afn'jfsf] Joj:yfkg ;DaGwdf lhNnf:t/ Lo cg'udg ;ldltsf] e"ldsf k|efjsf/ L x'g g;s] sf] , jg If] qleqsf] 9'+uf, lu6L, afn'jfsf] pTvgg ;DaGwdf lhlj; tyf jg sfof{no aLr ljjfb sfod} / x] sf] h:tf ljifox? klg oyfy{ g} 5g\ .

9'+uf, lu6\6L, jfn'jf Joj:yfkgdf lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltx?n] ef] Ug' k/ ] sf ;d:oflhNnf ljsf; ;ldltn] 9'+uf, lu6\6L, jfn'jf hGo k|fs[lts >f] tsf] kl/ rfngaf6 cfGtl/ s / fhZj a9fpg s] xL dfqfdf ;xof] u t k'u] sf] 5 t/ To;sf] hl6ntf Pj+ ef] Ug' k/ ] sf s7LgfO{x? klg TolQs} r'gf} tLk'0f{ / x] sf 5g\ . ;/ sf/ L tyf cGo lgsfout ;dGjosf] sdL jf If] qflwsf/ sf] k|;+unfO{ ;Fw} o; ljifodf p7fpg] ul/ G5 . :yfgLo k|fs[lts >f] t dfGg] jf jghGo k|fs[lts >f] t dfGg] eGg] ljjfbn] lhNnf jg sfof{no / :yfgLo lgsfosf ljr s] xL xb ;Dd 4G4 sfod / x] sf] 5 . oL >f] t kl/ rfng ug{ 7] Ssf a9fj9sf] dfWodaf6 dfq ;+ej 5 t/ ;dodf 7] Ssf gnfUg] , O{li6d] 6 c+ssf] cf;kf;df dfq ljl8ª jf l;08Ls] 6 x'g] cEof;n] o; k|0ffnLdf / xg] cfly{s cg'zf;gdf dfq c;/ kf/ ] sf] 5} g u} / sfg"gL k|>onfO{ klg a9fjf x'g k'u] sf] 5 . o; ljifodf sfg"g kl/ kfngf lkmtnf] kgf b] lvg'sf ;fy} lgofds lgsfo sf] , eGg] ljifon] klg k|z:t 7fpF kfPsf] cj:yf 5 . hxfF ;'zf;gsf] cefj / l:y/ k|0ffnLsf] ljsf; x'Fb} g ToxfF clws eg;'g jf / fhgLlts x:tIf] kn] :yfg kfpg] u/ ] sf] klg b] lvG5 . o;sf ;fy} :yfgLo lgsfosf] / fhZj kl/ rfng tkm{sf] sdhf] / ;+:yfut / JolQmut Ifdtf ljsf; klg csf] { ;d:ofsf ?kdf b] lvG5 .

k|fs[lts >f] t pkof] u jf cfGtl/ s / fhZj clea[l4 eGg] ljifodf s'g s'/ fnfO{ klxnf] k|fyldstf lbg] eGg] ljifodf / fli6«o ?kdf g} gLltut dt} Sotf x'g'kg] { cfjZostf klg b] lvPsf] 5 . ljut !% aif{ b] lv :yfgLo lgsfodf lgjf{lrt hgk|ltlglwsf] l/ Sttfsf sf/ 0fn] klg cfkm\gf] If] qsf] k|fs[lts >f] t pkof] udf ;xeflutfd'ns gLlt Pj+ k|fyldstfn] :yfg kfpg ;s] sf] 5} g . :yfgLo lgsfo k|fs[lts >f] t kl/ rfng ;DaGwL / fli6«o PsLs[t gLltsf] cefjn] klg o; ljifodf ;d:ofsf] :yfg kfPsf] 5 .

k|fs[lts >f] tsf ?kdf 9'+uf lu6L jfn'jf Joj:yfkgsf ;sf/ fTds / gsf/ fTds c;/ :yfgLo lgsfox? d'Vo ?kn] lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltx?n] k|fs[lts >f] tsf ?kdf 9'+uf, lu6L, jfn'jf Joj:yfkgaf6 xfl;n x'g] ;sf/ fTds c;/ sf ?kdf :yfgLo lgsfosf] cfly{s >f] tdf a[l4 x'g] / pknAw >f] tsf cfwf/ df :yfgLo k"jf{wf/ ljsf; / Ifdtf ljsf; x'g] b] lvG5 . To:t} Jojl:yt k|fs[lts >f] t kl/ rfngnfO{ oyf] lrt lgodg

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;lxt lg/ Gt/ tf lbPdf :yfgLo / f] huf/ L l;h{gf x'g] , cf} Bf] lus tyf pBd ljsf;df ;xof] u k'Ug'sf ;fy} cfly{s lqmofsnfkdf lj:tf/ x'g] klg b] lvG5 .

o;} u/ L oL >f] tx?sf] clws jf cJojl:yt bf] xgaf6 kg] { gsf/ fTds c;/ df jftfj/ 0f ljgf; / r'/ ] If] q vt/ fdf / xg] ;+efjgf x'gsf ;fy} eljZosf] >f] t ;+ro l/ lQg] ;+efjgf klg TolQs} / xg hfg] b] lvG5 . To:t} oL >f] t kl/ rfngsf sf/ 0f ;'zf;g sfod ug{ hl6ntf, cgfjZos / fhgLlts x:tIf] ksf] a9f] Q/ L / k|fs[lts k|sf] ksf] hf] lvd / hf] lvd Joj:yfkgdf nufgL a9fpg' kg] { ljifox? gsf/ fTds c;/ sf ?kdf lng ;lsG5 .

/ cGtdf, xfd|f] h:tf] k"jf{wf/ ljsf;sf] sdhf] / ;+/ rgf ePsf] , Go'g Ifdtf ljsf; / ;fdflhs If] qsf] wLdf ljsf; ePsf] :yfgLo lgsfodf ljsf;sf] rfk tLa| / x] sf] / oL cfjZostf ;Daf] wg ug{ l;ldt >f] t pknAwtfsf] cj:yfdf 9'+uf, lu6L, jfn'jf nufot k|fylds k|fs[lts >f] tx?sf] Jojl:yt / j} 1flgs kl/ rfng ug{ ;lsPdf >f] tsf] hf] xf] ug{ ;3fp k'Ug] b] lvG5 . o:tf >f] tx?sf] kl/ rfngaf6 jftfj/ 0fLo x|f; jf gsf/ fTds c;/ kg] { s'/ fnfO{ gh/ cGbfh ug{ klg ;lsFb} g . bLuf] ljsf;sf] dd{ cfufdL k':tfsf clwsf/ df x|f; gcfpg] ul/ ljsf; lqmofsnfk ;+rfng ug'{ klg xf] . k|s[lt k|bQ oL >f] tx?nfO{ / fhZj cfh{gsf] dfq dfWood agfpg' eGbf klg s] s;/ L a'l4dQfk"0f{ tl/ sfn] >f] t kl/ rfng ug] { eGg] ;jfnnfO{ Wofg lbg cfjZos 5 .

;Gbe{ ;fdfu|Ll:yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g lgodfjnL, @)%^, sfg"g lstfj Joj:yf ;ldlt, aa/ dxn sf7df08f} .l:yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P] g, @)%%, sfg"g lstfj Joj:yf ;ldlt, aa/ dxn sf7df08f} .l:yfgLo lgsfosf] ljQLo l:ylt ljZn] if0f @)^(, :yfgLo lgsfo ljQLo cfof] usf] ;lrjfno, k'Nrf] s nlntk'/ . l;'j] bL ;f] dnfn, -@)^%_ g] kfndf ;+3Lotf / sfo{ lhDd] jf/ L lgwf{/ 0f, sf7df08f} , >LdtL c~hgf ;'j] bL, sn+sL:yfg . lcfly{s ;e] {If0f @)^(÷)&), cy{ dGqfno, l;+xb/ jf/ .lg] kfnsf] :yfgLo zf;g -@)^*_, ld/ ] :6 g] kfn nlntk'/ .lg] kfnsf] cGtl/ d ;+ljwfg @)^#, sfg"g lstfj Joj:yf ;ldlt, aa/ dxn sf7df08f} .lr'/ ] efj/ nufotsf If] qaf6 9'+uf lu6\6L u|fe] n jfn'jf pTvgg lgsf;L ;DaGwL cWoog k|ltj] bg@)^^, Joj:yflksf ;+;b

k|fs[lts >f] t / ;fwg ;ldlt ;+;b ;lrjfno l;+xb/ jf/ sf7df08f} .ls] ;L, / d] zs'df/ -@)^^_, / fHosf] k'gM;+/ rgfsf ;Gbe{df g] kfndf ;+3Lotf, ck|sflzt y] l;;, lqlj / fhgLltzf:q s] Gb|Lo

ljefu,sLlt{k'/ .lt/ fO{sf lhNnfx?af6 9'+uf lu6\6L, jfn'jf pTvgg tyf lgsf;L ;DaGwL ljifodf k|:t't cWoog k|ltj] bg@)^^ df3, :yfgLo

ljsf; dGqfno, k'Nrf] s nlntk'/ . lzdf{, lgnds'df/ ,-@)^$_ g] kfndf of] hgf / ljsf;, sf7df08f} , k} / jL k|sfzg .






Proprietor, Raju Prasad Chaulagain

DAYANA ConstructionJorpati, Kathmandu

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g] kfndf ljs] lGb|s/ 0fsf nflu x'b} cfPsf k|of;x? ;+u} &% j6} k|zf;sLo lhNnfx?df O{lGhlgol/ ª k|fljlws ;] jf k'¥ofpg ljleGg lg0f{ox? x'Fb} cfPsf] kfOG5 . k|zf;g ;'wf/ cfof] u @)@% n] lhNnf k+rfotdf cf] e/ l;o/ x? / fVg l;kmfl/ ; u/ ] sf] df k~rfotsfndf g} k|fljlws zfvf jf ;fj{lgs lgdf{0f zfvf h:tf sfof{nox? cl:tTjdf cfPsf] Oltxf; 5 . t/ :yfgLo ljsf; dGqfno cGtu{t / x] sf ;fj{hlgs lgdf{0f zfvf @)$$ df vf/ ] h ul/ P eg] k'jf{wf/ ljsf;;+u ;DalGwt hn;|f] t dGqfno, cfjf; tyf ef} lts of] hgf dGqfno cflbn] lhNnf lhNnfdf cf cfˆgf lhNnf :t/ Lo sfof{no v8f u/ L If] qut k"jf{wf/ ljsf;sf sfo{x? ug{ yfn] .

@)$^ ;fnsf] hgcfGbf] ngsf] ;kmntf :j?k b] zsf] / fhgLlts Joj:yfdf cfd'n kl/ jt{g eof] . / fhfsf] k|ToIf zf;gdf cfwfl/ t lgb{nLo k~rfotL Joj:yfsf] cGTo / ax'bnLo ;+;bLo k|hftGqsf] :yfkgf kZrft @)$& ;fndf tbg'?ksf] ;+ljwfg ;d] t hf/ L eof] . gofF ;+ljwfg cg';f/ lgjf{rg eO{ @)$* ;fndf hglgjf{lrt dlGqkl/ ifbsf] u7g eof] . k'g:yf{lkt k|hftflGqs Joj:yfdf k|zf;g oGqnfO{ ;'wf/ ug] { p2] Zon] lgjf{lrt ;/ sf/ sf k|wfgdGqLsf] cWoIftfdf ul7t k|zf;g ;'wf/ cfof] un] cfˆgf] ;'emfjdf æ:yfgLo :t/ df x'g] ljsf; lgdf{0fsf ; ;fgf sfo{qmdx?df k|fljlws ;xof] u k'¥ofpg cfjf; tyf zx/ L ljsf; ljefu / vfg] kfgL tyf 9n lgsf; ljefuaf6 cfjZos ;+Vofdf k|fljlws sd{rf/ Lx? sfhdf lnO k|:tfljt :yfgLo :jzf;g tyf ;fdflhs ljsf; dGqfno cGt/ ut k|To] s lhNnfdf lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf] ljsf; lgdf{0f sfo{sf] ;~rfngdf k|fljlws ;xof] u k'¥ofpg ;fj{hlgs lgdf{0f zfvfsf] Joj:yf ul/ g' kb{5 / o; zfvfdf sfd ug] { k|fljlw1x? :yfgLo ljsf; clwsf/ Lsf] k|ToIf lgoGq0f / lgb] {zgdf / xg] Joj:yf ;d] t ldnfpg' kb{5Æ eGg] ;'emfj lbPsf] b] lvG5 . To:t} lhNnf:t/ Lo sfof{nosf] ;Gbe{df dGqfno cGt/ utsf ;dfg k|s[ltsf sfo{x?sf] ;~rfngsf nflu dGqfno ljefun] j] Unf j] Un} lhNnf:t/ Lo sfof{nox? vf] Ng'sf] ;§f Pp6} lhNnf:t/ Lo sfof{noaf6 ;dfwfg u/ fpg pk'o'Qm x'g] ;'emfj ;d] t lbPsf] lyof] . pQm k[i7e"lds} ljr :yfgLo ljsf; dGqfnon] @)%@ ;fndf ;j} lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf] sfof{nox?df Ps Ps hgf OlGhlgo/ ;lxtsf k|fljlwsx? v6fO{ lhNnf ljs; ;ldltx?nfO{ k|fljlws Ifdtfo'Qm agfpg] k|of; yfngL u/ ] sf] kfOG5 .

o;} ljrdf g] kfn ;/ sf/ n] @)%# df s[lif If] qsf] ljsf;sf nflu @) jif] { bL3{sfnLg of] hgf :jLs[t u/ ] sf] / ;f] of] hgf cg'?k s[lif ljsf;df ;xof] u k'¥ofpg / s[lif pkhnfO{ ahf/ sf] ;xh kxF'r k'¥ofpg s[lif ;8ssf] cjwf/ 0ff cuf8L Nofof] . s[lif ;8ssf] ljsf; / lj:tf/ ;d] t ug] { k|of] hgsf nflu @)%% efb| * ut] tTsflng :yfgLo ljsf; dGqfno cGt/ ut :yfgLo k'jf{wf/ ljsf; tyf s[lif ;8s ljefu -DoLIDAR_ sf] :yfkgf ul/ of] . o;sf] gfdaf6} :yfgLo k"jf{wf/ ;DaGwL ;j} sfo{sf nflu ;dGjo / g] t[Tj o;} ljefuaf6 x'g'kg] { eGg] a'lemG5 . o;/ L :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P] g @)%% :jLs[t x'g' cl3 g} DoLIDAR :yfkgf ePsf] / of] ljefusf] :yfkgfaf6 lhNnf:t/ df klg tT;DaGwL sfof{no v8f ug{sf nflu k"jf{wf/ ;[hgf ePsf] dfGg ;lsG5 .

zflnu|fd l/hfnpk ;lrj

;ª\3Lo dfldnf tyf :yfgLo ljsf; dGqfno

lhNnf ljsf; ;ldlt / lhNnf k|fljlws sfof{nosf] cGt/ ;DaGw

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:yfgLo lgsfox?sf] lgjf{rg ;DkGg eO{ ;s] sf] / s] Gb|df ljefu ;d] t v8f eO ;s] sf] b'O jif{kl5 ;fj{hlgs vr{ Joj:yfkgsf ljljw kIfdf cWoog u/ L ;'emfj k|:t't ug{ @)%& efb| !% df ;fj{hlgs vr{ k'g/ fjnf] sg cfof] u u7g ePsf] lyof] . pQm cfof] un] @)%& kmfu'g @) df k|:t't u/ ] sf] k|ltj] bgdf lhNnf:t/ df Plss[t ;] jf k'¥ofpg' kg] { lgDg ljefusf] sfdsf nflu lhNnf:t/ df Pp6} ;fj{hlgs lgdf{0f sfof{no dfq / fVg pko'Qm x'g] pNn] v ul/ Psf] lyof] M

ll;+rfO ljefulvfg] kfgL tyf 9n lgsf; ljefulcfjf; tyf zx/ L ljsf; ljefu

pQm k|ltj] bgn] pNn] lvt ljefu cGt/ utsf 7'nf tyf dWod vfnsf cfof] hgf ;~rfngsf nflu Pp6f ljefun] a9Ldf @% j6f l8lehg sfof{no :yfkgf ug{ pko'Qm x'g] ;d] t pNn] v u/ ] sf] lyof] . t/ DoLIDAR cGt/ utsf sfo{jf/ ] pNn] v gePsf] / lhNnf ;fj{hlgs lgdf{0f sfof{nosf] k|zff;lgs lgoGq0f cfjf; tyf zx/ L ljsf; ljefuaf6 ul/ g' pko'Qm x'g] egL ;'emfOPsf] lyof] . pQm ;'emfj cg';f/ g} :yfgLo:t/ sf sfo{ ug{ @)%*÷@÷!! sf] lg0f{oaf6 &% j6} lhNnfdf :yfgLo k"jf{wf/ ljsf; sfof{no :yfkgf ePsf] xf] . t/ ;'emfjsf] cf+lzs sfof{Gjog ub} { cfjfz tyf zx/ L ljsf; ljefu cGt/ ut geO DoLIDAR cGt/ ut pQm sfof{nox? v8f ePaf6 g} lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf] sfof{no / lhNnf k|fljlws sfof{no ljr clwsf/ / st{Jo ljifodf ljjfbsf] ;'?jft ePsf] xf] eGbf cTo'lQm x'g] 5} g .

g] kfn ;/ sf/ dGqLkl/ ifbsf] lg0f{ofg';f/ lhNnf k"jf{wf/ ljsf; sfof{no :yfkgf ;+u} vfg] kfgL l;+rfO{ tyf ejg;+u ;DjlGwt dGqfno÷ljefuaf6 OlGhlgol/ Ë ;] jfsf / fhkqf+lst tyf / fhkq cg+lst k|fljlws lghfdtL sd{rf/ Lx?nfO{ pQm sfof{nox?df sfd u/ fpg] p2] Zon] tt\ tt\ dGqfno÷ ljefuaf6 :yfgLo ljsf; dGqfno cGt/ ut ;?jf u/ L ljleGg k"jf{wf/ ljsf; sfof{nox?df kb:yfkg ul/ Psf] kfO{G5 . o;/ L ljleGg k|s[ltsf k|fljlws sfo{df ;+nUg OlGhlgol/ ª ;] jf, k|zf;g ;] jf / :yfgLo lgsfosf] ;] jfdf / x] sf sd{rf/ Lx?nfO{ Pp6} p2] Zo k|fKtLsf nflu sfddf ;+nUg u/ fOPsf] b] lvG5 . s'g} klg ;+u7gn] / fd|f] ;+u sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug{ sd{rf/ Lx?sf] p2] Zo / ;+u7gsf] p2] Zo lar tfnd] n x'g'k5{ . ljleGg p2] Zon] ;+ul7t ePsf tLg k|sf/ sf sd{rf/ Lx?nfO{ tby{jfbL b[li6sf] 0fn] Pp6} ;+u7gdf ;+nUg u/ fOPsf] / tTsfn} b] lv :yfgLo lgsfodf lgjf{lrt kbflwsf/ Lsf] sfo{sfn ;dfKt eO{ csf] { lgjf{rg ;d] t gePsf] sf/ 0faf6 pNn] lvt b'O{ lgsfolar ljafb ;[hgf x'b} cfPsf] 5 . of] ljjfb ;DalGwt ;+u7g leq vf;} gb] lvP klg ;fj{hlgs d~rx?df pTsif{k'0f{ 9+un] 5tf5'Nn x'g] u/ L k|:t't x'g] u/ ] sf] 5 .

of] ljjfb b'O sfof{nosf] lar eGbf klg b'O sfof{nosf k|d'v lar xf] eGg ;lsG5 . ljjfbsf sf/ 0fx?nfO{ a'bfut ?kdf lgDgfg';f/ cf} +Nofpg ;lsG5 .

l klxrfgl kx'Frl kl/ rfngl sfof{Gjog Ifdtfsf] cefj

lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf] sfof{nosf :yfgLo ljsf; clwsf/ L / k|fljlws sfof{nosf k|d'v lhNnf OlGhlgo/ ÷ OlGhlgo/ ;a} lghfdtL ;] jf P] g÷lgod cg';f/ ;dfg k|s[ofaf6 lgo'Qm ePsf g] kfn ;/ sf/ sf lghfdtL sd{rf/ Lx? x'g\ . t;y{ ;a} n] cfˆgf] klxrfg / e'ldsf vf] Hg' :jefljs g} x'G5 .

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cem $@ lhNnfsf lhNnf k|fljlws sfof{nox?df / fhkqf+lst låtLo >] 0fLs} k|d'v lhNnf OlGhlgo/ sf] kb:yfkg ePsf] xF'bf klg tL lhNnfx?df k|zf;g ;] jfsf ;dfg >] 0fLsf :yfgLo ljsf; clwsf/ Lsf] k|zf;sLo lgoGq0fdf lsg a:g] eGg] k|Zg v8f ePsf] 5 . lghfdtL ;] jf P] g÷lgodn] g} ljefuLo k|d'v egL tf] s] sf] :yfgLo ljsf; clwsf/ Ln] ;f] e"ldsf lgjf{x k|lt / fv] sf] c8fgnfO{ klg cg'lrt ?kdf lng ldNg] b] lvb} g . x'g t p:t} kl/ l:ytLdf k|d'v lhNnf clwsf/ Lsf] ;DaGwdf of] k|Zg p7] sf] 5} g . o:tf] x'g'sf] k|d'v sf/ 0fdf lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf] sfof{nonfO{ ;+3Lo dfldnf tyf :yfgLo ljsf; dGqfno cGt/ utsf] zfvf sfofnosf ?kdf a'‰g] / Jojxf/ ug] { uNtL klg Ps xf] .

lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltnfO{ :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P] g÷lgodn] ljleGg >f] t kl/ rfng u/ L cfDbfgL ug] { clwsf/ Psflt/ lbPsf] 5 eg] csf] { tkm{ ;f] xL P] g cg';f/ s] Gb| ;/ sf/ af6 rfn' / k"Flhut -lgzt{, ;zt{ / sfo{qmdut_ cg'bfg ;d] t k|fKt x'g] Joj:yf 5 . g/ d ah] 6 k2lt cjnDjg ug] { lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf] sfof{nosf k|d'v -:yfgLo ljsf; clwsf/ L _ ;+u ;fwg >f] tsf] kx'Fr cToflws ePsf] t/ lhNnf k|fljlws sfof{nox?df eg] ;Lldt ;|f] t x'g] / sfof{nonfO{ ;'Jojl:yt 9+un] ;~rfng ug{ lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltk|lt lge{/ x'g'kg] { b] lvPsfn] ;fwg ;|f] tdf ;dfg kx'Fr x'g'k5{ eGg] wf/ 0ff klg ljsf; ePsf] kfOG5 h'g wf/ 0ffnfO{ gsf/ fTds ?kdf lng ldNg] b] lvb} g .

ljjfbsf] csf] { ljifo kl/ rfng ;DjGwL 5 . dGqLkl/ ifbsf] lg0f{oaf6 lhNnf k|fljlws sfof{no u7g xF'bf k"jf{wf/ lgdf{0f ;DaGwL ljleGg If] qut sfo{x?nfO{ s] Gb| / :yfgLo :t/ df ljefhg ul/ Psf] 5 . :yfgLo :t/ sf sfo{x? lhNnf k|fljlws sfof{noaf6 ;~rfng x'g] Joxf] / f pNn] v 5 eg] lhlj; sf] ifsf] / sdaf6 ;~rfng x'g] k"jf{wf/ ljsf; ;DaGwL sfo{ ;d] t :yfgLo:t/ sf cfof] hgf÷sfo{qmddf ;dfj] z ul/ Psf] 5 . lhNnf k|fljlws sfof{nosf] p2] Zo / sfo{If] qx?df lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf] cfˆg} >f] t tyf g] kfn ;/ sf/ sf] cg'bfg ;d] taf6 ;~rfng x'g] k"jf{wf/ ljsf;sf sfo{x? ;d] t ljs] lGb|s/ 0fsf] cjwf/ 0ff cg'?k :yfgLo lgsfo cfly{s k|zf;g lgodfjnL adf] lhd ug] { pNn] v 5 . csf] { tkm{ :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P] gdf eg] lhNnf ljsf; ;ldlt cfkm} n] of] hgf sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug{ ;Sg] Joj:yf / x] sf] 5 . o;/ L Psflt/ P] g cg';f/ lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltx?n] lhlj; sf] ifdf k|fKt x'g] ;Dk'0f{ / sd cfkm} +n] kl/ rfng ug{ kfpg'kg] { dfGotf / fV5g\ eg] csf] {lt/ lhNnf k|fljlws sfof{nox?n] dGqLkl/ ifbsf] lg0f{o cg';f/ To:tf] sfo{ ;~rfng ug{ cfjZos / sd ;d] tsf] clVtof/ L cfkm'n] kfpg' kg] { wf/ 0ff / fVb} cfPsf 5g\ .

ljjfbsf] csf] { sf/ 0f sfof{Gjog Ifdtfsf] cefj klg xf] . dGqLkl/ ifb tyf dGqfnoaf6 ljjfb ;dfwfgsf gfddf k6s k6s tby{jfbL 9+un] lg0f{o ug] { / cfkm} +n] u/ ] sf] lg0f{o sfof{Gjog ug{ g;Sg' k|d'v ;d:ofsf ?kdf / x] sf] 5 . ljjfb ;dfwfgsf] nflu a9L dfqfdf dGqfnosf / fhg} lts g] t[TjnfO{ ;lqmo kfl/ g' / :yfoL ;/ sf/ sf ?kdf / x] sf sd{rf/ LtGqsf g] t[Tjsf] e'ldsf uf} 0f kfl/ b} cfPsf] 5 . o;/ L b'j} kIfn] cfjZostf eGbf klg cf cfˆgf] :jfy{ cg';f/ dGqfnosf / fhg} lts / k|zf;lgs g] t[Tj pk/ kfb} { cfPsf] k|efjsf sf/ 0f ;j} ;/ f] sf/ jfnfsf] k'0f{ ;xeflutf a] u/ lg0f{o x'b} cfPsf] n] lg0f{o sfof{Gjog Ifdtf sdhf] / x'b} cfPsf] 5 . lg0f{o ePsf] nfdf] ;do;Dd klg ef} lts ?kdf dGqfnodf k"jf{wf/ dxfzfvf v8f x'g g;Sg'nfO{ o;} sf] lg/ Gt/ tfsf ?kdf lng ;lsG5 .

cjsf] af6f] o; k|sf/ sf] cj:yf nfdf] ;do;Dd / flv/ xg' ;+u7gsf nflu xflgsf/ s x'G5 . o;df ;'wf/ sf] pkfo x'b} gePsf] klg xf] Og . o;sf nflu w] / } sfo{bnx? ag] sf 5g\ / ;'emfjx? k|:t't klg ePsf 5g\ . t/ ;a} ;/ f] sf/ jfnfx?df ;'wf/ sf nflu OR5fzlQm gePsf] / b'j} kIfdf cltjfbL wf/ 0ff / fVg] x? k|efjzfnL ePsf sf/ 0f ;'wf/ ;+ej gePsf] xf] . ;'wf/ sf nflu b'O k|sf/ sf k2lt cjnDjg ug{ ;lsG5 .

gLltut ;'wf/ M klxrfg, kx'Fr tyf kl/ rfng ;+u ;DalGwt sltko ljjfbx? gLltut ;'wf/ af6 lg?k0f ug'{ kg] { vfnsf 5g\ eg] sltko ljafbsf ljifox? lgd"{n ug{ g;lsg] t/ Go'lgs/ 0f ug{ ;lsg] vfnsf b] lvG5g\ . vf;u/ L

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kxF'r / kl/ rfng ;Da4 w] / } h;f] d'2fx? :yfgLo lgsfo cfly{s k|zf;g lgodfjnLdf ;+zf] wg u/ ] / ug{ ;lsG5 eg] s] xL ljjfbx?nfO{ :yfgLo ljsf; clwsf/ Lsf] clwsf/ k|Tofof] hgjf6 ;dfwfg ug{ ;lsG5 . ;fy} dGqfnoaf6 tof/ ePsf sltko sfo{ljlwx?df klg lhNnf k|fljlws sfof{nosf] e'ldsf cy{k'0f{ x'g] u/ L lgdf{0f kl/ dfh{g ug{ ;s] df klg oL ;d:ofx?sf] lg/ fs/ 0f ug{ ;lsG5 . t/ b] z ;+l3otf tkm{ cu|;/ ePsf] cj:yfdf P] gdf 7"nf ;+zf] wg u/ L hfg] af6f] sl7g, cJofjxfl/ s / 3fts klg x'g ;S5 .

sfo{k|0ffnLut ;'wf/ M dGqfno ljefu tyf lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf] sfof{noaf6 eO cfPsf sltko sfo{x?df k|0ffnLut ;'wf/ ug{ ;s] df klg b'a} kIf lar Psfsf/ jf ;xsfo{sf] efjgf ljsf; eO{ ;dfwfg tkm{ pGd'v x'g ;lsg] 5 . b} glGbg x'g] ;fdfGo Jojxf/ af6} klg o:tf sltko ;d:ofsf ulx/ fO 36fpg ;lsG5 . lsgeg] o:t} sf/ 0fn] dGqfno / ljefu lar klg b/ f/ b] lvg] u/ ] sf 5g\ . o;sf] nflu sltko k|fljlws sfo{x?df k'0f{t lhNnf k|fljlws sfof{nosf k|d'vnfO{ lhDd] jf/ agfpg] u/ L :yfgLo lasf; clwsf/ Ln] clwsf/ k|Tofof] hg ug{ ;lsG5 . c?nfO{ dxTj lbP dfq cfˆgf] dxTj k|j4{g ug{ ;lsG5 . :yfgLo lasf; clwsf/ Lsf] e'ldsf sfof{Gjogdf eGbf klg ;dGjo / lgoGq0f -cg'udg, d"Nof+sg cflb_ df x'g'kb{5 . dGqfno tyf ljefuaf6 cfof] hgf x'g] 5nkmn, uf] li7, k|lzIf0f tyf a} 7sx?df ;dfg txsf b'j} tkm{sf clwsf/ Lx?sf] ;xeflutf u/ fpg'kb{5 . To:t} u/ L dGqfno tyf ljefun] cfof] hgf ug] { If] qLo sfo{zfnf, uf] li7 nufotsf sfo{x?df :yfgLo lasf; clwsf/ L tyf k|d'v lhNNff OlGhlgo/ jf OlGhlgo/ / of] hgf cg'udg tyf k|zf;sLo clws[tsf] ;dfg ;xeflutfsf] cj;/ lbOg'kb{5 . o;af6 b"O lgsfo larsf] ljjfb ;dfwfg dfq xf] Og dGqfno / ljefu lar b] vf k/ ] sf sltko s6'tfnfO{ klg Go"lgs/ 0f u/ L b"O{ larsf] s[lqd ;DaGwnfO{ jf:tljs / ;'dw'/ ;DaGwdf kl/ 0ft ug{ ;lsG5 . dGqfno xfd|f] klg ;+/ Ifs jf cleefjs xf] eGg] efjgf ljefu / cGt/ utsf k|fljlwsx?df lasf; ug{ ;Sg' k|efjsf/ L ;'wf/ sf] k|:yfg ljGb" x'g] 5 .

pNn] lvt ;a} ljjfb ;dfwfg jf Go"lgs/ 0f ug{ ;a} kIfsf] cy{k'0f{ ;xeflutfdf 5nkmn u/ L k4ltut ;'wf/ sf sfo{of] hgf agfpg'kb{5 . cy{k'0f{ ;xeflutf lagfsf] sfo{of] hgf agfOPdf km] / L sfof{Gjog Ifdtfdf k|Zg lrGx v8f x'g ;S5 . dGqfno, ljefu, sfof{no, k] zfut ;+u7g, sfg'g tyf cfly{s k|zf;gsf 1ftf ;d] tsf] cy{k'0f{ ;xeflutfdf ;dfwfgsf aF'bfx? pk/ 5nkmn u/ L ;'wf/ ug] { / cGo ljifodf efjgfTds ;'wf/ sf cf} hf/ k|of] u u/ L ;DaGw ;'dw'/ agfpg k|oTg ug'{k5{ . o;df g} ;+u7gsf] eljio pHjn b] lvG5 .






Er. Jasman LalchanProprietor

Narendra Nirman Sewa P. Ltd.

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Er. Kamal JaishiCDE/DTO Lalitpur

An Overview of RRRSDP/ Lalitpur

GeneralGovernment of Nepal (GoN) with the grant assistance from the Asian Development Bank and UK Department for International Development, plus loan assistance from the OPEC Fund for International Development, and a technical assistance grant from the Swiss Agency for Development & Cooperation, launched a programme named as Rural Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Sector Development Programme (RRRSDP) under MoFALD/DoLIDAR from fiscal year 065/066 to 06/070. The program was launched in 38 districts ( 20 core districts and 18 none core districts). Lalitpur was one of the among 20 core districts. The main goal of the project was to contribute towards achieving national goal of poverty reduction. To achieve that goal the project had specific objectives to improve connectivity, enhance economic and employment opportunities and ensure increased access to market and social services for rural communities.

Under RRRSDP/Lalitpur physical components envisaged at the time of project preparation included the reconstruction or rehabilitation of 25.24 km of Bhardeu-Chandanpur section of Lele- Bhardeu - Chandanpur rural road.

One motorable bridge (Khani Khola ) was envisaged to provide all-weather access along Baguwa-Pyutar-Ashrang rural road. This is one of the prime rural roads in southern Lalitpur.

Likewise the project also planned to construct sixteen community infrastructure facilities including: one Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (RWSS) scheme ; ten trail bridges; and five Other Supplementary Infrastructure (OSI), including school buildings and community buildings etc.

The original project concept envisaged that most of the road works would be undertaken following a Labour-intensive, Environment-friendly and Participatory (LEP) approach, involving the formation of local Road Building Groups (RBGs) and providing employment for significant numbers of poor, marginalised and socially excluded people living within the proposed road corridor.

In practice road work was undertaken through contracting approach using machines and equipments. Such an approach was seen as being quicker, cheaper and more easily implemented, and was more appropriate for some of the more complex items of work involved like bituminous surfacing etc. Furthermore unavailability of labour work force in rural areas was also one of the reason behind choosing contracting approach using machines and equipments.

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Nevertheless significant local employment was also created in the rural areas. The total employment generated in the district during project period from the construction of all the physical components including rural roads, motorable bridge and other community infrastructure facilities worked out to be 268,672 man days.

Project Outputs1. Rural RoadsIn Lalitpur initially three road sub projects namely: i) Lele- Bhardeu-Chandanpur ii) Dalchowki- Sankhu- Ikudole and iii) Baguwa-Pyutar-Ashrang were selected for implementation. But due to funding constraint only Lele-Bhardeu-Chandanpur Road Sub project ( 25.24 km) was initiated for rehabilitation and reconstruction.

Total five numbers of contactors were used by slicing the whole length of the road into five packages. which has now been completed by June 30, 2013 and the total length of the road has worked out to be 24.90 km. The total cost of the Lele-Bhardeu-Chandanpur Road road sub project (including shopping contract) worked out to be NRs 145,495,091.40

Chandanpur section of Lele –Bhardeu-Chandanpur Rural Road Retaining Structure as part of Bio engineering worksAt Lele-Bhardeu-Chandanpur Rural Road

Furthermore In total, different eleven roads were chosen for periodic maintenance within the district. The roads taken for periodic maintenance were i) Bungmati Pharsidole Road ii) Lele Bhardeu Section of Lele-Bhardeu Chandanpur Road iii) Chaughare Singane Bhanjyang Road iv) Lalit Ghumti Road v) Shankhu Bhakari Danda Road vi) Dalchowki Sankhu Ikudole Road vii) Dhungin Biruwa Road, Viii) Tika Bhairab Devicvhaur Ghusel Road , ix) Ratomate Khor Bhanjyang Road, x) Bhattedanda Kalwan Road xi) Katuwan Sankhu Road. The total length of these eleven roads worked out to be 181 km out of which 35.10 km of road length was maintained. The total cost of the periodic maintenance worked out to be NRs 4,788,013.80. Later GoN subsequently decided to proceed with the remaining two road subprojects (initially selected by the Project) namely : i) Dalchowki-Sankhu- Ikudole Road Sub Project ( 24 km) and ii) Baguwa- Pyutar- Ashrang Road Sub Project ( 16.024km). These roads were contracted out in the fiscal year 2068/069 and are under construction now using entirely government funding.

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2. Motorable BridgesIn Lalitpur one motorable steel truss bridge over Khani Khola along the Bagua – Pyutar-Asrang rural road was initiated. Due to the negligence and delay on the part of the contractor the work could not be completed fully. Only steel parts fabrication and abutments were completed by the end of project. The total expenditure by the end of the project period ( June 30, 2013) worked out to be NRs 19, 706,752.97. The remaining works will have to be completed using government funding in the FY 070/071.

3. Rural Water Supply and SanitationIn Lalitpur the only rural water supply and sanitation scheme named as Dalchowki – Simsar- Saredol with the total number of 1555 beneficiaries ( 96 Households) was completed. The total no of tap stands were 14. The total cost of the scheme worked out to be NRs 799,873.77.

4. Trail BridgesIn Lalitpur in total ten numbers of Trail Bridges: Nine short span trail bridges (SSTB) and one long span trail bridges (LSTB) were initiated. Out of them all nine SSTB bridges namely i) Khaire Khola ii) Lapsi Bot iii) Jure Khola iv) Bepare Ghari v) Baguwa vi) Polosing Khola vii) Katuwal Daha viii) Sumara ix) Khurmi Tuin ghat were completed and one LSTB Bridge (Furke Danda) was partially completed. The total expenditure incurred by the project in trail bridge construction in Lalitpur worked out to be NRs 31, 331,399.94.

5. Other Supplementary InfrastructureIn Lalitpur in total five numbers of other supplementary infrastructures were envisaged to be built within the project period. These were : i) Chandanpur Community Building, Chandanpur-2 ii) Gotikhel Community Building, Gotikhel-2 iii) Manikhel Community Building, Manikhel-7 iv) Gyanodaya School Building, Chaughare-2 and v) Gupteshwor Primary School Building, Bhardeu-8. Out of which only two supplementary infrastructures namely Manikhel Community Building, Manikhel-7 and Gupteshwor Primary School Building, Bhardeu-8 were completed. Chandanpur Community Building, Chandanpur-2 and Gyanodaya School Building, Chaughare-2 were partially completed. Gotikhel Community Building, Gotikhel-2 could not be started at all due to the negligence of the user committee. User’s committee chairman of Gotikhel Community Building, Gotikhel-2 has been found to be involved in the fund embezzlement, who is under scanner of District Administration Office, Lalitpur. The total cost incurred by the project in the construction of OSI worked out to be NRs 2,883,425.46.

Project CostsThe total cost of the project worked out to be NRs 227,810,317.10, out of which Rural Road component including one motorable bridge and periodic maintenance of thirteen rural roads amounted to NRs 169,989,858.20 (74.62 %) and Supplementary Infrastructure NRs 39,020,458.88 (17.13 %) made up of NRs 4,805,633.48 for the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (RWSS), NRs

Khaire Khola Trail Bridge , Gimdi, Laitpur

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31,331,399.94 for Trail Bridges and NRs 2,883,425.46 for Other Supplementary Infrastructure. The remaining NRs 18,800,000.00 (8.25%) comprised Project Management Services, Institutional Capacity Development, Community Empowerment and contingencies.

Overall Assessment In overall it was a great opportunity and as well a challenge for DoLIDAR Engineers to complete this project successfully within the given time frame. For them it was a first project of its kind and size which demanded the skill of project management inbuilt within them, unfortunately which was lacking. With the successful completion of this project the capacity of DoLIDAR engineers in Project Management, Contract Management/Contract Administration has been greatly enhanced. Moreover it has boosted their morale by giving the feelings within them, that they are equally capable and competent in managing the project compared to their counterpart engineers from other line Departments. It can be assumed as a great achievement for DoLIDAR engineers and for the organization as a whole.

In Lalitpur main component of the project, i.e. Lele–Bhardeu-Chandanpur rural road sub project contributed towards enhancing levels of connectivity in rural areas of Southern Lalitpur through it’s upgrading with bituminous surfacing to provide all-weather access. As per the traffic survey conducted by DTO Lalitpur from Shrawan 2 to Shrawan 6 , 2070 ( from 5.00 AM to 9:00 PM) a little traffic increment can be seen, though it was not possible to compare due to unavailability of traffic base line data. But according to local people significant rise on the total volume of traffic can be seen especially on the parts of motorcycles. The average daily traffic recorded for different categories of motorized vehicles were a) Motorcycles – 170 nos; b) Car, Sedans- 11 nos; c) Pickup, Trucks & Buses (< 15 persons)-19 nos, d) Buses (> 15 persons)- 19 nos; e) Jeeps- 7 nos; f) Light Trucks (2 axles)-9 nos; g) Medium Trucks (3 axles)- 3 nos. The total average daily traffic volume of motorized vehicles worked out to be 228 nos.

During the construction some difficulties were encountered with bituminous premix carpeting laid in some sections of the Lele – Bhardeu- Chandanpur Rural Road during FY 2068/069. Potholes, corrugations, unraveling and shovings at different stretches were formed. But it gave us a unique chance of learning and correcting them. With the approval on Trial Basis from DoLIDAR we introduced Hi Seal Ready Mix Cold Asphalt for patch and pothole repairing as an alternative to hot mix bituminous material. With the use of this material we had been able to rectify all the defects developed in the premix carpeting. This material works in all weather conditions except continuous heavy rain. It is easy to apply and has excellent workability and setting properties and better adhesiveness with aggregates. With the experience gained in Lalitpur regarding the use of Hi-seal –Ready Mix Cold Asphalt it can be recommended for using this material as an alternative to hot mix bituminous material for correcting patch and repair works for short stretches in all weather condition.

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Field Dry Density Testing of Base Course before laying Hi Seal Ready Mix Cold Asphalt at Lee-Bhardeu-Chandanpur Rural Road

Defect correction of Premix carpeting with the use of Hi Seal Ready Mix Cold Asphalt At Lele-Bhardeu-Chandanpur Rural Road

RecommendationsSince government funding alone can’t cope with the growing demand of improving and upgrading rural roads at the district level, a continuing project with donor’s involvement in the rural road sector is necessary, in order to improve and upgrade Local Road Networks.

Hence a follow-on project of similar size is recommended with the focus on the Rural Roads sector. All the road sub-projects should be selected and prioritized from Updated District Transport Master Plan (DTMP) /District Road Core Network (DRCN) with the primary executing function laid upon District Technical Office along with technical back stopping from DoLIDAR and private sector outsourcing.

Er. Jay Krishna ShresthaManaging Director

Jaarsa Engineering Consultancy P. Ltd.New Baneshwar, Katmandu



on the auspicious occasion of 16th Anniversary of DoLIDAR and extend our best wishes for

it's success in contributing towards rural development of Nepal.

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Dr. Er. Jagat K. ShresthaDepartment of Civil Engineering

Pulchowk Campus, Institute of EngineeringTribhuvan University, Nepal


A method for road network definition in hilly areas of Nepal

1. IntroductionNepal has around 43% of 26.5 million populations [1] concentrated in hilly areas. The public facilities for the rural residents are scattered in different settlements. For many residents of the settlements, there is a difficulty to get basic goods and public services and participate in the economic and social activities because of absence or poor road connectivity. This has resulted on their low quality of life because of insufficient numbers of public facilities and transport accessibility to the facilities including location of the existing infrastructures in inappropriate locations.

More than 39% percent of the population in the hills is out of reach to all weather roads within 4-hours walk [2]. The roads networks are mostly developed in plain Terai region and in few parts of hilly regions only. Hence, there is a need of extensions and development of rural roads networks particularly in the hilly regions of Nepal to integrate the rural facilities and the rural residents in the national network.

Developments of infrastructure have been extensively studied in the past, however, almost entirely independently from each other. This was not enough because the very definition of optimal locations of facilities, both private and public in order to serve residents, is constrained by the structure of the designed transport networks. When the network is designed improperly, residents get extremely poor service even when facilities are located optimally. While several evidences are showing there is significant interaction of the network with facility locations, it is meaningful to determine the network design and facility locations simultaneously [3,4]. It has been realized that these two issues, facility location and the rural road networks, have a direct impact and should be studied in an integrated manner for a rural development.

This paper explores a method where rural road networks are defined considering rural settlements and public facility locations (e.g. health centers, schools, and rural markets). The proposed method establishes the optimum location of nodal (obligatory) points which cover the settlements and public facilities and establishes a road network based on the financial and local spatial constraints.

ABSTRACT

A facility allocation model maximal covering location problem (MCLP) is utilized for the identification of nodal (obligatory) points in road network in rural hill areas of Nepal. Connection to the nodal points which cover settlements and public facilities by the road links can form the basic road network. A Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) of the road network can be a minimum connection level among the nodal points necessary for the road accessibility to cover the hill settlements and public facilities. The proposed method can be a more practical and realistic approach for the road network development in hilly regions of Nepal.

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2. Location of nodal (obligatory) pointsIn the sparsely populated settlements, the public facilities do not exist at the same location. Hence, all the settlements cannot have all type of facilities; however, the settlements should have access to the public facilities and services within a reasonable distance. Thus, identification of one or more nodes that can cover the most of the settlements and facilities in specified distances is necessary and usually it is a settlement within a group of settlements. One way of grouping the settlements can be based on the political boundaries and find an appropriate geographical location at the centre of the boundaries (nodal point). The nodal points can be the obligatory points that can be connected by road links. However, fixing the location may be difficult in the hilly and rugged terrains. Hence, an appropriate tool is necessary to locate such points.

The scattered settlements in hill slopes are generally connected with foot trails and only some of them are connected by rural roads. The trails make route as it crisscross the hill slopes making a distance much greater than the direct planner distance. Hence, there is less significance of direct Euclidian distances of settlements and facilities in rural hill terrains. These trail/road network forms a basic ground to locate an appropriate nodal settlement for facility location from where distance to other settlements or public facilities is minimal. Hence, it is necessary to study the trail networks to find a nodal settlement. The settlements and facilities can be treated as nodes. A distance matrix can be formed after finding the distances of the foot trails/roads to each settlements and facilities.

The public facilities can be village development centre, health centre, schools and market centers. The delineation of the area can be the Village Development Committee (VDC) boundaries as the VDCS are the lowest political units in Nepal. Hence, transportation network within the VDC can be obtained and the most effective settlement in the VDC can be found out. The shortest distance from each node to the other nodes can be found out utilizing Floyd-Warshall algorithm [5] and obtain the shortest path matrix.

Within the constraint of the shortest path matrix, the nodal point finding problem can be taken as facility allocation problem. As all the settlements and public facilities cannot be connected in hilly regions due to technical and financial constraints, this problem can be taken as a maximal covering location problem (MCLP) [6]. This can solve for the nodal point for each VDC [7]. If a single node cannot cover the whole VDC settlements and the facilities, more nodes can be identified solving the MCLP model for required numbers of allocations of nodal points. In the similar fashion, the nodal points of the other VDCs can be found out.

Since individual travel distance (travel time) influences their welfare and in order to avoid high inequality in accessibility to public services, it is essential to consider the upper limit of travel distance of each citizen in the integrated model corresponding to each type of facilities. There should not be only the target of optimizing the total cost in this model that will give rise the location of facility to the populated areas which would penalize other isolated ones with low density in the hilly regions. A desirable upper limit for travel distance (travel time) from any settlement to facility center should be fixed [8, 9]. However, fixing maximum service distance is a political issue.

3. Definition of road networks The connection to the nodal points (nodal settlements and facilities) by road links forms the basic network in the rural hills. All the nodal points need to be connected by road links for flow of goods and services. Hence, A Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) is a minimum connection level necessary for a rural accessibility to cover the settlements and public facilities. A distance matrix of the road

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network in the planning region can be formed. The links in the network are technically optimal new links, existing tracks, potential links or roads in poor condition which can be upgraded to all-weather roads (earthen, gravel or asphalt).The MST network is obtained by using Prim’s Algorithm [10] to connect each nodal point in the network [7].

4. Application of method The applicability of the method is tested in location of nodal points and formation of rural road network in 15 VDC of hilly region in Gorkha district of Nepal.

The VDCs lies in the north of the district headquarter in between the two rivers Burigandaki in the east and Daraundi in the west. The district headquarter is the main service center in the districts and act as supply centre of goods and services to the VDCs of the district. The district headquarter is linked by a feeder road to the national highway network of the country.

Total populations in the VDCs are 63437. The 15 VDC covers area of 244.2 square kilometre in the district. There are 219 settlements in these VDCs. The number of settlements, populations and the area of the VDCs are shown in Table 1.

To find the nodal points, the distance matrix of each VDC has been prepared and generated the shortest path matrix using Floyd-Warshal algorithm [5]. The optimum location of the 15 nodal points, one in each VDC has been identified using the MCLP model as shown in Figure 1.

Setting the maximum service distance as 4 km (approximately 1 hour walking distance) to the nodal points, the coverage by the nodal points varies from 53 % to 100 %. The average coverage of settlements and public facilities by nodal points in this region is 89% within maximum coverage distance of 4 km. However, additional nodal points can be added for less covered VDCs.

Table 1: Coverage by nodal points

SN VDCnumber of

settlementsPopulation Area (km2)

Coverage by nodal pointsSettlements %

1 Aarupokhari 13 5465 23.94 7 53.85 2 Asrang 13 3880 16.00 13 100.00 3 Baguwa 11 2246 6.34 11 100.00 4 Borlang 17 5383 29.95 13 76.47 5 Bunkot 24 7478 30.42 20 83.33 6 Dhawa 7 4040 16.05 6 85.71 7 Finam 18 3437 9.96 18 100.00 8 Masel 13 4408 14.96 11 84.62 9 Nareshwor 16 4501 13.13 14 87.50

10 Panch Deurali 10 2422 9.69 10 100.00 11 Pandrung 13 3021 13.06 11 84.62 12 Takukot 16 4496 14.05 16 100.00 13 Takulakuribot 16 2740 12.59 16 100.00 14 Tandrang 6 4928 15.83 5 83.33 15 Taple 26 4992 18.23 25 96.15 Total 219 63437 244.20 196 89.50

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The optimum location of the nodal points is the basis for definition of road networks. In the area, most of the nodal points are connected by road links. The location of existing road network and identified nodal points in the area is shown in Figure 2.

The main objective of the district government may be to link the nodal points spending less public resources and the operational transport cost to be a minimum. However, each nodal point is to be connected at least by a road link in the road network for the effective delivery of services and goods. For this purpose, a distance matrix of the VDC networks has been prepared considering spatial and technical constraints. The network is solved for Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) using Prim’s algorithm [10]. The MST so obtained is shown in Figure 3. This has gone through one level of optimization as minimization of link lengths. This is the minimum level of connectivity necessary for the accessibility of this region however with better coverage of settlements and public facilities. This exercise also has identified important road linkages that the district can put the scarce resources for construction and maintenance of road linkages effectively.

Figure 1: Nodal points from solution of covering problems.

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Figure 2: Nodal points and road network in study area.

Figure 3: MST of road network.

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5. ConclusionsThe covering model can be used to identify obligatory points in rural road network which cover settlements and public facilities. It also can be an effective tool to locate the optimum location of public facilities and to find the effectiveness of existing public facilities. These linkages to the nodes form a basic rural road network in the planning region. Implementation in 15 VDCs of Gorkha district shows that the method can be a practical and realistic approach for the identification of obligatory points and rural road network development in hilly regions of Nepal.

REFERENCES

[1] Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Nepal in Figures. National Planning Commission secretariat, Government of Nepal, 2011.

[2] DoLIDAR; Local Infrastructure Development Policy, Ministry of Local Development, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, 2004.

[3] Daskin, M.S.; Owen, S.H.; Location models in transportation. In Hall, R.W. (eds.), Handbook of Transportation Science. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, MA, ch.10: 311-360, 1999.

[4] Melkote, S.; Daskin, M.S.; An integrated model of facility location and transportation network design, Transportation Research Part A, Vol. 35, 515-538, 2001.

[5] Floyd, R. W.; Algorithm 97: Shortest Path, Communications of the ACM 5 (6): 345. doi:10.1145/367766.368168, 1962.

[6] Church, R. L. and ReVelle, C.; The maximal covering location problem, Papers of the Regional Science Association 32: 101-118, 1974.

[7] Shrestha, J. K.; Benta, A.; Borges Lopes, R.; Lopes N. A methodology for definition of road networks in rural areas of Nepal, proceedings of World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 78, pp. 491-495, pISSN: 2010-376X, eISSN: 2010-3778, Copenhagen, Denmark, 13 to 14 June, 2013.

[8] Rahman, S.; Smith, D.K.; Deployment of rural health facilities in a developing country, Journal of the Operational Research Society, 50: 892-902, 1999.

[9] Rahman, S.; Smith, D.K.; Use of location-allocation models in health service development planning in developing nations, European Journal of Operational Research, 123: 437-452, 2000.

[10] Prim, R. C.; Shortest connection networks and some generalizations, Bell System Technical Journal, 36: 1389–1401, 1957.






Rabin Kumar DahalManaging Director

National Synergy Engineering Solutions P. Ltd. Shankhamul, Kathmandu, Phone: 01 4782601

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Local Infrastructure for Livelihood Improvement (LILI)Project Introduction

Context and Brief History of the ProjectThe Nepalese economy is dominated by agriculture as the main source of food, income, and employment for the majority in the country. To increase agricultural production, the Nepalese Government promotes irrigation, the use of fertilizers and insecticides, the introduction of new seeds of better adapted and high-yield varieties, and the provision of credit. A considerable gap exists in the provision of irrigation facilities in the hill areas, where only about 27% of irrigable land is irrigated. In rural areas, the prevailing socio-economic exclusion and inappropriate land use combined with discriminatory land tenant systems have a negative impact on the livelihood conditions of marginalized and small farmers. In order to address the increased pressure on rural livelihoods and some of the issues raised above, LILI was conceived in 2003 by HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation Nepal launching a “build-up phase” in 2004. Under bi lateral agreements between the Governments of Nepal and Switzerland, the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SDC and HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation jointly funded a first implementation phase in 2006 followed by a second four year phase fully funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation starting in August 2009. After successful completion of four years of this phase, project is extended up to July 2014.

ObjectivesLILI’s goal is to improve food security and income by providing better access to water for irrigation to poor farmers with predominantly marginal landholding in selected food deficit areas in Nepal’s central-eastern and mid- and far-western regions. LILI interventions are designed to achieve quick impacts for higher levels of income derived from increased cropping intensity, customized cropping pattern, higher yields and marketing of cash crops. LILI’s impact statement is that approximately 80 per cent farmers associated with supported irrigation schemes will attain

more than six months food sufficiency and their on-farm income will be increased by 50 percent.

LILI has two expected outcomes. First, small farmers and disadvantaged groups manage and maintain farmer-managed irrigation systems and derive benefits in an equitable way. Second, district development committees/village development committees and local service providers (agriculture/technical/social) and local resource persons respond to priority needs for farmer managed irrigation systems.

Mr. Bhagat Bahadur BistaTeam Leader

LILI HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation Nepal

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Implementation Strategy and StakeholdersLILI is implemented by HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation Nepal in collaboration with the Government of Nepal and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation.Overall the District Development Committees and respective District Technical Offices of the Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads are responsible for project-implementation at the district level through user’s committees who are supported by local service providers (non-governmental organizations, consultants, and resource persons) in the areas of social mobilization, survey, design, cost estimation and site supervision.At the central level Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development and Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads coordinate and provide strategic guidance for the development of the small scale farmer managed irrigation systems sub sector.

Project Area LILI’s coverage is in selected food deficit areas in Nepal’s central-eastern and mid and far western regions. The working districts include Achham, Dailekh, Jajarkot, Kalikot, Ramechhap, Okhaldhunga and Khotang districts. Dolakha District was phased out in 2010.

Project Budget and Sources Contributions from Budget in MillionSDC 906.01DDCs/VDCs 27.93 Communities 101.33Total 1'035.27

Target The phase target is to construct 540 farmer managed irrigation systems benefiting 27'000 households, irrigating about 4'000 hectares of farmland.

Achievement as of July 2013 394 farmer managed irrigation schemes have been completed irrigating 3'092 hectares and benefiting 20’195 households of which 63 per cent farmers belong to disadvantaged groups. The project has been successful to increase an average 39% of cropping intensities and more than 100% income of project beneficiaries. The Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads, the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation have agreed to develop farmer managed small irrigation as a sub-sector approach for which strategies and activities are underpreparation.

Contact detailsLILI Programme Support Unit Jawalakhel, LalitpurG.P.O. Box 688, Kathmandu, NepalPhone: +977 552 9929, 500 0027 Fax: +977 1 552 4991E-mail: [email protected]

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Er. Shankar Prasad PanditSDE DoLIDAR / Project Coordinator, RAIDP

Quality Control Issues in RAIDP Sub-Projects

Accessibility is one of the most important attributes for the development of any community hence the country. Along with the accessibility the growth, governance and other facilities such as health, education, postal, communication is guaranteed. Therefore, access to the rural areas by the rural road network is important for economic growth of the country.

Rural Road Projects are usually small in sizes and widely scattered in remote area and the materials used are with a wide variety of low cost locally available materials. Keeping in view of above constrains, construction and maintenance of rural roads requires combined efforts on many factors as Quality of Materials, Workmanship, Quality Control Mechanism, Supervision and Monitoring of works. Depending on degree of violation, the consequences of lapses on quality control could lead to catastrophic failure-a bad experience/reputation to everybody involved.

The world bank supported Rural Access Improvement and Decentralization Project (RAIDP) is designed not only for the construction/improvement and upgrading of rural roads but also planed to strengthen the local institution which are responsible for the construction and maintenance of rural roads. Capacity enhancement of local road agencies District Development Committee (DDC)/District Technical Office (DTO) for the Quality Control in road construction and maintenance is one of the objectives of this project. Hence, RAIDP has managed for the assurance of quality from the field level by establishing the Material Testing Laboratory (MTL) The establishment of the MTL by the contractor is mandatory according to the Clause 34 of Condition of Contract (CoC). In addition to this MTL is established in all RAIDP participating Districts for the purpose of testing of materials not only for RAIDP projects but also for all the materials used in the infrastructure development in the districts. Each MTL in the district a Lab-Technician is nominated by the DDC/DTO. All the lab-technicians in the MTL are given the basic training on testing of materials for the road construction by RAIDP Project Co-ordinate Unit (PCU). All the MTL in the districts are supported by two senior lab-technicians whose main responsibilities are to provide on the job training to the lab-technicians of MTL in the participating districts. Each senior lab-technician covers the MTL of districts in two clusters.

The Project Support Consultant (PSC) monitors the quality of road and bridge works carried by the participating districts. For the monitoring of works PSC has provided a quality management engineer and bridge expert separately. On the top of that PCU has out sourced the Quality Management Expert for the quality assurance and its management in RAIDP participating districts.

Beside the effective management for the quality assurance in RAIDP programmme, there are some gaps and weakness observed in quality control of the road works operated by the participating DDC/DTO, which are to be improved in coming days.

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Issue: Function of MTLMajority of the MTL of the participating district are not functioning effectively as anticipated since the lab-technicians could not spare their time in MTL due to additional responsibility given to them for the supervision of road works. On the other hand a few MTL are functioning well as the lab-technicians are nominated only for the activities of MTL. Most of the DDC/DTOs are unable to provide supporting manpower as lab-boys in the MTL due to financial constrain which also is affecting the function of the MTL. The two senior lab-technician outsourced by PCU are providing supports for the effective function of MTL in the participating districts which will be continued till the end of the project period of RAIDP. In addition to above lack of vehicles for carrying the sample from the site is also playing a role for ineffective function of MTL. Probable solutions

Hence, for the sustainable and effective function of the MTL it is required to create a permanent post of lab-technician in each DTO and manage transportation facilities for the MTL as required for conducting the tests of construction materials. Regarding Lab-boys provision shall be made in Bill of Quantity (BoQ) in one of the Contract of sub-project of each participating district of RAIDP.

Issues: Supervision of Construction worksLack of supervision of the road works is one of the major issues in RAIDP participating districts. A numbers of reasons are observed regarding the same. In majority of sub-project of each district two or more than two site in-charge are nominated for the supervision of road, which creates conflict of interest among them leading to lack of supervision in road works. Majority of the site in-charges are reluctant to visit the site regularly and are not familiar with the specification and testing of materials resulting lack of supervision and poor workmanship of road works. Lack of supervision vehicle is also influencing the supervision of road works. Majority of site in-charges have to share one motor-bike alternately for the supervision of works on their respective sub-projects. In addition to above the technical staff in most of DDC/DTO is positioned as an Engineer with Certificate/Diploma in engineering degree. Lack of Adequate/Qualified Engineers in DTO is influencing in quick and right decision making for the road works.

Probable Solutions

To overcome the above gaps, adequate qualified technical manpower deployment has been essential in all DTOs. The site in-charge shall be an engineer supported by two sub-engineers for individual road sub-project. The sub-engineer shall station at site necessary arrangement for their stay at site shall be managed by the DDC/DTO. A suitable training shall be given to all the DTO/DDC technicians to familiarize with the specifications and methodology of particular works for the construction and maintenance of Road and Bridge works. Strict supervision shall be made by technicians during the construction of road at least daily by sub-engineers, twice a week by engineers and two times a month by DTO chief.

Issues: Contract ManagementThe Contract management in the districts seems poor. Most of the contractual obligations specified in different clauses of the CoC are either neglected or over looked e.g: it is observed that in most of cases the letter to the contractor is not issued for Liquidated Damage against non-compliance of Mile Stone (clause 17 & 28 of CoC); 2nd installment of Mobilization Amount is released with

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out fulfilling the instruction provided in Clause 51 of CoC; Work schedule submitted by the Contractors is not either approved timely or approved by DTO. Most of the DTO has not instructed the respective Contractor to submit the revised work schedule as instructed in Clause 27 of CoC; Execution of road works are carried out by the contractor with out approving the construction drawing by office, etc.

For the timely completion of the work with quality, contractors are equally responsible as the client is. Some of the weaknesses identified in RAIDP projects are as follows:

i) The work load to the contractor is less to engage their equipment through out the project period, hence majority of contractor are not able to produce their equipments on time due to engagement in other projects resulting delay in completion of road works.

ii) The second partner of the Joint Venture (JV) Contractors are comparatively very weaker than that of the leading partner in ownership of equipment, technical manpower and contract management. In majority of road sub-project of RAIDP second partner of JV are involved in the road works resulting delay in completion of road works and poor workmanship.

iii) In majority of road sub-project unauthorized sub-contracting with local contractors is made by the main contractors resulting delay in road works due to unavailability of construction equipments.

iv) The contractor does not submit the work request form for the execution of the road works and does not maintain the Daily work Dairy. These makes difficulty in controlling the work quantity and evaluation of days for Extension of Time.

Probable Solution:

A suitable training to DDC/DTO engineers including DTO chief and account officer shall be provided on Contract Management. Necessary arrangement shall be made to deal with to overcome the weaknesses which are listed below.

i) Sufficient work load shall be prepared to procure the contract for fulltime engagement of the equipment of the contractors.

ii) Criteria shall be developed for the procurement of the contract so that both the partners of JV are of all most equal status in ownership of equipment, technical manpower and experience, so that any one of them can execute the road works independently.

iii) For the control of the unauthorized sub-letting of the contract criterion shall be developed

iv) Provision shall be made in the contract document to make it mandatory for maintaining & approving the Daily Work Diary.

Issues: Workmanship in gabion and Stone masonry worksImprovement is required in fabrication of gabion crates. Majority of contractors cannot successfully fabricate the gabion crates with proper mesh size as per the specification. Workmanship shall also be improved substantially for filling the gabion boxes with stone and tying the panels of gabion crate by providing lacing and bracing according to the specification.

Workmanship of the random rubble masonry with cement mortar requires improvement significantly. Though the most of the contractors are honest in preparing cement mortar as specified

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but reluctant to provide required quantity of mortar between the joints and successive layers of stone, resulting poor workmanship of the works.

Probable Solutions:

For the improvement of gabion works it is suggested to use machine fabricated gabion crates. Provision shall be made to provide training to the field supervisors as well as the contractors on construction of gabion structures to fulfill the requirements as instructed in the specificationImprovement of workmanship in constructing the random rubble masonry work is seams to be difficult. The replacement of rubble masonry by plumb concrete structure could be solution for construction of retaining structures.

Other issuesSpecification does not provide guide line for the quarry approval and its management. Guideline for quality control system for testing of material is not provided in the specification.

Probable Solutions:

Review of existing Specification (Published by DoLIDAR) is required for following activities

a) Procedure for quarry approval and its management

b) CBR of sub-base shall changed from 30 to at least 50

c) It is proposed to provide addition pavement layer of crusher run sub-base for otta seal surfacing

d) Include the quality control system and guideline for material testing in the specification.

e) Review of typical drawing is required

In addition to the above for effective quality management with primary function of construction supervision and quality control the Project Co-ordination Unit and the participating districts shall include the following.

(i) Preparation of realistic detailed project report (DPR) with adequate attention to investigations and pre-construction activities which are essential for proper design and estimation of the project following Technical Specifications

(ii) Preparation of bid documents and effective selection process for procurement of works, based on proven capacity and ability of the contractors.

(iii) Ensuring that:

(a) Contractors have brought the necessary machinery and equipment to site.(b) Field laboratory has been established.(c) Key engineering personnel have been deployed by the Contractor and(d) The work programme has been approved.(e) The quality assurance Plan has been approved

(iv) Supervising Site Quality Control arrangements including materials and workmanship,

(v) Taking timely action to ensure replacement of defective material and rectification of defective workmanship.

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BackgroundRoads are an important priority for local bodies in Nepal. This is because, if operational, they will open up a multitude of opportunities to enhance local livelihoods. Historically, rural communities have created local roads and other necessary infrastructure using both voluntary and paid local labor. Since the early 1990s, when resources and authority began to be channeled through local bodies, the use of heavy equipment for road construction such as bulldozers and excavators started to increase. Furthermore, the desire to establish road connections quickly also resulted in the increased use of unsustainable road construction approaches and methods. Unsustainable roads are those that have:

l no drainage arrangements; l high gradient; l no protection structures in critical places; l no biological protection; l no operation and maintenance arrangements or fund; etc.

The country spends nearly 40 million US$ annually on rural roads and each VDC spends nearly 1 million NRs annually. Rural road construction has been guided by two approaches in Nepal

I. Well planned, with complete feasibility and environmental studies and transparent participation process and

II. Political or elite-influenced, without serious studies and open transparent process.

In terms of technology; two technologies are in practice;

I. Labor Based (LB) Road or II. Equipment Based (EB) Road.

LB technology (green road) has been gradually replaced by EB technology (non-engineered road) over the last 10-15 years with use of heavy equipments like bulldozers and excavators.

Present SituationBefore publication of DoLIDAR on ‘Rural road national Record’ October 2012 nobody knows how much are the length and what was the conditions. According to this 50,944 Kms.rural roads are now in the local road network. According to surface condition among the total road length, 1576 Kms. Length is blacktopped, 14602 Kms. is Graveled and 34766 Kms.is earthen roads.

Er. Maheswor Ghimire SDE DoLIDAR

Step forwards for Rural Road Maintenance

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Basically these roads are non-engineered, equipment based roads and not in the standard of Nepal Rural Road Standads, 2055 (1st Revision 2069). These roads are very poor conditions on vertical and horizontal geometry, not sufficient supporting structures, longitudinal and cross drainage structures are vary reared and no works are carried out for surfacing. Hence it is assumed about 55% of rural roads are not functioning and those are in operation cause of accidents.

Problem identifyingSo, it is prime responsibility of all stake holders to preserve these road assets and convert safe and operational. For making road operational most of the stakeholders’ only focus on road maintenance and not gaining significant impacts on rural transportation. Before goes to remedial problems must be identified the roads which are maintainable or non maintainable. Non-maintainable roads mainly refer to sub-standard roads or tracks built through spontaneous efforts and ad-hoc construction methods without following engineering standards; cannot bring them up to serviceable condition simply by rehabilitation; require almost the same resources and efforts needed for constructing a new road. Maintenance activities are not applicable to these non maintainable roads. These are the most common problems in rural maintainable roads:

l Lack of awareness of maintenance issues l Lack of maintenance culture l Construction shortcomings leading to increased maintenance burden l High maintenance burden of gravel roads l Institutional arrangements for maintenance l Lack of funding allocation for maintenance l Inadequate management systems for maintenance l Insufficient information for informed decision making l Lack of technical guidelines, skills and experience l Appropriate technology and equipment not always specified or available

Remedial measurersStudies carried out in developing countries have shown that significant returns can be achieved from investments on rural road maintenance. Such internal rate of returns has been found varying from 17%, in case of regravelling, to as high as 74% in routine maintenance. Not only due to this fact but also with a view to protect its ever expanding rural road network, the Government has made its choice of investment on rural road maintenance.

The aim of Maintenance Plan is to ensure conducive funding arrangement among the stakeholders; to establish an effective and efficient management system under the jurisdiction of local governing institutions; and to define the overall regulatory mechanism for maintenance process. Such efforts made through the implementation of this maintenance plan are expected to produce one or more of the following effects:

l reduced transport prices and increased use of roads; l increased farm gate prices of produce; l increased agricultural production and cropping intensity; l lower prices of agricultural inputs;

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l Facilitate for local level entrepreneurships development; l enhanced management capability of stakeholders on road maintenance; and l better serviceability and increased safety and reliability for road users

ToolsPreparation of District Transportation Master Plan (DTMP) for 5 years and Annual Road Maintenance Plan (ARMP) per annum and follow it in the same condition as restrict is the best tools for road maintenance as practicing in RAP programme. There are some hesitations on preparation of DTMP and ARMP, hence following key steps are milestone.

DTMP Process

ARMP

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Source of FundingMaintenance funding is a major problem in the road sector. There are several reasons for this. The result is that major parts of the road networks of the countries in the region receive little or no maintenance from one year to the next. The further down the network one goes, the lower the amount of funds that are available.

Although funding for maintenance is often insufficient, most governments do actually set aside funds for this purpose. Funding for rural road maintenance can and is sourced from various funding mechanisms. The traditional source of maintenance funding in most countries has been there current budget allocations to maintain and operate government services, similar to the operation of health, education and other social services provided by the government. There are many potential programmes for funding and few of them are:

l Financing DDC grant - unconditional block grant received from MOFALD l VDC grant - allocation from the unconditional block grant received from MLD l LGCDP grant - allocation from the LGCDP top-up grant l DDC internal revenue - allocation from the funds collected locally by the DDC l Rural road projects - allocation from rural road projects (either government or donor

funds). The acronym of the rural road project should be indicated (e.g. RRRSDP, RAP, RAIDP, RTI Pilot.)

l SWAp funding - allocation received from the Sector Wide Approach Programme l Road Board Nepal - allocation received from RBN for maintenance l Members of Parliament - allocation from the funds received by members of Parliament l People’s contribution - Estimated value of the contribution from local community

members and others.

Conclusion and RecommendationRoad maintenance needs to be done on a regular basis for better mobility and road safety. In Nepal, very limited funding is allocated for maintenance because priority is on new construction. The solution to this problem could be the collection of funds through road charges. Road tolls can be implemented properly, collecting sufficient funds for proper maintenance of roads. In most European countries – for example in Italy – road tolls are strictly collected though road users. Such charges are used for road maintenance. The road users are charged in Nepal too but it has barely reduced the number of cracks and potholes. If charges are not sufficient to maintain roads, charges have to be increased or collected more efficiently. All Nepali will be happy to drive on better roads and pay charges for driving. Better roads save travel time, fuel and, most importantly, prevent road accidents.

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Er. Sahadev Bahadur BhandariChief District Engineer,

District Technical Office, DangPh.D. student Institute of Engineering, Pulchowk Campus

email: [email protected]

Overview of Rural Roads

1. IntroductionAbout half the world’s population lives in rural areas. The rural road plays an important role in the overall development of these areas. It provides accessibility and mobility for the rural dwellers, providing economic, physical, social and political links, and facilitating the exchange of the products of the urban areas and the raw materials of the rural areas. Although different projects bring different returns, the investment in rural roads brings greater economic impact ahead of education, agriculture and health (World Highways, 2011) .

Rural Roads are a road network that is not in an urban setting. These are roads with a low traffic volume, which connect different communities, provide market access to farms and farmland and have lower design speed. Rural roads are generally owned by local authorities.

Eighty-five percent of 33.8 million kilometres of classified roads in the world are lower volume rural roads with average traffic of less than 1000 vehicles per day. Fifty-nine percent of these road networks belong to eight nations, namely the USA, China, India, Brazil, Japan, Canada, France and Russia, and each country has at least one million km of rural road networks. The global assets of these rural road networks are 7.6 trillion US dollars , which is equivalent to about 50% of the estimated 2010 GDP of the USA. On average, 0.23 km per square kilometre of the earth’s land? (the area of the earth’s land mass is 148.9 million square kilometres) is a rural road (Faiz, Faiz, Wang, & Bennett, 2012).

One billion, which is 31% of the world’s rural population still live more than 2 km from an all-weather road, isolated from markets and services. Accessibility, which is measured with the "Rural Access Index (RAI) i.e. population within 2 km of an all-weather road, varies greatly between developed and developing countries (world highways, 2013). For instance, the RAI for developed countries such as the USA is 86%, Germany-89%, Italy-98% Japan-99%, France 99%, Austria 95%, UK -96%. On the other hand, the least developed countries have a very low RAI (e.g. Sudan-5%,

ABSTRACT

This article reviews the existing rural road situation worldwide. The importance and overall status of rural roads in different countries, including China, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, Ethiopia, Kenya, the USA, Australia and Nepal are studied. The article discusses rural road length and rural road policy and programs in these countries. Furthermore, it provides some suggestions for the overall development of rural roads.

Key Words: Rural Roads, Rural Access Index, Sustainability

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Chad 5%, Nepal 17%, Burundi 19%, Afghanistan 22%, Bangladesh 37 %, Bhutan 47% (World Bank, 2006). Some features of rural roads in different countries are described below.

2. Some features of rural roads in different countries2.1. ChinaAccording to the PRC Ministry of Transport, the total length of highways and roads in China passed the 4 million km mark at the end of 2010; of these, nearly 3.7 million km comprise rural roads. The paved length in 2010 had reached 2.44 million km (61% of the network). By administration class, National Highways comprised 164,000 km, provincial roads 269,800 km, county roads 554,000 km, township roads 1,054,800 km, village roads 1,897,700 km, and dedicated roads 67,700 km. The country builds 381,000 km of rural roads annually. The average daily expenditure on rural roads in this country is 52,328,467 US dollars. The present Rural Access Index (RAI) of this country is 97% (World Bank, 2006). Under its National Plan for the Development of Rural Roads, China intends to link all towns and administrative villages with asphalt or cement concrete roads. China is investing 3.11 billion Yuan over three years (2012-2014) in the least densely populated Province, Tibet Autonomous Region ( Xijang Autonomous Region), with its population of three million and 13,385 km of new all-weather roads will be constructed in this region. All 231 townships and 3214 villages of Tibet will be connected by all-weather roads in 2014.

2.2 IndiaOf the 3.3 million km of classified roads in India, 2.7 million km are rural roads including about one million km of motorable earth tracks constructed under various employment generation programs. Some 2 million km of roads and motorable tracks were added to the road system from 1980 to 2000. The Rural Accessibility Index (RAI) of India is 61% (World Bank, 2006). India has launched an ambitious project in the rural roads sector " Pradhanmantry Gram Sadak Yojana" (PMGSY). The PMGSY was started in 2000 with the plan to link 180,000 habitations with populations 500 in on the plains and 250 in the hills, desert & tribal areas with all-weather roads by 2015. The budget for this project is 33 billion US dollars and it will construct 372,000 km of new roads and will upgrade 370,000 km of existing roads.

2.3 BhutanBhutan had 5362 km of total road networks at the end of June 2008, including 6 km of expressway, 1628 km of national highways, 481 km of district roads, 809 km of feeder roads, 150 km of urban roads, 717 km of farm roads, 554 km access roads and 560 km of forest roads across the country. Out of the total road network, 2332 km is currently under the Department of Roads and Project Dantak ( a project under the Border Road Organization of India started in 1961) simultaneously maintains about 604 km. The remaining 1608 km is under other agencies, Dzongkhag Administrations, the Department of Energy, Department of Education, Ministry of Agriculture, and so on. The Population and Housing Census (PHCB) 2005 indicates that 9.7% of the population live more than 6 hours away from the nearest motor road. The Rural Accessibility Index of Bhutan is 47% (World Bank, 2006). Bhutan has planned to provide road access to all 205 Gewog (an administrative unit under the Dzonkhag or district) centres by the end of the Tenth Plan (2008-13) (Gross National Happiness Commission, 2009).

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2.4. BangladeshThe total length of rural roads in Bangladesh is 298,347 km, including 37,822 km Upzilla road, 44,751 km Union road, 109,619 km Village road category A, and 106155 km Village road category B (Local Government Engineering Department, 2012). Among these roads, 71,611 km are paved and the remaining amount is unpaved. The responsibilities of construction, development and maintenance of these roads have been entrusted to the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED). The LGED has prepared a 20-year rural road master plan, including a disaster damage database and GIS. Bangladesh has the 20-year Rural Roads Master Plan 2005 and Vision 2021, with which it aims to provide all-weather access to all growth centres, all union Parishad complexes, most rural markets and other rural service delivery centres. About 76.47% of the 144.5 million population live in rural areas in this country(IFRTD, 2013). Bangladesh has determined 2100 Growth Centres, 15,263 rural markets and 4,498 Union Parishad.

2.5 Sri LankaSri Lanka’s roads are classified as national, provincial, urban, or rural depending on their functionality and ownership. Of the total road network of about 113,000 km, about 11,900 km are national highways, categorized as class A (trunk roads) or class B (main roads) (Asian Development Bank, 2012). They are administered by the Road Development Authority together with their 4,200 bridges and other structures. The 16,000 km of provincial roads are managed by the respective provincial administrations and designated as class C, D, or E. There are about 65,000 km of local authority roads in both the urban sectors (5,000 km) and in the rural sectors (60,000 km). The remaining roads, estimated to total 20,000 km, are owned or controlled by irrigation and wildlife authorities or other government agencies. Sri Lanka launched the "Maga Neguma" Rural Road Development Programme in 2004. According to the World Bank, Sri Lanka has the highest Rural Access Index (RAI) among the South Asian Countries, with 92%

2.6 EthiopiaEthiopia has 114,397 km of road networks, including 20,429 km of federal roads, 23,930 km of regional roads and 70, 038 km of community roads (Emmenegger, 2012) as per political classification (Ethiopia has a technical, functional and political classification of its roads). The country consists of 11 regions , 68 zones, 670 rural Woreda (districts) and 100 urban Woreda. Ethiopia has three types of road institutions: the Federal Roads Authority responsible for federal roads, the Regional Roads Authority responsible for regional roads and the Woreda rural roads office at district level responsible for community roads. Only 37 per cent of the total number of kebeles ( the smallest Administrative Unit) have access to major roads in the country so far. The country has formulated the Universal Rural Access Plan (URAP), which aims to connect all kebeles ( the smallest administrative Unit ) by all-weather roads within the next 5 years. The scheme is set to cost 1.4 billion US dollars by the end of the Plan period. The Program foresees the construction of over 71,000 km of roads, interconnecting over 18,000 rural localities with main roads .

2.7 KenyaKenya has a road network of about 180,000 km, of which 63,000 km are classified, 14,000 km unclassified urban roads and 100,800km unclassified rural roads (including 9,000 km in game parks and national game reserves). Of the total road network, about 11,500 km are paved and the rest unpaved low volume roads. Roads in Kenya can broadly be categorized as national (A, B&C), rural (D &E) and special purpose roads (Forest Roads are Class F Roads, roads serving schools, hospitals and government institutions are Class G roads, roads leading to coffee growing areas are

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Class K roads, roads accessing settlement schemes are Class L roads, national park roads are Class P roads, roads accessing rural areas are Class R, roads accessing sugar growing areas are Class S roads, those accessing tea growing areas are Class T roads, unclassified rural roads, including those leading to areas with mineral deposits, are Class U Roads and roads accessing wheat growing areas are Class W Roads.

2.8 AustraliaThere are 821,620 km of road networks in Australia. The road networks are owned by Federal, State and Local governments. The Local governments own and maintain about 650,000 kilometres of local road, and spend more than $3.3 billion of their own funds on maintaining these roads. The local governments also receive grants from the federal and state governments.

2.9 United States of AmericaThe United States has the largest road system in the world (Faiz, 2012). It has 6.52 million km of road networks, of which 67% were classified as paved in 2009. The country had 3.71 million km of road networks in 1900 and this figure has grown constantly over the years, rising to 3.89 million km in 1910, 4.97 million km in 1920, 5.3 million km in 1950 and 6.32 million km in 2000. About 84 % of these road networks are low volume rural roads.

2.10 NepalNepal, before the democratic upheaval in 1951, only had paved roads in Kathmandu and these were limited to about 2-3 kilometers in length. Rural roads in this country were only given priority after the restoration of the democracy in 1990 . The massive construction of rural roads started after 1995, when a budget of 300,000 Nrs. was provided to each Village Development Committee ( VDCs-There are 3915 VDCs in Nepal at present). Nepal has 50,944 km of total rural road networks, including 1,575 km which are black topped, 14,602 km graveled and 34,767 km earthen (dirt) surface at the end of July 2012 (DoLIDAR, 2012a). Rural roads in this country are constructed and maintained through the Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads and Local Institutions. As per Nepal Rural Roads Standards 2055, rural roads in Nepal are further classified as District Roads and Village Roads (DoLIDAR, 2012b). District Roads and Village Roads fall under the responsibility of the District Development Committee and Village Development Committee respectively (DoLIDAR, 2012c).

3 . Suggestions for rural road developmentsRural Road Development work should involve a blend of three basic components for its sustainibility:

(1) Application of basic civil engineering and design concepts, including good planning and location, drainage analysis, stable slopes, and proper use of roadway materials;

(2) Environmental awareness and application of practical environmental mitigation measures, such as erosion and sediment control, water quality protection, fish passage and wildlife crossings, and invasive Species Control, climate change adaptation; and

(3) Use of appropriate, innovative technologies to facilitate the work and make it more cost-effective, such as GIS Mapping, use of geosynthetics, mechanically stabilized earth structures, use of locally available and cheap materials for pavements and simple in-situ site characterization tools. Some photographs of the use of local materials in rural road pavements are provided below.

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a) Precast concrete Pavement-Sri Lanka

c) Cast in situ concrete pavement- Thailand

b) Dressed stone pitching-Nepal

d) Stone pitching with precast concrete side drain- Belgium

4. AcknowledgementsThis article was written during my period of study at Politecnico di Torino. The author would like to thank the Erasmus Mundus Expert II program for providing my scholarship and the language experts of the Language Centre-CLA, Politecnico di Torino for proofreading the article .

5. References1. Asian Development Bank. (2012). The Asian Development Bank’s Support for the Transport Sector in Sri Lanka.2. DoLIDAR. (2012a). Summary of Rural Roads Record, 2069, Department of Local Infrastructure Development

Agricultural Roads, Pulchowk, Lalipur,Nepal.3. DoLIDAR. (2012b). Nepal Rural Road Standards (2055) 1st Revision, (September). Department of Local

Infrastructure Development Agricultural Roads, Pulchowk, Lalipur, Nepal.4. DoLIDAR. (2012c). DTMP Guidelines. Department of Local Infrastructure Development Agricultural Roads,

Pulchowk, Lalipur, Nepal.5. Emmenegger, R. (2012). The Roads of Decentralisation: The History of Rural Road Construction in Ethiopia.

Department of Geography Univesity of Zurich, Switzerland. Retrieved from http://www.cde.unibe.ch/CDE/pdf/39.pdf

6. Faiz, A. (2012). The Promise of Rural Roads Review of the Role of Low-Volume Roads in Rural Connectivity, Poverty Reduction, Crisis Management and Livability.

7. Faiz, A., Faiz, A., Wang, W., & Bennett, C. (2012). Sustainable Rural Roads for Livelihoods and Livability. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 53, 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.854

8. Gross National Happiness Commission, Royal Government of Bhutan (2009). Tenth five year plan 2008-2013, Royal Government of Bhutan (Vol. 1).

9. IFRTD. (2013). Regional - South Asia Country Focus Bangladesh. IFRTD.10. Local government Engineering Department. (2012). LGED’s Annual Report FY 2011-12.11. MOPH. (2013). Maga Neguma Rural Road Development Programme, Minsitry of Ports and Highways, Srilanka.

Retrieved from http://www.mohsl.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=54&Itemid=61&lang=en

12. World Highways. (2011). World Highways - Rural roads important to global development. World Highways. Retrieved from http://www.worldhighways.com/sections/world-reports/features/rural-roads-important-to-global-development/

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u'l~h/ xG5g\ . s] lGb|o of] hgf tyf sfo{qmdsf] ?kdf :yflgo lgsfodf k|jfx x'g] ;|f] t ;fwgnfO{ x] bf{ …glthfd'vL ljsf;sf] 7fpFdf g] tfhLd'vL ljsf;Ú xfjL eof] eGg] hgtfsf] egfO{ klg oqtq ;'Gg kfO{G5 . o;af6 :yflgo ljsf;df cjnDjg ul/ Psf] ;xeflutfTds of] hgf th'{df k|lqmof yk ;+s6fled'v x'g] u/ ] sf] 5 . :yfgLo lgsfoaf6 k|fyldstf lbP/ 5gf} 6 ePsf cfof] hgf÷sfo{qmddf s] Gb|af6 ah] 6 gkg] { t/ JolQm, ;d"x jf u'6sf] k|fyldstfdf k/ ] sf cfof] hgf÷sfo{qmddf ah] 6 k|fKt x'g] cEof; aGb g'xFbf;Dd :yflgo ljsf; 6fn6'n] x'g] l;jfo c? s] x'g ;S5 <

kl5Nnf ;dodf ;fdflhs ljsf; / To;df klg r] tgf ljsf;sf] vftL/ / fHosf] nufgL qmdz a9\b} 5 eg] csf] { tkm{ u} / ;/ sf/ L If] qsf] 7"nf] lx:;f ;d] t vr{ x'g] u/ ] sf] 5 . t/ lhNnf lhNnfdf r] tgf km} nfpg] o:tf sfo{qmdnfO{ x] bf{ …tflnd lng] dfG5] pg} , ufpF hfg] xf] Ogg\ s'g} Ú eGbf km/ s gkg] { cj:yf 5 . ;a} vfn] o:tf sfo{qmdx?df lhNnfsf k|fo plx–plx cg'xf/ 5flgG5g\, hf] k|fo lhNnf txd} / xG5g\ . To;} n] clxn] ;fdflhs ljsf; …sd{eGbf ts{ / st{JoeGbf clwsf/ d'vLÚ eO{ d8fl/ / x] sf] cg'e"lt x'G5 . hj;Dd Jojxf/ df ;dfh kl/ jt{gsf sfdx? x'Fb} gg\ tj;Dd ;fdflhs ljsf; sf] 7] uf] i7L / cf] 7] + elQm d} l;ldt x'g] s'/ fnfO{ gsfg{ ;lsGg . :yfgLo lgsfosf] 7"nf] lx:;f o:t} vfn] ;fdflhs ljsf; leq cNdlng ;lsg] s'/ fdf :yfgLo lgsfox? ;r] t x'g h?/ L 5 . clxn] :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g tyf ;fd'bflos ljsf; sfo{qmd (LGCDP) sf] 7"nf] wg/ fzL ;fdflhs ljsf;sf] If] qdf k|of] u ul/ Psf] 5 . To;} n] o;sf] k|efjsf/ L pkof] u ;'lglZrt ug{ ;lsPg eg] :yfgLo ljsf;sf] 7"nf] lx:;f jfn'jfdf kfgL x'g ;S5 .

:yfgLo ljsf;sf] csf] { r'gf} tL sd{lzn o'jfx?sf] ljb] z knfog x'g' x] f . cfh ufpFdf pTkfbgzLn o'jfx?s] f ;+Vofdf lg/ Gt/ sdL x'Fb} 5 . o'jf ufpFaf6 knfog x'g] ;Fu} >Ldlt aRrf lnP/ ;b/ d'sfd k:g] k|j[lQ km] zgs} ?kdf df} nfPsf] 5 . o;n] b'O{ vfn] ;d:of l;h{gf u/ ] sf] 5 . klxnf] , ufpFdf s[lif pTkfbgdf nfUg] hgzlQm qmdz 36\b} uPsf] 5, bf] ;|f] , cfkmGt / gft] bf/ x?af6 6f9f eO{ ;b/ d'sfd a;] sf sltko …3/ af;L ->LdtL_ / / f] huf/ Lsfnflu ljb] lzPsf] k|jf;L ->Ldfg\_Ú lar kfl/ jf/ Ls ;d:of pTkGg e} j} b] lzs / f] huf/ pQm kl/ jf/ sfnflu b'ef{Uo ;fljt x'g] u/ ] sf] 5 . o:tf] kl/ l:yltdf o'jfx?nfO{ ljb] zL e"ldsf s'NnLsf] e"ldsfdf ljb] zLg k|>o lbg] / fHosf] gLlt sfnfGt/ df uP/ clezfk x'G5 eGg] s'/ fdf / fHo / :yfgLo lgsfo ;dod} ;r] t geP o;n] / fi6« lgdf{0fdf 7"nf] wSsf k'¥ofpg] s'/ f ;xh} cfFsng ug{ ;lsG5 .

:yfgLo ljsf;nfO{ ljutb] vL jt{dfg;Dd x] g] { xf] eg] :yfgLo lgsfodf kl/ rfng ePsf] ;/ sf/ L u} / ;/ sf/ L ah] 6 / o;af6 l;hL{t ljsf;sf k|ltkmnx?nfO{ x] bf{ uj{ ug{ nfos pbfx/ 0fx? sd} 5g\ . ;o hGtL / ;o v;Lsf] syf h:t} ag] sf] 5 :yfgLo ljsf; . Ps v;L sf6L ;o hlGtnfO{ efua08f ub} { vfFb} hfFbf ;of} v;L vfO;Sbf ;d] t ;o hlGt gc3fPsf] eGg] plQm h:t} pknAw ;|f] t / ;fwgnfO{ 6'qmf6'qmf kfl/ w] / } 7fpFdf 5bf{ o;n] cGtt s;} sf] klg ljsf;] ef] s d] 6fpg g;s] s] f lttf] oyfy{ xfd|f] ;fd" 5n{Ë 5 . hgtfsf jf:tljs cfjZostf s] x'g\ eGg] s'/ f :yfgLo lgsfosf bzsf} + nfdf] of] hgf th"{df cEof;af6 :ki6 ePsf 5g\ . To;} n] lj/ fnf] afFw] / >f4 ug] { eg] em} ;xeflutfTds of] hgf th'{dfsf] / 6fgdf ;|f] t ;fwgnfO{ slgsf 5/ fO{ ug'{eGbf cjsf] k|fyldstf :yfgLo ljsf;sf ljifout cfjlws of] hgf th'{df ul/ k|fyldstfsf cfwf/ df cuf8L a9fpg ;lsPdf dfq ;fFrf] cy{df :yfgLo ljsf;n] ;fy{stf kfpg ;S5 . cGoyf, :yfgLo ljsf;sf] ;Gbe{df ;o hlGt / ;o v;Lsf] syf lg/ Gt/ bf] lxl/ / xG5 .

:yfgLo ljsf;sf] s'/ f ubf{ ljsf;nfO{ b'O{ lsQfdf afF8] / ljZn] if0f ug{ h?/ L 5 . h'g sfo{ :yfgLo hgtf :jo+n] ug{ ;Sg] xf] To:tf sfddf ;/ sf/ n] nufgL gug] {] { / h'g sfd :yfgLo hgtf :jo+n] ug{ g;Sg] xf] To:tf sfddf k|fyldstf lgwf{/ 0f ul/ ;/ sf/ L u} / ;/ sf/ L nufgL ug] { ul/ :ki6 b'O{ wf/ af6 :yfgLo ljsf;nfO{ cuf8L a9fOPdf ljsf; qmdzM b] lvg] / cg'e"t ug{ ;lsg] x'G5 . clxn] 3/ 3/ df hf] 8\g] ;–;fgf ;8s, 3/ 3/ df agfOg] 3/ fof;L rkL{, l5d] ssf] wf/ faf6 cfFugdf kfgL k'¥ofpg] sfnf] kfOk, r] tgf a9fpg] gfddf x'g] sf] 7] tflnd h:tf bh{gf} + sfddf ;/ sf/ sf] 7"nf] wg/ fzL vr{ x'g] u/ ] sf] 5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf dxTjk"0f{ k'n, ;8s, ejg, ljB't, l;+rfO{,

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vfg] kfgL, pBf] u tyf s[lif kz' ljsf;nfO{ Joj;flos/ 0f ug] { h:tf sfo{df :yfgLo lgsfo c;dy{ x'g' :jefljs xf] . ctM hgtfn] ug{ ;Sg] sfd hgtfn] g} ug] { / g;Sg] sfo{df dfq :yfgLo lgsfodf pknAw ;|f] t ;fwgsf] k|of] u ug] { s'/ f cfhsf] k|d'v cfjZostf xf] .

ljsf;sf ;fem] bf/ x? lar sfd sf/ jfxLnfO{ kf/ bzL{ agfpg …lx:;f xf] Og lx;faÚ vf] Hg] kl/ kf6Lsf] ljsf; ug{ vr{ ;fj{hlgs ug] {, ;fj{hlgs ;'g'jfO{ ug] { h:tf ljlwx?sf] k|efjsf/ L k|of] u ug'{ klg :yfgLo ljsf;sf] ;Gbe{df plQs} dxTj 5 . :yfgLo lgsfox?df s] Gb|af6 k7fOg] sd{rf/ Lx?s] f c;fdlos ;?jf x'g] , :yfgLo sd{rf/ Lx?sf] k|efjsf/ L egf{ 5gf} 6 gx'g] , :yfgLo lgsfosf] e"ldsfnfO{ :yfgLo ;/ sf/ sf] ?kdf gx] / L ljifout sfof{nosf] ?kdf x] g] { ;+s'lrt ljrf/ / Jojxf/ n] lg/ Gt/ tf kfO/ xg] , ljifout sfof{nox?af6 :yfgLo lgsfosf of] hgf tyf sfo{qmd leq cfkm\gf sfo{qmdnfO{ ;dflxt ug{ lxrlsrfpg] sfg"gL / Jojxf/ ut ;d:of b] lvg] , cg'udgdf sld / xg] , :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P] g;Fu aflemg] cGo P] g lgod lqmoflzn / lx/ xg] , of] hgf÷sfo{qmd 5gf} 6df / fhgLlts k|efj kg] { h:tf s'/ fx?n] :yfgLo ljsf;nfO{ k|ToIf jf k/ f] If k|efj kfl/ / x] sf5g\ .

hgtfn] b] Vg ;Sg] , 5'g ;Sg] / ;xeflu x'g ;Sg] ljsf; :yfgLo ljsf; xf] . To;} n] cfjlws of] hgfx?sf] lgdf{0f ug] {, v/ Lb of] hgf / v/ Lb u'?of] hgfx? tof/ u/ L v/ Lb sfo{ ;DkGg ug] {, cGtl/ s cfo clej[l4 ug] { vfnsf sfo{x?nfO{ k|fyldstfdf / fvL ;~rfng ug] {, hgtfn] ug{ ;Dej x'g] sfo{ hgtfaf6} ;DkGg ug] { / hgtfn] ug{ g;Sg] sfo{df dfq / fHon] nufgL ug] {, u} / ;/ sf/ L ;+:yfx?n] ?kfGt/ 0fLo r] tgf clej[l4 tyf cfod"ns ;Lkd"ns sfo{ ;~rfng ug] {, cg'udgnfO{ k|efjsf/ L agfpg] , :yfgLo / fhgLlts lgsfox?df ljsf;sf Ph] 08fx?df k|j] z u/ fO{ ljsf; sfo{nfO{ cleofgsf ?kdf cuf8L a9fpg] h:tf sfo{x? ug{ ;s] :yfgLo ljsf; pbfx/ 0fLo aGg ;S5 .

cfhsf lbgsf xfdL;a} n] cjnDjg ug] { Jojxf/ n] g} ef] nLsf lbgdf / fHon] c+lusf/ ug] { s'g} klg zf;g Joj:yfsf nflu cfwf/ to u5{ . Jojxf/ kl/ jt{g geP Joj:yf kl/ jt{gn] dfq tflTjs kl/ jt{g Nofpg ;ls+b} g . clxn] ;+l3otf ePdf xfd|f ;a} ;d:of ;dfwfg x'G5g\, eGg] lg/ k] If egfO{x? cuf8L ;fl/ Psf5g\, ;+l3otf k"j{sf] cj:yfdf xfd|f] Jojxf/ sf] 5fFof ef] nL kl/ sNkgf u/ ] sf] ;+l3otfdf gkl/ / xg ;Sb} g . To;} n] rfx] ;+l3otf xf] ;\ of ljs] Gb|Lt :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g xf] ;\, xfdL ;a} tx / tKsfsf ljsf;sf ;fem] bf/ x?df cfh} b] vL ;fdflhs ?kfGt/ 0fsfnflu Jojxf/ d} nfuL k/ ] dfq ;d[4 / Gofok"0f{ g] kfnsf] lgdf{0f ug{ ;lsG5 cGoyf "It is not the Hat that makes you Gentleman" eGg] c+u|] hL plQm h:t} s'g} klg ?ksf] zf;lso kl/ jt{gn] dfq ;dfhsf] ?kfGt/ 0f ug{ ;Sb} g . ctM cleofgk"0f{ :yfgLo ljsf; lgdf{0fsf] dfWodaf6 ef] nLsf] ;+l3o u0ftflGqs k4ltsf] cfwf/ lznf to ug{ xfdL ;a} cf–cfkm\g} 7fpFaf6 nflu k/ f} + of] g} cfhsf] jf:tljs cfjZostf xf] .






Er. Krishna Dev YadavProprietor

Everest Engineering Consultancy P. Ltd.New Baneshwar, Kathmandu

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Er. A.K. Jha Department of Local Infrastructure

Development and Agricultural Roads (DOLIDAR) Phone +977-1-5546268

Er. S.G. Joshi Morning Glory, 2556 Shree ToleMan Bhavan, Lalitpur-5, Nepal

Phone +977-1-5534328 , [email protected]

OTTA SEAL EXPERIENCE IN NEPAL

INTRODUCTION Selecting appropriate pavements for low volume roads is an issue for pavement engineers in both the developed and developing countries of the world. Finding an economically viable and sustainable pavement solution has been a longtime endeavor in road building. After the introduction of Otta Seals to Norway in 1965, this low cost sealing has been implemented in European and African countries with satisfactory performance. The Otta seal is essentially a 16mm to 32mm thick bituminous surfacing, constituted of an admixture of graded aggregates ranging from natural gravel to crushed rock in combination with relatively soft (low viscosity) binders with or without a sand seal cover (1).

In Nepal, Otta Seals were introduced in 2002 to protect freshly gravelled roads from Monsoon erosion. Gravel surfaces are susceptible to extensive erosion during the wet season in hill roads with steep gradients. During the pilot phase, low cost pavements using various sealing options were tried and Otta Seal was found to be most cost effective and simple in construction. The

ABSTRACT

Otta Seals have been adopted in many countries as a low-cost pavement sealing alternative for durable and smooth roads. However, this pavement surfacing option for low volume roads is not yet universally accepted, and its effectiveness is disputed, because of its varied performance. This paper assesses the Otta Seal experience in Nepal for the last ten years, for both local and strategic roads in different geographic terrains – covering the hills and plains of Nepal. It addresses aspects of Otta Seal technology in relation to design, construction, cost and in-service performance, as well as its acceptance by the stakeholders, including the beneficiaries. The stakeholder acceptance has been affected by the early deterioration of the road surface in some instances, mainly attributable to inadequate design, poor quality of construction and inexperience with a new road technology. Road geometry, vehicle speed, and axle loads are other factors which have seriously affected durability. However, overall the performance of the pavements has been considered to be acceptable. The factors contributing to early failures require further discussion and research to help build ownership of this low-cost paving technology among road agencies.

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country has now about 1100 km roads with Otta Seal, which has been applied to both national strategic and district roads, mostly constructed under World Bank funded projects. However, the experience is mixed as pavements have noticeably failed within a short span of time, which has created confusion among the stakeholders regarding usefulness of Otta seals.

This paper addresses various aspects of Otta Seal performance related to factors such as physical terrain and geology, design, cost, method of construction, quality of works, and maintenance. The paper is based on the information recorded by the principal author through periodic field visits and supervision reports during his tenure in the World Bank, a recent assessment carried out by the Nepal Department of Roads (DOR) and official records of the Nepal Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DOLIDAR) (2). All the information available is drawn from the visual inspection of the pavement- no engineering tests, in any form, have been carried out.

About 15% of the pavements treated with Otta Seal have failed at different times after construction. The types of the pavement failure are settlements, scaling, cracking, raveling, stripping, wheel track damages, potholes, washouts, edge breaking, bleeding and washouts. Most premature failures were caused by poor sub grade, inadequate design, and deficiency in quality of works and monsoon floods. Although a substantial length of road is performing fairly well, the stakeholder's acceptance is not encouraging. The reasons are immediate failures, contractor's behavior, and inadequate budget for drainage structures and poor maintenance management.

BACKGROUND The road density in Nepal is one of the lowest in South Asia. The country has about 53,500 km as strategic (10,800 km) and local roads (42,700 km). The strategic roads, which include national highways, feeder roads and other roads of national importance, are managed by DOR. The local roads are managed by district entities under the technical umbrella of DOLIDAR and urban roads are administered by municipalities under the Ministry of Local Development (MOLD). These roads are situated in different geographical terrains from plains of the Terai to the steep mountains. The total length of paved including gravel surface is about 17,000 km. Of the seventy five political districts, eighteen are yet to be connected by all weather paved roads. Only 51% of the population enjoys the access to all weather roads within walking distance. Providing cost effective and sustainable all weather access in the country is a great challenge and is equally important for the improvement in social benefits-better access to health and services and participation in the nation economy.

PILOTING OF SEALING OPTIONS (WHY OTTA SEAL WAS ADOPTED) Because of the low traffic/volume in nature, fully blacktop roads are neither viable nor affordable. The existing 7,000 km of gravel roads are not in satisfactory condition due to the lack of timely maintenance. Moreover, gravel surface disappears within 2 to 4 years in the hills and mountainous region. Low cost sealing options (Single Bituminous Surface Treatment – SBST, Double Bituminous Surface Treatment-DBST, Semi grouted Bituminous Pavement, 20mm thick Premix Asphalt and Otta Seal) were piloted on the Tansen-Tamghas road in hilly terrain. (Figure 1). After the observation of the pavements for one year, the Otta Seal was considered as the suitable option in consideration of ease of construction, low-cost and long life. The DOR adopted the Otta Seal for all gravel roads under the World Bank project. This option was not only economically justifiable due

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to saving of vehicle operating costs and travel time, but also provided comfort and dust free environment to road users. DOR has upgraded about 800 km of gravel and earthen roads to Otta Seal standard so far. The modality is further implemented by DOLIDAR in upgrading about 300 km of local roads in twenty districts. Sharing the experience of Nepal, the neighboring country Bhutan also piloted two roads with Otta Seal.

DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS The Norwegian guideline (1) was used for the design of Otta Seal surface for both district and strategic roads), even thought the existing pavement details and surfacing are different. In general, the upgrading of earthen tracks is carried out with a layer of gravel of thickness 150mm to 250mm for low volume roads in Nepal. The Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) ranged from 50-500 vehicles per day.

Design adopted by DOR: In the DOR design the Otta Seal comprises of 6.5mm sand layer over 16mm medium graded river aggregates. No prime coat is considered and the first layer of bitumen is MC3000 sprayed at the rate 1.7 liter/m2. The bitumen content for the sand sealing is 0.8 liter/ m2. In the initial years of the introduction of Otta Seal, the structural pavement was comprised of medium graded 100mm thick crusher run material over 150mm thick river gravel based on international practices for gravel roads, as an improvement to the 150mm gravelling practice of DOR. After the poor results for some roads, DOR is now complying with TRL Overseas Road Note 31 for the design of the pavement thickness. (3). The pavement contains two layers with different specifications of material. The lower layer is 150-300mm thick natural gravel meeting minimum requirement of DOR standard specifications (CBR value not less than 30) and upper layer is 125mm crusher run granular material with higher strength (CBR value not less than 60).

The general design criteria are:

l Ten years life for full pavement l Width of carriageway is 3.5 m (single lane) l Single layer Otta Seal and Sand Seal l Sealed shoulder in hill side for better drainage management l Double Otta Seal in steep gradient (over 7% gradient) and in narrow curves (radius less

than 10 m)

All the roads constructed by DOR with Otta Seal are in hills.

Design adopted by DOLIDAR for District Roads: Since the traffic in local district roads are generally low (AADT 50-100), DOLIDAR used only single layer Otta Seal directly over 150-200mm graded river gravel surface following Norwegian guidelines. The thickness of the sub-base considered was on the basis of the general practice. In some roads, the Otta Seal performance was satisfactory even with 150-200mm sub-base. But higher trafficed roads faced premature deterioration in the pavement due to poor sub grade and

FIGURE 1. Freshly-laid Otta Seal

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inadequate thickness of sub-base. From the lessons learned, DOLIDAR is now using graded gravel for design thickness based on the DCP related CBR value of the sub grade.

The design criteria adopted are

l Ten years life for full pavement l Width of carriageway is 3.5 m (single lane) l Single layer Otta Seal l 100mm x 200mm concrete edging for roads in plain area l Additional layer of Sand Seal in hills.

The district roads with Otta Seal are both in hills and plains of the Terai.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS The sub-base materials used by both the agencies are graded natural gravel. The surfacing chips used for the Otta Seal is also screened and graded river singles. MC 3000 bitumen is used with necessary cutbacks. Experience showed that Otta Seal performance is closely associated with the bonding of the underlying layer. DOLIDAR is now blending sub-base material with 10% additional clay material in river gravel to enhance bonding, limiting the PI value (<6) as per the specification. With these changes the pavements are having better results.

FIGURE 2. Otta Seal Laying Process – cleaning, bitumen spray and chips spreading.

The construction operations are mechanized for grading of the sub grade, sub-base lying with compaction, bitumen spraying, chips spreading and rolling (Figure2). Where proper construction equipment was not available on time for some district roads, bitumen and chips spreading were being done manually. However, compaction was done with pneumatic rollers and steel rollers. Brushing and cleaning of the finished sub-base are carried out through labor. These manual operations did not result in much difference in the end product.

PAVEMENT COSTS DOR managed Strategic Roads: The construction cost is one of the prime factors in selecting the type of surfacing for the low volume roads in Nepal. At the beginning of Otta Sealing in the country, the cost comparison was made for the full pavement construction cost with that of DBST, semi grouted surface and premix asphalt layer including bases course. No base course (GB1-GB2) was provided in case of Otta Seal surfaced pavements and the pavement base for Otta Seal was determined on the basis minimum sub-base (GB3+GS) thickness practices. This led to the substantial cost saving Otta Seal

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pavements. However, due to subsequent failure of Otta Seal for weak sub-base DOR is designing the roads with full structural pavement including base course as determined by TRL OSRN 31 (3). In this scenario there is no significant saving (about 5% only) in Otta Seal pavement as compare to DBST pavement for the strategic roads managed by DOR. The cost of various surfacing means in Nepal as follows:

TABLE 1. Cost of Various Pavement Options for DOR Managed RoadsA. Cost of Otta Seal Pavement for 3.5 m wide road per kmS. No. Particulars US$/m2 Total US$/km Remarks

1 Structural Pavement (sub-base and base course) 6.14 21,490.00 For thickness required by TRL OSRN 312 Otta Seal 16mm 2.42 8,470.003 Sand Seal 0.97 2,546.00 On 75% of the length4 Double Otta Seal 1.78 1,558.00 On 25% of the length for

gradient >7% and turnings.5 Total cost per km 34,064.00

B. Cost of DBST pavement for 3.5 m wide road per kmS. No. Particulars US$/m2 Total US$/km Remarks

1 Structural Pavement 6.14 21,490.00 For thickness required by TRL ORN 312 1st layer 19mm 2.72 9,520.003 2nd layer 10mm 1.36 4,760.004 Total cost per km 35,770.005 Increase in DBST Cost to Otta Seal 5%

C. Cost of 30mm premix asphalt pavement for 3.5 m wide road per kmS. No. Particulars US$/m2 Total US$/km Remarks

1 Structural Pavement 6.14 21,490.00 For thickness required by TRL ORN 312 Premix Asphalt 7.06 24,710.003 Total cost per km 46,200.004 Increase in premix asphalt Cost to Otta Seal 36%

Note: The original design did not include an aggregate base course, and the estimated cost of Otta Seal was significantly lower than the DBST option.

District roads supported by DOLIDAR: Because of the low volume nature, DOLIDAR is using single layer of graded river gravel (GB3) as the pavement structure with Otta Seal cover for district roads. The option is cost effective relative to saving vehicle operating costs, travel, time and other social benefits. The cost per km of district road for gravel base pavement with Otta Seal in hills and Terai are:

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TABLE 2. Cost of Otta Seal Pavement for District Roads Supported by DOLIDAR A. For 3.5 m wide road in hillsS. No. Particulars US$/m2 Total US$/km

1 Structural Pavement 3.64 12,740.002 Otta Seal 16mm 2.42 8,470.003 Sand Seal 0.97 3,395.004 Total cost per km 24,605.00

B. For 3.5 m wide road in plains of the Terai1 Structural Pavement 2.73 9,555.002 Otta Seal 16mm 2.33 8,155.003 Concrete edge - 3,000.004 Total cost per km 20,710.00

PERFORMANCE OTTA SEAL PAVEMENTS For both the strategic roads and districts roads the overall performance does not seem to be unacceptable, although not encouraging. In the seven years Otta Seal pavement history, about 15% of the road length has failed for various reasons cited below. On DOR managed road about 11% (about 90 km in 15 roads) and on district roads about 22% (about 70 km in 36 roads) failures have been observed for the roads upgraded to all weather standard. District roads faced more failures as the unit upgrading cost was limited for economic reasons and, road and pavement structures, in particular drainage were insufficient.

Some roads failed immediately after one monsoon due to poor sub grade, subsurface water and inadequate thickness of pavement (Figure 3). Monsoon landslides are common in the hills of Nepal and there should not be any surprise at the damaged pavements in such areas, which could happen to any type of pavement. Unstable geology was another factor, when exposed after a fresh cut for road widening, caused severe pavement damages. In the hills, shady areas in general are damp and Otta Seal is susceptible to damage due to continuous exposure to water/moisture.

FIGURE 3. Structural failure of base

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Some premature failures of raveling, stripping, rutting were also observed for poor quality of works. Proper grading of chips, quantity and quality of bitumen are important factors for better performance. Scaling and stripping of Otta Seal are associated with the bleeding of sealed surface. Such problem occurred only at few locations. Inadequate preparation and compaction of the sub grade or fill material are other causes of failure of pavement (Figure 4).

FIGURE 4. Rutting, potholes and scaling.

Road geometry is another reason observed for the failure of Otta Seal. Raveling is quite common in the steep gradient, sharp turnings and braking zones (Figure 5). The damage is more in the early days of Otta Seal, when the vehicular speed is not controlled. Since all the roads upgraded were single lane, edge breaking is significant in the plain area because of high speed vehicle driven at while crossing the vehicles coming from opposite direction.

FIGURE 5. Edge breaking and ravelling on curves.

Another critical factor responsible for the early damage is due to the unanticipated traffic development of heavy axle load vehicles on some roads. In particular, at the upgrading of the district roads in Terai connected to the Indian border heavy axle vehicles are diverted to district roads for its short distance in crossing the border. The pavement was not meant for heavy vehicular traffic.

The institutional factors are also very critical in getting unwanted results in the pavement. The frequent change of the project staff after some training and experience also influence the performance. The contractors are equally responsible in delivering the quality outputs. The trained contractors

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are often a sleeping partner of a weak joint-venture local partner, who will be executing the job. The whole Otta Seal pavement works were carried out in post conflict situation in the country. In addition to the capacity constraints of the executing agencies, site supervision and quality control were not an easy job. In addition, lack of proper maintenance (Figure 6) has resulted in further premature deterioration of the roads.

The causes of failure and their contribution on Otta Seal pavement performance in the District Roads as

recorded by DOLIDAR are presented in Figure 7.

Overall Otta Seal is performing well, especially where roads have been stabilized in terms of water management and geology. Some roads are still in fair condition after 7 years of construction without any maintenance attention (Figure 8). Anecdotally, about 1/4 of the roads have severe damage between 1-2 years (rutting, bleeding, scaling, washouts, cracks, subsidence), 1/4 length medium damage in 2-4 years (edge breaking, raveling, stripping,

potholes) and about half of the roads normal damage in 4-7 years (potholes, stripping etc). Otta Seal has worked well where re-gravelling was done on existing gravel surface. The performance is relatively better in plain and dry area.

LEARNING BY DOING – PROTECTIVE MEASURES INITIATED. The implementation of Otta Seal pavement roads is moving on through the learning by doing approach. Protective and remedial measures are initiated to address the problem in the performance. As a result, DOR is now following ORN 31 for the pavement design. Now, more contractors, consultants and DOR officials are exposed to the construction technique of the Otta Seal and are capable of making modification in the execution to suit the site conditions.

In case of the districts, there is no luxury on construction cost to fulfill all the engineering requirements including adequate water and pavement structures for their roads. Based on the

FIGURE 6. Otta Seal maintenance

FIGURE 7 Different failure types by percentage occurrence.

FIGURE 8 Otta Seal after Seven Years

FIGURE 9 Concrete edging

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lesson learned, the districts are allowed to use Otta Seal only for upgrading existing gravel road. That too is governed by anticipated traffic volume and sub grade strength. Sand seal is now made mandatory in hill roads and concrete edging in the plain of Terai. (Figure 9) .These provisions have improved the performance.

STAKEHOLDER'S VIEW. Depending on the performance of the roads, the stakeholder's opinions vary. Where the substantial pavement has failed within a short span of time (one-two years) the stakeholders, in particular road users are strongly against the Otta Seal. Even the officials of the executing agencies (DOR and DOLIDAR) have divided views. Those who are not supporting the pavement modality opine that their reputation is not only at stake, the investigation and enquiries are painful journeys in the event of failures. Moreover, in the lack of proper maintenance management and qualified small contractors in the country, their preference is to go for thin (20-30mm) maintenance free pre-mix asphalt surfacing.

On the other hand, the users are quite satisfied, where the pavement is providing fair ride after three years of construction. The road has changed their life style through saving in transportation cost and time and dust free environment. Moreover, the women and girl children are getting more benefits from the quick access to medical and after school education facilities. The technical people, who are in support of the pavement mechanism realize the cost efficiency, benefits and need of improvement technical aspects in the longer run. In a study carried out by DOR, 87% of the technical personnel interviewed, directly or indirectly involved in the Otta Seal works expressed that Otta Seal is the right choice (Figure 10).

CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD. Despite the varying views of the stakeholders in Nepal regarding the performance of the Otta Seal, its use for low volume roads in Nepal cannot be ruled out. It has brought economic and social changes in the rural communities of Nepal. It is evident that most of the failure occurred not due to the surfacing itself but inadequate design and quality issues. Quality of surfacing could be enhanced through prior training of the contractors and supervising engineers. Rigorous and close construction supervision is equally important in a country where self regulating systems are not adequate.

Above all the performance is closely associated with the nature of the sub grade and sub-base. The thickness and nature of sub-base are critical factors in the better performance of the pavement. Bitumen penetration and bonding of aggregates (PI value) in sub-base appear to play significant role in the durability of Otta Seals. The whole cost-benefit of Otta Seal is linked with the design thickness of the sub-base course and type of material used for granular base (GB1 to GB3). The contractors are using crushed quarry stone material at higher price, where specified natural gravel is not available in the vicinity. If crusher run material (natural gravel or quarry stone) is to be

FIGURE 10. Stakeholder opinions

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used as the base there is no substantial saving in Otta Seal pavement cost compared to DBST pavements. Other surfacing options (DBST etc) could perform better than Otta Seal with a marginal cost increase on cost of the chips. Otta Seal is vulnerable to raveling on slopes and steep gradient during the early days following paving so proper traffic management is essential. Any overlook in paving material could easily lead to a pothole. On single lane roads edge breaking is rampant. Against this background, further research work is advisable for the determination of i) optimum characteristics and thickness of sub-base material suitable for Otta Seal on low volume roads and ii) advantage of Otta Seal over DBST for pavement with crusher run material base course in consideration of the lifecycle costs.

Of the two roads piloted in Bhutan, one contract was terminated after completion of trial for chips not meeting abrasion test, and specified chips was not available in the nearby area. Another road was successfully completed. There was some construction errors in overlapping bitumen spray due to the width of the Bitumen Distributor to the road width. Bhutan engineers were exposed to training on Otta Seal in Nepal before the pilot. The road authorities were happy with the saving in cost as compared to the thin premix asphalt as pavement surfacing. This was a useful technology transfer spin-off resulting from the introduction of Otta seals in Nepal and permitted the transfer and application of this paving technology under the World Bank funded Bhutan: Second Rural Access Roads Project.

It is a common tendency that new technology is not adopted easily due to the risk associated in case of failure. Some road authorities remain skeptical about the performance of the Otta Seal compared to other bituminous surfacing technology. In this regard, confidence building of the stakeholders is equally important. This will be possible only with better performance results with Otta Seal.

REFERENCES 1. Overby, C. A Guide to the Use of Otta Seals. Publication No. 93 – Norwegian Public Roads Administration,

August 1999.

2. ITECO-North Star Engineering Consultant. Sustainability of Otta Seal, Department of Roads, Nepal, 2012.

3. Transport Research Laboratory. Overseas Road Note 31, Fourth Edition, Overseas Development Administration, London, 1993.






Umesh ChaudharyManaging Director

Unique Engineering ConsultancyJwagal, Lalitpur

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Water Supply Situation of Western Nepal The latest population census data of CBS, 2011 shows that the basic water supply coverage of the western development region is 88.6%. By technologies, 64% households are getting water from piped system, 22% by tube well/ dug well, 2% by protected kuwas, 4% by unprotected kuwas, 6% by spout water, 1% by rivers/streams and 1% from other sources. The well functional schemes account to only 50-55% of the total schemes. These figures show that there are still 11% households unserved by systematic water supply systems, which are so called unreached people. The functionality status shows that more than 40% schemes need either minor repairs or major rehabilitation and even in many cases reconstruction. The major factors and challenges to serve these people are associated with the technologies, Human Rights Based Approach (HRBA) of inclusion and the identification of these unreached hamlets through systematic planning process. These require sometimes the sophisticated/complex and expensive water supply technologies like high head solar/wind and electrical lifting systems.

RWSSP-WN’s efforts in reaching to unreachedRural Water Supply and Sanitation Project in Western Nepal (RWSSP-WN) is a bilateral WASH project funded by the governments of Nepal and Finland. The working areas are 54 Village Development Committees (VDCs) and 2 wards of 9 districts in western and mid-western development regions. The physical targets of the project are to reach 250,000 people with hygiene and sanitation, 90,000 people with drinking water supply and 200,000 people with environmental conservation

Guneshwar Prasad MahatoWater Supply & Sanitation Specialist, RWSSP-WN


Er. Shankar Prasad PanditSenior Divisional Engineer, DoLIDAR


Innovative Water Supply Technologies for Reaching the Hard-to-Reach Population of Western Nepal

Key Words: Innovative Technology, High Head Lift, Solar Lift, Climate Sustainability

SUMMARY

This article deals with the various innovative rural water supply technologies applied in the 9 program districts of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project in Western Nepal (Nepal-Finland Cooperation) to serve the population who are unserved by basic water supply services. An analysis in terms of per capita investment, responsive to climate sustainability and technology has been carried for more than 50 rural water supply schemes.

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and capacity building including inclusive WASH governance. About 765 VDC level institutions (schools, health posts, agriculture service centers etc.) will be benefited from the WASH program. The project is being implemented in a period of four years (1st phase: August 2008 to July 2012) with one year extension (August 2012 to July 2013) by decentralized governance system.

With the support of RWSSP-WN, Nawalparasi, Pyuthan, Syangja, Tanahun, Rupandehi, Kapilvastu and Parbat have implemented more than 50 numbers of lifting water supply schemes in 23 VDCs. The tools/approaches adopted to identify the unreached households and technologies are VDC and District Strategic WASH planning. The following table 1 depicts district wise summary of lifting schemes:

Table 1: District-wise Summary of lift schemesSN District Name Nos. of VDCs Nos. of Lift Schemes1 Pyuthan 1 12 Kapilvastu 5 163 Rupandehi 5 84 Nawalparasi 3 85 Syangja 4 76 Tanahun 4 117 Parbat 1 2

Total 23 53

The TechnologiesThe major technologies of lifting systems fall under solar lift and electrical lift and by head; they are categorized as low head lift, medium head lift and high head left systems. By geography and the nature of water sources tapped, the lift schemes are classified as ground water lift and surface water lift. Among the total, 28 schemes are ground water lift and remaining 25 are surface water lift system. Among the total terai lift systems, 1 scheme is a dug well lift, 1 in Kapilvastu is the shallow

tube well lift and the remaining 26 are deep tube well lift systems. By storage reservoir technology, 2 schemes of Rupandehi are elevated ferro-cement tank, 8 are steel tank and remaining 18 are RCC over head tank systems. According to the capacity of the elevated overhead tank, 2 are the micro-overhead (8,000 liters), 1 is the medium overhead (Charange 225,000 liters), 2 are small overhead (Kotiyamai and Brahmababa of Parroha), and the remaining 23 are the mini-overhead tank systems. The following table 2 gives the details of the technologies:

Figure 1: Solar Pv and Reservoir System of Pokhari solar lift, Dhaubadi, Nawalparasi

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Table 2: Details of Schemes by Technologies

DistrictTypes of Technology Classification by head of lifting

Solar Lift

Electrical Lift Total Low head (<100 m)

Medium Head (101-200 m)

High Head (>200)

Total

Pyuthan 0 1 1 0 0 1 1Kapilvastu 4 12 16 16 0 0 16Rupandehi 3 5 8 8 0 0 8Nawalparasi 7 1 8 5 3 0 8Syangja 0 7 7 0 4 3 7Tanahun 5 6 11 2 7 2 11Parbat 0 2 2 2 0 0 2Total 19 34 53 33 14 6 53

The total population benefited by the lift systems in all 7 districts is 51,555 of 8,175 households and the total students are 10,870. This means, 26% of the total benefited population of the RWSSP-WN 1st phase (51,555 out of 197,000) is benefited by the lift schemes. 12 schemes are arsenic mitigation and the rest are general water supply. Kapilvastu has implemented the highest numbers of schemes to benefit more than 16,000 populations, while Parbat has benefited lowest numbers. In total, 15,265 populations are benefited by the solar lift systems while electrical lift systems have benefited 36,290 populations. The details are presented in the following table:

Table 3: Beneficiary Details by Technology

DistrictBeneficiary HHs and Population Total

Solar Lift System Electrical Lift SystemHHs Population

HHs Population HHs PopulationPyuthan 0 0 202 1515 202 1515Kapilvastu 651 4233 2009 12429 2660 16662Rupandehi 435 3460 1305 7755 1740 11215Nawalparasi 890 5433 48 324 938 5757Syangja 0 0 1452 9572 1452 9572Tanahun 294 2139 769 4466 1063 6605Parbat 0 0 41 229 41 229Total 2,270 15,265 5,826 36,290 8,096 51,555

The Relevance and EffectivenessRWSSP-WN has supported to its program districts to initiate the VDC and district WASH planning, which is the key step to identify the unreached households in the VDC. The implementation of lifting schemes with different technologies and heads are very relevant to address the accessibility to unserved population. There are many examples of such schemes, where there were many agencies’ inputs on feasibility studies for more than 10 years, spending some million to five million rupees on it.

The per capita costs for lift water supply schemes are influenced by many factors. The remoteness of the community, technology choice, differences in funding and materials costs are amongst the

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factors. Likewise, the operational cost varies as per the technology and size of the scheme. The initial capital investments for solar lift systems are more than the electrical lift systems in total, but the life cycle cost of the solar systems are more comfortable than the electrical lift schemes. As seen in the table 4 below, the average per capita investments for solar schemes are lower (NPR 4,922) than the electrical lift schemes (NPR 5,946). The average per capita investment for the both solar and electrical lift schemes is NPR 5,643, and Syangja has implemented the lift systems with highest PCC (NPR 7,068), while Nawalparasi has the lowest PCC in average (NPR 4,611).

The contribution pattern for the lifting systems shows that the contributions from GoN, GoF, DDC, VDC, Community Cash and Community kind are respectively 29%, 38%, 3%, 6%, 3% and 20% respectively. This means the contribution from community is substantial.

Table 4: Investment and PCC (NPR)

DistrictTotal Investment (NPR)

Average Per Capita Investment (NPR) Total Investment

(NPR)Average PCC

(NPR)Solar Lift Electrical Lift Solar Lift Electrical Lift

Pyuthan 0 9,924,938 0 6,551 9,924,938 6,551Kapilvastu 23,143,477 56,927,735 5,467 4,580 80,071,212 4,806Rupandehi 14,432,167 47,108,629 4,171 6,075 61,540,796 5,487Nawalparasi 25,103,343 1,443,300 4,620 4,455 26,546,643 4,611Syangja 0 67652636 0 7,068 67,652,636 7,068Tanahun 12,462,514 31,574,317 5,826 7,070 44,036,831 6,667Parbat 0 1,167,941 0 5,100 1,167,941 5,100Total 75,141,501 215,799,496 4,922 5,946 290,940,997 5,643

The Climate SustainabilityThe lifting systems are designed in such a way that they are also climate smart in terms of economical use of water by metering systems, effective use of water sources, multiple use of excess and waste water, use of less civil construction works in solar systems, use of renewable energy (solar power) in operating the pumps. These systems are also called the sustainable climate change adaptation measures, thus contributing to reduce the impacts of climate change and responsive to its vulnerability.

Way ForwardAs per the national priority areas, the focuses have been largely paid by many agencies for providing services to unreached population, improving schemes functionality and water quality. There is urgent necessity to adopt innovative technologies like solar and high lift systems, sustainable arsenic mitigation systems, and community-wide water safety planning process in community-led approach. This is only possible when there is an adoption of systematic bottom-up planning and Human Rights Based Approach for all water supply schemes in the VDC. This is not a simple task, it has lots of challenges in planning process on one hand and in other hand there is challenge to implement such innovative water supply schemes in remote and inaccessible areas.

References1. Project Completion Report of RWSSP-WN Phase I, 20132. Annual Physical and Financial Progress Reports of RWSSP-WN Phase I, 2011, 2012

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Er. Sharad ManandharSDE, DRILP-AF,

DoLIDAR

Water ManagementA Vital Component for the Sustainability of Rural Roads in Nepal

INTRODUCTION

BackgroundHilly and mountainous areas of Nepal are vulnerable to erosion and mass waste because the formations are very young, active and fragile. Any types of development activities which disturb the hill slopes need to be handled carefully. Thus any infrastructural development activities in the hilly and mountainous areas must be initiated with careful and proper environmental management.

Land is major resources available to the society. Proper conservation and utilization of the available land is necessary to meet the needs of environmental protection of the fragile watersheds & land

ABSTRACTEnvironmental degradation is considered as a major threat to the sustainability of human welfare. The global environment has deteriorated significantly in many aspects in recent decades. The rapid population growth and high percentage of population below poverty line have also contributed to the impact of the natural hazards.

Nepal is predominantly rural society with about 88 percent of population living in rural areas. Nepal is a mountainous country with steep, fragile and rugged terrain covering approximately 83 percent of the total area. Rural people in Nepal live under extremely difficult socio-economic condition in isolated areas with little or no access to markets and agriculture services, reliable transportation, communication and employment opportunities.

Any development activities such as rural road construction in hilly & mountainous terrain may lead to degradation of land and natural environment. Nepal is also highly prone to water induced disaster such as landslide, soil erosion, debris flows and floods. Loss of land and top soil caused by accelerated human activities has been the main environmental concern in hilly and mountainous region. Massive cutting of the hilly/mountain slopes and disposal of the cut material downhill in an uncontrolled manner, quarrying, mining activities, uncontrolled blasting of rock in large quantities for road cutting and improper water management in the mountainous & hilly terrain has resulted in accelerated erosion, landslides and intensive soil loss.

Poorly planned infrastructure development activities leads to serious environment and land degradation. Environmental degradation is accelerated by human intervention such as inappropriate methods used for infrastructural development. Extensive activities those related to infrastructural development as such. Rural road construction and irrigation canal have infringed upon the natural balance over long period of time.

Key Words: Land degradation, Natural hazards, Environmental degradation, Soil Erosion, Landslides, Geomorphology, Rural accessibility, Social Sustainability, LEP Approach, Bioengineering, Hilly terrain, Slope instability, Market facilities

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resources of Nepal. There has been rapid depletion of natural resources due to the anthropogenic activities as well as due to some natural calamities.

Nepal is small, landlocked country situated between the two giant countries, India and China. Geographically Nepal is situated between the latitudes 26o 10’N to 30o27’North and the longitude 80o 4’to 88o12’E. Nepal looks like a rectangular in shape with approximately 800 Km (East-West) in length and 200 Km (North-South) in width and covers area of 1,47,181 Sq Km. The altitude of country varies from 60 m (Kechhana, Jhapa) to 8848m (Mt Everest) with a short horizontal distance of 92 to 120Km resulting climate variation with diversified flora and fauna. Due to this steep and fragile topography the country is highly vulnerable to potential disaster like Landslide, slope failure, soil erosion and debris flow etc.

The mountain and hill of the country occupy about 83% of the total area whereas remaining 17% is covered by low land and flat land. Geographically, Nepal has been divided into five major zones:

a) Terai plain b) Churia hills or Siwaliksc) Mahabharat rangesd) Midland or Central hills e) Higher or Great Himalayas

Terai and Siwaliks have hot monsoon, the Middle Mountain have a warm temperate monsoon and the High Mountain have a cool temperate monsoon to alpine climate. The highest mean maximum temperature of above 40o prevails in the southern plane of western Nepal and falls below 0o in snow clad mountain of the Northern region in winter. The average annual rainfall varies between < 300mm in the dry region to >500mm in wet region.

Justification of the StudyLiving condition of rural people can not be improved unless reliable access to agricultural service and market facilities are provided. Rural people in Nepal face difficult socio-economic condition in isolated areas with little or no access to markets and agricultural services, employment opportunities, and reliable transportation and communication facilities. Agriculture forms the primary occupation of about 81% of the population. However, it provides only seasonal employment to the people.

Effective planning and implementation of rural road development with proper natural environmental management will be helpful for economic development of rural areas. After extensive study of the different water management trends and their shortcomings, appropriate methods and measures for water management has been rigorously scrutinized for the sustainable rural road development in future.

The rural road connected to the remote districts will get access to market their agricultural products which will uplift their living condition and economic level. Thus the research study and findings will help assist for the sustainable development of the rural road network. This study aims to explore some new insight into the prevailing vital problems of Water Management in the rural road construction in the hilly terrain of Nepal. The study will review the major water related impacts of rural road construction.

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Methodology This research study aims to provide comprehensive overview of the water management aspect of rural road construction in the hilly & mountainous terrain of Nepal. Basically the study was exploratory research based on extensive field study and observation of the sample rural roads. Two sample roads Sankhu – Phatkeswor Road from Kathmandu and Kanti Rajpath from Lalitpur Districts were selected. The Sankhu-Phatkeswor road falls on District Road category. While the Kanti-Rajpath falls on the strategic road network. The hill Road section from the Tikabhairab to Jhakridanda has been chosen as research site.

The secondary information for the study was collected from various literature, documents and reports. For the primary information data for parameters like geomorphology, geographical data, topography, terrain slope, geological data (Soil type), drainage and water management were collected during field visits.

The primary data was collected from different sections of the sample road corridor. The parameters like rainfall, topography, geomorphology, soil type, road design & mode of construction, drainage and water management aspect has been studied minutely to judge the sustainability of rural roads. The sustainability indicator was evaluated using the rating scores of for different parameters. Data analysis of the primary and secondary data was performed using a statistical tool called SPSS software. The following factors / parameters are considered for research study

1) Parameter I : Road drainage / Water management Status 2) Parameter II : Road Design / construction mode3) Parameter III : Geomorphology / Soil type4) Parameter IV : Topography /terrain type5) Parameter V : Rainfall intensity / Erosivity index

Analysis of Rainfall Data / Rainfall Frequency AnalysisRainfall intensity can damage the road and cause instability of terrain slope and localized intense rainfall can cause severe damage to rural road in hilly terrain of Nepal. The main damage on rural roads in Nepal are mainly caused by flowing water during heavy rainfall of long duration or high intensity rainfall. Although the rainfall in the sample rural roads is not excessive, it is aggravated by the fragile geological environment often leading to massive landslide and destruction of roads. It is reported that many of the largest landslides have been initiated by sustained periods of heavy rainfall during the monsoon.

The time series data of monthly average and the annual maximum series of 24-hr maximum rainfall of annual total for three stations are shown in Table below. Rainfall Frequency analysis of extreme events, viz, the 24-hr maximum rainfall has been carried out using the Extreme value Type-I (EVI) distribution.

Frequency Analysis based on Extreme Value Type I (EVI) distribution

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The parameters for this distribution are mean and standard deviation. The key parameters and results of the analysis are presented in Table below

Table 1SN Rainfall

StationsIndex

NoLong Term Average

Annual Rainfall(mm)

Max 24-hrRainfall(mm)

Frequency Analysis

2Yr 5Yr 10Yr 25Yr 50Yr 100Yr

1. Sankhu 1035 2093 201 175 201 240 240 256 2722. Lele 1988 1988 356 324 356 378 405 425 4453. Chapagaun 1128 1128 284 181 284 351 438 501 564

Two aspect of rainfall are important namely the duration and intensity, which cause damage to roads causing erosion and landslides. Rather than the annual totals, the occurrence of the extreme events, its magnitude and frequency needs to be studied for planning measures to prevent damages to mountain roads form rainfall events. Thus the frequency analysis of the 24-hr maximum rainfall has been carried out. The results shown in Table 1 indicates the likelihood of occurrence of more severe extreme events in Lele and Chapagaun than in Sankhu, although the total annual rainfall was more in Sankhu.

Jan

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Rainfall chart - Sankhu

(Month)

(mm

)

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Average Rainfall Analysis for- Sankhu Station

Average RainfallSt DevMax Rainfall

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1

300.0

250.0

200.0

150.0

100.0

50.0

0.0

Rainfall Frequency Analysis (EV-I Distribution)-Sankhu

Return period, T(Yrs)

XT

10 100

Rainfall Frequency Analysis (EV-I Distribution) for Sankhu Station:

Rainfall interacts with the existing soils and geological formations making the hill slopes prone to failures when underlying soil mass is saturated. The underlying geological formation, soil type, geomorphology and terrain slope are other important factors on which slope failures depend. This is evident from the fact that, although the occurrence of extreme rainfall event is more severe in Lele and Chapagaun, the extent of water related damage to roads was observed less in Kantirajpath (Tikabhairab-Jhakridanda Road Sec) than in Sankhu- Phatkeshor Road Sec. It can be concluded that proper Water management & drainage management is most important factor to control rainfall / water related roadside disaster and for the sustainable rural road construction.

Findings & DiscussionSoils and rocks in Nepal are generally very permeable containing voids and many fractures. This allows water to seep into ground, which can cause instability of various kinds. To understand the mountain slopes is to examine the rocks in the area. The strength of the rocks determines the nature of slope failures and the ways we need to treat them. The impact of road construction on natural landscape and geomorphology is the primary concern. Most geo-morphological impacts of the construction are addressed as part of the design because their effects are immediate and have bearing on engineering performance

Water can move over the surface of the ground into the surface to a depth of few centimeters, further down into the soil profile and deep into rocks. All these pathways can lead to instability in various forms in mountain slopes. If it is adequately protected water will cause no damage to the surface otherwise it may lead to erosion.

Though natural parameter like rainfall intensity can not be avoided or controlled, proper drainage construction and water management can minimize its adverse impact on rural roads. The duration and intensity of rainfall cause damages to the roads. The rainfall data analysis shows that although the occurrence of extreme rainfall event is more severe in Lele & Chapagaun in Lalitpur district

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than Sankhu in Kathmandu district the extent of damage to road was observed less in KantiRajpath of Lalitpur district than in Sankhu road of Kathmandu district due to favorable topography for drainage and better design. It has been concluded that the drainage and water management in KantiRajpath has been better than in Sankhu road.

Different drainage / water management methods have been used in rural roads in Nepal. Both surface and sub-surface drainage management is necessary in the rural roads. Both structural and non-structural measures play important role for the stability of rural roads in hilly terrain of Nepal. Bio-engineering application, a non-structural measure, helps to stabilize the road slope with the use of natural vegetation.

Rainfall Intensity

5

10

1415

15.6

18.33

12.613.4

14.415.33

Terrain Slope Road design Soil type Water management

20

15

10

5

0

Comparative Rating Level of Research Parameters

Research Parameters

Ratin

g lev

el

Comparative Study of Research Parameter

Sankhu-Phatkeswor road secTikabhaira-Jhakridanda road sec

Sustainability status of road

Comparatively Sustainability Status of Sample Rural Roads

Sankhu-Phatkeswor road sec(46%)

Tikabhaira-Jharidanda road(54%)

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ConclusionConstruction of rural roads in hilly and mountainous terrain of Nepal is always a battle against water. Conservation of the natural drainage system around the road alignment should be one of the concerns during the design and construction of rural roads. Topography, slope stability, flood hazard and erosion potential should be considered while choosing the most suitable alignment and design of road section. Variation in geology and slope greatly influence road design and hence the cost of construction. These variations can occur on very short length of alignment. Therefore geology, geomorphology and hydrology are very key factors in the design, construction and maintenance of roads in the hilly terrain.

The type and magnitude of social and environmental impacts that will result from road construction largely depends on the nature of the terrain and exact route of alignment. Construction of roads may modify the surface flow pattern of water causing no flow or reduced flow in some natural channels while causing concentrated flow in others. Instability, landslide and soil erosion are the major environmental impacts associated with road construction in Nepal. This is particularly true in hilly and mountain terrain because of the weak and vulnerable geological areas. The problem generally results from interaction between water flow and soil, both of which are disturbed by road construction. Fresh cut slopes and embankments are more vulnerable to landslides and soil erosion due to improper water management.

Water extensive field study of two sample rural roads and secondary information, it has been found that road design, geomorphology, topography, rainfall intensity and drainage / water management play an important play an important role in the sustainability of rural roads. Topography, geomorphology and rainfall intensity are natural parameters and cannot be avoided. It can, however, be controlled or minimized by proper planning during design and selection of road alignment.

Rainfall intensity damages the road and causes instability in the slope. Localized intense rainfall can cause damages to rural road in the hilly terrain. Critical impact of the rainfall can be minimized and controlled by drainage and water management. Bioengineering application, a non-structural measure, helps to stabilize the road slope with the use of natural vegetation. Both surface and sub-surface drainage management is necessary in rural roads.Proper Water Management is a vital component for maintaining the sustainability of rural roads in the hilly and mountainous terrain of Nepal. The research study has recommended various surface and sub-surface methods for water management.

REFERENCES l Sharma C K, Some Systems of Environmental Degradation in Nepal (1950-1994), Kathmandu, Nepal

l A legislative and Institutional Framework for Environmental Management in Nepal (June 1991), National Conservation Strategy Implementation Project, National Planning Commission, GoN/Nepal, in collaboration with IUCN-The World Conservation Union

l Bhattarai, Dr T. N., 2004, Role of Engineering Geology in Mitigating Natural Hazards, Proceedings of Seminar Paper-Disaster Management in Nepal, April 11-12, 2004, 298-300 p

l DDC, Kathmandu, Final Report for Detailed Engineering Survey & Design of Sankhu-Phatkeswor Road, Prepared by, Gaurav Integrated Dev. Associates, Kathmandu

l DDC, Lalitpur, District Transport Master Plan, DDC, Lalitpur District, Nepal Environmental Management Guidelines, DOR, Ministry of works & Transport, GoN, Nepal

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l Gaurav Integrated Dev. Associates, Final Report for Detailed Design of Sankhu-Phatkeswor Road (Vol-II, Maps & Drawings), DDC, Kathmandu, Nepal

l GTZ/(1996), Rural Road in Gorkha, Technical Manual, July 1996, GTZ

l Deoja B B (1994), Sustainable Approaches to the Construction of Roads and other Infrastructures in the Hindukush-Himalaya, Occasional Paper No 24, ICIMOD, Kathmandu

l Howell J. (1999) Roadside Bio-engineering- Site Handbook, Department of Roads, HMG/Nepal

l Integrated Rural Accessibility Planning in Nepal Guidelines, ILO ASIST-AP Rural Infrastructure Publication, International Labour Office, Bangkok, Thailand

l Joshi A R, Shrestha S L & K Joshi (2003), Environmental Management & Sustainable development at the Crossroad, AnKus, Kathmandu, Nepal

l Tideman E M (1996), WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Guidelines for Indian Condition, Indo-German Bilateral Project/ Watershed Management, New Delhi, India

l UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992), Agenda 21, Rio Declaration, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

l UNDP (2005), Human Development Report 2005, United Nations Programme, UNDP, New York, USA

l World Commission on Environment and Development (1991), WCED Report Global Environment Outlook, United Nations Environment Programme, 1997

l UN Commission on Environment and Development (1987), Our Common Future, Brundtland Report

(This paper has been presented in an "International Workshop on Transport in Mountains", 21-27, November, 2013, Kathmandu, Nepal)




Narahari KhadkaProprietor

Himshikhar Nirman Sewa P. Ltd.Rukum

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BackdropNepal has unique topography, within a vertical distance of 193 Km; the elevation of the country varies from 60 m to 8850 m above mean sea level. The topography of the country is extremely rugged and crisscrossed by numerous untamable rivers and streams.The rugged topography coupled with aggressive river hydrology has made the development of transport sector extremely difficult and costly. Until mid-twentieth century, trails and mule tracks were the only means of transport throughout the country. Till date only 21,455 Km of all weather and seasonal roads have been constructed, which are concentrated mostly in terai and lower hills. More than half of the rural roads do not become functional during monsoon due to lack of proper crossings over the rivers.

During monsoon, whole area of hinterland are cut off from road network and thus from the supply of basic needs such as food, health facilities, schools and access to markets. With the given topographic and geological challenge this condition is likely to be perceived for many years to come. Therefore, the socioeconomic activities of these places will continue to depend largely on trail based transportation system with trail bridges being the most reliable river crossings for decades to come.

MilestonesWith over 6,000 rivers and streams in the country, Nepal has been an evolving ground for construction of trail bridges for the last 50 years or so. Planned and engineered trail bridge building in the country started only in around 1960s. At present there are more than 5000 trail bridges

Tulasi NepalTeam Leader, TBSU/HELVETAS Nepal

Celebrating the Record: 5000+ Trail Bridges in Nepal

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which contribute to improvement of living condition of community people in rural areas. The graph below shows ecological region wise construction of trail bridges over the decades. The purple curve represents the cumulative of the total bridges completed.

The contribution of the GoN and its entities (SBD, DDC, RADC, LTBP, PAF), SDC, DFID, USAID, WB, ADB, Care Nepal, KAAA-BGN, USADP, HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation and SNV have an immense contribution in the evolution of technology of the sub sector. The contribution from Swiss forms a major one in marching towards different milestones.

Before 1960sPeople used indigenous technology for making river crossings made up of wooden logs. During Rana epoch, the rulers took the initiative to construct modern bridges. These bridges were manufactured in Scotland dispatched in parcels to Nepal and subsequently erected at the site.

1960s- Planned Development l The United States Operation Mission (USOM) was the first to launch trail bridge building

programme in Nepal.

l HELVETAS Engineer built pilot bridge in Marsyangdi valley at Jubing.

l The government established Suspension Bridge Division (SBD) in 1964 which still functions as a project office

1970s- Central Planning Approach l A cooperation was signed between GoN and SATA (Swiss Agency for Technical Assistance)

later named as SDC, in 1972. Since then SDC has been providing technical assistance and financial grants for construction of trail bridges. HELVETAS as an implementing agency of SDC established Suspension Bridge Project. USAID also continued to provide financial grants for Trail bridge construction.

l Nepali engineers worked together with Swiss experts for transfer of knowhow. Trail bridge steel parts were fabricated at BalajuYantraSala (BYS) through skill training at Mechanical Training Center (MTC).

l Huge demands for trail bridges construction began to be received

1980s- Technology Standardization and initiation of Community bridges l Standard survey, design, construction and drawings were developed

l Study of trails in hilly districts was initiated and trails classified as main and local trails

l District main trail maps (MTM) and central service maps were prepared. These MTMs were digitized and Transport Infrastructure Maps (TIM) were prepared

l Planning and monitoring information system (PMIS) and central bridge register (CBR) were developed to keep the records of bridges

l Intensive trainings were provided. The lead responsibility was taken by national experts. The number of Swiss experts gradually reduced

l HELVETAS took the lead role to implement trail bridges through community lead based

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on innovations in Baglung district. Thus launched the project “Bridge Building at Local Level”

l Need for maintenance was realized. The concept of carrying out routine maintenance through bridge wardens was initiated

1990s- Decentralization of Trail Bridge Building l Bridge designs were optimized, manuals revised by national experts

l Galvanized steel decks replaced wooden decks

l Routine maintenance manual developed and routine maintenance trainings were imparted

l Local bodies took the lead in trail bridge construction and NGOs were entrusted for providing technical and social inputs to the community

l The longest pedestrian bridge in Asia (1.5 Km) over Mahakali river was constructed

l Bridge records were compiled in district bridge record (DBR) and compiled in Nepal trail bridge record (NTBR)

2000s onward- Technology demarcation and Sector wide Approach l Policy demarcation for long span trail bridge (LSTB) and short span trail bridge (SSTB)

were prepared

l Standard manuals for SSTB were prepared, social organizational support guidelines were prepared

l SBP and BBLL were merged forming Trail Bridge Support Unit (TBSU) mandated for providing technical support for all types of pedestrian bridge building

l Trail Bridge Strategy was prepared and enforced since 2006

l Trail Bridge Programme is being implemented through Sector Wide Approach (SWAp) modality since 2009

l Emerging social and thematic concerns were integrated

l Trail Bridge strategy Information System (TBSIS) was developed for monitoring application of Trail Bridge Strategy

5000th Trail BridgeOn the occasion of completion of 5000+ Trail bridges in the country, a special programme for the celebration of the record was organized. The major purpose was to disseminate the current status, learning and future scope of the programme to wider audience. The celebration programme included bridge inauguration of the 5000th bridge over DudhKoshi river in Khotang district, organization of photo exhibition in three Durbar Squares within the valley, Dharan, Butwal and Dhangadi. It also included radio and television talk showprogrammes. A special journal on trial bridges was published by DOLIDAR on this occasion and launched by the then Deputy Prime minister and minister for Federal Affairs and Local Development Narayan Kaji Shrestha.

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Institutional Arrangements for the FutureThe Trail Bridge Sector Wide Approach (TBSWAp) and Joint Financing Arrangement (JFA) for TB SWAp was concluded on 29 the June 2011 and approved and agreed by GoN, DFID, SDC and WB. Creating a functional basket funding mechanism by bringing all development partners on board is an important need to fulfill in future. DoLIDARof theMoFALD is the line agency responsible for development and implementation. Despite some good achievements, improvements in a number of aspects are still necessary in the sub sector. The capacities at the center and at the district level are not fully developed. Some institutional mechanisms are yet to be established and made functional. Creating functional basket funding mechanism by bringing all development partners is an important need for future arrangements.

Lessons for the FutureTill recently, maintenance had been the most neglected part but after a few cases of fatal accidents, the value of maintenance has been realized. Since trail bridge construction has a long history in Nepal, reinforcing maintenance is an urgent need. Over the period, several efforts have been made to introduce effective maintenance. Updating district bridge records with present condition of the bridge, preparation of maintenance guidelines, imparting routine maintenance training to the Bridge Wardens, clustering of routine maintenance works and increasing the allowances for the bridge wardens include some of them.

Trail bridges do not have a long history in the case of terai districts, but the demands are on the rise. Difficulty in construction of temporary bridges due to flat terrain and meandering pattern of the river has led to the increased demand of permanent trail bridges in the terai. Therefore, technological adaptation suitable to Terai Geology and Hydrology is also equally important.

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1. Background Among many of the social issues, gender issues have been addressed during the past few decade of Nepal's planned development. It is only recently that social inclusion has been entered in the development discourse, leading to recognition of other dimensions of exclusion in addition to gender.

Since the 1951 after Rana Regime, Nepal has been struggling to transform its feudal economic, political and deep-seated cast system. However, the formal laws and institutions that guarantee equal treatment to men and women as well as to Dalit, Brahmins, to Madhesis and Pahadi, and to Hindu, Muslim and other religious groups but in most of the society, informal institutions that created by the local community themselves for long generations are also playing vital role to use the power structure relation in the society. Discrimination based on Castes, Religions and Gender is still persisted in our society and it is very difficult to change these old habits of thought and daily behaviors easily from practices. These old habits and practices that persist in different ways in different locations and communities are affecting the day to day activities of the community and finally this system affects the country's overall development too. Social and economic barriers for example a dalit group at the bottom of the caste hierarchy, who , in addition to the humiliation of being considered "impure" and therefore "untouchable" have faced structural barriers to education and economic opportunities for generations. Same discrimination are also facing the Adiibasi/Janajati groups, however, they were given a place in the middle of the caste hierarchy rather than at the bottom. Similarly, even the caste Hindus in the plains, or Madhes, of Nepal were looked upon and treated as foreigners when they visited Kathmandu, the capital of their country. These are the few examples of exclusion.

The word "Social Exclusion" describes the experience of groups that are systematically and historically disadvantaged because of discrimination based on gender, caste, ethnicity, or religion. Exclusion occurs in public (formal) institutions such as the legal or education system, as well as social (informal) institutions such as communities and households. Similarly, the word "Social Inclusion" is the removal of institutional barriers and the enhancement of incentives to increase access by diverse individuals and groups to development opportunities. This requires changes in policies, rules, and social practices and shifts in people’s perspectives and behavior toward excluded groups.

Basically there are two dimensions of exclusion first is economically excluded groups include poor of all Castes, Ethnicities, Locations and genders and second is socially excluded groups include Women, Dalits Adibasi/Janajaties, Muslims, People with disabilities, People from geographically remote areas and Madhesis . Dimensions of exclusion are cross-cutting and cumulative as per social, cultural, economic and geographical context. For example, a poor Brahamin woman from Chitwan valley is privileged in terms of her caste and her fairly well-connected location, but excluded by her poverty and gender but at the same location a dalit woman may be excluded with

Bam Bahadur ThapaSociologist, DoLIDAR

Gender equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) A Key issue in the infrastructure Development

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more dimensions (poverty, caste and gender of exclusion) than a Brahmin woman. All dimensions of exclusion are interacted each other in different ways to frame the life chances of the different individuals. Therefore, it will not be enough looking at men's and women's realities separately, it also necessary to see the realities of "which women" and "which men" and it is also essential to define who the excluded and cause of their exclusion during the project design phase.

The list of grievances is long and groups that have been historically excluded are many in Nepal. Before planning the development interventions it is essential to consider the local social and economic context for equitable and sustainable improvements in the physical, social and economical well-being of individuals and social groups, especially those that are socially and economically excluded. As development practitioners of any sector, it needs to know at least something of this historical, social and cultural and economical context of specific community of specific location, so that we can design development interventions in ways that are sensitive to the dense systems of exclusion that often prevail in the communities. Therefore, during planning phase of development projects it has to consider how it is possible to design and implement the development interventions that support in ways that bring equal benefit to men and women from all these groups.

2. Need of Social Analysis for GESI planningThough, the legal framework of Nepal and policies of sectoral ministry or even the specific procedure/guideline laid out in the formal project documents have mandatory for mainstreaming the GESI but a detail analysis of existing community, where development interventions are being implemented, is also more essential for indentifying the real socio-economic and cultural context of the community. During undertaking the social analysis of a specific program of any sector, project team attempt to examine and address the following broad social concerns for preparing the GESI Action Plan:

1. Identify social factors, such as gender, ethnicity/race/caste, age, citizenship, urban/rural location or disability, affect people’s access to basic services, resources, economic opportunities, and public decision making.

2. Examine the effectiveness of formal and informal institutions (including formal laws and policies, local norms and practices, and formal and informal markets) in promoting inclusion and equitable treatment of women and other social groups, and find out the main weaknesses or gaps in these institutions.

3. GESI implementation and Lesson learn from Rural Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Sector Development Project (RRRSDP) The impact of the proposed project was to reduce the level of poverty and social exclusion and enhance economic growth in the rural areas. The outcome of the project was to improve access and benefit to services and resources for rural population through better transportation and the output was to reconstruction and rehabilitation of rural infrastructure. During project preparation phase participatory approach was adopted and incorporated all measures that would be ensured the participation of the poor and socially excluded groups, including women and the disadvantaged castes and indigenous peoples in the planning, design, implementation, operation and maintenance of the Project. In line with the project objective, RRRSDP addressed GESI issues through preparing a separate Social and Gender Action Plan (SAP and GAP) and Indigenous People Development Plan (IPDP- where IPs are found) have been prepared for each rural road sub-project based on zone

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of influence social survey data. In addition to, focus group discussion, consultation with women, Dalits, Janajatis, women headed HHs, wage laborers, landless and food deficit HHs have also been identified as poor and socially excluded groups. Of the 43 road sub-projects under RRRSDP Social Detail Project Reports (SDPRs) that include separate SAP and GAP reports have been prepared for 40 roads. IPDPs were developed for 11 roads where IPs were living. In SAPs, GAPs and IPDPs the social issues that existed in the local community were analyzed based on collected field information. These plans prioritized the activities to be addressed for empowering the capacity of excluded groups of the project areas during the project period. However, during preparation of the SAPs and GAPs, issues were raised regarding the effective implementation of social mobilization activities. The Program was able to successfully perform the issues of social and gender activities that identified in the plans so the intended outcomes were achieved. Each plan described the key activities of community mobilization, the formation of committees to ensure proportionate representation of all cast/ethnic and minority groups at all levels; and capacity development of the members of these under privileged groups through awareness rising, gender mainstreaming, skill development training for self employment and employment generation from construction works.

Different level of committees for effective community mobilization and participation of local beneficiaries in rural road and other supplementary infrastructure activities were formed. 20 District Coordination Committees (DPCC) and 157 Village Infrastructure Construction Coordination Committees (VICCC) were formed in all project districts to coordinate local stakeholders during project planning, implementation and monitoring. Female and Dalit representation was 19% and 28% respectively on the DPCCs and VICCCs. Representation of Janajati on these committees ranged from 27-37%. The main reason for low participation rates for women and Dalits is most members in the DPCCs and VICCCs are representatives from DDC/VDC level political parties where women and Dalit representation is very low. In RBGs and RBICs representation of women, Dalit and Janati is 39%, 12% and 53% respectively. Interestingly, women representation in RBG leadership met the target of 33% and in RBICs women representation is 36.59%. This indicates that representation in planning and management at the community level of women was achieved and they were able to play a more meaningful role than on the village and district level executive committees. A total 588 Village Infrastructure User Committees (VIUGs) were formed in 20 RRRSDP and 38 DRILP districts on water supply and sanitation and other supplementary infrastructure sub-projects. Out of total VIUG membership of 5918 , female participation was 39% against the target of 50%. Involvement of Dalit and Janajati on VIUGs was 16% and 48% respectively. This level of participation is considered an improvement of pre-project levels and shows these groups have increased their ability to speak out and influence decisions.

So far 38 different types of LES trainings for 2,912 trainees have been provided. Composition of these training groups was 50.62% women, 9.17% Dalit, 48.56% Janajati, 1.89% Madhesi and 40.38% others. Similarly, awareness and capacity development training for 22,614 members of DPCC, VICCC, RBG, RBIC and VIUG were provided for their empowerment. Female, Dalit and Janajati participation in this training was 43.63%, 15.75% and 39.20% respectively.

GESI now becoming a basic component of any development project and in every program/project at least some outputs and indicators must be phrased in a way that captures gender and inclusion issues. In rural infrastructure development project where impact of interventions might be different and project should ensure that all the impacts created by the project should be addressed through assessing the real context of the beneficiaries. This will be helpful for the successful implementation and completion of the projects/programs.

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» rfr'rf (Nepotism, Favouritism) » sd{sf08 k|yfnfO{ dfGotf -k|lqmof vf] Hg] dfGotf_ » ;fdflhs ;'/ Iffsf] k|Tofe"lt sd 5

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Er. Bhesh Raj ThapaManaging Director

Development Support Consultant Pvt. Ltd.Sankhamul, Kathmandu, Phone: 4780253

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Proprietor, Nabin Chaulagain(9841308020, 9751030802)

Agrim Enterprises / Agrim Nirman SewaNew Baneshwor-10 Kathmandu Pokharichaur-8, Kavre

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Er. Bhesh Raj Thapa Executive Member, Nepal Engineers' Association

Vice Principal, Himalaya college of Engineering, Chyasal, Lalitpur GPO No.24726, Kathmandu, Nepal

Phone: 977-1-5540555/5547266

Practical Approaches to Transboundary Water Resources Sharing for Resilient South Asian Region

Introduction:Water is the key element for existence of all kind of life and plays important role for the development of the nation. Studies have shown that the volume of earth‘s water supply is approximately 326 million cubic meters. Of this, 97.5 % is salt water and 2.5% is fresh water.

Fresh water resources are an essential component of earth’s hydrosphere and an indispensable part of all terrestrial system.

The system of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Meghna (GBM) basin that spans across five countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India and Nepal is second only to the Amazon river basin with its 1.75 million square kilometer of catchment area. While Bangladesh and India share all the tree river basins, China shares only the Brahmaputra and the Ganges basin, Nepal only the Ganges basin and Bhutan, only the Brahmaputra basin (Salehin et al.). Despite such plethora of water in the region, the development of this region has stuttered for long with a number of water management problems acting as a major setback. The genesis of these problems can be attributed to the vast inequalities in the temporal and spatial distribution of water in the region. As a consequence, most of the states of this region are victims to the same water – related issues, namely floods, droughts, dry season water scarcity, power insufficiency and pollution of the available water resources. Management of water resources in the region has become all the more challenging because of the huge population, the anticipated population growth and the prevailing poverty situation.

ABSTRACT

Nepal has been touted to be rich in water resources and the proper utilization of her vast water resources and the intensification of the tourism industry are considered as one way ride to economic prosperity that the region of South Asia has not been able to boast of till date. Geographical realities cannot be changed but the political mind sets are playing big role in destroying water resources. India is upper riparian with respect to Pakistan and Bangladesh while lower riparian with respect to Nepal, Bhutan and China. Glacier melt, sea level rise and monsoon impacts are major climate change impacts making worst affected South Asian region. Climate change and causing disaster may be taken as an opportunity to revise the bilateral treaty and initiation of multilateral treaty with regional cooperation on water resources sharing, trade etc. Hence technical cooperation on information sharing with stakeholder involvement using Integrated Water Resources Management Principle (IWRMP) gives “win-win” situation to all the South Asian Countries. This leads to the management of trans-boundary River by solving the energy and water security crisis, flood disaster management, water scarcity (quantity and quality) during dry season and helps to build a resilient South Asian region.

Keywords: Climate Change, Trans Boundary River, Regional Cooperation and IWRMP

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The economic, social, and environmental importance of water resources cannot be overstated. Water is a vital resource, critical for healthy living conditions and sound ecosystems. Drinking water, food production, energy supply, and industrial development are dependent on water availability. Yet, the rising demands associated with rapid population growth and economic development place increasing pressure on this fragile and finite resource. This is already evidenced at the sectoral level by insufficient and inadequate supplies, at the national level, by competing demands between sectors, and at the international level, by conflicts – or the threat thereof – between nations sharing trans-boundary water resources. The situation is expected to worsen, with a quarter of the world’s population predicted to face severe water scarcity in the next 25 years, even during years of average rainfall (Schiff and winters, 2002). The water management challenge is, thus, enormous. The manner in which it is confronted will determine future patterns of development, macroeconomic growth potentials, and the extent of poverty burdens.

Emerging International water Principles:International watercourses laws (IWL) mean the international water law which is going to be applicable in international watercourses. In this paper, the writer mainly arises the general understanding of IWL which may be applicable for the GBM Basin water sharing.

Principle of Equity: (Helsinki Rule): "Each Basin State is entitled, within its territory, to a separable and equitable share in the beneficial use of the water of an international drainage basin" The criteria to define the drainage basin are Geography, Natural Characteristics of Water course, Needs of the Problem based on the Water course, existing and potential use, Water course conversation, Socio- economic needs and availability of alternatives.

Principle of No Harm: Article 7 of UNCIW, States that in the utilization of an international water course in their territories. The water course state shall take all appropriate measures to prevent the causing of significant harm to other water course states.

Principle of prior Information: The Principle of equitable utilization, no appreciable harm to other riparian country, the duty to consult and negotiate, the prior information of the action which may cause appreciable harm etc. and Date should be shared, negotiate obligation in good faith.

Principle of downstream Benefit sharing: In the course of co-operation between the U/S and D/S states of an international water course, the works on the upstream states, if generates benefit in the downstream state, such benefits are to be shared between them.

Principle of Absolute Territorial Sovereignty: It believes that a country enjoy absolute right on the water that passes from it's territory and it may be used as the state concerned wishes even to the detriment of the lower riparian country.

Principle of Territorial integrity : It is the opposite to territorial sovereignty, A lower riparian has a right to demand the continuation of the natural flow of the waters running from u/s and that the country demanding such continuation of the flow can also not restrict it's flow downstream.

Limited Territorial Sovereignty: A state right to use that position of the international river, which passes through it's territory is limited to extended that such a use would not cause serious injury to the other riparian state.

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Principle of Prior Appropriation: It provides that the state which first utilizes the water of an international river acquire the legal right to continue to receive the quantity and quality of water in future and cannot be deprived of it without its consent.

Navigational use of water courses: Land locked state shall have right of access to and from the sea for the freedom of transit through the territory of transit state without and custom duties , taxes or other charges except those levied for the specific services rendered in connection with such traffic .

International Practices on international drainage basin:There are lots of treaties and international practices, that are successful and few of them are in conflicting, hence the lesson learned from these practices should be reviewed and make a clear vision for our relationship with India and Bangladesh. In this backdrop it would only be appropriate to provide introduction to various prevailing international practices which pertains to our water related issues with India and other country within GBM basin.

Columbia River TreatyThis treaty was signed between the USA and Canada in 1961 and implemented in 1964 for flood control and power production objectives. Sharing the benefits of cooperative water management was an integral part of the treaty. Some of the salient features of this agreement are listed below:

l For the flood control Canada was to be paid 50 percent of the estimated value of the US flood damage prevented. Instead of receiving an annual payment for the flood control benefits through 2024, Canada elected to receive lump sum payments totaling $64.4 million.

l In exchange for providing and operating the treaty storage projects for power, Canada also received an entitlement to ½ of the estimated downstream benefits generated in the US. Canada initially sold its share of this additional power, called the Canadian Entitlement, for $254 million to a consortium of US utilities for a period of 30 years. After the expiration of this agreement in 2003, the Canadian Entitlement power is delivered on a daily schedule to the Province of British Columbia at the US- BC border for Canada’s or resale.

l Either Canada or the US can terminate most of the provisions of the Treaty any time on or after Sept.16, 2024, with a minimum 10 years’ written advance notice.

This treaty is an example in which the upstream riparian state has received equal share of the downstream benefits. This is a precedent which can be implemented in case of Mahakali Treaty.

Mekong River Commission (MRC)For the integrated development of the Mekong River Basin, MRC was established in 1995 by Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. This river basin has following features that are similar to Ganges River Basin which makes it of an interest to us:

l Geopolitically, Mekong River originates in the Tibetan Plateau and runs through China, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. In both the river basins, China is the upstream riparian state but has very less interest in the integrated development because of very small benefits that she can harvest from both the basins.

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l Of the remaining states, Thailand is the most powerful – both economically and strategically in the Mekong basin, India being her counterpart in the Ganges Basin.

l The rest of the states that share the Mekong River are weak, both strategically and economically and have gone through long political instability and turmoil, similar to that experienced by Nepal and Bangladesh of the Ganges Basin.

Mekong River management is far from being an ideal trans-boundary water management attempt in comparison to Columbia River Treaty. It has experienced the vicissitudes of water sharing agreement between the states of huge strategic, economic and political disparity and in that respect its present status as well as its progress or failure in the future can be a reference to us.

Indo-Bangladesh Teesta River ConflictIndian Prime Minister Man Mohan Singh and his Bangladeshi counterpart Seikh Hasina Begam were set to ink the Teesta Water Treaty on September 2011 but the plan fell through at the last moment due to the non-cooperation and objection of the West Bengal CM Mamata Banerjee. The proposed treaty envisaged equal water sharing (50:50) but CM Banerjee opposed to any such agreement that provided for less than 75:25 split in India’s favor, the advocated reason behind this objection being the water requirement of West Bengal as the upper riparian state. Taking this as a precedent, Nepal as the upper riparian state could enter into water sharing deals only when such sharing is not detrimental to her interest.

Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP)LHWP is an ongoing water supply project with hydropower component, developed in partnership between the government of Lesotho and South Africa. The project involves a system of several large dams and tunnels in Lesotho to provide water for South Africa. For the inundation of territory in Lesotho and the downstream benefits to be garnered by South Africa, the government of Lesotho will be provided with royalty that is to be used for developmental purposes. Furthermore, South Africa will also aid Lesotho for hydropower development, all of which will be used to fulfill the demand of Lesotho.

This project is spectacular not only in highlighting the cooperative efforts to fulfill mutual demands. It is also noteworthy due to the negative social and environmental impacts (as the treaty to ratify the project was signed prior to the era of environmental flow assessment) that have ensued with prolonged threats.

Water Resources cooperation in South AsiaThis section discusses the existing cooperation arrangements in the South Asian region before embarking exclusively into Indo – Nepal Water Resources relationship. India and Bangladesh share 54 rivers, however, Ganges Water Treaty is the only water sharing agreement that exists today between the two states. Even this treaty is not without the elements of discordance. India has constructed Farakka dam to solve siltation problem at Calcutta by diverting the water of Ganges to Hoogly river ignoring the water rights of Bangladesh as a downstream riparian state. The construction of the dam itself is associated with the secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan. Furthermore, dialogues between India and Bangladesh are on course regarding the sharing of Teesta and Feni waters guided by the principles of equity, fairness and no harm to either party and the agreements have been drafted but are yet to be signed following the strong objection of the West Bengal state government.

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Plate-1, GBM basin in south Asia

On the other hand, the water sharing agreements between India and Bhutan have brought huge benefits to both the states. Such cooperation has been mainly concentrated for development of hydropower in Bhutan to meet her internal demand, which is minimal, and to export the surplus to India amidst her huge power demand that has generated considerable revenue to Bhutan as a result of which Bhutan is on the way to become the nation with highest Per Capita Income in South Asia. Commenced with the signing of Jaldhaka Agreement in 1961, the first major hydroelectric project developed in bilateral cooperation was 336 MW Chukhahydel Project across river Wangchu in Western Bhutan. The recent example is of Tala hydel project of 1020 MW installed which is constructed on the financing of Government of India (GOI) with 60% of the project cost as grant and remaining 40% as loan. India also has funded a scheme called ‘Comprehensive Scheme for Establishment of Hydro – meteorological and Flood Forecasting Network on Rivers Common to India and Bhutan’ which is to be maintained by Royal Government of Bhutan (RGoB). This successful implementation of cooperative efforts for sharing of mutual benefits can be a lesson to other nations of the region.

River Systems of NepalNepal is a landlocked Himalayan country surrounded on the south, east and west by India and on the north by Tibet – an autonomous region of China – and comprising an area of 147,181 km2.There are about 6000 rivers and rivulets in Nepal, having a total drainage area of 194,471 km2, 45.7% of which lies in Nepal. There are 33 rivers whose drainage area exceeds 1000 km2. Rivers in Nepal can be typically classified in three types depending on their discharge. The Kosi, Gandaki, Karnali and Mahakali river systems originate in the Himalayas and carry snow-fed flows with significant discharge even in the dry season. The Mechi, Kamala, Bagmati, West Rapti and Babai

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rivers originate in the midlands or Mahabharat range of mountains and are fed by precipitation as well as by ground water regeneration. These rivers are also perennial but are characterised by a wide seasonal fluctuation in discharge. Apart from these river systems, there are large numbers of small rivers in the Terai, which originate from the Southern Siwalik range of hills, and are seasonal with little flow during the dry season, but are characterized by flash floods during the monsoon. Most of the rivers originate from the Himalayan range within Nepal, while some originate from the Tibetan Plateau; all these rivers drain southwards to the Ganges in Northern India and ultimately into the Bay of Bengal. The Mechi and Mahakali rivers form the eastern and western boundaries with India and the other rivers flow to India, being transboundary in nature (see plate-1). The available hydrological data reveals the estimated annual runoff into the rivers of Nepal to be 220 billion cubic meters, with the average annual precipitation being 1530 mm per year. Several studies suggest that Nepal theoretically has 83000 MW of hydropower potential, more than the combined total produced by the United States, Canada and Mexico, of which about 43000 MW is presently considered economically viable to harness. Despite the abundance of water resources, only about one third of the population has got access to safe water, and only 42% of the net calculated land has been irrigated so far.

Of the four Himalayan river systems of Nepal, three are already bound by treaties with India, these treaties being deemed unequal and unfavorable to Nepalese interests and in some cases even harmful (as in the case of the annual flooding caused by the Koshi River).

Nepal – India Water CooperationThe relationship between Nepal and India with regards to the sharing of water resources dates back to 1920 when letters were exchanged between the then Prime Minister Chandra Sumsher JBR and the head of the British Legation in Nepal regarding the Sarada (Mahakali) Barrage. We will, at this moment, present a brief overview of the Water Resources treaties extant between Nepal and India.

1. Agreement on the Koshi Project, 1954 (amended on 19 December 1996) This treaty was concluded with the prime objective of constructing a Barrage and related

structures about three miles upstream of Hanuman Nagar town on the Koshi River with afflux and flood banks, and canals and protective works on the land lying within the territories of Nepal for the purpose of flood control, irrigation, generation of hydro – electric power and prevention of erosion of Nepalese areas on the right side of the river, upstream of the barrage. The salient features of the treaty are:

l Nepal is entitled to draw water for various purposes from Koshi River and her tributaries as may be required.

l Water at barrage site shall be regulated by the GoI. l Nepal is entitled upto 50% of hydel generated from the Power House within 10 miles

radius of the barrage and constructed by the GoI. l The project area shall be leased to the GoI for a period of 199 years (in 1954 agreement it

was leased infinitely).

2. Agreement on Gandak Irrigation and Power Project, 1959 (amended on 30 April 1964) The objective of this treaty was to construct a Barrage and related structures about 1000 feet

below the existing Tribeni canal head regulators for purposes of irrigation and development of power for Nepal and India. The salient features of the treaty are:

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l Eastern Nepal Canal shall be constructed by the GoI to irrigate gross command area of 40,000 acres.

l Western Nepal Canal shall be constructed by the GoI to irrigate gross command area of 1,03,500 acres.

l Distributaries below 20 cusecs capacity shall be constructed by HMG and the cost will be reimbursed by the GoI.

l GoI will construct a 15 MW Power House on Nepalese territory on the main Western Canal for Nepalese use.

3. Treaty concerning the Integrated Development of Mahakali River including Sarada Barrage, Tanakpur Barrage and Pancheshwor Project (12 February 1996)

This treaty consists of three components: the Sarada Barrage which was already built under 1920 agreement, the Tanakpur barrage that was constructed unilaterally by India against the spirit of IWL and the Pancheshwor Multipurpose Project to generate 6480 MW of power in an integrated manner. The salient features of the Treaty are:

l The treaty was ratified by the Joint Session of Nepal’s two House of Parliament with an overwhelming majority on September 20, 1996.

l This treaty has recognized Mahakali River as a trans-boundary river between Nepal and India.

l The four National Strictures (Rastriya Sankalpas) passed during the ratification of the treaty are: » Export of energy and its pricing principle » Formation of Mahakali River Commission » Equal sharing of waters of the Mahakali River after the Pancheshwor Project » Status of the Mahakali River

l The agreement has the provision of the review of the treaty in every 10 years.

Critical Review of Nepal India water cooperationThe case of Nepalese water resource development is unique in comparison with the circumstances in other countries; Nepal has huge water resources available with a tiny land area requiring irrigation and a very low demand for hydroelectricity. Conversely, India has got a huge territory but sufficient water is not available during the dry season, either for herself or for Bangladesh. Also Nepal is not endowed with necessary financial and technical resources to harvest benefits for herself. Consequently, it has always been in Nepalese interest to share her waters to harvest mutual and equitable benefits and various water resources have been concluded with India with the view of attaining this goal. Despite this seemingly good practice prima facie, Indo – Nepal relationship has been nowhere near satisfactory and at mutually beneficial level as had been anticipated. It has been reported that Late King Birendra himself once remarked that his country had been cheated by India in the case of the Koshi and the Gandak. Here we shall attempt to present a critical review of Nepal India Hydro Relationship with respect to various agreements concluded at various times.

1. Koshi Agreement (1954, Amended 1996) l While the life of hydraulic structures are generally taken as 50 years at the most, the

agreement was ridiculous in that the Nepalese land was leased infinitely for the project. This was amended in 1996 to a period of 199 years which is not less ridiculous.

l Initially the barrage site was designed at Barahakshetra – further upstream of its present

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location - in which case, the irrigation and flood control benefits would have been greater to Nepal and Nepal should have stuck with the original plan. Nonetheless, Nepal agreed to the present site at Nepal – India border, thus losing even the little she might have had.

l India had agreed to the socioeconomic development of the region under her investment (Cl. 13) but this Clause of the agreement has not materialized as yet.

l GoI should have compensated the Nepalese owners whose land had been acquisitioned for the project (Cl. 8), but the reality is not so.

l Through the treaty Nepal lost her inherent rights on her water as the right to regulate the barrage gate was vested only on the GoI (Cl. 4, SubCl. i).

l Under the treaty, the regular maintenance works of the barrage and embankment was devolved to Indian side, but her laxity in fulfilling her responsibility has led to embankment breach from time to time.

l Nepal is not getting any compensation when her land gets inundated during high flood as there is no such provision on the treaty.

l Failure of the Indian authority to heed to the flood warning signal sent by the barrage control authorities led to the Kosi Flood of 2008.

l Chatara Inundation Canal which was to be built by GoI to irrigate 60,000 hectares of Nepalese land was able to serve only 10,000 ha. As the Indian side failed to carry out its renovation works as promised, the canal became defunct and Nepal had to renovate it with IDA loan after she took over its operation in 1976.

l Hydel generation under the Koshi Agreement has not been carried out.

2. Gandak Agreement (1959, Ammended ) l Though theoretically HMG is entitled to withdraw water from use in Gandak Valley, “the

trans – Valley use of Gandak waters” is prohibited by the Clause 9 of the treaty. It means that water diversion into Kathmandu Valley from any tributary of this river system ( like from Tadi Khola across the Shivapuri Range) is prohibited.

l Pursuant to the treaty India takes 32,000 cusecs of water for irrigation in Bihar and UP and leaves only 1,216 cusecs for Bara, Parsa, Rautahat and Nawalparasi District of Nepal.1

l The road bridge constructed under this project, for which Nepal was assured of a locking arrangement for facility of riverine traffic across the barrage free of any tolls (Cl. 5, SubCl. iii), has proved to be a provision that has so far remained mere theory, as no inland water navigation was developed.

l The treaty has neither the provision for review nor has it any timeframe.

3. Mahakali Agreement (1996) l It is claimed that this treaty has ulterior motives to rejuvenate the now defunct Sarada

Barrage, to provide legal standing to Tanakpur Barrage which has violation of IWL written all over it and to control the water of Mahakali River and Pancheshwor Multipurpose Project is a mere pretense to achieve these motives and GoI has never had the intention of seeing through its implementation. The failure of the Panchshwor DPR2 to see the sun till this day, which otherwise should have been prepared within 6 months of the signing of the treaty is a strong evidence to support this argument.

l Equal sharing of water of Mahakali after Pancheshwor may seem attractive prima facie, but the big question is do we have necessary resources to utilize our share of water beneficially? If Nepal is not able to use her share, by default, India is free to use it and

1 http://www.gorkhapatra.org.np/rising.detail.php?article_id=64708&cat_id=4 on February 22, 20132 Detailed Project Report

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there is no provision of recompense to Nepal for such use. l Though equal sharing of water has been emphasized in the treaty but there is conflict

regarding the consumptive use of water. It has not been indicated if the sharing is applicable to ‘pre-‘ or ‘post-‘ deduction of ‘existing consumptive use’ of water.

l The treaty has been finalized without any tangible decision with regards to energy export and its pricing principle. Though Nepal has advocated the use of the principle of ‘avoided cost’, India has never furnished any promises.

l During the ratification of the treaty four National Strictures (Sankalpa Prastabs) were passed by the Nepalese Parliament on September 20, 1996. There is no any record of these concerns being voiced by the Nepalese delegates in the subsequent joint meetings as they should have been. But it is worth mentioning here that India is not bound by these Strictures pursuant to the Article 20 (Acceptance of and objections to Reservations) of the Vienna Convention on Law of Treaties.

l There is a conflict regarding the origin of Mahakali River. According to the letters exchanged on the wake of the signing of the treaty, it was decided that this conflict would be resolved but no step has been taken towards this purpose.

l The treaty has been criticized on the grounds that the Nepalese territory will be inundated in order to maintain temporal availability of water to India.

l While Pancheshwor DPR and Mahakali River Commission are off the horizon, Pancheshwor Development Authority has been constituted during the premiership of Madhav Kumar Nepal. This smells of foul play.

l The actors in play during the signing and ratification of Mahakali Treaty are trying to justify this treaty in terms of contemporary energy crisis, which is a really deplorable step.

4. Navigation rights for Nepal According to the Article 3 of Barcelona Convention, 1921 coastal state shall accord free

navigation to the ships flying the flag of another state through the navigable waterways lying under its sovereignty. Also according to the United Nations on Convention of Law of Seas (UNCLOS), Part X – Right of Access of Land-locked States To and From the Sea and Freedom of Transit – Nepal as a land-locked state without any sea-coast shall have the right of access to and from the sea for the freedom of transit through the territory of transit state (Article 125) without any custom duties, taxes or other charges except charges levied for specific services rendered in connection with such traffic (Article 127). But Nepal has yet to enjoy such rights in the foreseeable future as India renounced the Barcelona Convention in March 1956. Exercising of such rights received further setback when India completed Farakka Dam Project, thus virtually ending Nepal’s shortest access to the sea.

Silver Lining on a Cloudy SkyWhile severe criticisms shall always prevail and rightfully so, there are a few brighter aspects – a silver lining in a cloudy relationship – that must be given due consideration while analyzing the century old relationship between Nepal and India where the sharing of water is concerned. Some of them are enumerated below:

l The exclusive right to withdraw water for irrigation and various other purposes has been entitled to Nepal in case of Koshi and Gandak Treaties. Thus the treaty has acknowledged our right to the waters of these rivers.

l There is no any restriction imposed on trans – Valley water transfer in the case of Koshi

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Treaty. As a due acknowledgement of this, India has never raised any concern regarding the withdrawal of water from Melamchi River for supplying drinking water in Kathmandu.

l Though the construction of Tanakpur Barrage is always contentious, through Tanakpur MoU3 India agreed to give 70 GWh of electricity free of cost in lieu of 10 hectares of Nepalese land.

l Despite the indelible marks of dispute Mahakali Agreement can be viewed positively in that it has adopted an integrated basin planning approach. It is the first agreement through which India has shown readiness to join hands with Nepal to manage the river basin for long term mutual benefits.

l If Pancheshwor Multipurpose Project is implemented, the energy requirement of Nepal will be fulfilled.

Reasons behind the Discordant RelationshipDespite our ages old relationship, there is a mass feeling of caution in the Nepalese public where any agreement with India is concerned. It is unfortunate that both the nations have not been able to address this feeling. In this section we shall try to analyze, as objectively as possible, the causes behind such concern.

l Despite the Gujral Doctrine which advocates balanced neighborly relationship with no reciprocal advantage from small neighbors, in practice, India’s attitude towards Nepal has not been that of non – reciprocity. Unless the Gujral Doctrine is given prime importance in all our mutual arrangements, no such arrangement shall be deemed as healthy or equitable.

l India’s attitude of “build first, negotiate later” has marred her credibility with her neighbors. The construction of Tanakpur Barrage and Farakka Dam can be cited as examples. Elaboration of these is not the scope of this text.

l The scars of the wound induced by the irrational Trade and Transit embargo and blockade imposed by India on Nepal on 1998 despite the Trade and Transit Treaty of 1978 will not heal that easily.

l If we trace the history of these treaties, we observe that most of them have been concluded during the period of political instability in Nepal or the incumbent government is of interim nature (conclusion of BIPPA is a recent example). Such government fundamentally does not have any right to go forward and carry out such agreements that shall have long term ensuing impacts to the nation. But since international forum will not acknowledge the backdrop, the dissidence of the aftermath will only contribute to embitter the relationship.

l If we delve into the backdrop to Mahakali Treaty, we observe that a constitutional democratic process was in its full throttle. Despite the presence of the people’s representatives in the parliament and the government, the treaty was concluded by a coalition government. People like Santa Bahadur Pun and Surya Nath Upadhaya have raised concerns regarding the sharing of Mahakali river, and have gone forward to stipulate that the Treaty was finalized in order to maintain the coalition. Thus, it can be concluded that in this case, the petty personal interests have taken precedence over national interests.

l Changes in foreign policy with the change of ruling party or even ruling personnel will never allow us to have a stable and harmonious foreign relationship.

3 Memorandum of Understanding

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Conclusion drawn from Existing ProblemsIt has already been acknowledged that problems are inherent in all of our agreements with India. Therefore, various recommendations are presented for smooth Indo-Nepal relationship:

l Since we don’t have the potential, either economical or technological, Nepal as an upper riparian state has to advocate ‘equal sharing of benefits’ not ‘equal sharing of water’. Columbia River Treaty is a precedent.

l For the sustainable, reasonable and equitable sharing of water and overall development of the Ganges Basin, integrated and adaptive management of river basin as has been attempted in the Mekong River Basin.

l Climate Change and Disaster is opportunity for Regional Co-operation and Revision of Previous Treaties

l Equitable Utilization of International Water course is Applicable for regional co-operation in South Asia

l Nepal should raise the issues for the revision of treaty and deal water course multilaterally not bilaterally.

l WB, ADB Should Play Mediator role to manage GBM holistically l SAARC Should make a Policies to manage River, Water Resources, Natural Resources,

Climate change at Regional Level l Share ‘equal benefits’ not ‘equal water’ l Integrated and adaptive management of river basins (IWRMP should be applied) l Lack of political will of the leader of SA region. l The Treaties are shorn of Participatory, Lack vision and have shown poor maintenance

and absence of transparency and accountability (INDIA-NEPAL), Kosi disaster on 18 Aug, 2008 is the best illustration.

l Nepal could demand for the review of Mahakali Treaty, as per the provision of the treaty that it can be reviewed every 10 years, to decide the fate of the treaty given the non-implementation of Pancheshwor Project.

l Nepal should demand regular maintenance of Koshi Barrage and its appurtenant structures by the Indian Government.

l Given our common ancestry, religion, culture and tradition, any attempt to analyze the relationship between Nepal and India considering only the sharing of common waters will be a gross underestimation of that relationship. Therefore, further studies that acknowledge this unique relationship is recommended.

l Sharing of common rivers is not just a technical or a legal issue. Its economic, social, cultural and diplomatic implications are huge and therefore a multidisciplinary study is recommended.

l The agreements on water resources discussed in this study are not the only agreements between Nepal and India. Analysis of the remaining agreements is also recommended.

Way Forward (Practical Approaches for Transboundary water sharing in south Asian region)During such sharing, it would do us good to advocate the sharing of equal benefits and not equal waters. Our previous attempts at water-sharing have not brought us the anticipated benefits and are therefore the targets to huge criticism. Taking lessons from our past mistakes, failures and experience it is necessary that we incorporate the principles of integrated and adaptive water management for equal sharing of benefits for the overall economic progress of the region.

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Benefit sharing’ has been proposed as one approach to bypass the contentious issue of property rights. The idea is that if the focus is switched from physical volumes of water to the various values derived from water use – in multiple spheres, including economic, social, political, and environmental – riparians will correctly view the problem as one of positive-sum outcomes associated with optimising benefits rather than the zero-sum outcomes associated with dividing water.

The case for sharing benefits is a compelling one. A river basin is a common pool resource, meaning that use of it by one riparian (or indeed individual) will necessarily diminish the benefits available to others. In other words, water use in one part of the basin creates external effects in other parts. If these externalities are not ‘internalised’, the overall benefits are reduced and the outcome is sub-optimal. Thus, both hydrology and economics concur that a river basin should be treated as a single unit to maintain the physical integrity of the system and to internalise externalities.

The question, then, is not whether the concept of benefit sharing has appeal, but rather how it can be operationalised. In other words, how is it that riparians to a transboundary river arrive at ‘seeing’ the benefits from optimal water management, such that their interests coincide with cooperation?

After analyzing all the treaties and condition of drainage basin within GBM, the following practical approaches or way forward are listed out, All theses gives “Win-Win Situation” for all Stakeholder

l Technical Cooperation on data and information sharing l Stakeholder involvement in trans-boundary water management must be recognized l Agreement should be multilateral rather than bilateral (In South Asia, In Most of the

cases) l Cooperation, Collaboration, Transformation and Continuous Support should be the role

of third party (World Bank, ADB, JICA, DFID etc.) l Integrated Water resources Management (IWRM) Principle should be adopted (Link

between National Water Policies and Trans-boundary Water is essential) l Regional Integration Arrangement (RIA) mechanism should be promoted l Monitoring and Evaluation (Process, stress reduction and Environmental status indicator)

Refrences: l ASEAN, (2005), Strategic Plan of Action on Water Resources Management. Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, 2005. l Mathews, A. (2003), Regional Integration and Food Security in Developing Countries. Rome: United Nations

Food and Agriculture Organization, 2003. l Iram Khalid, Transboundary water sharing issues a case study of south asia. Journal of political studies, vol-

1, issue-2 pp 79-96 l Halla Qaddumi, Practical approaches to transboundary water benefit sharing, working paper 292, result of

ODI research l Mashfiqus Salehin, M. Shah Alam Khan, Anjal Prakash, and Chanda Gurung Goodrich, Opportunities for

Trans-boundary Water Sharing in Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna Basins l Koshi, Gandak and Mahakali Treaties l Bikas Thapa (2011), Hydro electricity at Nepal l Surya Nath upadhya, International water courses Law and a perspective on Nepal India Cooperation, 2012 l Dr. Trilochan Upreti, International water Course law and it’s application in South Asia l Pia Malhotra, Water issues between Nepal, India and Bangladesh, IPCS special report, july 2010

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$_ hUufsf] cfsf/ k|sf/ cg';f/ z'e cz'eM

Selecting a Plot for Construction of House

Item Requirement Compliance Score0 +1 -1 Instructions of Scoring

Depth vs Width Depth should be more than width

-1 if width more than depth.+1 if width less than depth or if width equal to depth

North-South length vs East-West length

North-South Length should be more than East-West

-1 if not complied+1 if complied or if both equal

Common wall To west or South -1 if not complied+1 if complied

Open Space More to North and East -1 if not complied+1 if complied

Shape Gomukhi or regular +1 if Gomukhi and regular-1 for others

Road To North, East or South

+2 if roads on two desirable sides. +1 if road on one desirable side, 0 if road to West and South, -1 if road to the West

Positive & negative Score

Net Score

Ideally, the negative score should be zero and net score should be plus four or more. Higher the score, the better is the plot.

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%_ 3/ sf] -zfnf_ sf] 7fsf] :yfg cg';f/ z'e cz'eM–

Selecting a Ideal Location of Room

Item Ideal Location Actual Location

Score0 +1 -1 Instructions of Scoring

Shape of Flat Square or rectangular+1 if the flat is square or rectangular or with project to East, North or South at the North-East or South-West corner. -1 for all other situations.

Centre Point Drawing room, living room or corridor

-1 if Centre Point is on a bedroom. +1 if in drawing room or corridor. 0 for other locations.

Common wall To West and/ or South +1 if complied, -1 if not complied.Depth/ Width ratio Depth more than Width +1 if complied, -1 if not complied.

North-South length vs East-West length

North-South length more than East-West length

+1 if complied, -1 if not complied.

Pooja/ Study North-East -1 if in west. +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwiseMaster Bedroom South-West +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwiseGuest Bedroom North-West +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwiseChildren's Bedroom West or South +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwise

Kitchen South-East or North-West

-1 if located in north east. +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwise

Dining Room Next to kitchen +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwiseLiving Room North or East +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwiseBalconies North, East or North-East +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwiseTerrace North, East or North-East +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwiseToilet 1 West or South +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwiseToilet 2 West or South +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwiseServants Quarters North-West +1 if in ideal location, 0 otherwisePositive & negative ScoreNet Score

Ideally, the negative score should be zero and net score should be plus four or more. Higher the score, the better is the plot.






Er. Krishna Prasad SapkotaManaging Director

SITARA Consult Pvt. Ltd.Kupandol, Lalitpur, GPO Box: 8943 NPC 763

Tel.: 015520630 Fax: 015520630, Mobile: 9851013173

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Er. Ram ParajuliEngineer, DoLIDAR

The Existing Road Maintenance funds: South Asia and Nepalese Contest

1. IntroductionRoads are among the most important public assets in many countries. Road improvements bring immediate and sometimes dramatic benefits to road users through improved access to hospitals, schools, and markets; improved comfort, speed, and safety; and lower vehicle operating costs. For these benefits to be sustained, road improvements must be followed by a well-planned program of maintenance. Without regular maintenance, roads can rapidly fall into disrepair, preventing realization of the longer term impacts of road improvements on development, such as increased agricultural production and growth in school enrollment. The goal of maintenance is to preserve the asset, not to upgrade it. Unlike major road works, maintenance must be done regularly. The goal of maintenance is to preserve the asset, not to upgrade it. Unlike major road works, maintenance must be done regularly.A stitch in time saves nine is a popular saying in maintenance.To carry out such preventive works on the roads, establishment of committed fund is essential.

In the south Asian countries, various types of funds are created which are committed sustainable road maintenance programmes one of the major source of these funds are the road tolls. Such types of funds established in various countries of South Asia are discussed below.

1.1 IndiaIndia has the second largest road network in the world with a road length of 4.24 million km. India's road density is among the highest in the world with 1.29 km of roads per sq. km of area. However, India's national highways and expressways constitute only 1.67% of the road length, and the percentage of paved roads is only 49.3%, lagging behind both the U.S. and China. Moreover, roads are of poor quality, lacking maintenance and pedestrians and animals have uncontrolled access to roads, resulting in slow speed of vehicles, break-downs and accidents. It has become imperative that new roads should be built, and the existing roads should be widened and properly maintained. However, these projects require massive investments, which are beyond the budgetary provisions and borrowings from banks and financial institutions. In the 11th Five-Year Plan (2007-12), more percentage of the investments in roads are contributed by the private sector. Also, henceforth major National Highways Development Projects (NHDP) will be implemented in the PPP mode . Toll collection is an alternative way of financing road development and maintenance projects. (Five Years Plan(2007-2012))

,National Highways are looked after by Central Government through Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,State Governments looks after the state highways and Rural Roads and Urban Roads by Rural Engineering Organizations, Local Authorities like Panchayats and Municipalities.

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India has Central Road Fund (CRF) since 2000 (A study Reoprt on Road Funds in South asia Region). CRF now provides funds for the development and maintenance of national, state road network, and construction of rural roads. Besides CRF, some states and districts have also established road funds for local road network maintenance and development.To meet the challenges of accelerated funding requirement for all categories of roads in the country,the fuel levy on petrol and high speed diesel is provisioned.The revenue thus generated is used to finance all categories of roads development and construction.This fund has been given a statutory status by central Road Fund Act enacted in December 2000. The Allocations from this fund are being made for rural roads and national highways.50% of the fund from the levy of high speed diesel is financed for the maintenance and development of Rural roads whereas rest 50% plus the whole revenue received from the petrol levy is financed for the national and state highways. Road Tolls are also collected from the roads are another sources of road fund.

1.2 PakistanAccording to Pakistan Bureau of statistics , the total road length in year 2010 is 260760 kms. The National Highway Authority (NHA) is responsible for National Highways, Motorways and strategic roads. Length of the road network under the jurisdiction of NHA is approximately 8500 Kms. and comprises primarily of strategic and principal arterial routes that serve inter provincial long distance traffic, including important commercial cities and major freight terminals. Though the length of National Highways is only 3.5% of the entire road network of the country but they carry more than 80% of the country traffic. Provincial Highway department are responsible for approximately 90,000 KM provincial road network and the remaining network comprises of municipal and district roads.(Pakistan raod conduction, causes) For maintenance initiatives National Highway Authority (NHA) has been running a Road Maintenance Account (RMA).The national Highway Authority Act 1991, as amended in 2001, empowers NHA to benefit from the commercial use of roads and bridges entrusted to it. Under the Act, NHA is empowered to collect tolls on national highways. The Act also grants NHA the power to collect revenues from several other designated sources. Revenues collected from such sources are deposited into Pakistan’s dedicated Road Maintenance Account (RMA).The Road Maintenance Account was established to ensure a stable and secure source of maintenance and operations funding.

Toll revenue is the primary contributor of RMA resources. The contributions of different sources into RMA are (Transport and Communication Buletins for Asia and Pacific, 2005)

Toll plazas : 92.0 per centWeigh stations : 1.5 per centRight-of-way commercialization : 1.2 per centHoardings/billboards : 0.3 per centPolice fine collection etc. : 5.0 per cent

1.3 Srilanka:Roads are the dominant mode of transport in Sri Lanka and have evolved over more than one century. About 90 percent of passengers and 98 percent of freight are carried by the road.The road network is dense and well laid-out providing basic spatial coverage to the country’s population and centres of economic activity. The network’s density is among the highest in Asia, as the ratio ofroad kilometers to population exceeds the related indicators in the neighboring countries (Chintana, 2010)

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Comparative transport network Indicators, 2009 (Chintana, 2010)

Country population Densityroad Density

km/1000 people km/ km2 of landSrilanka 311 5.50 1.71

India 361 3.00 1.12Bangladesh 1126 2.00 1.79

Pakistan 212 1.69 0.32

Srilanka has in total 112997 Kilometeres of roads upto year 2011. Among them 11992 KM of road are national roads(A& B class), 15975 KM of road are provincial roads(C & D Class), 80600 KM of roads are local level roads(E Class) and 4500 kms of other roads(Not classified) (Chintana, 2010)

Sri Lanka has a Road Maintenance Trust Fund (RMTF) in operation — a transitional set up to a dedicated second generation Road Fund to fund the road maintenance of national and provincial highways. (A study Reoprt on Road Funds in South asia Region).The RMTF was introduced early 2006 with a view to ensuring reliable funding for road maintenance and, eventually, also for construction. The current role of the RMTF is limited to the financing of routine and periodic road maintenance. The operation of the fund is dependent on earmarked tax proceeds from the sale of gasoline and diesel. Such allocations replace budgetary allocations previously given directly to the Ministry of Highways. The allocations to the fund are linked to the sale of gasoline and diesel at the rate of Rs. 1 per liter of gasoline and Rs. 0.5 per liter of diesel. In October 2005, the Cabinet approved the establishment of RMTF under the provisions of the Trust Ordinance (National Transport Master Plan(2007-2012), 2007).

1.4 BangladeshThe total road network in Bangladesh comprises of 37772.92 kms of Upazilla roads,44780.82 Kms of Union roads,106906.89 Kms of Village A roads and 100565.34 Kms of Village B roads totaling to 290025.97 Kms of total local roads (www.lged.gov.bd) Likewise the roads lengths under roads and highway Department (RHD) is about 22,000 kms. In order to create a stable road funds for the maintenance of national and local roads networks in Bangladesh, The Parliament has just passed the bill named Road Fund Board Bill 2013. providing the creation of fund for proper maintenance, repair and renovation of roads under the road and highway department.Road and Highway department(RHD) takes the responsibility of development of national highways and roads whereas the local government and engineering department takes the responsibility of local level roads. The proposed financial resources for the road fund are: levy on fuel and diesel, International transit charges to foreign vehicles using the roads of Bangladesh, vehicle charges (based on vehicle size and weight), and other fees/charges recommended by the Board and approved by MoF for the purpose of road maintenance. (www.thefinancialexpress.bd.com, 2013)

1.5 Bhutan:The total road length in Bhutan is 9491.5 Kms out of which 2902.9 kms is Black topped whereas 6588.50 kms is non-blacktopped raod (Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan, 2012).The national road authority as the department of roads is responsible for all roads of the country.In order to develop the roads in the local levels, the local government is responsible.The road act-2012 of Bhutan spell out about the provisions of the roles, responsibility of all the concerned stakeholders in the

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development of roads.As per the road act, the classification of roads are of 5 types namely:National Highways, Dzongkhag , Thromde, Farm and Access roads.The committed road maintenance fund board is yet to be decided in Bhutan.The road act-2012 of Bhutan has defined about the toll orders which may be one of the source of fund.Likewise the revenue from the refund of duties on imported gasoline and diesel, to avoid the negative impact on traffic by direct levies on petrol and diesel.

1.5 MaldivesMaldives consists of about 1200 small, low lying coral island in the Indian Ocean.Ministry of transport and communication is mandated to regulate the transport sector.The land transport department looks after the land transport development. The transport sector is dominated by maritime and air transportation The total road length is about 100 Kms (Country Profile of Maldives).

2. The Nepalese ContestIn context of development of transport infrastructures,National transport policy-2002(NTP) has clearly pointed out the responsibilities of road construction agencies.To construct and maintain the strategic road networks(SRN) which consisit of national highways and feeder roads,Department of Roads(DoR) established within the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport (MoPIT) has got the responsibility where as to construct and maintain the local road networks(LRN),the local bodies viz District Development committees(DDC), Municipality and Village development committees (VDC),in coordination with Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads(DoLIDAR) are responsible.Moreover Local Infrastructure Development Policy(LIDP)-2004 has identified different seven sub-sectors of local development to be performed by Local Bodies in coordination with DoLIDAR.Among them Rural Transport Infrastructure(RTI) is one of the major sub-sector.Various development partners like Asian Development Bank(ADB),World Bank(WB),Japan International Corporation Agency(JICA),Siwss Development Corporation(SDC),etc are working together with DoR and DoLIDAR for the development of Transport Infrastructure within the country.Government of Nepal(GoN) investing into it with top priority to this sector for improving the accessibility of the rural people in mainstreaming them in the development process of country.Now it is a major challenge to both the agencies i.e. DoR and DoLIDAR to maintain the already constructed roads as well as developing new road networks to improve the connectivity.According to the road records by DoR there are about 12000 kms of SRN already completed.Still two district headquarters of Dolpa and Humla district are not connected in the national road network.

Three years plan(2009/10-2012/13) promulgated by Nepal Planning commission(NPC) has given the top priority over the transport infrastructures and a substantial budgets is also allocated in this sector.For development of rural transport infrastructures Sectorwide approach(SWAp) model is adopted .TYP(2009/10-2012/13) had targated to construct new 3000 kilometers of rural roads and uprrading and rehabilitation of of 4767 kms of rural roads, routine and periodic maintenance of 18000 kms of rural roads in SWAp model will be implemented through local bodies(LBs).Likewise 1493 kms of SRN will be constructed within this period and 3600 kms of SRN periodic maintenance and 9400 kms of SRN routine maintenance will be done.Allocation of resources for road, urban development and communication sector for this TYP is 19.63% which amounts to 11,092 corores.Among this allocation road sector allocation is 15.11% which is equal to 8541 corores.Likewise for local development it is 15.10% and amounts to 8,535 corores.Most of the

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budget allocation of local development is utilized for the development of local road networks. These picture shows that the government has given top priority for the development of transport infrastructures where the much priority is given for the maintenance. The roads that are owned by the local bodies i.e. LRN are yet to be questionable in terms of their serviceability. In the last few years the tendency of construction of roads are increasing as well as the number of traffic are also increasing. In Nepal, till date, there exists about 12000 kms. of SRN whereas more than 50,000 kms. of rural roads(RR) but the serviceability of most of those roads are still questionable. so these roads are not providing good service to users. There will be required a great effort and resource to make those roads all weather.

Among these roads most of the earthen roads are susceptible to the serviceable condition.These are not all weather roads rather fair weather roads.So the local bodies along with the DoLIDAR and Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development(MoFALD) bears a great challenges in maintaining these roads to all weather roads.A massive amount of capital and resources is required to maintain these roads to all weather standard.Recognizing this fact now MoFALD/DoLIADR has concentrated its road development programmes and projects focusing on maintenance.To overcome these challenges, MoFALD/DoLIDAR is piloting some projects road projects focusing on maintenance. It is made mandatory to allocate atleast 5% percentage of total budget received by LBs from central program namely Rural Transport Infrastructure Sector wide program (RTISWAp) in the maintenance purposes.Likewise Rural Road Maintenance Directives(RRMD)-2008 has directed LBs to allocate at least 3% of the total sum of internal income revenue should be allocated for maintenance purposes.From this fund the maintenance of different infrastructure sectors like drinking water,irrigation etc are also to be performed so this fund will be quiet insufficient for the maintenance of the larger kilometers of rural roads existing there.There is a committed District Rural Road maintenance fund (DRRMF) into which at least 5% of total construction cost of the respective project is allocated for the maintenance purpose. Still there will be deficit of budget to maintain all those rural roads constructed all over. Road Board Nepal(RBN) established as per Road Board act-2002 is one of the institution that has a major task to financially support the respective road agencies ie DoR and LBs to maintain SRN and LRN into serviceable condition majorly focusing on the routine and periodic maintenance of roads. The major source of RBN are the fuel levy, road toll and vehicle registration tax levy. The fund thus collected is distributed to DoR and Local bodies for maintenance purposes.70% of total budget is allocated for the maintenance purpose of SRN whereas 30% of the total budget is allocated for maintenance of LRN through LBs.Yet there is a lack of such funds for effectively maintaining the larger kilometers of rural roads into serviceable condition. Among the various taxes identified by LSGA-1999\LSGR-2000, Road tolls are also one of the source of revenues from the roads constructed by the LB or from those LRN handed over to them. As per LSGR-2000,the collected road tolls are utilized for the maintenance of the respective roads from where the tolls are collected. The road tolls as being one of the sources of internal revenues of the districts, if the road tolls systems are properly managed then these sources may be developed as the major source of the revenue. By the collection of remarkable revenue it will, to some extent, helps to loosen the liabilities of the central government agencies for the budgetary burden to be allocated for the maintenance of such rural roads.Concentrating on the maintenance of rural roads those constructed through local bodies,as toll may be considered as the best source of maintenance funds,there are various constraints in collecting it. The existing rate of tax and the way of fixing the toll tax that can be levied provisioned by LSGR-2000 seems to be unreasonable. Tax, service charges and fee directly affect the people (users). Tax also has an impact on the development of trade, market and in attracting or distracting industries. The rates of taxes and other revenues of the surveyed DDCs are within the limit of the legislative provisions;

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however, most of these rates are in the lower echelon. No DDCs have put efforts to analyze the rate structures, its impact to the local economic development, rate structures of other adjoining DDCs and collection methods. It is always fixed in an ad hoc basis. On the other hand, there is short of capacities to analyze and fix rate structure by applying the economic principle. DDCs considered that the centre should authorize them to fix the tax rate based on socio-economic conditions and suitability without limiting autonomy of the DDCs to fix tax rates. These DDCs considered that large range of tax rates provides them autonomy. In some cases the DDCs are collecting more rate of tolls than the limit provided in LSGR-2000. Therefore, the centre should not abandon this practice (LGCDP, 2010)

Likewise, there are also various institutions like road user committees(RUC),Youth clubs(YC) and community based organizations(CBOs) involved in the collection of road tolls, but the existing acts and rules has not provided such authorities to such institutions. There is high chance of misuse and mismanagement of collected funds.

LBs have poor administrative capacity to assess the revenue base and enforce the taxes: Most of the Himalayan DDCs have very weak administrative capacity in terms of procedures, human resource including technical capability. There is no serious effort from either GON or DDCs to develop capacity in revenue generation. (LGCDP, 2010) for various sources of revenues.

DDC/LBs invites the bidders for the toll tax through tenders as per LSGR-2000 and Local Body Financial Act and Regulation (LBFAR-2008).DDC fix the minimum toll as per the recommendation of revenue advisory committee for the roads selected for collection of tolls and calls for the bidders to bid. In some cases, Political pressure on the local tax administration to relax on revenue collection. The local tax collector (contractors) lobby with political leaders for relaxing bid amount showing various cause and leaders put pressure to DDCs to exempt or deduct the contracted amount.This type of cartelling of limited bidders creating extra challenges for concerned authorities in the effective management of such situations (LGCDP, 2010).

The LSGR-2000 has provisioned that the road tolls collected are to be utilized for the maintenance of the same roads with priority. But in practice it is not going on as that is provisioned in acts and rules. Road users are unwilling to pay the tolls as they think the tax paid by them are misused or diverted to other purposes rather than to maintain the respective roads from which the tolls are collected.

As the road lengths are increasing day by day, it will not possible for the central government to look after the maintenance issues of rural roads as the limited budget which GoN possess will have to be attracted by the other sectors also. So the LB should be financially strong so as to generate the revenues from road tolls for at least to raise the resources necessary for the maintenance of rural roads, otherwise it would be a big liability for central government too.

3. ConclusionAccess is a key determinant of poverty. Without physical access rural communities face much greater obstacles in obtaining health, education and other social services.So the transport infrastructures provides the basis for the economic activities in the rural areas in the long term.For providing the access of the people surviving in the rural areas,to the near by market and to the social institutions as well as to which fosters the various opportunities for development like

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trade, electricity, communication, health, education, watersupply and hygiene,the development of transport infrastructures is the most. Investments in rural roads have significant potential for the use of local resources, create decent jobs, support the local economy and strengthen local commerce and have therefore important implications for poverty reduction and local economic and social development. The direct consequence of investing in rural roads is the generation of jobs, incomes and business opportunities, particularly if the development and maintenance of these rural roads is targeted in favour of local resource- based methods. Longer lasting impacts such as improved access to goods and services and production and productivity enhancing impacts further contribute to sustainable poverty reduction and local economic and social development. Impacts however will only be sustainable if the roads are maintained.So,it is a today’s reality and essence to invest in the road infrastructure for future prospects of country in a best way.In respect to the south Asian contest, several countries in this region have set up road maintenance funds. These are based on the principal of the user pays. The funds rely on road user charges, usually collected centrally and include fuel levies - usually the largest component, vehicle license fees, international transit fees and road tolls. Focusing the contest of Nepal,the road tolls are to be managed in such a way that would create a meaningful fund so that the constructed road will be financially sustained in terms of the funds needed for the maintenance purposes that would greatly loosen the liabilities of central government too.

Bibilography:

l (n.d.). Retrieved from www.lged.gov.bd. l (2012). In Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan. National Statistics Bureau, Royal Government of Bhutan. l (2013, june 15). Retrieved from www.thefinancialexpress.bd.com. l A study Reoprt on Road Funds in South asia Region. World Bank. l Chintana, M. (2010). Development Policy Framework for Government of Srilanka. Department of National

Plannins, Srilanka. l Country Profile of Maldives. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.unescap.org. l Five Years Plan(2007-2012). National Planning Commission of India. l LGCDP. (2010). Study to identify sources of Revenue of Local Bodies. Kathmandu: LGCDP. l (2007). National Transport Master Plan(2007-2012). Road Development Authority, Ministry ofHighway and

Road Development, Srilanka. l Transport and Communication Buletins for Asia and Pacific. (2005).

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Er. Raju ShresthaEngineer, DoLIDAR

A Brief Introduction on Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)

1. Defining Bus Rapid TransitBus Rapid Transit (BRT) is a bus-based mass transit system that delivers fast, comfortable, and cost-effective urban mobility. Through the provision of exclusive right-of-way lanes and excellence in customer service, BRT essentially emulates the performance and amenity characteristics of a modern rail-based transit system. Many definitions for BRT are as follows:

l The U.S. General Accounting Office describes BRT as a set of elements that include exclusive bus highways and lanes, High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes, technological and street design improvements, traffic signal prioritization, better stations and/or bus shelters, fewer stops, faster service, and cleaner, quieter, and more attractive vehicles (GAO 2001).

l The Federal Transit Administration defines BRT as “an enhanced bus system that operates on bus lanes or other transit ways in order to combine the flexibility of buses with the efficiency of rail” (FTA 2007).

l In the “BRT Planning Guide” (Wright 2004), BRT is defined as “a high-quality bus-based transit system that delivers fast, comfort-able, and cost-effective urban mobility through the provision of segregated right-of-way infrastructure, rapid and frequent operations, and excellence in marketing and customer service.”

l The Transit Cooperative Research Program (TCRP) Report 90 defines BRT as “a flexible, rubber-tired rapid-transit mode that combines stations, vehicles, services, running ways, and Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) elements into an integrated system with a strong positive identity that evokes a unique image” (Levinson et al. 2003a).

l The Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual (TCQSM) states that “BRT is a complete rapid transit system that combines flexible service and new technologies to

improve customer convenience and reduce delays” (Kittelson & Associates et al. 2003).

BRT is a systems-based approach to urban bus provision to meet locally defined user needs within the physical, institutional and financial constraints of an area. It is a flexible, adaptable and cost-effective means of urban transport based on the bus mode, raising travel speed (absolute and relative), and carrying high volumes of people. BRT is a public mode providing high capacity and consuming cleaner

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fuels. It also has many comfortable and luxurious facilities with high technology functions for faster and safer travel, including exclusive bus way, convenient stations, comfortable articulated buses, and Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)(e.g., signal priority system, automatic fare system, Global Positioning System (GPS), bus arrival broadcast information, bus guidance, etc.). The term “BRT” has emerged from its application in North America and Europe. However, the same concept is also conveyed around the world through different names. These terms include:

l High-Capacity Bus Systems,l High-Quality Bus Systems,l Metro-Bus,l Surface Subway,l Express Bus Systems, andl Bus way Systems.

2. Common BRT FeaturesBRT features (also known as elements) are physical and operational characteristics that make BRT systems stand out from regular bus services. The features vary among the BRT systems in different cities and depend on factors such as local policy preference, customer needs, land use, weather, financial resources, etc.

i. Infrastructure FeaturesBRT infrastructure features are those related to the physical facilities along corridor, including:

Guide wayThe most potentially significant but costly BRT infrastructure feature is provision of dedicated or exclusive lanes. The lanes may be at-grade or grade-separated. Collectively, they are referred to as guideways. Guideways help to improve operating speed, schedule reliability, and headway control between BRT vehicles. Engineers must be innovative to develop relatively low-cost guideway designs that will fit into the local street configurations. At least some of the advantages of exclusive guideways can be provided through less costly innovations such as bus-on shoulder bypasses, short dedicated guideway segments, queue jumpers, and signal priority systems. The number of necessary lanes and overpass sections should be carefully designed according to the temporal distribution of expected demand.

Stations Other than guideways, stations are the most visible infrastructure along BRT corridors. Stations refer to bus stops, terminals, and all kinds of boarding/alighting facilities. Their architecture, accessibility, and comfort play a

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vital role in determining the BRT quality of service. Stations should be planned not only for existing BRT users, but also to attract users from other modes of transportation. Standards for transit facility appearance, cleanliness, and inspection programs must be established. In general, BRT systems provide high-quality shelters with passenger information systems. The design of shelters also must consider passenger accessibility between the shelter and the vehicle, and between the shelter and the sidewalk.

Park-and-Ride FacilitiesPark-and-ride facilities enable users to access the BRT stations by other modes. In cities where automobiles are the dominant mode of transportation, park-and-ride facilities may encourage BRT usage. The construction cost of park-and-ride facilities must be evaluated against investments for other BRT infrastructures or provision of better feeder bus service.

Transit Oriented Development Transit Oriented Development (TOD) refers to the proper planning or integration of transit stations/terminals with commercial activities. This will not only reduce the number of trips a traveler makes per day but also could produce revenue from the lease of commercial space. In general, TOD increases land/property value along the corridor.

ii Operational FeaturesVehiclesBRT systems usually use vehicles that are distinct from regular bus service. They often have high-capacity, low-floors, ergonomic seats, and multiple wide doors. These designs contribute to improved ride quality, comfort, and reduction in dwell time. The use of articulated buses appears common. Nonetheless, articulated buses are recommended only when high capacity is desired without the need for increasing the frequency of service along the line. The design of vehicle should be considered together with station and shelter designs. A key issue when

selecting/designing BRT vehicle is the interior design. In some cases, the interior of a vehicle may be comfortable for riders.

Route Coverage and Service FrequencyThe route coverage as the area covered by a particular route within walking distance (400 m for a bus stop, or 800 m from a terminal). Area coverage by BRT systems is necessary to attract ridership. However, extensive area coverage may lead to frequent stops and longer travel time. Service frequency is one of the measures of transit service quality. A high frequency implies lower average wait times for customers. This feature usually attracts ridership and is a key component in the total travel time.

ITS Technologies Applied to BRTITS technologies mainly contribute to the image, safety, and operating but are not essential features for a successful BRT system. Transit Signal Priority (TSP), real-time passenger information systems, and Automatic Fare Collection (AFC) are examples of typical ITS applications in BRT systems.

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Fare Collection MethodsAutomatic fare collection (AFC), although originating in other transit systems, has become a regular feature of BRT systems worldwide.

Operating SpeedOperating speed depends on many factors such as guide ways, number of stops, dwell time, etc. Operating speed has a direct impact on ridership attraction. As the name implies, BRT service should be “rapid.”

3. System PerformanceIntegrating accessibility requirements with elements of BRT systems establishes a virtuous cycle. If officials ensure that the system aspects they choose also provide the easiest access, they might also stand to maximize the system’s travel time, reliability, identity and image, safety and security, and capacity. Some of these benefits, in turn, may have a unique appeal to senior citizens and people with disabilities that will encourage them to ride the system.

3.1 Travel Time Savings Properly designed and implemented, elements such as level platforms, raised curbs, improved

vehicle configurations, and additional doorways for boarding and disembarking can result in reduced station dwell time (that is, the time the vehicle must spend waiting at a station for all passengers to board and exit), which can comprise as much as 30% of total travel times for transit.

3.2 Reliability Station dwell time reliability represents the ability of BRT vehicles to consistently load

passengers within a certain dwell time and to minimize the amount of time spent at a station. The station platform height, layout, vehicle configuration, and passenger circulation enhancements can reduce the time it takes to board a vehicle and secure a wheelchair, thereby, reducing station dwell time and enhancing the appeal of travel on BRT for all users.

3.3 Identity and Image BRT systems that establish a brand-identity through color schemes and logos to attract by-

choice riders to the system also may succeed in attracting people with cognitive or intellectual disabilities, who need to easily identify and distinguish BRT from other transit service. In addition, the contextual design that integrates a facility with surrounding land uses may be especially important to attract seniors and people with disabilities to the system.

3.4 Safety and Security Many senior citizens and people with disabilities perceive that they are--and may in fact

be--acutely susceptible to accidents or security threats in a transit system. To this end, the safety and security features (such as bumps that designate the edge of a platform, spacious and well lit stops, and low-floor vehicles with large windows) that can be incorporated into running ways, stations, and vehicles will have special appeal for seniors and people with

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disabilities. In addition, evacuation strategies for people with disabilities, a security feature not mentioned in the CBRT report, must be addressed.

3.5 Capacity People with disabilities or senior citizens, who are concerned about the jostling or tripping

hazards associated with crowded platforms or vehicles will especially benefit from BRT elements, such as enhanced platforms and passenger circulation that ensure adequate station and vehicle capacity. When calculating person capacity for vehicles, officials should factor wheelchair users into their assumptions. When constructing station platforms, officials need to ensure that detectable warnings appropriate to hazardous vehicular areas are installed on platform edges.

4. System BenefitsThe benefits of BRT system implementation are now being felt. While the most tangible benefit is additional ridership, cost effectiveness and operating efficiencies as well as increases in transit-supportive land development and environmental quality are also closely linked to the implementation of BRT systems.

Travel Time and Ridership AttractionOf the BRT features reviewed above, all are aimed at reducing travel time or increasing ridership. Therefore, travel time savings (for users) and ridership attraction (for agencies and operators) are the most important design goals. In fact, the most distinctive features of BRT systems are the ones that contribute most to reduction in travel time (such as guideways, high-capacity vehicles, high service frequency, TSP, AFC) and ridership attraction (such as enhanced stations and shelters, transit oriented development, real-time passenger information systems, route coverage).

EnvironmentalA single BRT vehicle may replace as many as 50 automobiles along a corridor, thus reducing total emissions (GTZ 2006). Experience does show that there is improvement to environmental quality due to a number of factors. Ridership gains suggest that some former automobile users are using transit as a result of BRT implementation. Transit agencies are serving passengers with fewer hours of operation, potential reducing emissions. Most importantly, transit agencies are adopting vehicles with alternative fuels, propulsion systems, and pollutant emissions controls.

l Reduced emissions of pollutants related to human health (CO, SOx, NOx, particulates, CO2)

l Reduced noise levels Urban form l More sustainable urban form, including densification of major corridors l Reduced cost of delivering services such as electricity, sanitation, and water

Social l More equitable access throughout the city l Reduced accidents and illness l Increased civic pride and sense of community

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5. DiscussionIn many Asian developing cities, transportation development is too rapid and uncontrolled, causing various problems to the environment and human welfare. Many developing cities in Asia therefore have considered a sustainable and ecologically friendly transport mode as one of the most important issues, including low emissions, fewer traffic accidents, and less congestion. Good publicity promoting private mode users to switch to use public modes is one approach to reduce the impact on the ecology since the pollution emission from public modes is much lower than that from private modes per passenger.

It is believed that ecology friendly transportation should be a high-capacity public mode providing advance technology features, and luxurious yet comfortable facilities while having lower emission, moving faster and safer, and most importantly, being attractive to commuters. Moreover, it should be a financially affordable system to developing countries. The Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) is one of the modes fulfilling these criteria.

Major Elements of BRT

Running WaysStationsVehiclesFare CollectionITSOperations PlanningService and Operations Plan

System Performance

Travel Time SavingsReliabilityIdentity and ImageSafety & SecurityCapacity

System Benefits

Environmental QualityCost EffectivenessEfficiencyRidershipTransit - SupportiveLand DevelopmentCapital Cost EffectivenessOperating Efficiency

In recent years, BRT has become the most important global phenomenon in urban transportation since the introduction of the street car at the end of the 19th Century. In the last decade, new BRT systems have opened in cities across the world, including Bogotá, Colombia; Brisbane, Australia; Guayaquil, Ecuador; Beijing, China; Jakarta, Indonesia; Los Angeles, USA; Paris, France; and Seoul, South Korea. Dozens of additional cities around the world, like Johannesburg, South Africa; Dares Salaam, Tanzania; Guangzhou, China; and New York City, have taken active steps to develop BRT services as well.

6. ConclusionBus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems are becoming popular in congested cities around the world. It has increasingly become an attractive urban transit alternative in many Asian developing cities due to its cost-effective and flexible implementation. However, it still seems to be difficult to introduce BRT to these cities because almost all of their city structures have been developed under solely a road transport development city plan and weakness of land use control gives rise to many problems, such as urban sprawl, traffic congestion, and air pollution. These findings have motivated several strategies to address the limitation and to the development of BRT system in these cities.

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Er. Nisha Rijal Engineer, DoLIDAR

Executive Member, SERDeN

Er. Sudina Kuikel Engineer, DoLIDAR

Executive Member, SERDeN

Nepalese women and the Civil engineering profession

Background Women constitute 51.5% of the total population in Nepal (Census, 2011). In Nepal, like other developing countries, the state of women is not satisfactory. Male dominated family system provides very little scope for the female to assert their identity. They are marginalized from economic and social opportunities due to illiteracy, poverty and conservative social taboo. Most women are employed in family enterprises as family members. Women in Nepal work for longer hours than men have much lower opportunity for gainful employment and possess extremely limited property rights. National statistics shows that women’s literacy rate is 45 percent while 55 percent to male and the national literacy rate is projected as 65.9 percent. Women completing higher education are only 32.98 percent of them also involvement in technical and vocational education is very low.

Nepalese society is heavily influenced and dominated by a Patriarchal worldview; women are treated as lower to men and as their dependants regardless of their education or economic attainments. Discrimination against women starts from their birth and continues throughout their life. At home they are second to their sons and inferior to husbands, in offices they are clerks and secretaries to male officers.

Women in civil engineering field at presentAccording to the national statistics data (Census, 2011) women in engineering field covers only 12 % of the total population in engineering field. According to the data obtained from Nepal engineering council (FY 2069/70) 41% of the total engineers are civil engineer and among them only 7% are female. This shows that the number of women studying and practicing engineering in Nepal is very low compared to their demographic percentage and high commercial activities. This situation is due to the lack of counseling in secondary schools, criticism and discouraging tradition of Nepalese society.

Civil engineering field covers wide sector. It includes planning, designing and implementing of overall physical infrastructure related to transport infrastructure, building, water supply and sanitation, irrigation, hydropower, etc. It is considered as the difficult engineering profession after Mechanical engineering for women. Necessity of survey along the rugged topography, frequent site visits and compulsion to deal with varied natured people i.e. from high level officials to field workers and rural people have become the main reason behind not selecting the profession as civil engineers to most of

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the women. About 5% of the civil engineering graduates are not practicing the degree attained due to the hardship in work and household activities. About 10 % of the civil engineer graduates are abroad for further study and due to the marital status. Only the remaining 85% are practicing the profession in Nepal. They are involved in planning, designing, construction supervision and very few are in decision making level.

Women in private sectorMost of the female civil engineers are engaged in private sector. It includes building and architectural sector, transportation planning and design, Water supply and sanitation, Irrigation and hydropower, and as a faculty member in academic institutions. Most of them are involved in official table work. Only few of them work as a supervisor in construction site. Even having keen interest to work practically they seem unable to perform. The contractors in the site also prefers male supervisor. The sites are not gender friendly. Some contractors even show their dominating nature to the woman supervisor and give no respect as well as attention. The words used by them and their behavior don't respect the dignity of women to be a part of practical field.

Women in Government SectorIt is a tough task for a female to be a part of government official. The legitimacy of policy of inclusion as 33% representation of women in every field including public service after the revolution of 2062/63 has become the remarkable attempt to enhance the capacity of women in undergoing any public works as well as has developed their confidence level. Though there are many views regarding the policy of inclusion, it is noticeable that the policy has encouraged women and the disadvantaged group to compete in any sector. The level of knowledge has increased. If we go through the result of Public Service Commission right from the beginning of this policy to the date, it can be seen that women are also being competitive and are being able to succeed even in free competition. According to Public Service Information there are total 2920 existing posts (1st class: 84, 2nd class: 450, 3rd class: 2386) for civil engineering faculty. Of this 2920 existing posts only 2% are covered by female engineers i.e. 1st Class Officer 2, 2nd class officer: 3 and 3rd class officer: 52. This clearly shows that the top management/ decision making level is still male dominated. There is no or little influence of women in any decision making.

Almost 75% of the 3rd class officers are positioned at the department level where they are involved in coordination with the branch offices. Analyzing the posting scenario, government has given top priority for women to select the duty station. They are not compelled to go to a remote district. This can be considered as the gender friendly approach in government services. There are both the pros and cons of any matter. The so called gender friendly approach has not only made the situation suitable for women but in some cases has hindered their career development. Most of the people think that if women are recruited she is definitely posted at the department. Even if she is interested in going to the branch offices the sharing of scenario of difficulty in management and field work experiences from the contemporaries has led them step back to have experience at implementation level. The numbers of female engineers in the government sector are increasing every year. It is not possible to let them all work at the department only. So there is a strong need of a friendly environment to encourage them to move towards the branch offices in different districts.

An Overview in DoLIDARDepartment of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR) is the only Department in Nepal having civil engineers posts in all the 75 districts. The existing political scenario

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and the locally available resources play a vital role in the performance of the engineers within DoLIDAR. The vacant local government unit at district and village level has disturbed the working environment. The engineers working have to be a social engineer rather than practicing pure civil engineering. Lack of clear responsibility to the District Technical Office (DTO) and need of frequent dealing with the community and local stakeholders has made the job even tougher. Most of the women try avoiding such situation of handling political leaders and their increasing demands regardless of resources.

There are altogether 211 posts for civil engineers including all the 1st 2nd and 3rd class gazette officers. Of this, 4 are 1st class, 50 2nd class and 157 3rd class officers. Of the total 211 number of engineers under department only 11 are female. Of the 11 female engineers 4 are posted in the districts while the remaining is working under different sections in the department. Department has considered the interest of this group while posting. Nobody is posted in any districts without their consent. Even though the department has given a top priority in posting, some decisions and event still shows the lagging of inclusion and encouraging environment. Task to every engineer should be assigned irrespective to their gender and females also should be encouraged to do any type of tasks and works that the male counterpart has to do Equal opportunity for any capacity enhancement training and exposure visits should be ensured so that they also feel that the organization where they work do respect their existence and own them. Female themselves are also lagging to some extent. It is noticeable that their participation in any programs and meeting organized are very low. Difficulties to maintain the informal relationship among the group and work beyond the defined time frame has affected their performance.

Problem and Issue: It is not easy for a woman to undergo the management of overall household activity as well as the responsibility as an engineer in her work station. The social as well as biological factors needs to be considered while evaluating the performance. Here arises the concept of equality and equity. It is often heard that it is not so easy to perform in field as succeed in academic exams. Nobody can imagine of receiving the engineering degree without any practical knowledge. Number of field visits and practical tests related to quality and determination of design parameters is must during the study. All of them perform their task seriously. But the decision maker fail to understand that those girls scoring high in their university degree really have the talent and can perform any type of engineering tasks if given the opportunity and having faith on them.

Despite having lots of knowledge and technical idea female are considered impractical and perform assigned jobs only. Even though female engineer undergo any type of work as directed by the supervisor without any hesitation and personal interest, be available anytime within the office hour at the work station, complete the assigned work within the stipulated time, and be reluctant to the irregularities and are punctual it is often heard that they can't perform well and are not trust worthy and responsive in making prompt decisions. They are only suitable for the table work. It is often ignored when any male engineers fail to complete work in time and if he denies moving to the construction site, but if the same happens with a female it is obvious that the supervisor comments and express dissatisfaction with all female engineer.

Constraints for female engineers Female by nature are shy, can't express their feelings in mass and have comparatively weak physical strength. Despite having keen interest in undergoing several field level as well as official tasks, it has been seen that they are lagging behind. The most important factor hindering their performance as

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a service provider is the dual responsibility performed as a house manager and civil engineer. No matter how much they work and how efficiently they deliver the task, being unable to attend office till late evening has lead to lot of gap among the co workers and has hindered career development. The traditional feelings and social norms and values being dominant women have to face lots of ups and down while performing the duty. They even fail to attain any official gathering and maintain informal relationship among the working associates. The small circle of female among the coworkers has also pause them to express views and step forward in any events to some extent. First of all it is necessary to develop the positive attitude and thoughts while working. It is often felt that while a woman have good relationship with the supervisor similar to the male ordinates our so called socio-cultural values don't accepts it easily. It becomes an issue among the group. Major challenge for the female engineers is to cope up the barriers of cultural values and practices that are firmly entrenched in systems and structures of society. Discouraging and negative attitudes and unjustified criticisms from men, friends and colleagues are also the important factor for the female engineer to step forward. Lack of specific duty hours (time boundaries) and gender friendly working environment are the major constraint for their hesitation to involve in construction activity.

Suggestions to improve the participation of womenSome of the men are very cooperative and helpful, while some behave traditionally. There is nothing about engineering which makes it suit one gender. Women should be encouraged to get rid of the notion that engineering is too difficult and is a sole preserve for men. Women, they felt, should be exposed to engineering through seminars by women role models, and audio-visual tapes on women engineers working in the field. Field trips should be organized by the engineering institutions for secondary school girls to encourage them for engineering studies, and brilliant girls from poor families who wish to study engineering should be supported financially. In order to increase the enrollment of girls' student in engineering field Institute of Engineering (I.O.E), TU has reserved 10% seat of the total students as quota system in every faculty which has made a very encouraging environment for the girls who wish to enter in engineering studies. Similarly, other engineering institutions should also have similar reservation systems so that females are encouraged not to attribute their failure to their feminity or lack of ability.

Beside this, females themselves should also be proactive and be confident to their work. They should not hesitate in sharing their ideas and problems. They should always be aware that if one has to entertain his/her right s/he has to take it as nobody is going to give that easily. So they themselves also have to make attempts on getting mingled with the associates and participate in any event. Of course, the socio-cultural values and their nature may pull them but they should try overcoming those difficulties through their good deeds and performance.

The department and the management of the work place must play a promoting role while giving the responsibility and encourage them to perform any related task actively. There should be no discrimination while assigning the task and providing the opportunity for capacity building and international exposure. The working environment should be gender friendly and gender sensitive. Management should ensure measures against sexual harassment at work places. A special provision to enhance the leadership has to be organized. They should be encouraged to think positive and know their potential. They should be cooperative among themselves and be united to participate in any event which helps them to develop their confidence level. Finally, male engineers must be understanding, helpful and welcome their female counterparts.

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-s_ cTolws w] / } ;+Vofdf of] hgfx? 5gf} 6 ug'{, h;n] ubf{ ;Lldt ah] 6 slgsf 5/ ] h:t} ;a} of] hgfx?df 5'6\6fpFbf Pp6f of] hgfnfO{ gu0o ah] 6 ljlgof] hg x'G5 , h;n] jiff{tsf] ;dodf ePsf vfN6f vfN6L k'g{ klg kof{Kt x'Fb} g, ;8ssf] :t/ f] Gglt slxn] ug] { ;d:of ;b} j / lx/ xg] eof] . kfNkf lhNnf ljsf; ;ldltsf] ljut kfFr jif{sf] tYof+s s] nfpg] xf] eg] ;o b] lv Ps;o gAa] ;Dd ;8ssf dfq of] hgf 5gf} 6 u/ ] sf] b] lvG5 , To; afx] s cGo k"jf{wf/ sf of] hgf h:t} vfg] kfgL, l;+rfO{ , ejg cflb 5gf} 6 e} / x] sf 5g .

-v_ u|fdL0f ;8sx?df cTolws d] zLg k|of] un] ubf{ ;8sx?sf] lbuf] kgfdf Pp6f r'gf} tL ylkPsf] 5 . kfNkf lhNnfdf :yfgLo ;8s ;'wf/ sfo{qmd -LRIP_ cGt/ ut x] Ne] 6f; / lh=l6=h] 8= sf] ;xof] udf ;g\ !(*^ df g} xl/ t ;8s cGt/ ut (^ ls=ld= ;8s vf] ln;s] sf] lyof] . To; sfo{qmdsf] ;kmntf kZrft ;g\ !(*& df wflbª lhNnfdf ;d] t ^% ls=ld= aftfj/ 0f d} lq xl/ t ;8ssf] lgdf{0f ePsf] kfOG5 . t/ ;g\ @))* kZrft kfNkf lhNnfdf g} cGwfw'Gw d] zLg k|of] u u/ L aftfj/ 0f d} qL ;8snfO{ kl5 5f] l8Psf] 5 . cTolws d] zLgsf] k|of] un] ubf{ 8fF8fsfF8f / ft} ePsf 5g\ , xhf/ f} + aif{ klxnf / f] lkPsf P] ltxfl;s a[Ifx?nfO{ ;d] t lgd{"n kfl/ Psf] 5 . h;n] ubf{ lgs6 eljiodf g} ulDe/ jftfj/ 0fLo ;d:of kg] { lglZrt 5 .

-u_ / 0fg} lts Pj+ lhNnf ;8sx?af6 hyfeflj ;;fgf 6f] n 6f] ndf hfg] af6f] vf] Nbf pQm / 0fg} lts Pj+ lhNnf ;8sx?nfO{ uDeL/ ;+s6 pTkGg ePsf] oqtq b] Vg ;lsG5 . hyfeflj ;8s vGbf / 0fg} lts Pj+ lhNnf ;8sx?sf] gflndf dflyaf6 aufP/ NofPsf] df6f] n] k'bf{ kfgL sfnf] kq] ;8saf6 jU5 h;n] ubf{ sfnf] kq] ;8s g/ fd|f] ;+u lju|g hfG5 . o; k|lqmofnfO{ ;dodf g} / f] syfd ug] { tkm{ sbd rnfpg g;s] df o;n] eofjx cj:yf l;h{gf ug{ ;S5 .

-3_ OlGhlgo/ Lª dfkb08 ljgf vlgPsf ;8sx? h;df gt gflnsf] kof{Kt Joj:yf 5 , g pQm ;8sx?sf] u|] 8 g} uf8L rNg ;Sg] 5 . af6f] vGbf Ps k6s PS;fe] 6/ k'U5 / ;Dej ePdf csf] { k6s pb\3f6g ug{ Pp6f lhk b'v;'v k'U5 , To; kZrft pQm af6f] sf] dd{t ug{ ;Dej x'Fb} g / af6f] ;bfsf] nflu aGb x'G5 . To; ;8snfO{ k'Mg lgdf{0f ubf{ lst alignment km] g'{ k5{ cyjf w] / } 7fpFdf ;'wf/ ug'{ k5{ . To;} n] ubf{ ;fwg ;|f] t ;do gi6 x'g'sf] ;fy} alignment ;'wf/ ubf{ gofF hUufaf6 n} hfFbf ;d'bfodf 4G4 ;d] t >[hgf x'G5 To;sf/ 0f o:tf] :jR5frf/ LtGqnfO{ lgd"{n kf/ L cfjZos 7fpFx?df O{lGhlgo/ Lª dfkb08 k|of] u u/ L k|fljlwssf] ;'kl/ j] If0fdf dfq ;8s lgdf{0f ug'{k5{ .

-ª_ 8f] ln8f/ n] ;g\ !((( df g} National Plan for Rural Road Maintenance (NPRRM) tof/ u/ L nfu" u/ ] sf] 5 . ;fy} xfn ;/ sf/ sf] gLlt klg hDdf ah] 6sf] *) k|ltzt / sd ;~rfngdf / x] sf ;8sx?sf] dd{t ;Def/ tyf :t/ f] Ggltdf vr{ u/ L afFsL / x] sf] / sd dfq gofF ;8s lgdf{0fdf vr{ ug] { / x] sf] 5 . o; gLltsf] kfngf ePsf] clxn] cj:yf 5} g\, dfq (RAIDP) cGt/ ut ;Dk"0f{ nufgL :t/ f] Ggltdf dfq k|of] u ug{ kfpg] sf/ 0fn] ubf{ s] lx cg's"n jftfj/ 0f b] lvPsf] 5 . o:tf] gLlt ;a} of] hgfx?df k|of] u ug{ ;s] x'GYof] ls .

-r_ lgdf{0f of] hgfx?sf] k|efjsf/ L lgdf{0f tyf ;'kl/ j] If0f ug{ ;jf/ L ;fwg Pp6f cTofjZos ;fwg xf] t/ ;jf/ L ;fwgsf] ckof{Kttfn] ubf{ klg ;dodf ;'kl/ j] If0f tyf lgdf{0f k|lqmofdf ;fd] n x'g ;d:of k/ ] sf] 5 .

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;8s u|fdL0f hg;+Vofsf] nflu / Qm ;~rf/ ug] { glnsf] ?kdf sfo{ u5{ . ;fy} of] g] kfndf w] / } vr{ nfUg] ljsf; cGt/ ut kb{5 . u|fdL0f hgtfsf] ljsf;sf] nflu of] sf] z] –9'+ufsf] ?kdf sfo{ ub{5 . t/ ljgf u'? of] hgf vlgPsf ;8sx?n] ubf{ kmfObf eGbf j] kmfObf w] / } b] lvg yfn] sf 5g\ . klxnf Ps 7fpFaf6 vGg] To; kZrft k'Mg ToxL ;8s csf] { 7fpFaf6 vGg] ubf{ aftfj/ 0fdf w] / } ;d:of b] lvPsf] 5 . To; sf/ 0f lo ;Dk"0f{ gs/ fTds k|ltkmn sd ug{ lgDg ;'wf/ ug{ clgjfo{ b] lvG5 M

l lhNnf oftfoft u'? of] hgf tof/ u/ L ;f] adf] lhd ;8sx?sf] lgdf{0f tyf :t/ f] Gglt ubf{ / fd|f] x'G5 .

l of] hgfx?sf] ;+Vof ;+efNg ;Sg] u/ L 36fpg] h;n] ubf{ of] hgfx?sf] u'0f:t/ a[l4 ug{ kof{Kt ;do / xG5 . h;sf] nflu lhlj; kfNkfn] o; jif{b] lv kfFr nfv eGbf sd / sdsf of] hgf 5gf} 6 gug] { k|ltj4tf hgfPsf] 5 h;nfO{ :yfoL agfO/ fVg cfjZos b] lvG5 .

l ufp ljsf; ;ldltx?df klg @)^@÷^# sf] hgcfGbf] ng kZrft oy] i6 / sd ljlgof] hg x'g ;'? ePsf] 5 , h;sf] nueu $)–%) k|ltzt / sd ;8sdf g} ljlgof] hg u/ ] sf] b] lvG5 . t/ lj8Dagf o:tf sfo{sf nflu uf=lj=;=x?df sf] k|fljlws hgzlQmsf] ck|of{Kttf b] lvG5 . uflj;x?df ;~rflnt of] hgfx?sf] u'0f:t/ j[l4 ug{ :yfoL ?kdf k|fljlws hgzlQmsf] Joj:yf ug{ clgjfo{ b] lvG5 .

l afof] OlGhlgo/ Lªsf] k|fjwfgnfO{ s8fO{;fy nfu" ug'{kg] { b] lvG5 , tTsfnnfO{ kmn lbg] lj?jfx? / f] Kg] xf] eg] ax' kmfObf x'g] b] lvG5 , cfo;|f] tsf ;fy} xl/ ofnL j[l4 x'G5 . afof] OlGhlgo/ Lª ug] { sfo{ nfO{ k|efjsf/ L ?kdf cufl8 j9fpg :yfgLo hftsf 3fF;kft tyf ;;fgf lj?jfx? / f] Kbf pko'Qm x'G5 , h'g lj?jf :yfgLo xfjfkfgLdf ;lhn} x's{g ;S5g .




Mahendra AdhikariProprietor

Mona Construction & Builders P. Ltd.Damauli, Tanahu

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Er. Surendra GhimireDistrict Engineer

District Technical Office, Dolpa

Effect of Transportation on Construction Project in Dolpa: A Case Study

1.0 BackgroundDolpa District is the largest district of the country which covers 5.38% of total area that is 3779 Sq.km. area, lies in Karnali Zone, Mid-western Development Region. The district is surrounded by the Mustang district in the east, China in the north, Mugu and Jumla district in the west and Jajarkot and Rukum in the south. Most of the parts of this district are geographically highly hilly and mountainous and characterized by snow falling area. Dunai is the headquarter of the district located at southern part of district. Dolpa consists of only one electoral constituency and 23 VDCs. It has been divided into 9 Ilakas administratively and politically. The population of the district is 36,701; out of which distribution among male and female is 50.31% and 49.69% respectively. The population growth rate is 1.67% (CBS, 2011).

In Dolpa district there is 30 Km rural road and no strategic road (DoLIDAR, 2012). The road density is only one Km per 100 square kilometer of area while it is 7.36 Km of the nation (DoR, 2010). Because of its highly hilly and mainly mountainous terrain and lacking of strategic road network for the connection of district, aviation is the major modes of transportation in the district. The limited air service link the district with Surkhet and Nepalgunj for which airport is located at Juphal VDC which is 12 kilometer far from the district headquarter. Radijeula located in Rukum district is located 3 days walking distance from the Dolpa district. So, transportation of goods is hard and more costly. There is problem of non-availability of non-local construction material in local market and district headquarters. The cost of transportation of construction material with the use of air cargo service is not easily affordable. Another alternative of transportation of construction material is mule transportation from Radijeula, Rukum, but it is slightly less costly than the air transportation only for convenient material.

2.0 Problem StatementThe past efforts and experiences have revealed that transportation is the key issue and its cost is the major constraints to develop basic infrastructure in rural areas. In remote districts some local roads are constructed by local agencies but the roads are mostly mule trail. The Department of Road couldn't connect yet the district with national highway and feeder road. So, transport through vehicle is not possible in the district.

The transportation cost of one kilogram goods through air cargo service cost NRs. 125 from Nepalgunj to Juphal airport and additional NRs. 12 will cost for porter to bring it to Dunai. In this way, if we purchase one kg reinforcement bar in Nepalgunj in NRs 78, it would cost NRs. 221 in Dunai including NRs. 6 loading unloading cost. By use of mule transportation it would cost NRs 80 per kg of transportation but it is only seasonal service from Radijeula, Rukum. Transportation

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cost by use of mule in comparison to air cargo is more economical but it takes five porter days and limited to seasonal service. It would be possible only in winter season when tractors, trucks are reached to Radijeula.

During the implementation and construction of infrastructure project the Contractors or User Committee has to manage the construction material at any kind from Nepalgunj, Surkhet or Radijeula. The non-availability of construction materials in local market prolongs the project duration and transportation cost raises the cost of construction project. In another aspect, the limited budget is allocated for the project but the costly construction material causes the incompletion of project in time takes long time to complete the total project.

3.0 Comparison of a Trail Bridge Project in Dolpa with it in Surkhet Raktang Trail Bridge is really located in Raha VDC Dolpa over Suligad Stream. The bridge span is 70.70 m with walkway width 1.06 m. Another bridge located at Ghatgaun VDC, Surkhet (Hypothetical) having similar site conditions was taken for the analytical purpose of comparison.

Table 1: Cost Comparison of Trail Bridge in Dolpa and Surkhet

S.N. DescriptionGhatgaun, Surkhet Raktang, Dolpa

Cost (NRs.) % Cost (NRs.) %Non-local Material Cost110 Wire Ropes (Cables) 175426.60 9.40 175426.60 3.25120 Bulldog Grips 14809.60 0.79 14809.60 0.27130 Steel Parts/Thimbles 196184.01 10.51 196184.01 3.64140 Steel Deck 397018.83 21.27 397018.83 7.36150 G.I.Wire 24344.58 1.30 24344.58 0.45160 Cement 145161.24 7.78 145161.24 2.69180 Tools/Safety Items 25960.00 1.39 25960.00 0.48 Total Non-local Material Cost 978904.86 52.44 978904.86 18.16 Non-local Material Transportation Cost190 Road Transportation of Cables, bulldog grips 28284.31 1.52 4008.01 0.07190 CBT Insurance of goods in transit 73.87 0.004 173.87 0.003190 Road Transportation of other "Forign Materials" 16974.81 0.91 31731.54 0.59190 SDGT & CMT insurance of goods in transit 1254.61 0.07 1318.19 0.02210 Transportation from Road Head to Site 68918.37 3.69 2831383.21 52.51Total Non-local Material Cost of Transportation 115505.96 6.19 2868614.82 53.20220 Local Materials Collection 295068.11 15.81 639664.92 11.86230 Construction Works 354040.65 18.96 592737.96 10.99350 Miscellaneous Works 11550.00 0.62 11550.00 0.21240 Labour Insurance 10348.00 0.55 7440.00 0.14400 NGO Service Charge 45500.00 2.44 131375.20 2.44420 Contingencies 55950.00 3.00 161500.00 3.00 Total Bridge Cost 1866867.57 100.00 5391787.76 100.00

(Source: DTO, Dolpa, TBSU, Surkhet and Field Survey 2012)

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i Non-local Material Cost Purchase Cost at Surkhet In Raktang Trail Bridge material had been procured in F. Y.2007/08 from Surkhet and the

same rate was taken for both bridges because the rate of analysis in Dolpa is done with reference to the district rate in Surkhet. It cost NRs. 978904.86 which is 52.44 % and 18.16 % of total cost of construction for the project in Surkhet and Dolpa respectively. The difference in cost sharing of non-local material in different location is due to their difference in total project cost.

ii Non-local Material Transportation Cost For the construction of Raktang Trail Bridge in Dolpa, the non-local construction

material was transported from Surkhet by use of vehicle, airways and pottering cost NRs. 2,868,614.82 and if the same is constructed in Ghatgaun, Surkhet it would be NRs.115,505.96. The gap of NRs. 2,753,108.86 is due to costly airways transportation and pottering. The non-local material transportation cost cover 6.19 % and 53.12 % of total trail bridge construction cost in Surkhet and Dolpa respectively.

iii The Total Bridge Cost Table 1 shows that the total bridge construction costs were NRs. 1,866,867.57 and

5,391,787.76 if they were constructed in Dolpa and Surkhet respectively with similar site conditions. It shows that the cost of construction of a suspended trail bridge project in Dolpa is 188.81% higher than the construction of same in Surkhet. Again it also shows that the cost of transportation of non-local material for the Dolpa is 153.65% of the total bridge cost in Surkhet.

4.0 Summary of the FindingsThe flow of construction material is found as follows;

Fig.1: Flow Chart of Delivery of Non-local Construction Material in Dolpa(Source: Field Survey 2012)

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4.1 Cost and Time of Transportation of Construction Material l From Nepalgunj, 45% of the non-local construction material is procured and 28%

procured from the Surkhet is transported by airways. And 21% procured from Radijeula is transported by use of mule.

l According to available data it is seen that the investment on transportation of one kilogram of non-local construction material is found NRs 120, 115 and 80 from Nepalgunj, Surkhet and Radijeula respectively.

l It is found that the portion of 18.8%, 28.2%, 37.2%, 42.6% and 46.5% of the total project cost is expended only in transportation of Road, Building, Hydropower, Sanitation and Trail Bridge Project respectively.

l The cost of construction of a suspended trail bridge project in Dolpa is 188.81% higher than the construction of same in Surkhet. Again, the cost of transportation of non-local material for the Dolpa is 153.65% of the total bridge cost in Surkhet.

5.0 Conclusion5.1 Transportation Cost on Project

l Most of the non-local construction material is procured from Nepalgunj and Surkhet and it is transported by use of airways. People spend NRs. 120 for the transportation of one kilogram weight of material from Nepalgunj. It is found that one 50 kg cement bag in Juphal Airport costs NRs. 6,705 which cost only NRs. 705 in Nepalgunj.

l The average cost of internal transportation of easy and uneasy non-local construction material from the Juphal Airport to centre of different VDC centers by use of porter is NRs. 56.86 and 64.40 respectively. Again, if people use mule as a mode of transportation it would be NRs. 45.82 for easy material from the Juphal Airport to centre of different VDCs centers.

l With the addition of transportation cost on the rate of food and lack of local production within the district, the cost of foods and other items are costly. Ultimately the costly labor rate makes the local transportation costlier to deliver the construction material up to construction site.

l The portion of 18.8% to 46.5% of the total project cost is expended only in transportation depending on the nature of construction projects.

l It is found that the cost of transportation of non-local material for a trail bridge in Dolpa is 153.65% of the total bridge cost in Surkhet. It is also found that the cost of construction of a suspended trail bridge project in Dolpa is 188.81% higher than the construction of same in Surkhet.

5.3 Effect of Transportation on ProjectDue to cost and time constrains raised by non-local material transportation, the effect on project are:

l Increase the cost of construction of infrastructure projectsl Minimize number of project in limiting budgetl Prolongs the construction periodl Chances of project incompletion

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l Quality of construction diminishedl High labor costl Storage problem

Finally, it reduces the number of infrastructure project in the district for the service delivery to the Dolpa people. So, the living standard of the Dolpa people may not increase without proper distribution of efficient, affordable and reliable transport infrastructure for the district.

Because of its highly hilly and mainly mountainous terrain, the main difficulty for the construction of Jajarkot- Dunai Road is it's rugged topography and rocky and fragile geology. Most of the road portion consists of the rocky strata with more than sixty degree hill slope. Along with this in present scenario government does not also focus for the connection of road without limitation of budget. Effective allocation of resources with prioritization helps for more responsive, service oriented and dynamic in road construction.

REFERENCES l Central Bureau of Statistics (2012), Statistical Year Book of Nepal 2012, Kathmandu.

l DDC Dolpa (2011). District Development Plan, Dunai, Dolpa.

l DDC Dolpa (2007). District Transport Master Plan, Dunai, Dolpa.

l District Technical Office (2012). Dolpa, District Rate 2012/13, Dunai, Dolpa.

l Ghimire, Surendra (2012), Effect of Transportation on Construction Project: An unpublished Thesis, LEMSC, Bhalwari, Butwal, Nepal




Khim Prakash MallaProprietor

Gita Construction P. Ltd.Sherbam-2, Syangja

174


Er. Smita Sharma SinghEngineer, DoLIDAR

Er. Resham Jung SinghTechnical Coordinator,

Trail Bridge Support Unit/HELVETAS Nepal

Quality Control and Assurance System in Trail Bridge Construction

1. Background More than 5000 trail bridges are already built in Nepal. Before Trial Bridge Sector Wide Approach (TB SWAp), an average of 150 bridges used to be built per year, but after the emergence of TB SWAp the average rate of per year construction of trail bridges is increased to 300. Different governmental, non-governmental and private sectors are directly and indirectly involved in the construction of trail bridges. Since, the number of bridges built has been increased tremendously; togetherly it has brought the challenge of building bridges as per set standard norms and Quality. That’s why, Quality control and quality assurance of construction works is most crucial part.

2. Quality Control, Quality Assurance and Quality Management 2.1 Quality The definition of quality, as it relates to construction, is conformance to the established requirements or standards of the customer. Various experts have defined quality differently. R.H. Caplin defines quality as “Fitness for purpose”. The quality in question should be satisfactory for the purpose for which it is intended. J.M. Juran gives six different meaning of quality. They include Historical market-place quality, quality of conformance, consumer preference quality, quality of characteristic etc. C.S Smith defines consumer quality as “The measure of the excellence in relation to the consumer requirements”. Paul Chanon says “Good design, reliable performance, prompt delivery – meeting a customer’s expectation in full” is the meaning of quality.

“Fixing of required standard by the parties involved and meeting the standard to satisfy the customer at a price the customer is ready to pay and within the required time frame”.“Quality is never an accident; it is always the result of intelligent and disciplined effort.”

Time

Cost Quality

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2.2 Quality Control Quality control is detection of non-conformity and verification of conformity. Quality control aims to identify defects in the finished products. Quality control therefore, is the reactive process. Controls include product inspection, where every product is examined visually, and often using a stereo microscope for fine detail before the product is sold into the external market. Inspectors will be provided with lists and descriptions of unacceptable product defects such as cracks or surface blemishes for example.

Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects and reporting to management who make the decision to allow or deny product release.

There are following three stages of quality control:

I. Receiving inspection and testing a. To ensure that incoming product is not used or processed until it has been inspected

or otherwise verified as confirming to specified requirements.

II. In-process inspection or testing a. Inspect, test and identify in accordance with quality plan/proceduresb. Establish conformance to specified requirementsc. Hold until test results have been verifiedd. Identify non-confirming producte. Final Inspection and testing

III. Quality plan/procedures shall require that all specified inspections and tests are carried outa. Final inspection and testing to complete evidence of conformance to specified

requirementsb. No product dispatch until quality plan/procedure activities are complete and

documentation is available and authorized

2.3 Quality Assurance Quality Assurance (QA) activities include a planned system of review procedures conducted by personnel not directly involved in the inventory compilation/development process. Reviews, preferably by independent third parties, should be performed upon a finalized inventory following the implementation of QC procedures. QA aims at providing confidence in fulfilling the requirements both within the organization and externally to customers and authorities. It is a systematic way of ensuring those organized activities happen in a way that they are planned. It is concerned with anticipating problems and with crating the attitude and controls that prevent problems from arising. Firstly, aims to impart confidence to the client assuring that his needs will be consistently met (external quality assurance). Secondly, it aims to achieve quality through systematic and planned actions avoiding “fire-fighting or crisis management” (internal quality assurance). Quality assurance attempts to improve and stabilize production (and associated processes) to avoid, or at least minimize, issues which led to the defect(s) in the first place.[citation needed] For contract work, particularly work awarded by government agencies, quality control issues are among the top reasons for not renewing a contract.

2.4 Quality ManagementQuality management includes Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) as well as other concepts of quality planning, quality policy and quality improvement. The Total Quality

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Management (TQM) develops these concepts as a long-term global management strategy and the participation strategy and the participation of all members of the organization for the benefit of the organization itself, its members, its customers and society as a whole. Total Quality is an umbrella phrase covering continuous improvement, quality systems and standards, culture change and staff development. The principles of Total Quality, which have been so successful in manufacturing, are equally applicable to the construction industry.

3. Quality Control, Monitoring and Supervision for Trail Bridge Construction 3.1 Quality Control of Steel Parts Fabrication and Supply 3.1.1 Fabricated and Supplied Steel Bridge Parts

The in-charge of technical section of fabricator shall be responsible for quality control and quality assurance. He/She deputes the quality control engineer (QCE) to check the quality of the steel parts, fabrication and laboratory testing of materials.

The QCE of fabricator should be aware of the following specifications and points for controlling the quality requirement.

3.1.1.1 Supply of Nuts/Bolts/Washers, thimbles, bulldog grips, G.I. wire and other fixtures

Nuts/Bolts/Washers : IS 1363, IS 1367 Part XIIIBulldog grips : IS 2361, IS1367 Part XIII

Nuts/Bolts/Washers, thimbles, bulldog grips, and other fixtures shall have to be strictly checked so that it is hot dip galvanized (minimum zinc coating 40 µm). It should be checked by Deltascope to conform the minimum zinc coating.

The points to be checked are:

l Quality of raw materials The raw materials should meet the specifications. The supplier shall show the

manufacturer’s certificate. There should be stamp or a logo of the manufacturer.

l Correctness of dimension The dimension must be checked. It should be noticed weather the sizes confirm to the

metric system. He threaded part in the bolts, the size of the washer holes and the thickness of the bolts heads and washers have to be checked.

l Uniformity in all pieces Sometimes, the items are not uniform. There may be different head sizes of the bolts and

nuts.

l Conditions of the threads and mobility of nuts on the threads The nuts must turn easily around the threaded parts of the bolts. There must not be any

damage in the threads.

l There are sometimes cracks and bends in the nuts, bulldog grips and thimbles. Such items must be rejected.

l The nuts, bolts and washers must fit in the positions they are designed for. The thimbles must fit the pin or anchor rod.

l The nuts, bolts must pass the specified torque test.

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3.1.1.2 Fabrication of Steel Parts

At first, sample of steel parts raw material should be taken and tested. The test is found acceptable than the materials are allow to use for the fabrication. If the test is found unacceptable than the raw materials should be replaced by new and again need to be tested. Raw steel sections should meet IS specification for steel grade Fe 410. Physical property test of raw steel sections shall be made fabricator-wise in case of package contract. In other cases it shall be carried out in bridge-wise basis. The samples shall be taken by joint representative of DDCs and TBSU.

3.1.1.3 Supply of Reinforcement Steel

Specification of reinforcement steel is as per IS 456, IS 1786

l The supplier guarantees that the reinforcement steel meets the specifications.

l They should be clean and free of loose mill-scales, loose rust and coats of paints, oil or other coasting, which may destroy or reduce bonding with concrete.

l They should be cold bend.

l Welded joints or mechanical connections are not acceptable.

l Grinding should be done to make points in the anchor rods. All individual items have to be checked instead of doing a sample check.

3.1.1.4 Galvanization of Steel Parts

Fabricator should maintain the following process for galvanization of steel parts:

l Galvanization process l Quality of Zinc l Quality of Galvanization

The requirement of each process should be comply as per the quality requirement in standard bid document of procurement of steel parts of trail bridges.

3.1.2 Quality Assurance by the Fabricator and Galvanizing Plant

Fabricators should provide the quality assurance on their part. For this, fabricators should maintain the in-process inspection and make QC logging. In-process inspection and QC logging should include from raw material up to the final product including all production process. In-process inspection and QC logging should be at following stages as per formats given below.

l Raw material l Material preparation l Assembly l Welding l Galvanizing

Standard format has been prepared by DoLIDAR for the QC logging of all above stages and should be used.

3.1.3 Raw Materials and their test

Test certificate should be provided by the manufacturer/supplier. All steel sections (steel grade Fe 410) should comply with following requirement.

Yield stress ≥ 250 N/mm2

Tensile Strength ≥ 410 N/mm2

Elongation ≥ 23%

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3.1.4 Inspection and delivery of Fabricated Steel parts

Representative of DDCs/DTOs and TBSU should visit the fabricators yard to inspect the finished product with 100% assembling of all steel parts. All requirement as per specification should be checked including Zinc coating minimum 80 µm. If the product is not as per requirement than visit team should issue the instruction sheet for rectification of the work and if the product is acceptable than inspection certificate should be issued. Final payment for fabricator should be made after the inspection certificate issued.

What if, the fabricators supply low standard materials to the site?

As stated earlier, the DDC/DTO and the TBSU team jointly visit the fabricators yard for final product inspection and until and unless inspection certificate is issued only after the materials pass the test. But sometimes it has been found that the materials supplied at the site are different from the inspected materials. In that case the fabricators have to replace the materials on their own cost, which is already specified in contract document of Procurement of steel parts.

3.2 Quality control and quality assurance of construction works (Civil Works)3.2.1 Critical and ordinary milestones

Construction work of Trail Bridge is divided into 10 different milestones, where 7 milestones of them are critical and 3 remaining are ordinary milestones.

1. (Critical Milestone) Institutional, Planning, Community Application, Composition of Beneficiaries, Prioritization

2. (Critical Milestone) Site Assessment/ Survey/ Design/Cost Estimate and Public Hearing

3. (Ordinary Milestone) Community Agreement

4. (Ordinary Milestone) Procurement (Evaluation of bids)

5. (Critical Milestone) Bridge Layout and Foundation Excavation

6. (Critical Milestone) Procurement / Fabrication start – Quality of raw material of steel parts, cement brand

7. (Critical Milestone) Procurement of steel parts (Inspection and Certification)

8. (Ordinary Milestone) Cement Stone Masonry and Concreting

9. (Critical Milestone) Cable Sag setting and Public Review

10. (Critical Milestone) Final Assessment and Public Audit

Quality monitoring manual has been prepared for the reporting and monitoring the construction activities in detail. Concerned NGO should prepare the field reports in monthly basis and report regularly to concerned DDCs/DTOs and TBSU. TBSU also visit the sites at least in critical milestones and monitor the activities.

3.2.2 Specification of Construction Materials

l Cement: Minimum 53 grade OPC cement, pass the lab test. l Sand Aggregate, stone, masonry, concrete works: As per standard specification.

4. Reporting and Monitoring Two kinds of reporting system has been established; one monthly progress report for NGOs working in Trail Bridge Program in Districts and another is Monitoring Manual for Tail Bridge Support

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Unit. Quality Assurance of Trail Bridge construction work is assured from above reports. These reports are the mirror of all the ordinary and critical milestones. NGO should submit the progress report in monthly basis to concerned DDCs/DTOs and TBSU Regional Offices.

Figure 1 NGO Monthly Progress Report Figure 2 Manual on Monitoring of Trail Bridges

Construction supervision, quality control and quality assurance manual for contracting bridges (LSTB) has been established. Contractors should maintain the quality assurance documents of each construction activities.

5. Project Management Information System (PMIS) and Trail Bridge Strategy Information System (TBSIS)Trail Bridge Support Unit (TBSU)/HELVETAS Swiss Interco operation Nepal has established two monitoring and information system as specified below:-

l Project Management Information System (PMIS):Project Management Information System (PMIS) is a database for the project. It collects, analyses, stores, retrieves and disseminates project information for making project decisions. It consists of people, equipment and procedures.

PMIS is based on various forms and reports that generate written information for decision making and control. The requirements for PMIS are:

a) Project forms are filled-in periodically based on the measurement of progress of each activity.

b) The forms are entered in the PMIS and analyzed to prepare a report for dissemination to all the concerned project personnel.

c) Corrective actions are taken by the project manager based on the performance deviations identified by PMIS reports.

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The cycle of events in report generation by PMIS is:-

Figure 3 Project Management Information Cycle

Elements of PMIS:

Figure 3 Project Monitoring and Information System

l Trail Bridge Strategy Information System (TBSIS) :-

TBSIS is a kind of project management information system (PMIS) tool. This is more focused on quality monitoring of construction activities. Data inputs of TBSIS are based on written and photographic evidence of construction activities. NGO monthly progress report and TBSU monitoring/field visit reports based on monitoring manual are the primary source of TBSIS. After data input it analyze, store and generate the reports as per requirement.

Trail Bridge Support Unit (TBSU) is using these two database software for monitoring and reporting purpose.

6. Capacity Building:Trail Bridge Support Unit (TBSU) organizes intensive course on capacity building of “Assistant Sub-Engineers of NGOs” (35 days) in coordination with different technical schools in annual basis.

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Thousands of Asst. Sub-Engineers were capacitated till the date. TBSU also provides technical and financial support to Local Bridge Section/DoLIDAR for organizing the intensive and refresher trainings to Sub-Engineers and Engineers of Consultants, DDCs/DTOs and DoLIDAR in annual basis in coordination with different educational institutes. TBSU provides the on the job training (OJT) and intensive OJT for the students of technical schools. TBSU assist to enhance the capacity of bridge building mason and UC members through organizing Demonstration Model Bridge Training (DMBT) before the bridge construction works start for each bridge. Similarly, TBSU also assist to enhance the Routine Maintenance skill of Bridge Wardens through organizing Routine Maintenance Training for Bridge Wardens in coordination with DDCs/DTOs. Capacity building is one of the important aspects of quality control and assurance.

7. Constraints and challenges: l High staff turnover in NGOs working in Trail Bridge Program.

l Contractors/NGOs are not properly maintaining the Quality Assurance documents of construction works.

l Steel parts fabricators are not properly maintaining Quality Assurance documents and fabrication/delivery of steel parts not in satisfactory level.

l Less awareness about Quality.

8. Conclusion and Recommendations: Awareness about quality is increasing day by day but not reached at satisfactory level. So, providing trainings and capacity building is not sufficient until and unless the concerned parties (NGOs, Consultants, Contractors, Fabricators, suppliers and concerned DDC/DTOs) have quality awareness. So, to improve quality following points should be considered and internalized.

l Increase Quality Awareness.l Quality demand.l Ensure Quality Assurance from all the concerned parties.l Make environment to retain NGO staffs involved in TB Program.

References: l http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gp/english/8_QA-QC.pdf l A course manual on Trial Bridges, IoE, Pulchowk Campus l Project Management in Nepal, Dr. Govind Ram Agrawal, MK Publishers Kathmandu l A course manual on Quality Management, nec, CPS, Prof. Khem Nath Dallakoti l Trail Bridge Support Unit/HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation Library

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Shambhu Prasad Kattel, Ph. D.Social Development Expert

RAIDP

Successful Experience of Land Acquisition for Rural Road:

An Anthropological Perspective

1. IntroductionLand acquisition for a development project is not an easier task. In the case of Nepal, public infrastructure development is still not the main concern of political parties and the state. Therefore, there is no sufficient legal arrangement, policies and practices. The country, whether it was under the dictator family Rana rulers, direct rules of the King in party-less political system (Panchayat) or in present transitional political system, public infrastructure development is not in priority. In the history of modernization and development of the country, there are run very nominal public infrastructure development projects. They are the East-West High Way, district link roads and a few Hydro Power Projects. Most of the high ways and link roads are constructed during Panchayat period without land acquisition. Hence, the government of Nepal has confiscated the private land by publishing notice in the gazette. Therefore, the affected people are still paying the land tax to the government of Nepal for the land of the present highways and the district link roads. The government has acquired the lands for hydropower projects by applying Land Acquisition Act 1977 that compensates people as per the government rate which is most of the time 200 percent less than market price.

Land acquisition is a tough task interrelated with local land ownership practices, legal and policy framework of the country, local socio-political interests and practices, attitudes of the concerned office staffs, consultation and communication system, and anecdote of the project. However, the main constraint of land acquisition in Nepal is insufficient and age old land acquisition laws, lack of land policies and varieties of land acquiring practices of donor funded projects. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the World Bank (WB) have clear cut Involuntary Resettlement Policies which they force to apply in their funded project. The other donors like Department for International Development (DFID), Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC) and GIZ do not have their own policy and therefore follow the laws of the state. Hence, the compensation amount and package is varied in different donor funded projects. On the contrary, the projects run by local government body (DDC and VDC) do not pay a single coin as compensation to the affected people. However, the government of Nepal has published Land Acquisition Guidelines for Arun III Hydro Power Project in 1993 and Melamchi Water Supply Project in 2001 and paid the cash compensation to the affected people.

The ADB, WB, DFID, GIZ and SDC are the main donors of Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agricultural Roads (DoLIDAR) of Ministry of Local Development and Federal Affairs (MoFALD) for rural road construction and upgrading, irrigation facilities, water supply and agricultural development. Rural Access Improvement and Decentralization Project (RAIDP) is a pioneer rural road upgrading project of DoLIDAR from the financial support of the WB implemented in 30 districts of Nepal (2005 to 2013). As it is an existing road upgrading project, does not trigger the Involuntary Resettlement Policy of the WB. However, the land of existing road is still own by locals and in the widening process it requires small strip of additional land

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and sometimes demolishes private houses and minor structures which triggers the WB policies to some extent. Hence, the project has designed its own Environmental and Social Management Framework and implemented it in practice.

This article presents the view of Social Development Expert, as an anthropologist, about how RAIDP has been able to achieve hundred percent land acquisition in project period. It raises some crucial issues of development planning and implementation process. The primary data (both qualitative and quantitative nature) collected for the project by the Social Expert are only applied in the article. The only objective of this article is to highlight the land acquisition process of RAIDP.

2. Theoretical ConsiderationWe can understand the word ‘development’ to mean a political process because it appeared as a result of colonial power (Kattel 2006). The process of development is not separated from the root of colonial past till date. The present brand name is modernization and its result is globalization which narrows down the relations and distances of individuals, societies and nations through the advancement and use of physical facilities. There are a wide variety of approaches and debates in the literature to know the process of development in general and in anthropology in particular.

Generally, development refers to a process of change through which an increasing proportion of a nation’s citizen’s are able to enjoy a higher material standard of living, healthier and longer lives, more education, and greater control and choice over how they live. State planners, donor agencies, and social movement organizers are actively working towards such positive changes these days because deliberative democracy considers basic facilities as rights of the citizens (Dryzek 2010). This approach of development considers local people as center point of development (Chamber 1983, Des Chene 1996, Cernea 1999, Gasper 2004). This article presents the success story of land acquisition putting the interest of land donors first.

3. The modality of Social SafeguardsSocial safeguard principles of the project were designing in consultation with project affected people, lawyers, experts in the sectors, practitioners and Local Road Users Committee members in June 2009 and revised the earlier Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) of the project.

Neither the project nor the central and local government bodies were offering compensation or assistance to the project affected people in rural road construction and upgrading until the implementation of the revised ESMF. The World Bank was enforcing the project for offering compensation to the affected people as per its Safeguard Policy (OP 4.10 and OP 4.12). On the other hand, DoLIDAR was arguing that road improvements benefits people directly and the land of the road is already donated. So offering compensation was a kind of creating unnecessary trouble to the project and the nation. The World Bank Mid Term Review Mission team for the project which was held in May 2009 found out gap in the implementation of the ESMF and then recommended to withheld the project if would not mitigate the social impacts.

The project hired the Social Development Expert and revised the ESMF in consultation with locals, LRUC members, affected people, concerned stakeholders. There were 1800 people affected by land and 500 people affected by residential structures. Most of them were gathered in the road sides and sought their views about how to address the problem. Finally, the project adopted middle

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way to address the social impacts through assistance for the lost and damages (see Entitlement Matrix in the revised ESMF 20012: 24). Moreover, it is decided to offer land transfer incentive to all land donors who have already donated land to the road but for that they have to go to District Land Revenue Office for land ownership transfer. This benefits them in two ways: deduces land taxes which they were paying for donated land and receive assistance. The success story of land acquisition of RAIDP depends on the following points (principles of social safeguards design in collaboration with affected people).

3.1 Defining Corridor of Impact The project, locals and affected people agreed on the point that it is not necessary to clear the Right of Way (RoW) of the road because many rural settlements in Nepal are in road sides. If the project clears RoW means 10 meters rights and left from central point of a road then it destroys thousands of houses and displaces hundred thousands of people. Therefore, it is agreed to define Corridor of Impact (CoI = formation width only) and receive voluntary donation of the land. Hence, the District Technical Office Chief or an Engineer visits the road during road designing, informs the local people about required CoI different section and the mass gathered in public place define the CoI. The decision of the meeting has to be documented and submitted as a part of Social Screening to the Project. The project conducts land survey in the CoI, identifies the amount of land of affected people and receives the donated land by offering onetime assistance.

3.2 Road Users Committee and their RolesThe project sets up a Local Road Users Committee in each ten KM and a Village Road Coordination Committee in each VDC in a mass meeting with emphasize on inclusion of representatives of all categories of people. Thereafter, they are empowered on values, negative and positive impacts of road construction/upgrading, roles of locals and committee members during and after construction/upgrading, the project types, nature and quality, roles of contractor, DDC/DTO, RAIDP, donor agency, and also about project working mechanisms and process. Finally, they are provided a copy of ESMF and conduct social screening, land survey and prepare Voluntary Donation Impact Mitigation Plan, Vulnerable Community Development Plan and Community Infrastructure Development plan in their involvement. The project taught the LRUC members about grievance handling process and assigns them responsibility of local grievance recording and resolving. The LRUC works as a local center of the project where cost estimate to social documents are available. 3.3 Priority of Locals for Road SelectionThe road sub-projects of RAIDP are selected by locals. The project updates the District Transportation Master Plan and selects the higher prioritized roads only. In road selection process the project also considers demand letter of the locals. Hence, if locals submit demand letter of a road which is also prioritized then the roads are selected. Demand letter of road must be attached in social screening. 3.4 Written Assurance of the Locals As like the demand letter, project requires a written assurance of the locals for their cooperation during construction. The written assurance must mention that they are ready for voluntary donation of required land to the road and removal of structures of the formation width. However, the project offers onetime cash assistance to each affected people as per its Entitlement Policy Matrix (ESMF 2012). The assurance letter of the support has to be prepared in a mass meeting and signature of each probable affected people is must. This document has to be attached in Social Screening.

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3.5 Submission of Land Resolution LetterThe third valuable document required by the project as part of the Social Screening and VDIMP is submission of Land Resolution Letter. The probable affected people identified during screening have to submit land resolution letter to the project which is an annex of the Social Screening. If Social Screening shows land impacts then it organizes Land Survey in coordination with District Land Survey Office. The surveyor identifies land donors and amount of land to be donated. Thereafter, the project collects land resolution letter of each donor through LRUC members. It is a crucial document required by District Land Revue Office during Land Ownership transfer. However, a copy of it is attached in VDIMP. The Social Consultant prepares VDIMP of the road sub-project in coordination with LRUC and discloses it at local level. 3.6 Acceptance of Land Donation by GoNRAIDP follows two ways for land ownership transfer. The way determines by the status of absentee and donors mortgaged their land in Bank and Court. If all land donors have submitted the land resolution letter to the project then the document is submitted to District Land Revenue Office and then completes the process of land ownership. If there are absentees and donors mortgaged their land in Bank and Court then the project organizes a meeting of District Land Acquisition Committee and convinces its members for acceptance of land donation to the donors submitted their resolution letter. The committee also decides to freeze the land transaction of absentee and legal constraint donors until they transfer the ownership of required land to the road. Following the both approaches the project has made the following progress until July 2013.

Table 1: Total Land donors, received land by voluntary donation and progress percentageSN Description of the project Total Donors Total land donated

(Sqm)No of Donors Transfer their land ownership

Progress percentage

1 Land donors in Original Project 1881 564070 1881 100%2 Land donors in Additional financing 11909 1456731 10255 86%

Indeed, organization of meeting of District Land Acquisition Committee is a difficult task. All Chief District Administration Officers (CDAO) are not aware of the process. Out of the 30 districts, a few of them are found reluctant for land acquisition and some are found unaware of the legal provisions. In fact, the age old Land Acquisition Law (1977) does not have provisions of acceptance of land donation. However, the social staffs of the project have done their best to convince the CDAO and made mentionable progress.

3.7 Public Recognition to Land DonorsMost of the land donors do not late to go to District Land Revenue Office for land ownership transfer when Land Survey identified them as affected people. Therefore, the project has been able to receive the land of 12000 donors in one year’s time formally. In fact, Social Mobilization Officer and Social Development Consultant have to convince them for waiting sometimes for the preparation and disclosure of VDIMP after receiving the actual data from the Land Surveyor. The reason behind the eagerness of land donors for their ownership transfer is the project policy that recognizes land donors publicly. The project recognizes the land donors in two ways: keeps their names in hoarding board and awards Letter of Appreciation in public places. Hence, instead of donation of small parcel of land (1 to 2 meters) they are invited in public places and offered a well framed letter of appreciation and also kept the hoarding board in their names as land donors for the road.

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In the discussion with land donors we are informed that cash compensation is good for the poor but it motivates the society for enticement and dissatisfaction. RAIDP offers a nominal amount as land transfer incentive and also recognizes the donors publicly which motivates people for social contribution and welfare.

4. Conclusion and Recommendation Acquisition of private land for public purposes is a tough task in Nepal because of inadequate laws, policies and guidelines. Land in Nepal is not only a means of production but also a means of symbolic power and social prestige. Therefore, more than farmers the other occupational groups of people have legal rights over land in Nepal. Believing in ….I argue that human is a conscious being seeks secure economic future. Therefore, Human beings want to invest in an area which is secured for the future. For examples, pastoralist society invests for animal and feudal society invests in land and industrial society invests for industry.

Politicians and Sociologists argue that Nepal has no more feudal characters after ten years Maoist rebel, removal of the King, and establishment of Loktantra (liberal and inclusive democracy). The capitalist characteristics are prevalent in Nepali societies now (Mishra 2006). In my view, the feudalism is prevalent in Nepali society therefore people seek secure economic future by investing in land. The main characteristics of feudalism are investment in land, domination to others, and patriarchal and patri-local social values. All these characteristics are prevalent in our society as each Nepali wants to invest in land when he/she earned money, a woman goes to man’s house after marriage and male domination is common in a family life. Hence, land is embedded in social values therefore nobody wants to lose land in Nepal.

If infrastructure development programs are designing for advancement of local areas and people, then should think of their sustainability. Sustainability is always attached with people’s ownership. Feeling of ownership begins only when people have invested their labor or money for the program. Most of the development programs in the world and in Nepal are failed because of the lack of local ownership. Therefore, I argue that people should have to contribute something for their development such as road, bridge, hydro power, school, health post and so on. RAIDP believes that road is a get valve of development initiates multiple socio-cultural and economic activities. Development of a road is development of the people. Hence, they must have to contribute for the road for their multiple developments. Donation up to 10 per cent of the property is a common practice in all religions including the Hindus, Buddhists, Christian and Muslims. Therefore, RAIDP receives the donation of land up to 10 per cent, if the land donors have land above basic minimum economic holding. It does not receive land with the people who hold land below basic minimum holdings. However, it offers land transfer incentives and one time cash assistance to all land donors. This practice has two implications. The first is affected people receive the cost for land ownership transfer. The second is each land donor feels the road as their own because of land donation.

RecommendationRecommendation of something and about development program should be implacable and should be good for the society and nation. On the basis of the above discussion, I have only two recommendations regarding land acquisition for infrastructure development programs in Nepal.

1. Offering cash compensation for the affected people by land acquisition is a good option of infrastructure development program. But it does not motivate the affected people

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for taking the ownership of such programs. Therefore, surplus earning infrastructures development programs such as hydro power should offer cash compensation for affected people by land acquisition. On the other hand, development programs benefit locals directly should seek contributions of the affected people.

2. The road projects in Nepal (whether national, feeder, district or rural) should acquire land by voluntary donation. However, it is must to fix an entitlement and offer them land transfer incentives and onetime cash assistance as per their land contributions to the road.

References

l Dryzek, J., 2010. Foundations and Frontiers of Deliberative Governance. London: Oxford University Presss l Kattel, S. P., 2006. “Development as a Process of Marginalization: A Case Study of the Arun Valley Kumal

Community” in R. B. Chhetri (edt.), Contributions to Nepalese Studies: Changing Environments and Livelihoods in Nepal. Vol 33, Pp 39-62.

l Mishra, C., 2006. Capitalism and Nepal (in Nepali). Kathmandu: Mulyankan Publication House Private Limited.

l RAIDP, 2012. Environmental and Social Management Framework. Lalitpur: Rural Access Improvement and Decentralization

l Chamber, R., 1983. Rural Development: Putting the Last First. London: Longman l Cernea, M., 1999. “Development’s Painful Social Cost”, in S. Parasuraman (edt.), The Development Dilemma –

Displacement in India. Basingstock: Macmillan, pp 1-31. l Chene, D. M., 1996. “In the Name of Bikas”, in Nepali History and Society. Vol, 1 (2): 259-270. l Gasper, D., 2004.The Ethnics of Development: From Economism to Human Development. Delhi: Vistaar

Publications




Gyan Prasad ChaulagainDirector

BG General SuppliersNew Baneshwor, Kathmandu

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Er. Santosh Kumar GuptaB. E. (Civil Engineering), Master in Rural Development,

Master in Transportation Engineering and Management (Thesis – running) Mr. Gupta is the Consulting Engineer.

ACCESS TO NORTH-SOUTH ROADS AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEPAL

1. IntroductionNepal is a landlocked country with China to the North and India to the South. Because of its mainly mountainous terrain and difficult weather conditions, road and air transports are the major modes of transportation in the country. The presence of railways is negligible. The country uses India’s eastern port of Kolkata as its gateway to the sea.

The country is approximately rectangular in shape with an area of 147,181 sqkm. Nepal is a predominantly a mountainous country with about 77% of its area lie in the hill and mountain regions. The north-south length is up to 200 km and the east-west length up to 800 km. It has the greatest variation in altitude which ranges from 60 to 8848 m amsl.

A total population of Nepal is about 26.5 million with an annual average growth rate of 1.35 % of last decade. Terai constitutes 50.27% of the total population while Hill constitutes 43% and Mountain constitutes 6.73%. Overall literacy rate (for population aged 5 years and above) has increased from 54.1% in 2001 to 65.9% in 2011 (CBS, 2011). The incidence of poverty is greater in the rural areas as compared to the urban areas.

ABSTRACT

The main aim of the North – South Roads is to enhance the accessibility of remote hill districts and at improved market integration and trade facilitation (Road Access within 4 and 2 hrs walk in hill and terai respectively is the National Motto).

Transportation is a non separable part of any society. It exhibits a very close relation to the overall development of rural areas / or the country as a whole. Transport is one of the major components to improve access of the people to services and facilities through increased mobility. Increased mobility results in better linkages with the market centres, agricultural production pocket areas, administrative centres, institutional centres (education, health, safety) and other opportunities in the areas. The reduce mobility is impendence to the development while increase in mobility catalyst the development.

Rural development in Nepal is a complex phenomenon involving an interaction of economic, social, political and cultural factors. The concept of rural development is a process of development and change to improve rural social life entirely. It is linked to infrastructural development as well as commercialization of agriculture, proper utilization and mobilization of resources, food security, creating opportunities, inclusive social development in the rural community and modernization of overall society. The North–South Roads would have multi dimensional positive impact in the overall development of the rural areas.

Keywords: North-South Roads, Rural Development, Infrastructures Development, Accessibility

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The principle objective of the National Transport Policy 2001 is to develop a reliable, cost effective, safe facility oriented and sustainable transport system that promotes and sustains the economic, social, cultural and tourism development of Nepal as a whole. The Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007) followed by the Three Year Interim Plan (TYIP) covering the period 2008-2010 has given high priority to the alleviation of poverty through rural development as well as employment generation and skills development (NLFS, 2008).

2. A view of North South Roads in NepalThe main aim of the North–South (NS) roads is to enhance the accessibility of remote hill districts and at improved market integration and trade facilitation. In this context, the concept of NS Roads / transport corridors involves three distinct elements: (i) development of Feeder Roads to link unconnected District Headquarters with Nepal’s Strategic Road Network (SRN); (ii) construction of additional cross-border links with China; and (iii) construction of a new direct link between Kathmandu and the Terai, also known as the “Fast Track”. And ultimately NS roads help in sustainable rural development through infrastructures development

The Government has planned to develop one or two reliable transit link with China in near future; however, the connection to borders will be in the entire eight places. The Third Year Interim Plan (2007-2010) has given high priority to the NS roads. Out of various NS roads, only eight roads are in the existence (refer Table 1 and Figure 1). Two roads (Road No. 4 and 5) are already opened for traffic. And two more roads (Road No. 3 and 6) will be opened in near future (DoR, 2011).

Table 1 : The NS RoadsRoadNo.

Name of the Corridors Length in km

Location Rank by the Shortest Length

1 Kechana – Ilam – Phidim – Taplegunj – Olangchungola 460 Eastern Development Region VII2 Rani – Itahari – Hile – Sankhuwasabha – Kimathanka 419 Eastern Development Region V3 Janakpur – Dolakha – Lamabagar 295 Central Development Region III4 Birgunj – Pathalaiya – Kathmandu – Dolalghat - Miteri Sang 292 Central Development Region II5 Birgunj (ICD) – Pathalaiya (MRM) – Galchhi – Trishuli –

Dhunchhe – Syaprubesi – Rasuwagadhi265 Central Development Region I

6 Sunauli – Mirmi – Phalebas – Jomsom – Korala 467 Western Development Region VIII7 Nepalgunj – Surkhet – Jumla – Simikot – Hilsa 436 Wid Western Development Region VI8 Brahmdeomandi – Jogbudha – Satbanjh – Darchula

Tinkerpass415 Far Western Development Region IV

Source : DoR, 2011

Other NS roads are Chainpur - Taklakot (China Border) (Part of Seti Highway), Benighat - Arughat-Larkebhanjyang of 130 km length and Gaighat – Diktel Road of 134 km length and get less priority.

3. Significant of North - South Roads in the Rural Development Road accessibility can reduce isolation, stimulate crop production and marketing activities, encourage public services and help to transfer technology. Road building has been seen to bring about notable visible changes in rural life.

Infrastructure development has a key role to play in both economic growth and poverty reduction. The NS roads are very useful to provide the better accessibility in the rural areas. The roads

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could able to provide better accessibility to the surrounding areas and efficient road links to the neighboring countries caused in development of trade, commerce, industry, other sectors and ultimately development of the rural areas.

The NS roads could help to establish a well relationship for urban rural linkage for the rural development. This interest lies apparently in finding ways by which the benefits of growth pass through urban centres onto the greatest number of people living in the rural region. The premise of a balance socio-economic development in the mountainous country like Nepal lies in a strong linkage between the market towns and their rural hinterlands. Since the late 1990s, the urban and regional development policy of Nepal has specifically focused onto develop rural area through developing the market towns and strengthening linkage between the urban and rural areas in the country.

Figure 1 : A view of North South Roads Source : DoR, 2011

The NS roads are considered as the connectors. The connectors connect Nepal with Tibet, China and West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh of India. The followings points are noted in relation to the interlinkages with the mainland China and India.

l Tibet still is far from the mainland of China, whereas West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are the mainland of India.

l China is set to complete a strategically significant 253 km rail link from Lhasa to Shigatse, near its border with Nepal, by 2014. This could enhance the utility of north south connectors in Nepal side.

l The rail connections from Indian boarders to mainland of India have already been established.

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4. Key Challenges AheadAchievements of rural development efforts in Nepal are not satisfactory because of imposed development, unstable political situation, absence of people's participation, lack political commitment, unavailability of required resources and rugged topography of the land.

There are some challenges need to be addressed for the construction as well as effective and efficient operation of the NS roads. The challenges include management of resources including financial, donor support, infrastructure development in rugged topography and fragile geology complicated by high seismicity and deep rivers, non engineered roads and other infrastructures on local initiatives, participation of stakeholders and beneficiaries, private sector involvement in the sector, capacity building and institutional strength of the concerned institution, proper operation and maintenance, quality control as well as research and development.

5. The Way Forward The government has a primary role to strengthen and institutionalize the Department of Roads (DoR); adhere with the Plans and Programs; assure proper engineering, environmental & social studies; stop/minimize non-engineered roads; adopt appropriate slope stabilization and bio-engineering techniques; give due priority on systemic operation & maintenance; emphasize on research and development; share knowledge and experience on mountain roads and others. Likewise, the beneficiaries communities and community based organizations / and Non-Governmental Organizations can play an important advocacy role to draw attention of the government for the construction and operation of the roads and seek support from the stakeholders and donor agencies in this regard.

6. Conclusions There are three East West Highways in Nepal, namely Mahendra Raj Marg (MRM), Mid Hill Highway, and Hulaki Sadak. Only the MRM Highway is in operation. The rest two are in partially operation or / and still under the process of construction. In this circumstance, after the completion of the NS roads, almost a well connected road network within the country would be established. The network definitely connects the China in the north and India in the south. The NS roads are situated from east to west of Nepal and enable to provide better accessibility to the large rural areas. The NS roads cause increment in the economical, social, political and other activities in the rural areas and ultimately development of the areas. Thus, the thrust of development in the areas would be taken place as the development of the NS roads. References:

l CBS (2011); "National Population and Housing Census 2011", Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal.

l DoR (2013). DoR Reports, Kathmandu Nepal

l International Development Association (IDA, 2005). North-South Transport Corridor Options

l Mulmi, A. D., 2009. Green Road Approach in Rural Road Construction for the Sustainable Development of Nepal

l NLFS (2008); "The Nepal Labour Force Survey", Kathmandu, Central Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission, Government of Nepal.

l Paul, Starkey, 2007. A Methodology for Rapid Assessment of Rural Transport Services, 2007; SATP working paper

l Various Websites (2013), viewed in August 2013, (www.dor.gov.np, www.dolidar.gov.np, www.mof.gov.np, www.unescap.org; www.adb.org; www.treaties.un.org and others)

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Er. Ramesh RanabhatLearning Engineer

Mechanical Department, Institute of EngineeringPulchowk Campus, T. U. Nepal

“SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN KATHMANDU”

ABSTRACT:

The environmentally usual management of municipal solid waste has become a global challenge due to limited resources, ever increasing population, rapid urbanization and industrialization worldwide. Statistics show that the world population reached 7 billion in 2011 with 50.5% of this population resides in urban areas. The urban population in developing nations accounted for 44% of the total. It is expected that 70 percent of the world population will be urban by 2050, and that most urban growth will occur in less developed countries. The urban population in Asia was estimated to be 46% of the total Asian population. In this context global municipal solid waste (MSW) generated in 1997 was 0.49 billion tons with an estimated annual growth rate of 3.2–4.5% in developed nations and 2–3% in developing nations (Suocheng et al., 2001). If we look to urban areas in Asia produced approximately 760,000 tons of municipal solid waste per day in 1998, which is expected to rise to 1.8 million tons by 2025. Then local governments spent about US$25 billion for managing this waste in 1998 and this amount is expected to double by 2025 (Mongkolnchaiarunya, 2005).

Nepal, a developing nation located in Asia, lies in the central part of the Himalayan Belt. According to the preliminary report of the national population census 2011, the population of Nepal reached approximately 2.7 million in the year 2011 which shows an increase of population at the rate of 1.4 percent per annum with population density estimated at 181 per sq. KMs. In recent time, population explosion to urban areas especially due to the rural migrants seeking employment, business and other opportunities in the cities. The urban population in Nepal in 2011 was approximately 4.5million (CBS, 2011). And the Urban population growth (annual %) in Nepal was last reported at 4.45 in 2010, according to a World Bank report released in 2011.However, compared to the land area of the country and the available resources, this small urban population has become an enormous burden for the government in terms of environmental health, sanitation and environmental management. Nepal consists of 58 municipalities with varying population size and living standards. Thus, the produced MSW differs MSW varies within Nepal and its municipalities. It is estimated that the total amount of municipal waste generated in Nepal is about 500,000 tons per year. Less than half of this gets collected and almost all of the collected waste is dumped haphazardly in a crude manner. This means only quarter of the waste gets properly treated. On average municipalities in the country are spending about 13 percent of their total budget on waste management related activities.

Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal, is facing serious environmental degradation due to ineffective municipal solid waste management practices. Poor government policy and response, lack of political will, lack of appropriate economic and human resources and weak local institutions result in poor waste management. It is not only the representative problem of the Nepal’s municipality’s issues but also the least developing countries story nexus to the global environmental challenges.

Keywords: Kathmandu Municipality, Municipal Solid Waste, LFG

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Background:Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal is constantly facing problems in the management of Municipal Solid Waste. In the past, absence of engineered landfill was the major problem in the city with waste dumping in the bank of rivers. Therefore, during 2005, a short-term landfill site, Sisdol landfill, was constructed with an aid of Japan International Co-operation Agency (JICA). The landfill received 400 tons of waste every day with a high portion, ~70% of Organic waste such as kitchen waste. Apparently, LFG produced from the landfill is not utilized; venting the gas into the atmosphere will have negative impact on Environment and Human. Due to the high proportion of the Organic waste, high amounts of Carbon dioxide and Methane with toxic leachate is generated contributing to Global warming and toxicity in air, water and land respectively.

The Teku Transfer Station covers an area of 150mx100m and receives 308 tons of waste per day. Two loaders, four guards, and two administrative officers are employed at this location. Then waste dumped in the sisdol landfill side 11 km nearby Kathmandu city. Before the construction of Sisdol Landfill, the waste was dumped into the rivers of KTM. The reoccurring hurdle of the local accumulates the solid waste in the street of the city which is the pollution in term of beauty and the health aspect. There is no alternative rather than dumping. Significant amount of the solid waste generated in kathmandu are uncollected and either burned in the streets or end up in bagmati and bishnumati rivers, creeks, marshy areas .Waste that is collected is mainly disposed off in open dump-sites, many of which are not properly operated and maintained, thereby posing a serious threat to public health. The collection facilities are inadequate and inefficient according to the rapid urbanization.

Fig: Typical system for solid waste management

Waste Quantities and Characteristics:Waste generation trends are driven by several factors, such as economic activity, demographic changes, technological innovations, life-style and patterns of production and consumption. Municipal unit generation rate has been taken as the product of household unit generation rate and additional index. The unit generation rate of solid waste is estimated at 0.416 kg/day-capita in KMC. Increase in the household increases the population of the city and hence waste generation. Without measures for source reduction, the annual increase in unit waste generation is 2.6% (Nippon Koei Co. Ltd and Yachiyo Engineering Co. Ltd, 2005). The total amount of waste quantity generated in KMC is as shown in Table below.

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Total amount of Waste Generated in Kathmandu Metropolitan CityMunicipalities Population Average generated quantity (tons/day)

Year 2004 2015 2004 2015KMC 741,008 1,055,591 308.4 547.9LSMC 180,397 260,790 75.1 135.4BKM 80,476 117,380 25.5 46.2MTM 53,853 83,696 14.3 27.8KRM 43,424 54,400 11.6 18.1

Total 5 municipalities 1,099,158 1,571,857 434.9 775.4Source: Nippon Koei Co. Ltd and Yachiyo Engineering Co. Ltd, 2005

However, the composition differs depending on the economic level of countries as well as other factors such as geographical location, energy resources, climate, living standards and cultural habits, and the sources of waste that are considered as MSW. The major fraction of the solid waste generated is organic, paper and plastics. Organic wastes (70% of the total waste generated in KMC) include all kitchen waste, garbage, commercial etc. The other significant constituents are plastic and paper with equal percentage of 9%. The amount of organic component constituted the majority with generation of 216 kg/day in year 2004.

Waste Components KMC % by weight (Waste Generated (tons/dayOrganic 70 216Paper 9 27.8Plastic 9 27.8Glass 3 9.25

Metals 1 3.08Textile 3 9.25

Rubber/leather 1 3.08Others 4 12.3Total 100 308

Source: Nippon Koei Co. Ltd and Yachiyo Engineering Co. Ltd, 2005

Current Scenario and Practices:At present most of the wastes generated in municipalities are not being adequately managed thereby creating a serious health and environmental hazard, particularly in the slum and squatter areas, where the residents have less capacity to pay for better services and are often ignored by the official agencies. Therefore, poor urban settlements are most affected because of indiscriminate dumping and lack of open spaces. Beside Sisdoal; which is the main sink of the solid waste of the Kathmandu valley some waste treatment plants and disposal areas are as follows:

1. Solid waste treatment plant in Gujeshowori, its catchment area are, Chabahel, Gausala, Jorpati Mahankal etc

2. Landfill site at Okkherpauwa. Okherpauwa is located at about 18 kms from the Kathmandu; the transportation of the

waste is therefore difficult. Due to frequent strikes by the people of that area Kathmandu

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valley is facing the problem of Disposal of waste which causes pollution in the city leading different health hazards.

3. Disposal sites at the river corridor at Bagmati in Balkhu.

Legal, Social and Financial Issues:Management includes the legal, social and financial issues. There must have the legal policy and strictly governing body. The social awareness and individual duty or responsibility makes the fruitful result. Co-operation from the citizens is a vital aspect in managing solid wastes of a city. Habits and attitudes of inhabitants of a city largely affect waste management system. Hence, social aspect cannot be separated from the overall waste management system. Public awareness and public participation is a major step in effective implementation of the solid waste management system.

Photos: disperse waste and collection center

The budget allocation for all types of waste and environment management comes under the heading of Environment Management. According to the KMC annual report, 2009 most of the budget allocated under this heading is expended for solid waste management. So, in a sense the budget has been allocated for SWM. The increment in EM budget shows the stakeholders concerns over the waste management issue. Table below provides summary of budget allocated during different fiscal year for EM. The increment in budget during fiscal year 08/09 and 09/10 is similar whereas between fiscal year 06/07 and 07/08, there has been an increment by almost 13%. Hence, the average budget increment has been estimated to be 12.63%. Table shows the budget allocated for Environment management of KMC during different fiscal years.

KMC Budget for Environment Management

Fiscal year Expenditure, Rs (in crores) Increment percentages Average2006/2007 19.70 -

12.63%2007/2008 20.48 3.98%2008/2009 24.61 16.79%2009/2010 29.69 17.11%

Source: http://www.kathmandu.gov.np/uploads/bud-66-67.pdf, 2010

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Financial issues are the main problem for the least developed countries to carry out any kind of development programs. Donors such as United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), ADB, JICA, German government are helping the local governments for establishing an environmentally sustainable solid waste collection and disposal system. Environmental issues in the country’s development, government and municipalities are working hard to extend environmental legislation. It is not only the facing by the municipalities of Nepal.

Governing and regulating is the major challenges of the management. Municipalities fail to implement national policy that improving waste management facilities and educating people. Due to the similarity in economical and infrastructural development, all the least developing countries are facing more or less similar legal, social and financial problems facing by the Kathmandu municipality in terms of solid waste management.

Stakeholders and Public Participations:To achieve sustainability in waste management, it is important to look at the roles, interests and power structures prevalent in waste management. Experience show that cooperation and coordination between the different stakeholder groups like metropolitan , government, service users, NGOS, CBOS, the private sector (formal and informal), and donor agencies, will ultimately lead to increase sustainability of the waste management system, such as changes in behavior and sharing of financial responsibilities. On the other hand, ignoring certain activities or groups will result in decreased sustainability of the system, for example in the form of negative public health effects or increased unemployment. It is applicable for the rest municipalities with in the country and similar practices have been adapted by the least developing nations in the global context.

Community based organizations (CBOs):Unless and until the whole community do not involve in solid waste management with respect to source segregation, recovery of reusable and recyclable materials and storage of waste prior to collection, the management won’t be successful. Solid waste management of Kathmandu feel the community based organization is an essential element in ensuring the effectiveness of the solid waste management project and it is equally applicable in the global context too. Private sector participation:Private sector is participating more in door-to-door collection, street sweeping and waste transfer. Due to the involvement of the private sector, collecting garbage is found to be more efficient and in addition to this burden on Kathmandu Municipal Corporation (KMC) is reduced both in financial and in terms of human resources. Approximately 50% of the people surveyed replied that

Fig: Sustainable approach stockholders and their concern

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services provided by the private sector were more effective. Therefore, KMC is gearing towards the involvement of the private sector in all aspects of solid waste management.

Photo: door to door collection and transfer to landfill

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs): The NGOs play a vital role in developing awareness on the environmental impacts associated with the management of wastes. “Zero Waste Nepal” is best example of non-governmental organization. Zero Waste Nepal is currently working towards community based solid waste management through application of Zero Waste Concept comprising of the following principles:

l Don’t take home unwanted materials

l Produce clean waste through segregation of waste at source

l Sending back the Waste to its source of generation

l Disposal ban of waste in public place or nature

l Encouraging Community participation through NGO and Private Sector.

Zero Waste Nepal is trying to develop new attitude and behaviour of the people towards handling waste and converting the existing “Throw Away” culture to “Zero Waste” culture. It is taking the initiatives towards Solid Waste Management through development of partnership with local clubs for execution at grass root level through interaction with neighbourhood, ward level, local NGO, international development agencies and Rotary clubs for resource mobilization.

Challenges and Mitigation:Considering the serious challenge currently faced by municipality in managing their waste and the large amount of resources that is being wasted in this process, there is an urgent need to learn from the few successful innovative practices and replicate them. For this to happen, the following steps need to be taken:

l Kathmandu municipality should develop strategies to establish effective and efficient integrated waste management systems with more private sector and community participation. Government of Nepal and other partners can provide technical support and guidance in this process. The strategies have to be formulated in a participatory

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manner and have to be followed up with annual plans and budgets and the progress should be carefully monitored.

l Need to design systems that will maximize separation and management of waste at source in order to reduce the total amount of waste that is disposed and the cost associated with it.

l As waste collection is the most expensive part of any waste management system, need to increase the efficiency of waste collection systems. The practice of dumping waste on the street so that it can be swept and collected has to stop as it is highly inefficient and results in environmental pollution.

l In order to maximize waste recycling the private sector should be encouraged to set up and operate waste recycling and composting facilities.

l Non-recyclable waste should be managed in sanitary landfills with appropriate systems for pollution control such as buffer zones, proper drainage, and covering material. The landfill of the sisdole should increase in volume and should keep in mind the alternative one.

l Hazardous medical waste should not be mixed with ordinary waste. And new technology like incineration plant may be the alternative.

l The private sector and community groups can be involved in waste management to reduce cost and increase efficiency. However the process of involving the private sector should be clear and transparent and the municipality should carefully monitor the performance of the private operator.

l The collection centers should be efficient and maintain the basic requirements.

l The hurdle of the local people of the landfill area should be solved and the transformation process should be regular.

Sustainable approach:If solid waste is properly used, it can be a valuable resource, but if it is not effectively managed, it can result in serious adverse impacts on environment and public health. Solid waste management is therefore a critical component within urban sanitation and it is also one of the most important and resource intensive services provided by municipalities. 3R (waste reduction, reuse, and recycling) principle should be followed. Waste itself a source of the energy. Keeping the flowing chart on the mind and do the steps makes the world prosperous.

Fig: System for sustainable solid waste management.

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We can take a suitable example here; the Women's Environment Preservation Committee (WEPCO) in Lalitpur, Nepal started a pilot project supported by DANIDA with waste reduction as its main objective. The group is working for source segregation and composting. It is already servicing 500 households with primary collection. The sweepers sort out the recyclables and sell them to waste traders while the organic waste is composted. The organization sells 1200-1500 kg of compost monthly. Taking it is a pilot project we can apply in our case also. We have to note down some points to manage the solid waste properly.

Proper solution for the management of this waste are listed below:

a) Awareness to the people about its negative impacts.b) Decomposable waste and non decomposable should be collected separately.c) Decomposable waste should be treated in local level and should be used as manure for

agriculture or at Garden.d) Non decomposable recyclable waste should be send to recycling plant for recycle.e) Large scale treatment plant should be established in different places for different

catchment before disposing the waste to the water bodies.f) Chemical waste from the Industries should be well treated before disposal.

Conclusion:Open waste piles are a common site and the work of municipality is often limited to sweeping the streets and dumping the waste in the nearest river Baghmati and bisnumati or vacant land. Modern waste management techniques, such as source separated door-to-door collection systems, material recovery and recycling facilities, sanitary land filling, and private sector participation have not sufficient to cope the challenges. The problems facing by the Kathmandu city is the representative issue of the country’s cities its self and least developing countries too. In the other word it is the global issue. Particularly Kathmandu facing the landfill site issue which is 15km nearby Kathmandu. Local residence always makes disturbances for the disposal putting some demands. However, in spite of the many challenges faced by municipalities Kathmandu metro city have joined hands with local communities and the private sector to introduce innovative approaches for waste management that are cost effective and efficient; not enough but well beginning. These include door-to-door collection system in some areas of Kathmandu, plastic collection and recycling systems with community and private sector. The best alternative incineration should adapt as soon as possible.

In the context of the least developing countries; management of municipal solid wastes in still many problems similar to the Kathmandu metro city. The current regulation system is not perfect, and the existing management system and the collection facilities do not fit the present requirements at all. Municipal solid wastes are still collected without separation at the source, treatment facilities are limited and mostly the collected wastes are also dumped haphazardly in open areas. Government, NGOs, CBOs and private sectors are working hard in this field but still the action is not enough. The main management strategies to remedy this should include amendment of current laws and regulations, improve current management systems and introduce classified collections. The effective implementation of these strategies will help extensively to solve the environmental pollution problems caused by municipal solid wastes in least developing countries.

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References: l Ambulkar, A.R., Shekdar, A.V., 2004. Prospects of biomethannation technology in the Indian context: a pragmatic

approach.Resource Conservation and Recycling 40, 111–128.

l Cohen, B., 2004. Urban growth in developing countries: a review of current trends and a caution regarding existing forecasts. World Development 32 (1), 23–51.

l Chung, S., Poon, C.S., 1998. A comparison of waste management in Guangzhou and Hong Kong. Journal of Resources, Conservation and Recycling 22, 203–216.

l http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/focus/urban-waste

l http://msw.cecs.ucf.edu/collegestudents

l http://www.westonsolutions.com/services/clean_energy/landfillgasrecovery

l http://www.dialogue4s.de/_media/Ramke_Landfill_Technology

l http://www.mass.gov/dep/recycle/laws/lfgasapp

l UNEP, Nepal – State of the Environment 2001




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1. Background

Political and geographical map of Nepal

Nepal, located in a lap of Himalaya, is a developing country with its low per capita GDP of USD 680. Four-fifth of its land form comprises of hills and mountains and 70 percent of its population lives in the rural areas. Thirty percent of the people live below the poverty line and 40% of the populations are unable to read and write. There are lack of minimum physical facilities in rural areas. The major challenge for Government of Nepal is to provide adequate infrastructure to these remote and scattered settlements. Infra-structure development in Nepal started during 1050, and until then Nepal had no infrastructure linkages to the rest of the world. Since then, the government has been making efforts to provide increased access to education, transportation, communication, health services, electricity and other infrastructure services. Despite these efforts Nepal remains one of the poorest countries with poverty reduction as the major challenge. One of the most dominant challenges of Nepal is to develop the basic infrastructures to accelerate its pace of development. For this, transportation plays a vital role in the overall development and socio-economic transformation of a country. In Nepal, road transport plays predominant role because it is the only means for public transportation except the limited air service to some part of the country which is not affordable to common people. Therefore, road infrastructure serves as a backbone for an overall socio-economic development of Nepal. Negligible length of Railways available in Nepal has diminished surprisingly in the last 4 decades. Janakpur-Jainagar Railway

Er. Kamal NeupnaeAssistant Project Manager

Green Hill City, Mulpani, KTM

Needs of Infrastructure planning and Proper urbanization

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which is a narrow gauge in poor condition is the only railway facility in Nepal. Since the overall development of Nepal is pivoted around Infrastructure development focused at road transport and aimed at poverty reduction, Government of Nepal has its priority in this sub-sector.

2. Status of Road Development in Nepal

Under construction road of Sinduli- Bardibas

Road development in Nepal started only after the advent of democracy in 1950. The first motorable road was constructed in the Kathmandu Valley by the then Rana rulers in 1924. The 42 km all weather gravel road between Amlekhganj to Bhimphedi was the first road of its kind constructed in 1929 outside the Kathmandu valley. The first long distance road to link Kathmandu with the Terai was taken up in 1953 with Indian assistance. This 115 km long road between Thankot (Kathmandu) andBhainse (Makawanpur) was opened to traffic in 1956.

The National Road Network comprises of National Highways, Feeder roads, Urban roads, District roads and Village roads. The National Highways together with the Feeder roads constitute the Strategic Road Network (SRN) of the country. The Strategic Road Network is the backbone of the National Road Network. The construction and maintenance of the strategic roads fall on the responsibility of the Department of Roads.

Present scenario of total Road Network with respect to pavement category is shown in Chart 1

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3. The Legal Frameworks Infrastructure development has remained a priority of the government right from the beginning of first five year plan. With a view to facilitate and to create enabling environment many legislations have been enacted since then. Rules, Regulations and Guidelines have been developed and put to use. Policy documents have been passed and practiced so as to streamline the direction of the development. In this connections the following Acts, Regulations, policy frameworks etc. have been brought in place:

1 Public Roads Act, 2031 2 Local self Governance Act 2054 and Regulations 20553 Public Procurement Acts 2063 and Regulations 20644 Contract Act, 2023 and 20585 Construction Industry Acts 20556 Private Investment in infrastructure, Build and Operate Ordinance 20607 BOOT Acts 2063 and Regulations 20648 Roads Board Act 20599 Engineering Council Acts 2055 and Regulations 205710 Road Sector Policy 199911 Public Infrastructure Build, Operate and Transfer Policy 205712 Priority Investment Plan 1997- 200713 Priority Investment Plan 2007 – 201714 The Department of Roads Strategy 1995 15 Road Maintenance Training Policy 200116 Human Resource Development Policy and Strategy 200217 Bridge maintenance Policy, 200418 Consulting Industry Acts 19 Town Development Act 1988

4. Theprospects for development of InfrastructureNepal is a small and beautiful country. The bio-diversity that exists across the narrow cross section of the country is quite vast. The water resources that are available here could be harnessed for global benefits. The friendly people here with a pride history could be of interest as a living museum to global visitors. The country has a tremendous amount of load shedding which needs to be removed in near future by constructing thousands of Megawatts of electricity. Government aims to provide by the year 2017transportation facilities to its people in a maximum of 2 hours and four hours walk in plains and hills respectively. Thousands of Kilometers of good standard roads need to be constructed to achieve this target. With these special needs and circumstances the opportunities for development of infrastructure could be as below:

1. Development of highways, fast track and expressways2. Development of hydropower both for internal use and export3. Development of tourism both Internal and foreign4. Development of trade and transit with neighbouring countries5. Development of forest products, medicinal plant, wild life and pastures 6. Development of Consulting and Construction industries 7. Attracting Private sector funding in infrastructure development

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8. The changed transport need brought about by the introduction of Federal states9. The growing need for Construction of Expressways / fast track10. Critical need for development of settlements and townships11. Practicing Earthquake resistant design and technology12. Research and Development aimed at indigenous and efficient construction. 13. Investing on development of new towns

5. The issues being facedDevelopment of surface transport in Nepal faces various challenges due to the rugged topography, fragile geology, numerous river crossings etc.Some of those cross cutting issues to be addressed in connection withdevelopment of roads are as follows:

1. Brain drain of skilled manpower 2. Lack of proper facilitation to private companies for infrastructure development.3. Management of funding gap through internal resources and donor support4. Non- engineered roads and other infrastructures on local initiatives5. Development of Railways under difficult gradient and numerous crossings6. Inadequate Maintenance considerations for already constructed infrastructures7. Lack of political stabilities and prolonged transition phase8. Quality Control and sustainability in question9. Need for controlling Corruption and Fraudulent practices 10. Harsh competition with the membership of WTO11. Infra structure development in rugged Topography and fragile geology complicated by

high seismicity and big rivers

6. Status of Urbanization in Nepal:Urbanization refers to increasingly large number of people living in small places and basically engaged in non-agricultural activities which depends on development of industrialization, infrastructure with cities, town and their neighborhood, thus urbanization is considered as an index of modernization. Thebeginning of urbanization can be traced back to renaissance times in 16thcentury. Turkish assaults resulted in movement of Christians from the east to western Europeancountries. As a result, trade grew and European cities along the coasts developed greatlyhowever, the onset of modern and universal process of urbanization is relatively a recent phenomenon and is closely related with industrial revolution and associated economic development.

Nonetheless the character of urbanization is changing as the biggest cities in developing world gain denser population and extend further in to the country side and as cross roads and market towns rapidly transform into urban centers.

Despite the fact that Nepal is one to the least urbanized countries in the world, the economic growth induced by the service sector and foreign remittance, rapid urbanization is taking place.

While analyzing the trend of urbanization in Nepal ,it can been seen that the historical evidenced on the existence of towns in Kathmanduvalley are found only has not yet unfolded in Nepal and the state of urbanization shows that over the last half century, urbanization has been discouraged and

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even hampered. Based on observation of development in Nepal, the migration and urbanization tend to be perceived as negative phenomena and wrong approach to development therefore the government of Nepal has discouraged and restrained migration to urban areas and left process of urbanization to the spontaneous response of population movements and adjustments. It the absence of comprehensive national human settlements policy particularly on urbanization policy that has prevented the promotion facilitation and management of migration and urbanization in Nepal.

Natural population increase and migration are significant factors of cities in Nepal. The natural increase is fueled by improved medical care, better sanitation and improved food supplies, which reduce death rates and cause population to grow. Living in cities permits individuals and families to take advantage of the opportunities of proximity, diversity and market place competition. It is the rural poverty that drives people from rural areas into the city in search of employment, food, shelter and education. Most people migrate into the urban areas because they are pushed out by factors such as poverty, environmentdegradation, religiousstrife, political persecution food insecurity and lack of basic infrastructure and services in the rural areas or because they are pulled into the urban area by the advantages and opportunities of the city including education, electricity and water etc.

7. Urbanization in Kathmandu Valley:

Picture of Cramped Kathmandu Valley

While we are looking into the urbanization of Kathmandu valley, we must go to flash back of countries orthodox urbanization planning. Most of land in Nepal covered with hill and mountains has made the development of infrastructure hard and livelihood difficult. As a result of which, people are migrating towards plain land. But due to lack of proper planning, the urbanization appears to be just along the east west highways on both sides. And it appears nothing scientific planning than that used to be implemented fifty years ago. The scattered population has made cumbersome and expensive to link to mainstream development.

There were two options for these people, either to migrate to low plain land (Terai), capital city Kathmandu or to wait for a wholelife to see the development.

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In the meantime, the decade’s long civil war has resulted a huge migration of population from other parts of country to the capital city Kathmandu. But Kathmandu was not prepared to bear this burden. Undulated land topography, higher seismicity and poor bearing capacity for infrastructure were main drawbacks of Kathmandu for urbanization. Despite the facts, the growth of population in capital city was inevitable. Now Kathmandu has turned into slums and dwellings. As a matter of fact, people living in center and outside are seeking for planned and proper urbanization.

8. Importance of Green Hill City Project:Background: Owing to this fact, there has been huge investment in the sector of housing and planning. Among this Greenhill city Project is also one. The project located in Mulpani itself is a big urban planning and housing project spread in an area of about 158800 square meters (around 16 hectare land) in the suburbs of Kathmandu Valley, the capital city of Nepal. Occupying non arable land the mega project has been featured with infrastructure ranging from Bridge in access road, Water Supply System,Sanitary, Drainage,Black topped wide road (6-11m) to Electrification for the accommodation of about 600 houses along with shoppingcomplex, hospital and other recreational facilities within its territory. The project is aimed to make self-sustainable in water supply through the water harvesting mechanism. Along with this, there would be an alternative source of energy provided by solar panel installed on the rooftop of each houses. The basic infrastructures to support livelihood of 3000 population is challenging. However, the increasing frustration of huge population staying in Kathmandu due to narrow roads, cramped urbanization, lack of proper water supply system and sanitation, the project is in a real demand.

Project Area that covers non arable land

Project Status: The initial phase of project would be design of master plan that would include allocation of land based on purpose, alignment of approach road and survey of potential resources

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like ground water for drinking purpose, arable land for kitchen gardening and solid land for housing and industrialization purpose.

Site development plan of first phase of the project

Just after having been collected from the small land dwellers, the land was in the form of undulated terrain. So the first part of the project was cutting and filling of landscape so as to make it uniform based on its purpose. The second part was layout of infrastructure ranging from bridge, road, water supply system, Sewer lines and electrification. The infrastructure development would only cost 40 percent of total cost.

The building would be constructed as per the government standards of structure and architects possessing harmony with the national cultural heritage that would help to preserve national cultural diversity. There would be open space for gardening and kitchen gardening, proper water supply system, black topped roads with street lamps, Proper Drainage and Sewerage System with RCC pipes of adequate capacity, proper solid waste management system, Electricity with solar backups and telephone facility.

The Project will finally get its shape after its entire infrastructure is built herein. The biggest urbanization that will accommodate around 3000 population would be a model piece of city amid the existing unplanned and crammed full city of Kathmandu.

9. Conclusion:Infrastructure planning mainly relates with Road network and proper urbanization in Nepal. Nepal has been able to expedite its infrastructure development in the lasttwo decades. However, the government’s ambitious project of building new cities nearby east west Lokmarga are still likes dreams comestrue. Although all the district headquarters would be road linked within next two years, the condition of road won’t be good enough for safety. Owing to this fact, there is a need of classification of cities and start building them accordingly. It’s better to develop particular area and allure people to migrate in nearby city rather than to provide fragile infrastructure to each

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of spread population. Since the infrastructure offers significant opportunities to reduce poverty and gender equality, as well as to promote sustainable development, the donor support towards infrastructure development is increasing over the last few decades which have been instrumental to shape the road network of Nepal to present status. Legal provisions such as Acts, Regulations, plansand policies are in place to create enabling environment. The private sectors are willing to put their investment to infrastructure sector once the political stability is restored. Rapid progress of China and India, the two big neighbors could benefit Nepal from their development. The opportunity for infrastructure development is therefore, quite high in Nepal. Capacity building of both the consulting and construction industry is required in order to shoulder this responsibility mostly from within the nation. The past efforts and experiences have revealed that there are some constraints to develop basic infrastructure. The funding has always remained as a key issue. Haphazard and non-engineered construction has raised serious concerns towards the sustainability of older urbanization. The quality control has not received due emphasis in some of the infrastructure developments in the past. These issues need to be addressed well as the country moves towards ‘construction of New Nepal’. With these opportunities and challenges Nepal has put its highest priority towards the extension of its infrastructure planning. Together with the donor support, mobilization of internal resources including private funding and asset maintenance priority the scope for infrastructure development is tremendous. Based on the past experiences it is believed that poverty reduction would be realized through adequate, safe and sound urbanization with better road networks. For the development of necessary infrastructure Engineers role is very vital. So, the role of consulting engineers for building new Nepal is of utmost importance. Nepalese consulting Industry ,private developers, foreign donors and Government together with the construction industry here should develop themselves side by side so as to shoulder this responsibility that the time is going to put on to them.

ECoCoDE Nepal Pvt. Ltd. (Engineering Consultancy for Constructive Development Efforts in Nepal Pvt.Ltd.)

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Mobile: 9851130538

We wish the great success with regularity and punctuality for the …

The Firm is established with a broad objective to provide cost effective professional services of premier quality to cater the diverse needs, professional ethic, timely performance; total quality assurance, and at the level of client’s satisfaction. ECoCoDE Nepal Pvt. Ltd. has planned to participate in wide range of infrastructural development activities to contribute in National development to build New Nepal. Our fields of services are;

• Valuation and Estimating, costing • Highway/Transportation Planning/ engineering • Hydropower Engineering • Engineering Survey • Environmental Engineering

• Urban Planning • Rural Planning/development • Geo technical engineering • Architectural/ Structural Design • Water supply and Solid waste engineering

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Er. Shree Ram DhakalIndividual Consultant-PDE

RAIDP/DoLIDAR

Urgent Need of Procurement Management Information System (PMIS) For Improving Public Procurements

1. BackgroundSound Public Procurement Policies and Practices are among the essential elements of good governance. Good practices reduce cost and produce timely results in efficient manner. Poor practices lead to wastage and delays and often become the cause of allegations in corruption and government inefficiencies. It is government’s duty to take measures to ensure adequate principles and practices are followed in public works and services. Sufficient regulatory provisions have been made; meanwhile sufficient threats and weep holes have been identified along with in our procurement practices.

Prevailing Public Procurement Act 2063, along with previous FAR had, has adopted the competitive bidding process for procuring works, goods and services. It is aimed to acquire the reasonable standard of delivery in the least cost through capable deliverer/supplier. Despite such provision, current practices have not attained sufficient satisfactory result as aimed in the regulatory provisions. It has been a big challenge for every public authority to get the reasonable standard of delivery. Manipulations are often found both from contracting parties during bid preparation as well as procuring authority during the evaluation process. During bidding process major alterations the bidders make is the faulty information about the work experience, financial turnover, faulty equipment and manpower capability information. It is often observed that the bidders have a wide tendency to make fake documents to show that they meet the qualifying criteria mentioned in the bidding documents. Likewise, during evaluation process public authoritarians have often found to have vested interest to make certain bidder successful prejudicially and alterations in the posted documents of bidders have taken place with motive of unethical financial gain.

All such unfair practices have made the procurement practices unfaithful and government works and services ineffective compared to their objectives. So, there is urgent need of adopting a smart system which minimizes the chances of alteration and manipulation before, during and after bidding process. To make procurements efficient and unaltered, Procurement Management Information System (PMIS) can be a smart remedy in reducing inefficiencies, manipulations and fraud & corruption during tendering and contract execution.

2. What is PMIS?Procurement Management Information System (PMIS) is a smart system which collects, stores and synthesizes the procurement related information all over the country. It is an online based central and integrated data management system concerning to the procurement activities. PMIS uses centrally updated data warehouse to track, record and verify the procurement history and current capabilities of the contracting parties’ viz. contractors/suppliers/consultants. During bidding, bid

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evaluation and contract execution PMIS serves as necessary source of transformation of authentic information and bridges between the bidders and procuring authority. PPMO can be an appropriate authority to undertake the central data management system.

3. Components of PMIS and RegistrationComponents of PMIS are more similar to that of e-submission system being adopted till date. The difference lies in the continuous receiving and updating of the capabilities and procurement information by PMIS unlike to e-submission system. Following are the component units of PMIS.

a. Central Data server- a data warehouseb. Online Service Packagec. System Members

i. System administrator, say PPMO ii. Procuring Authoritiesiii. Bidding Parties i.e. contractors/suppliers/consultantsiv. Scheduled Banks

4. Work Flow Steps in PMISWork flow of adopting PMIS should take in the following sequential order.

a. Registration of UsersRegistration of different users should follow different methods. Adequate review and verification should be done prior to the registration since the users are made authorized, with designated powers according to the type of user, to participate in the public procurement by registering them in the system. Registration of users’ takes place with following hierarchical order.

i. Registration of System administrator: - This is a single entity type of user. PPMO (or any central authority) is a single and one time registration process.

ii. Registration of Procuring Authorities:- All the procuring entities should enter into the system by certifying their procurement needs by the government departments with authorized lettering.

iii. Registration of contractors/suppliers/consultants: - Registration of bidding parties in PMIS should be managed in such a way that they are bound to enter in the PMIS by written request with supporting documents rightly after they are registered in the firm/company registration authority. At the time of registration the current capabilities i.e. Manpower, equipments, financial resources and other technical capabilities should be registered along with.

iv. Registration of Scheduled Banks: - Registration of Banks takes place on demand to the system by bidding parties (for presenting bid charge amount, bid security guaranty or performance guaranty during bidding process) or by procuring authorities (during payments).

b. Electronic BiddingInvitation of bids, quotations, RFPs etc should be called officially through electronic bidding process. For doing so every procuring authority should keep online based centralized service

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package/software. Preparation of bid documents can be simplified by already prepared templates by administrator where necessary entries can be made pertaining to the unique details of that contract. Posting of bid notice to the system automatically generates email notification to every members registered to the system.

On receiving the notification, bidders can prepare his bid by providing his necessary entries of item rates and other required customization to the provided bid template. Also the bidding parties have to manage the appropriate bank to issue bid security guaranty which too, gets submitted through online in the PMIS system along with the bid. There is no need to mention the experience information, manpower and equipment capabilities and financial turnover etc. by the bidders on their own as these things are automatically stored and updated continuously in the system. Bidding by that time only indicates the willingness of the particular bidder.

c. Bid Opening and EvaluationOpening of bid will not be a big deal after going online system of PMIS as there is no chance of manipulations and alterations as like in case of hard copy submission. So, it follows a regular office day process. Bidding period can also be reduced as online system gives a reduced effort on bid preparation. After opening of bids on the specified date and time, it can be automated in the PMIS system to send the abstract details of submitted bids to all the bidders as bid opening checklist (muchulka as we say).

After opening of bids evaluation of the bid takes place. This section in the system is only accessible from the terminal of procuring authority (the buyer). Through this section the buyer generates the checklist of Requirement Details of the contract as indicated in the bid document already prepared and also the detail capability of the bidders though the PMIS central data warehouse. On comparison of both, system automatically indicates the eligible and ineligible bidders. After generating the Comparative Chart of proposed item rates in the BOQ provided by the eligible bidders along with the bid document template, Lowest Eligible Bidder is easily determined. The case of responsive and non responsive bidders can be omitted by filtering during the bidding process i.e. not allowing the non-responsive bids for particular contract during bidding.

d. Contract Award and MonitoringAfter evaluation of bid, contract is awarded to the successful bidder through the system. Going through the contract award terminal by the buyer, contract agreement template document already created in the system is modified and customized in the required field only (i.e name and ID of contract, SCC, Priced BOQ, time of execution, milestones etc) which gets entered in the data warehouse. It can be utilized by the system for real-time tracking of contract.

By the help of set data in the system (or say in the contract document) PMIS regulated and notifies the necessary information like milestones, time frame, guaranty times, and progress and suggests action to the concerned party. Mandatory actions cannot be modified or altered by none of the registered users (neither buyer nor the administrator). For example, if the milestone provisioned in the contract is not achieved, it suggests charging Liquidated Damage as in the contract document and it has to be done by the buyer otherwise payment order by the system does not proceed. Hence the chance of manipulations in the contract execution is highly reduced.

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e. Payments and Completion of ContractDuring or on completion of contract execution series of payment shall be released. The payments can be released to the contracting parties upon the billing of executing works through the billing section of the PMIS accessible only to the buyer. Payment can be issued through the scheduled banks upon the online request order through the system. On completion of works or services, completion report is prepared with contract execution details and final payment is released.

f. Updating the Contract Execution ReportSince every action is preceded through the online based software package of PMIS connected to the central server it is gets automatically saved to server. On termination of contract, summary of contract execution, milestones, progress record, billing information and payment history is recorded by the system removing the other tracking histories.

Compilation of such executive summaries of all contracts handled by a particular contracting party, yearly work experience and financial turnover can be easily generated by the system. Turnover Report of all the registered contracting parties can be published in the system in the yearly basis. Such reports are usable for future bidding actions and contract management.

g. Updating the Increased Capability of BiddersThe system should support the update of the increased capability of bidding parties. Increment in the resources, manpower, equipment and other capital assets etc should be updated with written request by the contracting parties on verification of the requested update with supporting documents (i.e. purchase receipt and departmental registration slip etc.) by the system administrator.

5. Advantages of PMIS over Traditional SystemAdoption of PMIS can make vast difference in the current procurement practices. There is very little or no chance of manipulations during the bidding process as well as contract execution. Following are some of the advantages.

i. During bidding process, bidders cannot present the fake information of experience, turnover and equipment as in the current hard copy submission system since tracked factual data are given by the system server.

ii. One equipment, manpower or vehicles allocated by bidder for particular contract in the bid can be made used for that contract only making unable to allocate for other contracts.

iii. Opening and evaluation of bids is highly simplified work in PMIS. There is no chance of manipulations and alterations in the documents by evaluation team. Chance of unethical processing is reduced.

iv. PMIS timely informs and alarms about the milestones, critical activities and time frames which we often forget during contract execution in our present practice.

v. Every detail of all ongoing as well as completed contracts is tracked by the system server enabling the generation of status of contracts overally, particular to a contract or particular record of a contracting party. Helps in taking necessary action.

vi. Since PMIS eliminated major alterations, it greatly reduces the cases of fraud and corruption as procurement is the major source of corruption.

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6. Current Challenges of Adopting PMISEvery new starts faces some challenges. Adoption of PMIS too, will not be free from hindrances and obstacles at its start. Following are our challenges to go for adopting PMIS in public procurements.

i. Reluctance of public authorities and political circle to adopt a smart and alteration –free system.

ii. PMIS is fully online based. Lack of continuous electricity supply and internet connections every places of country.

iii. Limitation of proper level of computer skills among public personnel’s and contracting parties.

iv. Proper mechanism of data encryption in online system should be established.

v. Without clearly stating in the procurement act and until detail regulations and guidelines to go for an online based system is made, it is difficult to adopt PMIS.

7. Emerging from the Challenges and Way Forward Despite a nos. of limitations and reluctance in our current system, we are bound to correct them as we are, now or then, bound to rise from our misery. It’s only we and our generation to make our environment a better place. If we sought for a dynamic and well mechanized system in our governance, the result is efficient service delivery with a lesser operation cost. Since procurement sector is a major area of corruption; a properly controlled, dynamic and smart system in our procurement practice is urgently needed. Procurement Management Information System plays a vital role in curbing corruption eliminating the chances of manipulations.

PMIS does not make the procurement different but makes it proceed differently. The reduced effort, lesser chances in alterations, elimination of unhealthy competition, reduction in chances of undue benefits are the results PMIS provides. Many of the countries in the world including Bangladesh, whom we used call a major country of procurement mishmash in South Asia, have already gone for complete online base procurement system. So, it’s our time to leap into a prosperous and mechanized country through procurement reforms and good-governance. It’s a crucial time that PPMO is undertaking the process of replacing of the current Public Procurement Act with a new one and is a better instance to quest for an efficient and smart system. The recent budget speech of FY 2070 has too, proclaimed its commitment for electronic government procurement i.e. e-GP system, which should be advocated to make happened in real. References

i. World Bank Country Procurement Assessment Report (October 2002)

ii. Asian Development Bank, “Curbing Corruption in Public Procurement in Asia and the Pacific, Progress and Challenges in 25 Countries”,2006

iii. E-GP Guidelines of Government of Peoples Republic of Bangladesh, 2009

iv. E-procurement Portal of DoLIDAR, Nepal, < https://www.edolidar.gov.np>

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Er. Ganga Datta NepalTechnical Officer

WHO-DWSS/MOUD/GON - WASH ProgramKathmandu, Nepal


Water Safety Plan (WSP) for Sustainability and Livelihood improvement

1. Introduction1.1 BackgroundWater is the most abundant compound on Earth's surface, covering about 70 percent of the planet. In nature, water exists in liquid, solid, and gaseous states. It is truly unique commodity; without it life does not exist. Life can however, become equally uncertain even when there is water all around. While excess water in the form of floods and water deficit in the form of droughts have struck different parts of the world and Nepal time and again, consumption of unsafe water has claimed thousands of lives annually.

Majority of Nepal's 26.4 million people are poor and more than 85% live in rural areas (GoN/CBS 2011). The biggest challenge faced by the government of Nepal is to provide the basic human needs including provision of safe water supply and improved sanitation facilities to its all people. For underdeveloped countries like Nepal, the degree of ease at which the people have access to safe water is then the indicator of the health status of the people. Accordingly, top priority has been given by Government of Nepal (GoN) to increase coverage of water supply facilities. GoN aims at supplying safe and easily accessible water to all its citizens till 2017. To achieve this ambitious

ABSTRACT

The provision of safe and quality drinking water and improved sanitation facilities is the declared commitment of the government of Nepal.Water safety plans are considered by the WHO as the most effective means of maintaining a safe supply of drinking water to the public. Their use should ensure that water is safe for human consumption and that it meets regulatory water standards relating to human health.Comprehensive risk assessment and risk management are the backbone of the plan, which aim to steer management of drinking water-related health risks. For a WSP plan, a thorough assessment of the water supply process from water source to the consumer's tap must be carried out by the water supply provider.

Beni Water Supply Project served at district headquarter Beni Bazaar of Mygdi district. The project is successful in providing local people with better quality water supply at nearer locations and hygienic sanitation, which reduced much of the hardship, especially for the women. From the facilities the females have been able to save considerable amount of time, which they have utilized to improve their health, education and economic status.

The cost-effectiveness analysis of WSP indicates that some WSP interventions are highly cost-effective for the control of diarrhoeal diseases. In Beni Water Supply Project after WSP no any remarkable evidence of diarrhoeal disease outbreak is seen. As the sustainability parameters indicated, the schemes have an excellent chance of continuing for a long duration. With the present management, this project is functioning as intended and has a greater chance for sustenance throughout its design period.

Key words: Water Safety Plan, Sustainability, Livlihood, Risk, Hazard

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target GoN, I/NGOs and other stakeholders in the sector continuouslytrying to meet the set target.

There are more than 38000 water supply and sanitation schemes completed in the country, out of them only 18 % schemes are running smoothly. It clearly shows that more than 80 % schemes have the problem of operation and maintenance (NMIP, 2010). In this scenario, it is needed to focus on Water Safety Plan (WSP) provide ownership from community i.e. proper operation and maintenance, which will ensure sustainability and functionality of the schemes.

1.2 Water Safety Plan (WSP)For the sustainable sectoral activity, water safety plan is a tool, which realized health, operational and financial benefits accrued through the implementation of WSP. It has contributed to a growing evidence base that they are the most effective means to consistently providing safe drinking water. It provide a framework for proactive, systematic and effective management and surveillance of drinking water supplies based on a preventative risk-based approach. A Water safety plan is a plan to ensure the safety of drinking water through the use of a comprehensive risk assessment and risk management approach that encompasses all steps in water supply from catchment to consumer.

Water safety planis considered by the WHO as the most effective means of maintaining a safe supply of drinking water to the public. Their use should ensure that water is safe for human consumption and that it meets regulatory water standards relating to human health. Comprehensive risk assessment and risk management form the backbone of these plans, which aim to steer management of drinking water-related health risks away from end-of-pipe monitoring and response. In order to produce a plan, a thorough assessment of the water supply process from water source to the consumer's tap must be carried out by the water provider (WHO, 2008). Hazards and risks should be identified, and appropriate steps towards minimizing these risks are then investigated.

1.3 Objectives of the StudyThe general objective of the research is to examine and evaluate the actual situation, impact of the project and effectiveness of Water Safety Plan (WSP) for functionality and sustainability of Beni Water Supply and Sanitation project.

However, the specific objectives of this study are:

lTo acquire a better understanding of degree to which communities have gained immediate benefits from the project as a whole and from the various components of the schemes, and the degree of equity in sharing benefits.

lTo study Effectiveness of WSP for the sustainability of the project.lTo study the socio-economic and environmental impact of the project.lTo find the Efficiency, Current functional index (CFI) and Sustainability index (SPI) of the

project.lTo assess and indicate projects' impact on community on health and environmental

sanitation.

1.4 Study AreaThe ultimate goal of water supply projects’ to improve the health of communities through bringing potable water closer to their homes and promoting hygiene and sanitation activities. To continue the better hygiene and sanitation practices of a community, it ensure at all levels of project cycle a technically, environmentally and operationally sustainable water supply system.The study project

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area is located in Arthunge VDC and periphery of the Myagdi district. This VDC is also the district headquarter of Myagdi. Currently, there is very good road transport network to reach the district headquarter- Beni.

Figure: Nepal, Myagdi and Beni Bazaar [Source: Nepal, 2013]

The coverage area of Beni Water Supply project is around the Beni Bazaar and some small neighboring villages. The water catchment and the source of the project lies in the Rankhu VDC, the north from Beni bazaar. The Beni Water Supply Project covers total population of 8661 of 876 households in ward no. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 & 9 wards of Arthunge VDC i.e. Beni Bazaar. The population in the scheme area is heterogeneous in terms of ethnicity. The community population consists of different caste and ethnic group. The project is the self-felt need of community and then proposed to the Department of Water Supply and Sewerage via its Division Office at district for the implementation.

2. Methodology of StudyThis study focuses on Beni Water Supply and Sanitation Project area of Myagdi district. This study focuses on effectiveness of Water Safety Plan (WSP) for the functionality and sustainability issues of the project.

An exploratory and descriptive study method has been applied to conduct the research. This study is mostly a primary research and data has been obtained by observation and discussion method. Data collected from the field has been analyzed in tabulated and descriptive manner. Exploratory methods have been applied to interpret the data. And the research have been described the basis of evaluation of the activities of project in the study area; some secondary information has been used and this information has been analyzed descriptively.

The natures of the data are both qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative data are collected by the observation methods whereas quantitative data are collected by the survey research using the tools of the field visit.

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3. Result and Discussion3.1 Water Safety TeamA Water Safety Plan (WSP) is a plan to ensure the safety of drinking water through the use of a comprehensive risk assessment and risk management approach that encompasses all steps in water supply from catchment to consumer. Comprehensive risk assessment and risk management form the backbone of these plans, which aim to steer management of drinking water-related health risks away from end-of-pipe monitoring and response. The principles and concepts of other risk management paradigms are extensively drawn upon in WSP design, including the multi-barrier approach and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP). In order to produce a plan, a thorough assessment of the water supply process from water source to the consumer's tap must be carried out by the water provider. Hazards and risks should be identified, and appropriate steps towards minimizing these risks are then investigated.

Active ownership by community members in the operation, maintenance and management of their water supplies is crucial in small communities. For the success of WSP implementation, it is very important to make involvement of decision makers, community leaders in the WSP team. Normally, the WSP team is responsible for developing, implementing and maintaining the WSP. But, they also needed to help the community to understand and accept the WSP approach. It also need to provide the knowledge to users of community about catchment, history of water supply, those with the greatest interest in safe water (especially women) and those who can influence the community. Health personnel, Teachers also need to be considered as members or resource persons of the WSP team.

The step to provide community a better understanding of the health concerns related to their water supply and empower it to act through ownership over its water supply. The whole water supply system is connected to different components.

General system information also needs to be gathered and recorded to describe the water supply and its management, including the various components. Following type of information is regularly collected by WSP team at Beni Water Supply project.

lWater quality – Test of Turbidity lRegular visit of water sources to ensure the catchment qualitylTreatment by proper dosing of ChlorinelDetail information collected and recorded from catchment, Transmission, Treatment,

Distribution and POU.lWater use record management.lProper mobilization of Village Maintenance Worker.lStrict rule for Tariff collection and record keeping.lWUSC has proper fund for regular small operation and maintenance

WUSC as well as community have good understanding of the catchment area. They well known where the water is originated, i.e. spring source and the catchment is in safe place but sometimes problem of landslides as it is in hilly area. In this regard, it can be seen that WSP team is regularly updating project information for their proper record management.

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3.2 Identify hazards and hazardous events and assess the risks The process of hazard identification involves identifying actual and potential dangers and their causes. Hazard identification should be based on community (including old and historical information), recurring local events (heavy runoff, floods during heavy rainfall). In addition a WSP team is regularly visiting for the track record from catchment to Point of Use (POU); this work is especially done by two VMWs working for the system management. The hazard and hazardous events are prioritized based on the team’s judgment. For each hazards and hazardous event, the WSP team will consider the significance of the risk. It is done by reflecting of recording how likely

such event will occur in the community/system and how serious is the event. It is considered together with effectiveness of control measures to mitigate those risks.

A biological, chemical, physical agent that can be the cause of harm of public health. The histories of the project, still they have not got such harm. They are getting more turbid water during rainy season.

It is observed during field observation, recent road construction exposed a section of buried mains high – density polythene pipeline Beni water supply system, a vehicle can damage this pipeline (hazardous event), potentially causing disruption of safe water supply to the public health of district headquarter- Beni and periphery area.

3.3 Effectiveness of Water Safety PlanThe need base realisation of health, operational and financial benefits accrued through Water Safety Plans implementation (WSP) has contributed to a growing evidence base that they are the most effective means to consistently providing safe drinking water. WSP provide a framework for proactive, systematic and effective management and surveillance of drinking water supplies based on a preventative risk-based approach. Successful implementation of WSPs can improve drinking water quality, accrue operational efficiencies and provide a robust framework to better target more sustainable capital investments.

Cost-effectiveness analysis indicates that some WSP interventions are highly cost-effective for the control of diarrhoea among under-5-year- childs. Such interventions are needed to ensure that the potentially positive health impacts of WSP infrastructure are fully realized in practice. The cost-effectiveness of a set of hardware and software combinations is estimated, using US$ per case averted, US$ per death averted, and US$ per disability-adjusted life year (DALY) saved.

3.3.1 Current project status – based on WSP indexDifferent physical components were observed and ranking as follows: Total marks for the overall component is 60. Efficiency of the physical structure can be calculated using the equation.

Figure: Transmission line after the road construction of Beni Water Supply project

Source: WSSDO (2013)

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Overall situation Efficiency =100% × Total full marks

For the observation phenomenon; Good = 10; Satisfactory = 5 & Bad = 0

Table: Physical structure observation tableS.N. Structure Overall situation Marking

1 Intake Good 82 Transmission Line Good 63 Reservoir Tank Good 104 Distribution line Good 105 Tap stands Good 106 Others: Valve Chamber, Collection Chamber etc. Good 10

Total Marks 54

Using above equation, 54 Efficiency =

60 100%

= 90 %

Hence, it is found that physical components of the project are good in condition but it is necessary to maintain in Intake and Transmission line.

3.3.2 Users’ Committee and Operation / Maintenance:

Table: Observation table for users’ committee and O & M statusS.N. Scheme Name Handed to

WUSCWUSC

meetingO & M fund Staffs Remarks

1 Beni water supply and sanitation project

Yes Regular Yes, they have regular collection system.

Yes, everyone is satisfied with staffs’ job.

Overall responsibilities and performance of the User's committee is good. Community people are supporting them in every decision. There is regular collection of Operation and maintenance fund. They have appointed a VMW of their own community member. Everyone is satisfied with his job. WUSC has providing him per month salary.

3.3.3 Functional and Sustainability IndexBy analyzed the varying indicators of the functioning of services and the sustainability potential in the preceding pages. The research now attempts to find the functional and sustainability index of the project. This has been determined by calculating two indices, what the researcher would like to refer as, Current functional index (CFI) and Sustainability potential index (SPI).

3.3.4 Functional Status Index This index gives the level at which the services are functioning. To calculate the CFI, equal weightage have been assigned to the four indicators namely, quality, quantity, reliability and convenience of service. Each has been given 10 marks, the full marks being 40.

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The CFI has been derived in percentage by the following equation:

Score 40

× 100

Value assignment to the indicators of functioning of services has been done as follows:

Table: Calculation of current functional indexS.N. Functional Parameter Status Weightage Remarks

1 Water Quantity Sufficient 102 Water Quality Safe and acceptable 103 Reliability Reliable 104 Accessibility Convenient 10

Total 40

From the above equation; Current Functional Index (CFI) = 100%

3.1.5 Sustainability Status IndexThe index gives the potential of the projects to sustain the services. Equal weightage have assigned to the following seven indicators, the full mark being 70. The SPI has been derived in percentage by the following equation below.

Score 70

× 100

Value assignment to the indicators of sustainability potential of services has been done as follows:

1. WUSC formed Yes (10); No (0)2. Project handed over to WUC Yes (10); No (0)3. WUSC meetings Regular (10); Irregular (5); none (0)4. Maintenance worker hired Yes (10); No (0)5. O & M Fund Established (10); None (0)6. Tariff Raised Yes (10); Partial (5); No (0)7. Tools Reserve Sufficient (10); Inadequate (5); None (0)

Table: Calculation of sustainability potential index S.N. Indicator Weightage Remarks

1 WUSC formed Yes (10), No (0)2 Project handed over to WUC Yes (10), No (0)3 WUC meeting Regular (10), No (0)4 Maintenance worker hired Yes (10), No (0)5 O & M fund Yes (10), No (0)6 Tariff raised Yes (10), No (0)7 Tools reserve Sufficient (10), No (0)

Total 70

From the above equation: Sustainability Potential Index (SPI) = 100%

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3.3.6 Interpretation of the resultCFI and SPI of the projects under study is as follows:

Table: Interpretation of the resultS.N. Project CFI SPI Analysis

1 Beni Water supply and sanitation project 100% 100%

Project is running in smoothly and it has positive impact on community.

With the present management, this project is functioning as intended and has a greater chance for sustenance throughout its design period.

3.4 Impact of the project It is observed that the community and the family members as leaders and the partners involved in many decision making process, they are involved in record and account keeping. Women are involved in organizing mobilizing, implementing and monitoring of different development works. They are able to identify the problems, causes and solution

3.4.1 Social ImpactWater supply and sanitation are essential for human health and survival, for food Security and the empowerment of women as well as the education of girls, for reduction in productivity losses due to morbidity and malnutrition, for the management and protection of natural resources. Although the crucial importance has been widely recognized, the right to safe water and adequate sanitation remains a promise unfulfilled for the world’s poorest citizens. The lack of access to safe drinking water and to basic sanitation impedes economic development, thwarts progress towards gender equality and puts the health in danger. The unsustainable exploitation of natural resources is often due to insufficient or inadequate water supply and sanitation.

Major changes brought from the project in women's lifestyle;

lNo need to wake up too early, or wait in long lines, and reduced idle gossiping and conflicts.lMore time involved in organized meetings, decision-making and community development

activities.lKnowledge about health/sanitation, group formation, literacy and simple accounting,

construction and maintenance of water supply and sanitation schemes.lAwareness about locally available resources, women's rights and roles in community

development and family welfare, and other institutions such as agriculture extension, health posts etc.

lIncreased income and savings and also the right to decide how to use their own earnings.

3.4.2 Environmental Health ImpactThe impact of water supply and/or excreta disposal facilities on diarrhoeal diseases, or on infections related to diarrhoea, reveals several methodological problems that hamper the drawing of definitive conclusions from these studies. It has significance of environmental management of the area by providing safe drinking water which reduces the diarrheal diseases. By reducing the water-related health risks and thereby improving the health status of the population, domestic water supply and sanitation also has an impact on the nutritional situation of poor people. Healthy people are better able to absorb the nutrients in food than those suffering from water-and -sanitation related

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diseases, particularly worms which rob their hosts of calories. Furthermore, a reduction of the distance to the nearest safe water sources, will also have a positive impact on the energy (calories) required for securing the household water needs. With the reduced time burden from improved water services, more time can be spend on productive activities either directly in food production or in other income-generating activities.

3.4.3 Economic ImpactAssuring the water supply for the household has significant consequences both in terms of time and monetary costs. At the same time, insufficient and inadequate water supply and sanitation result in increased health risks for the population and a higher morbidity and mortality due to water- related diseases. Improving water supply and sanitation will have a positive impact on the individual income and poverty situation of the beneficiary household. Reducing the time and energy burden of water collection by providing safe water at a nearer distance will enable household members to engage in other activities, among them productive and income generating activities. Improved water quality will reduce the health risks and also the costs of preventing and treating ill family members. Furthermore, the reduction of working days lost to water-related diseases will also have a positive impact on the household’s income situation.

3.4.4 Overall Impact Evaluation Improved water management and water supply and sanitation contribute to the sustainable exploitation of natural resources and provides for maintaining ecosystem integrity. Improved water supply increased the opportunities for women to improve their economic productivity. The time formerly dedicated to fetching water was freed up for income generation The agricultural produce were partly used to complement the family diet and partly sold at nearby markets. In some villages, women organised themselves in fruit growers’ associations and sold the products in nearby markets. Time was also devoted to other income generating activities such as handicrafts, sewing, and food processing.

In addition, improving water supply in rural areas where water sources are at great distances from the villages will have a different impact on the time burden associated with water collection than urban water supply improvements. At the same time, the environmental benefit deriving from improved wastewater management will most probably have a greater impact on ecosystem health than basic sanitation in rural areas.

4. ConclusionSuccessful implementation project with the different water safety Plan components can improve drinking water quality, accrue operational efficiencies and provide a robust framework to better target more sustainable capital investments. The cost-effectiveness analysis indicates that some WSP interventions are highly cost-effective for the control of diarrhoea among under-5-year-olds, on a par with oral rehydration therapy.

The project was successful in providing local people with better quality water supply at nearer locations and hygienic sanitation, which reduced much of the hardship, especially of rural women. From the facilities the females have been able to save considerable amount of time, which they have utilized to improve their health, education and economic status. Their interaction with government staff and at cluster level meetings led them to develop the leadership qualities to present their views in mass meetings and share their ideas about the importance of men and women having equal rights.

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The impact of water supply and/or excreta disposal facilities on diarrhoeal diseases, or on infections related to diarrhoea, reveals several methodological problems that hamper the drawing of definitive conclusions from these studies. It has significance of environmental management of the area by providing safe drinking water which reduces the diarrheal diseases. By reducing the water-related health risks and thereby improving the health status of the population, domestic water supply and sanitation also has an impact on the nutritional situation of poor people. Healthy people are better able to absorb the nutrients in food than those suffering from water-and -sanitation related diseases, particularly worms which rob their hosts of calories.

Improving water supply and sanitation will have a positive impact on the individual income and poverty situation of the beneficiary household. Reducing the time and energy burden of water collection by providing safe water at a nearer distance will enable household members to engage in other activities, among them productive and income generating activities. Improved water quality will reduce the health risks and also the costs of preventing and treating ill family members. Furthermore, the reduction of working days lost to water-related diseases will also have a positive impact on the household’s income situation.

As the sustainability parameters indicated, the schemes have an excellent chance of continuing for a long duration. With the present management, this project is functioning as intended and has a greater chance for sustenance throughout its design period.

5. RecommendationAlthough there are numerous issues on which one can study the field of impact evaluation and sustainable development citing examples of rural water supply and sanitation projects, the present study focused primarily on the user management and sustainability aspect. After the overall assessment and study, like to recommend in the following points;

l WSP should be the compulsory component of the project from the beginning. l The WUSC should provide a complete set of tools for the future operation and maintenance

of the project. l The WUSC and its staffs i.e. VMW and Sanitation volunteers should continue to motivate

the households for latrine construction, which increase the toilet coverage. l VMW should be non-migratory personnel. l It is necessary to provide the Skill training for the women for income generation activities. l Awareness on tariff collection should be done from the beginning of the project.

References: l Beni Water Supply Users’ Organisation (1996): “Summary Introduction”. l CBS (2011), National Population Survey of Nepal. l District Development Plan of Myagdi of FY 2069/70, published by district development committee. l DWSS (2012): Nepal WSP key material (WSP 10 steps) and formats. l DWSS/WQIMS (2012): Handbook of Water Safety Plan. l Murray CJ, Lopez AD, Jamison DT. The global burden of disease in 1990: summary results, sensitivity analysis

and future directions. Bull World Health Organ. 1994;72(3):495–509 l Nepal, GD & Boie, I. (2006), “Environment and Poverty in Rural Nepal: Water Supply and Sanitation Project is

key for Sustainable Development” submitted to University of Karlsruhe, Germany. l NERUDO (2003): Final Draft Report – package no 14 Beni water Supply & Sanitation Project (2003). l Sara, Jennifer and Travis Katz (1998), Demand Responsive Community based water supply services. l Water Supply and Sanitation ' Policy and Strategy" (1998, 2004), Ministry of Physical Planning and Works,

Kathmandu, Nepal. l WHO (2009): Water safety Planning: for Small Community Water Supplies (2009): Step –by-step risk

management guidance for drinking water supplies in small communities.

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Indra Raj BaduPost Construction Specialist

RVWRMP II, Nepal

Functionality and sustainability of the community managedDWSS in Mid and Far-Western Region of Nepal

IntroductionRural Village Water Resources Management project (RVWRMP) is working in the mid and Far western Region of Nepal since 2006, running its second phase from 2010. The overall objectives are "institutionalized capacity at local and regional levels to sustain and continuously improve enhanced quality of life, better environmental condition and increased opportunities in rural livelihood in the project area" with 3 major results as WASH, Sustainable Livelihood and Institutional development for sustainable support to the communities. Sustainability and regular functionality of the completed schemes is an important aspect of the project and implemented post construction guideline. Extensive and diverse activities are directly addressing the issues of schemes sustainability and functionality. The post construction phase includes capacity building of the UCs, VWASHCC and concerned line agencies at VDC, district and regional level.

The project has clear step-by-step approach with related guidelines and manuals. The implementation approach and guidelines contribute in the assigned project indicators. The basic of the project interventions is the Water Use Master Plan (WUMP) prepared by the VDC/VWASHCC with the project facilitation. Users have the main responsibility to plan, implement and proper operation and maintenance of the water and sanitation related activities alongwith livelihood and microfinance activities at community level. All 946 schemes since RVWRMP Phase I stem from WUMPs and are implemented through the step-by-step process. The major area of interventions for proper operation and maintenance management are to implement O&M regulations/constitutions, O&M and water safety plan, Capacity building of the UC, VMW, VWASHCC and other stakeholders and institutional development at local level that ensures the proper functionality and sustainability of the completed schemes. Re-use of the water for on-farm income generation activities and institutional strengthening at local level is the major challenges in the community level that is important to reduce seasonal migration and uplift the living standard of the people. Therefore, strengthening local institutions to support in planning, implementation and management of water related activities is the major intervention as an external support.

This paper focuses on RVWRMP's experiences with the community management. The presentation of the paper will indicate the major interventions with support model, achievement so far, learning and recommendations for betterment of the community managed drinking water and sanitation systems.

Areas of InterventionSocial mobilization, capacity building and institutional development are very crucial for any rural infrastructure. Specific beneficiaries and their associations are the main responsible body to

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maintain and manage the drinking water and sanitation facilities. The main area of interventions are UC governance, participation of the users, regular meetings, general assembly, participatory planning, review, UC registrations, human resource development at community level. Similarly, the post construction phase of the project facilitates and ensures O&M and water safety planning and implementation, maintaining transparency through public hearing and public audits, regular UC meeting, implementation of UC constitutions and regulations. Linkages with the different development agencies to smooth run their operation and maintenance management activities has vital role in the proper functionality and sustainability of the schemes. Water safety is an important aspect to ensure the sanitation and hygiene in the community so the preparation and implementation of the O&M and WSP is the key of the regular water facility with basic service level with community initiations and participation.

External support from the projects and agencies is usually for a short term for the development of the rural infrastructures and the users/ local level users committees are solely responsible to maintain the long-term benefit from the developed infrastructures. Therefore, the UCs need external support in capacity building in O&M management with spare parts and tools, skilled human resources, formulation of plans/regulations, institutional strengthening at local level for long term support mechanism to ensure sustainability of the scheme. The project facilitates in the major capacity building area in post construction phase according to its step-by-step approach so the local institutions are able to support the UCs/users to maintain the developed water facilities. Different capacity building activities are implemented in preparatory, implementation and post construction phase.

In the preparatory phase, the project conducts orientation/training on water related policies and legal provisions, GESI approach, O&M management, financial management/accounts, importance

Facilitation and support module

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of transparency and quality construction of the schemes structures. In the same way, the users/users committees are oriented/trained on construction quality, maintain transparency, monitoring and evaluation of the community participation, implementation of the community action plans. Post construction phase is one of the major parts that ensure the functionality and the sustainability of the developed water and sanitation facilities. Technical and managerial capacity building with institutional set up at local level is the major part of the post construction phase. Capacity building of the UC/users/VWASHCC and other line agencies helps to institutionalize support system at the scheme and VDC level. The module, presented below shows the facilitation modality for the sustainability.

Capacity building actions at operation levelUC/Scheme level: Awareness building on O&M and WSP, GESI, home garden management, financial management and community action plan, Pre-construction management training with quality construction, Transparency through public audit/hearing, O&M and Water safety plan formulation, Regulations, O&M training to UC, VWASHCC, female tap group

District Level: Coherent planning and implementation of the water related activities, Opportunity for interaction, experience sharing related to the GESI and other Issues, DMC/DWASHCC/FEDWASHN orientation on the sustainability support to the UC, Networking/Advocacy for instructional strengthening, Joint planning and monitoring at scheme and VDC level

Regional and Central Level: Networking and advocacy support mechanism, Favorable policy guidelines and implementations, Coordination and collaboration/ communication and learning sharing, Planning of the support system for DWS systems, Support to district, VDC and scheme level, Participatory monitoring and evaluation of the water related

AchievementsAfter the implementation of the post construction phase, the achievements in line to the sustainability and functionality seems encouraging in the DWS schemes. The major areas of interventions are under implementation in all completed schemes in 47 VDCs of its working districts. There are 366 completed DWS schemes in the project area. Out of the total schemes, 85% fully functional schemes with the efforts of the users, 14.5% are partially functional and 0.5 % are closed due to the natural disasters and other social problems. 91% schemes have operation and maintenance fund and the accumulate fund is NRs. 8.1 million. 81% schemes are collecting regularly operation and maintenance fund and 60% schemes are implementing the O&M regulations under the UC constitution.

87% schemes have working village maintenance worker (VMW) including 80% are paid and 7% are volunteers. To develop local human resource for proper operation and maintenance of the water and sanitation schemes, a 14 days skill development training is conducted for the VMWs of all schemes during preparatory and implementation phase.

69% schemes are conducting regular UC meetings, and 53% schemes have practiced annual general assembly to review the progress/issues and solutions. About 60% of the schemes have O&M and water safety plans that are very important to maintain the basic service level of the water facilities. More than 80% UCs of the schemes have maintained proper accounts and record keeping and conducted annual public audits. Female tap groups are formed and active in 238 schemes and female tap group members from 174 schemes received basic O&M training. The diagram shows the progress in line to the sustainability of the schemes.

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The above interventions and achievements show the importance of the post construction support and institutional strengthening after completion of construction of the rural infrastructures mainly the community managed drinking water and sanitation schemes.

Lessons and way forward l Community people like to demand new project rather to maintain the existing one so

need to be clear orientation on project design period and maintenance responsibility during project preparatory and implementation phase.

l There is lack of knowledge and information about the policies and regulation about water resource management and other infrastructures, so need of trainings/orientations to the users about the policies/regulations/guidelines.

l Water right is an issue in the community level and the cause of the conflicts so clear orientation, implementation of the water act, water law and inform to the community with relevant legal provisions.

l Only completion of the construction of planned infrastructure is not sufficient for the development support but important to ensure the basic service level for long-term facility under management of the users themselves.

l Assign and implement the step-by-step ( systematic) approach and take sufficient time in capacity building so the users/UCs will be able to maintain the schemes with formulation of local level rules and regulations.

l Envisioning the future functionality and sustainability scenario of the water schemes with the ownership and management of the users and local level institutions is an important part of any scheme and need to capacitate, facilitate to ensure O&M plan, water tariff/O&M fund and other support mechanism.

l Most of the support/development agencies are providing different trainings during and after the project implementations but the uniform training manuals, quality of the

Source: Sustainabiliyt and O&M status update report from 47 VDCs, July 2013

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training, facilitation process and long term institutional arrangement need to be improved and ensured the quality.

l Purposive social mobilization in the water sector should be identified, design guideline and manual and implement the stepwise process facilitation with the beneficiary's communities.

ConclusionFunctionality and sustainability of the rural infrastructures is a major challenge in Nepal. The poor functionality of the drinking water and sanitation schemes compromise water services and full benefits from improved sanitation and hygiene. The existing situation of the water coverage and services has big variations due to poor functionality of the developed infrastructure. Quality construction and provision for proper operation and maintenance with the users efforts seems an essential part for the long run services from the water schemes. Transformation and implementation of the support policies in the water sector is the area of prompt consideration. Capacity building of the users and develop local institution to support the schemes is an important area of interventions during and after construction. The post construction phase should be implemented in all infrastructure development projects and ensure the sustainability of the developed facility. Policies related to rehabilitation as well as the district-level institutional 'home' for operation and maintenance are urgently needed: the users committees cannot be left alone to manage major damage done by such as landslides and floods.




Jayadev ThapaProprietor

Rubina Nirman Sewa P. Ltd.

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Narayan Prasad WaglePlanning and Monitoring Specialist,

Rural Village Water Resources Management Project, [email protected]

Mobilization of Non-Government Organizations in WASH Scheme Quality Improvement: Experiences of Rural Village Water Resources Management Project (Under DoLIDAR)

BackgroundConcept of mobilizing Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) accelerated after 1990 in the sector of WASH facilitation. Some agencies recruited service of NGO for social mobilization only and some involved them in both social mobilization as well as technical support. In this context, Rural Water Supply and Sanitation project (In Lumbini Zone), under Ministry of Local Development started participating NGOs in 1997. The modality continued till 2004 where respective DDCs selected NGOs in competitive basis and mobilize them for social mobilization and technical support. Considering the unavailability of technical human resources in the district, during 2000-2004 consulting firms were also mobilized in some districts. Rural Village Water Resources Management Project has been continued mobilization of NGOs since 2007 and the experiences of the project are shared in this paper. Since 2006, the project has 946 individual schemes across the ten mid and far western districts, having completed and financially cleared 77% of these. There is also a significant capacity building programme within which the NGOs and local support persons have a key role to play as VDC-level trainers.

Issues of NGO MobilizationOne of the key objectives of the NGO mobilization is to enhance the capacity of private sector in WASH. In the modality, NGOs are the frontline cadre of DDC/Project and the effectiveness of the program and its results largely depends upon their competency, attitude and motivation. It starts early from the selection process. The effectiveness largely depends upon the modality of the NGO mobilization and monitoring system developed by the project. In RVWRMP's experiences the issues regarding NGO mobilization are listed as;

l The NGOs registered under 'Organization Registration Act, 2034BS' are principally service motive and nonprofit making organizations. But in practice their intension is to make profit from the program cost as business organization

l Officials of the most of the NGOs are affiliated with any of the political parties or backstopped by political parties or in some cases unofficially owned by political party leaders. It directly influences DDC in the selection process. Even after selection it becomes burden to mobilize and monitor the activities. It is one of the key reasons of failing the NGO modality in Nepal.

l Due to profit orientation, the NGOs deduct the salary of the field staffs than proposed/approved, sometimes longer delay in payments. It creates demotivation to the staffs resulting high turnover of NGO staffs.

l Similarly, NGOs propose highly experienced staffs during bidding and depute less experienced staffs in the field resulting low quality of services and schemes.

l Most of the NGOs are not institutionalized therefore, their financial book keeping and transparency is poor.

l District level NGOs failed recruit and retain qualified technical staffs due to low level of motivation.

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RVWMRP Intervention for Mitigation of the IssuesIf the above issues can be minimized, the NGO mobilization modality can be proven as effective measure for quality of WASH services and schemes to the community. Collating the lessons from first phase, RVWMRP analyzed the issues and modified NGO mobilization modality. The modality is found effective after three years of project implementation in comparison to first phase (2007-2010). Step by step of NGO selection process and techniques are shared as follows. It is expected that the lessons might be useful to WASH sector actors and other projects under DoLIDAR.

1. Formulation of NGO selection and mobilization guidelines: First of all project developed the guidelines in reference to procurement act of Government of Nepal, to ensure the uniform NGO selection and mobilization process in all districts. It's a part of Project Implementation Guidelines (PIG) approved by project steering committee.

2. DDC's decision to select the modality:The guidelines give leverage to the DDCs to select NGO modality based on the district's experiences and availability of good NGOs/human resources. Three types of modalities are designed as;

l Option 1: District/region based NGOs that could facilitate in social mobilization as well as technical (civil engineering) works and have well experienced human resources in water resource development sector (district based NGOs get high priority).

l Option 2: In case of lacking the technical (civil engineering) strength of SOs in the district, DDC may separate the scheme works as social and technical. Local SO may facilitate in social activities of the schemes and technical work will be facilitated by DTO technical staffs (Sub-engineer level) with technical backup support from PSU or Sub-engineer hired by DDC as individual service provider but Water resource technician (WRT) level human resource will be mobilize by selected social SO.

l Option 3: If NGOs failed to provide qualified human resources or SO failed to provide quality support and dropped, DMC may decide to hire individual consultants (Support Persons) to facilitate VDC level activities.

Initially, Doti and Kailali DDCs decided to adopt option 3 whereas, Humla and Bajhang decided to adopt Option 2 and remaining 5 districts decided to go for Option 1. Due to large dispute in NGO selection after shortlisting, Dadeldhura DDC cancelled the NGO selection process and decided to adopt option 3.

If DDC decides to adopt option 1 or 2 following further process is carried out as per NGO (SO) selection and mobilization guidelines;

3. Short listing of NGOs: DDC publishes the notice to short list the interested NGOs. Based on the information and evidences submitted by the project interested NGOs are shortlisted by the team nominated by District Management Committee. To avoid huge number of NGOs to be selected it's provisioned to short list NGOs in 1:3 basis (e.g. three NGOs shortlisted for each required NGO).

4. Pre-bidding meeting: The shortlisted NGOs are called in pre-bidding meeting to describe evaluation process, scores and to explain process mentioned in bidding document. In the meeting contesting NGOs are made clear about the terms and conditions of the contracts to be signed. It's also found that the NGOs who felt themselves not capable to meet the terms and conditions of bidding and working modality they dropped the idea and didn't participate in bidding process.

5. Technical proposal evaluation along with interview of proposed long term staffs:District Management Committee (DMC) formulates a team for proposal evaluation comprising of DDC/DTO representatives, project and DMC member. To avoid acute political pressure in selection

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process, DDC may request the project to carryout evaluation process in project office. In the case the team meets in Project Support Unit (PSU) and carries out selection process.

As a part of technical proposal evaluation, written test and interview of proposed human resources is done to ensure the quality and commitment of human resources. The competing NGOs that fail to make their candidates attend in the tests, they disqualified from the selection process. The process has controlled to propose fake human resources to influence selection process.

6. Financial Proposal Evaluation:The evaluation process is based on Quality and Cost Based System (QCBS). The NGOs failed to secure minimum 60 in technical proposal evaluation or failed to show the commitment of proposed human resources, their financial proposal is not evaluated. The weightage of technical and financial proposal is 80-20. The merit list of the NGOs for each package of VDCs is calculated.

7. Selection and contracting: Based on the score obtained by the NGOs in respective package, Project Management Team (PMT) recommends to DDC for the selection as per merit list recommended by evaluation team. DDC make final decision on the selection of NGO. The contract with NGO is made on annual basis. In the contract it's also mentioned that if any of the human resources replaced within six months of contract period, DDC has right to terminate the contract with NGO.

DDC terminated contract of five such NGOs in Dailekh (2 NGOs), Bajura (2 NGOs) and Bajhang (1 NGO) due to unavailability staffs in the field. In fact, NGOs had proposed those human resources who were not ready to work in the field. The staffs were replaced. Dailekh adopted option 2 and Bajura and Bajhang adopted option 3 after termination of the contract with NGOs.

8. Agreed code of conduct: To maintain moral value/financial discipline of the working field staffs, code of conduct is mutually agreed and annexed to the NGO contract.

9. Annual work plan and parameters: The contract is renewed each year upon satisfactory performance in contracting period. The annual work plan of the district is annexed to the NGO contract.

10. Bimonthly Meeting and Planning: To enhance the capacity of NGOs and support them in timely and quality completion of the activities, bi-monthly progress review and thematic orientation sessions are organized regularly at the district. It helps to review the progress of the period and plan further activities. If any of the activities are not found completed in time and it's also good platform to make NGO staffs busy in the field.

11. Participatory VDC level Monitoring at Field: DMC formulate a team and organizes annual VDC level monitoring visit at the field. During the monitoring, the entire activities carried out by the NGOs are monitored against agreed parameters through UC book keeping, minutes, records, report and other documents verification, Field office and documents inspection, UC/VWASHCC/Farmer groups meetings, inspection/observation of completed structures. All the findings are discussed and agreed with NGO and signed at the site. The information recorded in scheme monitoring formats/reports are also taken as referenced during annual monitoring.

12. Annual performance evaluation:After the VDC level monitoring, DMC formulate team representing from DMC and the project. The team studies the findings of the monitoring and gives score to the NGO against accomplishment of the task on different agreed parameters. The team calculates the score and submits the report with recommendation to DDC. The evaluation is based on the completion rate of activities, Physical quality of construction and construction

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materials, peruse of step by step procedure and others as presented in the box 1 above.

Project completed two rounds of annual performance evaluation of working NGOs. The range of scores obtained by NGOs is varied from 50-72 (9 NGOs, average score: 58.22) in first year and 52-68 (10 NGOs, average score: 60.91) in second year. One NGO scored 39 in second year and DDC decided not renew the contract for next year.

13. Reward and Punishment: To motivate NGOs and working staffs, annual performance bonus is provisioned. If any of the NGO scored more than 85, 10% and if the score is more than 75, 5% of human resources cost is rewarded as performance. If the score is less than 50, the contract with NGO is not renewed as presented in box 1 above.

Conclusion:The modality is well functioned in RVWMRP working districts. NGOs have agreed transparent monitoring and performance evaluation system in annual basis. The positive impacts of the modality are found in the field as follows;

1. Political pressure to retain poorly functioning NGOs and their staffs is almost mitigated. No any pressure noticed in annual performance evaluation and none renewal of NGO contract.

2. Schemes and capacity building activities found completed in time with satisfactory quality.

3. It has helped to develop and enhance good government practice in NGO's organization.

4. The attendance of the field staffs found improved.

5. The annual performance evaluation system in the district is introduced and established.

6. Ultimately, contributed to achieve project results.

Despite of above positive aspects, still there is some short comings and need to be improved in coming days.

1. Since NGOs are self-governed, it's very difficult to monitor NGO's internal account management and in some cases it's found that the field staffs are not getting salary as proposed resulting demotivation and staff turnover. The NGO account monitoring should be included in the agreement.

2. NGO failed to find experienced human resources (especially sub-engineers in option 1 districts), so DTO and project need to provide more support backstopping them. The DTO and project support need to be continued in future.

Box 1. Annual Performance Based Evaluation Parameters of NGOs

Sn Parameters Weightage1 Timely Completion of Planned Activities 152 Quality of Construction 153 Peruse of step by step and project guidelines 204 Transparency 155 Timely Reporting 56 GESI Consideration 57 Social mobilization 108 Regularity and Moral 15

Total 100

Reward and PunishmentSn Range of score Descriptions

1 85 or more 10% performance bonus to staff and recognition to SO

2 75 – 84 5% performance bonus to staffs3 60 – 74 No Bonus, contract Renewal

4 50 – 59 Contract Renewal with commitment of improvement

5 <50 None Renewal of ContractSource: Project Implementation Guidelines of RVWRMP II

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Er. Rajesh SharmaSenior Engineer, DRSP-PSU

Cobble Stone Pavements; Green Pavement Initiatives for Low Volume Rural Roads in Nepal

1. BackgroundRoad pavements are built in number of layers consisting of subgrade, sub base, base and surface layer. These layers together constitute the pavement. Pavement made from good quality materials spread the forces caused by the traffic so that the loads applied on the road foundation is protected from overloading and deformation.

Generally, the choice of materials and thickness of the pavement layers are determined by the anticipated traffic volume. Factors such as available budgets, the location of the road and the availability of suitable local/nonlocal materials are key parameters. One of the most important factors in terms of determining the appropriate pavement design is the quality of foundation. Other parameters are weather conditions and maintenance demand.In case of rural roads, there are many local governing factors contributing inevitability of appropriate road pavements against traditional pavement practices.

District Roads Support Programme (DRSP) was started in 1999 by using the green road concept of providing motorable access only during the dry season. However, sooner or later it becomes evident that all weather roads are more desirable for the local beneficiaries. With this requirement, DRSP has been advocating for all weather roads with cost affordable pavements and has done action researches with different pavement options. Itcontinuously in search of appropriate sustainable alternatives which is intensively labor based, of which construction materials area easily available and very simple to construct.

This article basically covers rural road construction, rehabilitation &upgrading considering local site specific circumstances; conventional practices regarding pavement structures and their limitations; and finally DRSP’s learning regarding cobble pavement structure as an alternative solutions and its method of construction, maintenance and limitations.

2. Statement of ProblemsProblem no. 1 – Local roads are non-engineered and construction is muchdisorganizedAs per DoLIDAR’s rural road record 2069, total rural roads network measured to be 50,944 km out of which; 1,576 km - Black top; 14,602 km – Gravel and 34,766 km – Earthen surface. Out of total local road network, majority of the length is either non motorable or only pliable during dry seasons. Reason behind this is because of non-engineering method of construction, mostly cut and throw method with using excavators. Lack of water management and retaining structures are supplementing further deterioration.

Most of the tracks are opened with gradients greater than the standards because of lack of engineering design and layouts. Even where the survey and design is carried out, the design is rarely followed during

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execution. Over the recent years, there is an improvement on design and quality control but is limited to projects which are donor assisted. Road tracks opened by VDCs without engineering consideration with excessive use of excavators are destroying the natural topography of Nepal.

Current donor assisted road rehabilitation and improvement projects are required to accept roads where the track are initially opened by local bodies without taking into consideration the engineering aspects of road design. Such road generally requires gradient improvements. It is very complex and in most cases,it is not possible due to unavailability of land and dispute in realignment. In such cases, strong and durable pavement surface can only be a marginal solution.

Problem no. 2 – How long we will be accepting the earthen/gravel surface as a road pavement?Another major issue is road pavement structure. Out of total local roads, 68% covers the earthen roads. Earthen roads are very much prone to rain water and are very weak. With continuous use of earthen surface, the road surface will eventually become rutted and require frequent reshaping. On the other hand, from the axel load point of view, majority of commercial vehicles are overloaded. The amount of damage caused by a certain traffic load is governed by the fourth power law. This implies that an increase in axle load from say 8 tons to 16 tons will result in damage to the road increasingly by a factor of 16 (and not by 2). It indicates that the damaging effect of overloading can be verysevere and immediate.

Picture 1 : Earthen road surface without proper water management

Similarly uncertain traffic can also contribute to deteriorate it further; before building the road, population is generally limited to very basic accessibility and when once the road is built, the traffic patterns change which in most of the cases very uncertain.For rural communities relying on a single access road, such damages have major implications for economic and social activities around the road vicinity. With limited resources for repair works it may take months or years before the transportation link reestablished.

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Problem no. 3 – How much our local institutions are familiar and capable to manage advance technology?Technical capacity is another concern of the local authorities including VDCs, Local contractors and user committees. Upgrading the earthen surface with any of the advance blacktopping method is almost impossible with prevailing resources and capacityof local institutions.

Therefore, it eventually demands local-simple-appropriate-green technology to improve or upgrade the existing weak earthen surfaces of local roads.

3. Conventional pavements in rural roads and their limitationsEarth and gravel roads–Earth roads are commonly built as the first step of a stage construction process. In areas with no road access at all, it should be acknowledged that the provisions of an earth road can be a significant access improvement for local communities.Earth/gravel surface are oftenreferred to as roads with unbound surface as opposed to bound surface treatments which include bitumen of cement as binder mixed into the aggregate used in the pavement.

Though earth and gravel roads are appropriate for roads with limited traffic, however, if available gravel quality is poor- pavement will be less durable. It is less appropriate for high rainfall area, where subgrade is weak or soaked and high longitudinal gradient (>5%). And if adequate compaction cannot be provided and where regular maintenance cannot be provided, the gravel surface doesn’t last longer.

Stone soling – However it is widely used as road surface option, stone soling itself is not a pavement option. It provides solutions to sections of rural roads on which heavy wear is expected such as on steep longitudinal grades and waterways, but at the cost of excess of discomfort and high vehicle operating cost.

Otta seal – Otta seal is merely sealing of road base which does not carry any structural loads. It seals the surface from water infiltration into the pavement and thus the surface becomes dust free, which

Picture 2 :Consequence of compromise on design requirement of edge confinement- Otta Sealed Road

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increases the life of the pavement and reduces the maintenance activity on earthen surface. It is easier technology than any other black top construction, as aggregate quality required are much relaxed as compared with conventional surface treatments. It can be constructed for which base course in not compulsory and can be applied over natural gravel surfaces.

Major problem observed with otta seal is inadequacy of pavement thickness and inadequate water management causing subsequent failure of it. The thickness is generally considered using thumb rule and hence pavement design is avoided. Lack of edge confinement is another problem. Otta sealed road pavement along single lane road without edge confinement obviously starts to deteriorate from the edge.

Excessive traffic increment after sealing work is evident and uncontrolled axle load deviation causes immediate failure of the pavements. For bituminous pavement work, climatic conditions to be considered seriously, and in practice we’ve been undermining it causing subsequent failure of it due to rain and adverse temperature conditions.After all, it increases the beneficiaries’ expectation as a conventional black top road without knowing the limitations of it.

Apart from that, it requires specialized activity and trained personal with external construction materials and equipment which is not suitable to be implemented by user committees and need to be implemented by experienced contractors.

4. Cobble stone pavement reinvented in DRSP Road CorridorsCobble stone pavement consists of small cobbles placed side by side manually on a prepared bed of cushion of sand. Cobble stone pavements can be constructed from chisel dressed cobbles or hammer dressed cobbles or simply a river cobbles. These are either laid in patterns or simply randomly arranged.

Cobble pavements are used in Europe since Romans for more than 2000 years. They are still very popular on roads in villages andsmall towns. But are less used these days in Europe because of the high labor cost. In contrary, it is gaining popularity in Africa and in Asian countries where labor is still abundant and affordable.

In Nepal, as a use of appropriate and innovative technology,DRSP introduced cobble pavement for the first time in 2006 along Mahendrajyoti Panauti Road. Since then, this technology has been used in many local roads where the design, technology and construction methodology have been improving, so that new appropriate technology gradually evolving which can address the real local circumstances. DRSP has already constructed more than 50 km of cobble-paved roads in different districts of Nepal.

5. Why cobble pavement? Because cobble stone pavement resolves most of the problems that stated above in a sustainable way; some of majorbenefits of it and how it addresses the local circumstances, are described below;

5.1 Labor intensive and not as sophisticated as bituminous pavementIn terms of local employment the approach creates on average of 8,700 persondays/km in hill roads and 5,600 persondays/km in Terai. The chosen approach does not only create employment opportunities for a short period of time, but offers ample opportunity to train locals on various construction skills that

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can be useful for any type of construction works. Thus the approach creates an increased number of meaningful employment opportunities.

At the same time, this technique doesn’t require advance equipment and skilled manpower and hence very much compatible to local beneficiaries.

5.2 Use of total local materials The material, basically cobble stones and gravels are locally available within the stretch of road or from nearby quarry. Imported materials are not required. Itultimately makes the technique very simple, easy to construct anddue to the manual method of placing, it is more fit to the local circumstances andsustainable.

5.3 Cost effectivewith less rehabilitation and maintenance costFrom the recent study conducted by DRSP, It revealed that the initial investment cost for cobble pavement is bit higher than that for otta seal but on the other hand, the total life cycle cost for cobble pavement is the cheapest among all pavement options.The following chart (figure 1) clearly exhibits that the rehabilitation and maintenance cost are relatively lesser than any other option and hence the lowest life cycle cost.

Experiences shows that, in cobble pavement, very less maintenance intervention is required which can easily be managed by local users and length workers.

Figure 1 : Cost comparison of various pavement options including initial investment cost and total life cycle cost

Source: Appropriate Technology for Local (Rural) Road Construction and Maintenance in Nepal; A comparative situation analysis -2012

5.4 Feasible for steep gradeOne additional advantage of cobble pavement over gravel surface is that, gravel surface works well along flat grades (<5%) and cobble pavements are better option for steeper grades (>8%). Experiences shows that, with adequate confinement at either side and across the road (if necessary), cobble pavement stands efficiently at higher grades (>10%)

5.5 Less effect of temperature Nepal is very diverse with respect to vertical relief and hence diverse climatic condition is anticipated. In contrary to the bituminous pavement, effect of temperature to the cobble pavement is very negligible which permits the technology to be used in varied climatic conditions.

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6. Construction MethodThe construction method includes application of basic engineering and design techniques. Like any other pavements, it also consists of subgrade, capping layer (if required), kerbstone confinement, sub-base and above all, cobble pavement layer. A typical cross section of such pavement is exhibited below.

Picture 3 : Typical Cobble Pavement constructed along Okhaldhunga Rumjatar Road

6.1 Subgrade is prepared by compacting natural earth and therefore the top of material is prepared as formation level. For the provision of it, foundation material shall not contain particles > 60mm and shall not have CBR of < 5%

6.2 Capping layer (if needed) is provided over subgrade where in-situ material in the subgrade in cuttings does not meet the requirements. In-situ materials shall be replaced with selected material from cuttings or borrow pits. For the provision of capping layer, material has to confirm as well graded gravel (GW) or Poorly graded gravel (GP), or Clayey gravel (GC) or Well graded sand (SW) having particle size < 60mm and CBR> 15%

6.3 Kerbstone confinementshall be provisioned at both side with stone soling of 30-50 cm width, 20cm thick over 5cm granular bedding. In case of tick drains along settlements (as shown in picture 3), tick drains of RRM can be constructed with 1:4 cement sand mortar with PCC base for water course.

6.4 Sub Base layer is provided over prepared subgrade.This work includes laying and compaction of well-graded material in accordance to the requirements of the DoLIDAR specifications. Compaction is carried out by small vibrating roller.

Sub base material shall confirm followings;

Any individual or combination of natural sand, gravel, crushed or broken stones, crushed or broken concrete, over burnt brick aggregates, etc.

l For grading I, CBR = 30% l Grading II, CBR = 25% l Grading III, CBR = 20%

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6.5 Laying of CobblesAfter completion of sub-base, 5 cm thick loose cushion of sand is applied upon which cobble laying work shall be performed. The preferred size of cobble is 8~ 10 cm in all three direction. If allowed, one smallest dimension shall be more than 5 cm. the stone is laid with the longest size in a vertical position with each stone placed tightly to each other. The stones can be arranged in patterns or can be random. The joints are normally filled with the mix of sand, clay and water. The final surface is compacted with a plate vibrator or a small roller. A typical cobble paving work can be observed in picture 4.

Picture 4 : Cobble laying works ongoing over prepared sub-base- HariwonKyaneswor Road, Sindhuli

Cobble stone to be used in pavement shall confirm following; l Stones shall be durable and angular in shape l Shall be hard, free from iron band and any undesirable minerals l Shall not absorb water more than 5% l Specific gravity > 2.5

7. Maintenance of Cobble Stone PavementsThe construction of a cobble stone pavement has the advantage of safeguarding the initial investment for a long duration, i.e. over design life, without requiring substantial maintenance inputs. In fact a well-constructed cobblestone pavement requires minimal maintenance, which can easily be resourced and managed by local bodies.

8. Environmental considerationsSince entire pavement construction works use labor forces with minimal input of intermediate equipment, the impact on nearby environment is very less. With immediate protection of road pavement along with water management help to reduce soil erosion from mountainside and on earthen road surface. Avoidance of bituminous product helps to reduce use of petroleum product. With such and environmental considerations, which reduces negative human impact eventually makes the project sustainable.

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9. Disadvantages and LearningOne major disadvantage of cobble pavement is water infiltration. Due to lack of impermeable sealing over the cobble pavement, water flow in sub base is inevitable and is still a big challenge.Provision of proper drains and camber slope itself doesn’t suffice the requirement, which eventually demands further action/research for reliable solution.

Cobble pavement possess rough riding surface in comparison to bituminous pavement;which is less comfort for higher speeds. However provision of dressed cobble stone pavement which obviously cost high can meet the requirement of smooth riding surface.

Once the road is upgrade to the cobble pavement, the traffic pattern changes which in most of the cases more than expected. Due to lack of awareness in the local areas, axel load that commercial vehicles are carrying raises very high resulting deformation over cobble pavement surface. Raising awareness among beneficiaries can reduce the effect. And at the same time local bodies need to regulatetraffic overloadingalong completed roads.

10. Conclusions and RecommendationAfter building 51,000 km of rural roads, it is realized that the construction of roads in rural areas of Nepal need to be revisited.DoLIDAR and DDCs need to multiply its scope from building seasonal earthen roads to all-weather roads. At least, district roads core networks have to be developed with proper engineering standards with appropriate road pavement structures. Local bodies need to allocate adequate resources to cope with new requirements.

Appropriate pavement structures need to be chosen by the local authorities while upgrading existing/ongoing earthen roads. From DRSP experience of cobble pavement over past 7 years, it has proven to be most cost effective, labour intensive, easy to construct, environment friendly technique to implement. Cobble stone pavement is the way forward for the low volume local roads particularly in the rural areas of Nepal.

11. References1. BjormJohannessen; Building Rural Roads; International Labour Organization, regional office for Asia and Pacific2. District Roads Support Programme; Case study report for road sector assessment study, MahendraJyoti Panauti

Road; 20113. District Roads Support Programme; Appropriate Technology for Local (Rural) Road Construction and Maintenance

in Nepal, A Comparative Situation analysis (Draft); 2012 4. International Road Federation; Rural Transport Volume 1; IRF bulletin special edition5. Maharjan, B.; Requirement of Cobble pavements, a case study, 2013, Institute of Engineering, Pulchowk6. Shrestha, S.; Pavement construction along rural roads-practices in Nepal, 2010; District Road Support Programme7. Urban Governance and Decentralization Programme (UGDP); Cobblestone Sector Guide for Ethiopian Cities

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Raju ShresthaWater Resources Officer (WRO)

Rural Village Water Resources Management Phase II (RVWRMP II)Bajura, Cell no : 9841635966

Email: [email protected], [email protected]

RVWRMP is fulfilling the multiplethirst of rural people in Bajura District

Rural Village Water Resources Management Project (RVWRMP) is a bilateral project between Government of Nepal (GoN) and Government of Finland (GoF). RVWRMP Phase II is working in ten districts of the Far- and Mid-Western Nepal after the completion of first phase in September 2010.FCG International is the consultant providing the technical assistance to RVWRMP-II.

Bajura is one of the remote hilly districts situated in the far western development region of Nepal. Martadi is the headquarter of Bajura and which is still not connected by all weatherroad network.. It covers an area of 2,188 km² and has a population (Census 2011) of 134912 ( Male 65806 and Female 69106).The topography varies from 726 meter ( Ekadigad) to 7036 meter (Hasingrelek)from mean sea level. Mugu and Kalikot lies in the eastern part, Bajhang in western, Humla in northern and Achham and Kalikot in southern parts of Bajura districts. Life expectancy of Bajureli is expected 45.67 years (Male: 45.16 Female: 46.24). Bajura lies in the 75th ( with 64%) position in the country as per Poverty Index 2012. Literacy rate in Bajura is 34.1 % (Male literacy 51.2 % Female literacy 17.3 %). Around 86.82 % people in Bajura are getting drinking water from pipeline but sustainability is poor and access to sanitation facilities is only to 34.5 % of population. In the total land available in Bajura, occupies 9.21 % by Agriculture land, 43.03 % by forest, 17.41% by pasture and 30.35 % by others.

DDC/RVWRMP-IIhas been working in remote VDC namely Bichhya,Sappata, Rugin and Chhatarain Bajuradistrict. DDC/ RVWRMP-II Bajura has been implementing rural drinking water

supply, irrigation, micro-hydro, environmental protection / soil conservation and sanitation facilities as well as other cross cutting issues like climate change, capacity building, green economy, gender and social inclusion for the holistic development of rural community people. Especially, all development activities are implemented based on the prioritization of Water Use Master Plan (WUMP) at VDC level.

RVWRMP-II is integrating and mainstreaming a Gender Equality and Social Inclusion approach (GESI) in all its activities as a cross cutting issue. DDC/RVWRMP-IIBajura has been given more focus on GESI strategy to empower, engage and participate in development and decision making level to all women, disadvantage group

Fig 1: Fetching time reduced by newly constructed child friendly DWS

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and Dalit and Janajati to ensure sustainability and better quality of life ultimately reduce their hardship and increased access to basic rights.

A. WASHTo increase access in safe drinking water and basic sanitation which is the basic human rights of human beings, DDC/RVWRMP-II Bajura is implementing rural drinking water supply and sanitation as well as hygiene behavior changed activities to provide safe drinking water, reduce waterborne disease, work load of women and girls. After intervention of RVWRMP-II, ultimately achieve the result 1 in WASH sector.

l 50 % of communities in Project VDCs are ODF. Remaining VDCs in project area are in pipe line to declare ODF.

l 85 % of community members have access to improved water supply facilities. l 99 % of community people have access to sanitation facilities (use of toilets). l Hand washing with soap substantially increased evidenced by the reduced incidents of

diarrhoea 50 % in Project VDCs; l Water fetching time is reduced by 75%; (46.4% HHs within 5 minutes, 23.5 % HHs within

10 minutes and 20% within 15 minutes) l 72 % schools with separate sanitation facilities for boys and girls; 14 % schools have

hand washing facilities with soap; and 86 % schools are regular sanitation and hygiene lessons taking place;

l 53 % of women and percentage of minorities at par with their proportion/representation within the community holding key positions (chair, secretary or treasurer) in UCs and VWASHCC.

Fig 2: Water Supply Coverage in project area

B. LIVELIHOODDDC/RVWRMP-II Bajura has scaled up livelihood activities to cover all project working VDCs with main focuson improved nutrition and food security, reduced work load of women, increased on-farm and off-farm employment opportunities reducing seasonal migration and raised incomes

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for better livelihood. Similarly, home garden management and advance level component under livelihood sector was promoted through enhancement of skills and application of low-cost livelihood techniques, including liquid manure, farm yard manure, non-conventional irrigation. Livelihood promotion related training like Home Gardening Management (HGM), Nursery Holders training, and refresher training to leader farmers have been conducted in project VDC (Chhatara, Sappata, Gotri and Bichhya VDC). Mostly participants were womenand benefitted 78 % women (10 % Dalit women, 5% Janajati women and 63 % others women) in this local level training in project area. Participants had gained practical knowledge on organic compost preparation and management, urine collection and its use, polyhouse establishment and vegetable production and methods of making organic pesticide.

Fig 3: Technology used Households (HHs) in project area

C. RENEWABLE ENENRGY AND END USEKasegad Micro hydropower (KMHP), 60 kW,at ChhataraVDC is one of successful community owned micro hydropower project and 4175 populationof 766 households are benefitted by this project and getting electricity during night and using in end use purpose. Students can study more 3-4 hour additional time at night. By this project, people are getting more facilities like computer literacy course, fax, internet and mobile charging. Under end use, Nepal Telecom (NTC) has established a transmitted tower at Chhatara - 8 and getting facilities more than 14 VDC of Bajura and Achham districts. As per power purchase agreement, UC of KMHP has been receiving NRs. 20,000.00 per month as revenue by providing 10 kWelectricity to NTC. Similarly, UC of KMHP regular collected revenue from other end use activities like computer institute, Allo promotion Small Industry, and electric mill. Recently, two electric mills have been established for grinding and oil extraction purpose. Both mills are in operation by using 15 kW and 7 kW power respectively and earning NRs 8,000.00-9000.00 per months. This is one of the good examples of end use and good lesson learned for sustainability of projects.

D. OTHER CROSS CUTTING ACTIVITIESClimate change is one of the burning issues in this world and due to climate change, atmospheric temperature rise and weather pattern change which cause heavy rainfall in short period and less

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rainfall during winter season as a results induced frequent flooding, drought, landslides and soil erosion. Climate change adversely impact in water resources, agricultural sector, forestry and livelihood of vulnerable people, who are dependent upon traditional livelihood strategies and coping mechanism. Mitigation and adaptation strategy, DDC/RVWRMP-IIBajura implemented source protection activities in each rural drinking water supply of project VDC under watershed management considering 3R concepts (Retain, Recharge, and Reuse). For this, different kinds of locally available plants like Uttis and Bakainoplanted which reinforcement, anchoring of different soil layer and protect possibility land slide, erosion and holds water in the soil with the help of plant root ultimately preserve water sources instead of drying up.

Establishment of Poly house and multipurpose nursery at Bichhya, Gotri, Sappata and Rugin VDC which are located at high altitude and production of different vegetable (Cauliflower, Pumpkin, Tomato, Cucumber, Chili), is one of the example of climate change adaption approach. Climate change awareness and adaptation training has been integrated with many development activities in project area especially focused to UC, VWASHCC, women groups, COs and LFUGs.

Non formal Education supported to enhance Women Capacity; at least they can read and write. It was interesting that women participation in mass meeting during public hearing and auditing increased, which ultimately support to maintain transparency, which is one of pioneering steps towards good governance.

E. SUSTAINABILITY APPROACH OF PROJECTSEnsuring sustainability and full functionality of rural infrastructure and related services can be challenging in Nepal and especially in remote projects area of districts. For the sustainability, three tier system has been developed like supervisory board for fund allocation, mobilization, coordination in ministry and government agencies at central level, Program Management Team (PMT) at project level and,; in district level DMC a decision taking body, play vital role for planning, implementation and monitoring of RVWRMP related development activities; and at VDC level mobilization and coordination with local institution both formal and informal groups.

Under the capacity building training at water supply schemes level, Account management, GESI, CAP training, VMW training, leadership training, female taps groups' orientation has been given to UC and community and VWASHCC to strengthen their skill and knowledge as well as for smooth implementation of schemes, sustainability of projects and feeling ownership. Similarly, in each drinking water supply scheme, Water Safety Plan (WSP)preparation and implementation, regular O&M collection, salarypaid to VMW in cash and kind, participation in procurement process,implementation of schemes and qualitycontrol with close coordination with DDC/DTO, are one of the examples of community ownership and projects are running smoothly without anyobstruction.

As per analysis of O & M status of 33 completed schemes in project area, it was found that 79% schemes are in good condition, 15% schemes are in partial functioning, and 3 % (one scheme)is in poor condition.Livelihood promotion related training like Home Gardening Management (HGM), Nursery Holders training, and refresher training to leader farmers have been conducted in project VDC for additional income, ensure food security, nutrition and health improvement, as well as technology transfer to rural area to make them self-help and reduce dependency. For basic sanitation and hygiene behaviors changed, sanitation triggering tools are used as per CASH

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approach to change their attitude, traditional beliefs and custom.Likewise, awareness campaign and mass meeting, one of major tools, were conducted to create favourable environment in development sector through participatory approach of community people.

Therefore, DDC/RVWRMP-II Bajurahas given highly importance to works with line agency and others related stakeholders in districts and Community Organizations (COs), Users Committees (UCs), youth clubs, mothers' groups, VWASH-CC, SMC,PTA , Cooperatives at local level for effective service delivery in water supply ,sanitation ,livelihood and future sustainability.

F. CONCLUSION DDC/RVWRMP II has emerged asone of the best project and popular among rural people in the Bajura district, which is fulfilling the multiple need of rural community by utilization of available resources wisely and overcome the difficulty of people facing in water supply ,sanitation ,hygiene ,livelihood and other cross cutting issues.DDC/RVWRMP IIBajurais always giving emphasize in joint monitoring, evaluation and collaboration with line agency and others stakeholders for realization of ownership, further necessary action for sustainability of development activities as well as synergetic effects to achieve the project goal.

Reference 1) Annual report of DDC/RVWRMP-II Bajura ,FY03 (FY 069/70)2) www.rvwrmp.org.np




Yuvaraj DangiProprietor

Nilgiri Nirman Sewa P. Ltd. New Baneshwar, Kathmandu

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Er. Janak BhattaraiWater Resources Officer,

Rural Village Water Resource Management Project, BajhangEmail: [email protected]

Er. Roshan Bikram Shah,Technical Officer,

Rural Village Water Resource Management Project, PSU, DhanagadhiEmail: [email protected]

Micro Hydropower Project: As Rural Infrastructure as well as Social Superstructure (Practical experiences from RVWRMP supported Micro Hydropower Projects in Far Western Development Region, Nepal)

1. IntroductionRural Village Water Resources Management Project (RVWRMP) is supported by the Government of Nepal and the Government of Finland. RVWRMP works through ten district-based sub-projects under the District Development Committees (DDCs). It is active in ten districts in Mid and Far Western development region of Nepal: Accham, Baitadi, Bajhang, Bajura, Dadeldhura, Dailekh, Darchula, Doti, Humla, and Kailali. RVWRMP is a water resources management project which in addition to water supply and sanitation supports community-based irrigation, micro-hydro power, improved cooking stoves and water mills, number of environmental improvements as well as sustainable livelihoods and institutional capacity building activities.

ABSTRACT:

Nepal, particularly in the rural areas, still relies heavily on traditional sources of energy like fuel wood, agricultural residues and animal wastes. Over exploitation of these resources negatively affects the environment, diverts organic resources from agriculture and adversely affects the health of women and children. On the other hand, Nepal has not been able to exploit abundantly available renewable energy resources. The renewable energy in the form of micro-hydro, biogas, solar and biomass are efficient and advantageous in many aspects. Environmentally sound technologies are available for tapping such energy sources.However, among different Renewal Energy (RE) sources, Micro Hydro power project itself is a complex socio-technical phenomenon of the society with a number of social and technical variables. Completion of a MH projectinvolves thousands of person days and hundreds of workdays.There must be the sound technical skills, harmonization, trust and a lot of passion with involved community and all stakeholders. There must be trust on management and good teamwork.The community needs to carry hundreds of tons of cement and electro-mechanical equipment from road head to the site voluntarily, which is possible only when there is a good harmony amongst them. When there is no trust and harmony, experience shows that it is very hard to complete the project.The success and failure of the project in the community depends on different factors which includes political, social, technical etc. The society is being more complex and complex day by day due to numerous social phenomena which have dragged to the development of MHP to integrate with such social superstructures.

Keywords: Infrastructure, Techno-social, Social superstructure, Micro Hydropower, Renewable Energy, Sustainability, Productive Energy Use, Livelihood, Cooperative

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The project area remainsin the least developed far west region in Nepal. The districts where the project has been implemented were ranked either as “poor” or “very poor” inNepal Human Development Report 2004 by UNDP. HDI varied from 0.320 for Bajura to 0.434for Dadeldhura.Poverty, remoteness and lack of education are the biggest challenges in the development of the region. More than 80% of the population lives in the rural area of the region. As traditional energy sources are the available options in the region, most of them meet their daily energy needs by biomass consumption. Although more than 100 MH projects are completed, those are not sufficient to meet the overall energy demand in this region.

RVWRMP has signed the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) for collaboration in the micro hydropower projects and relevant activities in the working VDCs of RVWRMP. At the end of third Fiscal Year of RVWRMP Phase II there are fourteen schemes under various stages of implementation or post-construction (end use promotion). Out of which 9 schemes are completed generating 247 KW of power and 5 schemes (296 KW) under implementation. The total schemes will cover 33,041 beneficiarypopulations.

This paper reflects RVWRMP's experiences with MH from the socio-technical perspective. The social superstructure of the far western region is very complex. In social sciences, superstructure is the set of socio-psychological feedback loops that maintain a coherent and meaningful structure in a given society, or part thereof. It can include the culture, institutions, power structures, roles, responsibility, community harmonization, trust and social behaviorsthat relate with the contribution and ownership to any development services. By most sociological schema, superstructure does not refer to the specific materials of an organization, such as a MH or others infrastructures, but rather to the set of psychological or semantic configurations whereby that structure is rationalized and reproduced in human experience. That is, it is the "invisible force" behind or within the structure, or perhaps, it is the anthropocentric "reason" for the structure. Low literacy rate, poverty, gender and caste discrimination and various irrational ideologies has contributed for lacking of positive social contribution and ownership in the development of MH energy options although this option is felt as high need in this region.

2. Observed characteristics of successful MHP:Surrounding inertial influence of more than 100 MHPs implemented in this region is observed also on the 9 completed and 5 on-going projects under RVWRMP.There can be a good listof MHPs that are relatively successful in terms of adopted modality of implementation and institutionalized output.The micro hydropower project is a very beautiful technology due to its technical and social characteristics. If micro hydropower project is constructed well and managed well then it is very good for the social benefit and transformation. As per our experience in this region, a successful MHP has observed to hold the following technical and social characteristics.

Technical characteristics:Realistic feasibility study, detailed survey, design cost estimateand other technical processes has led the MHP in successful completion and management. The better quality control in the construction of infrastructures has been observed in the projects with a transparent and inclusive characteristic. Appropriate consideration of watershedand disaster risk management approach including adoptive nature to the effects of climate change has added value in sustainability of systems. Along with technical capacity building of community, exposure visits and step by step implementation process is seemed as backstopping factor for the successful MHP.

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Social characteristics:The typical social phenomenon of society for example socio-economic status (in terms of cash and kind contribution), political status, level of transparency including capacity of community to adapt it,prevailing gender role of the community obviously tends to influence the overall process of the MHP. Thus, in the successful example of the MHP, those social influencing factors have contributed as the positive significant tools for the MH implementation. The maintenance of the transparency, participatory public audit and hearing in every stage seemed critical which is interlinked with many of the social superstructures.

In a successful MHP, the community people contributed very much from the initial stage to the operation and management stage in a participatory way. There is still good harmonization and inclusive decision making with high level of discipline and honesty of Micro Hydro Functional Group (MHFG)/User Committee (UC) in the successful MHP. Operation and Management (O&M) stage of the MHP has a direct influence of implementation stage. MHP implemented by integrating with such social superstructures seemed having good O&M status and revenue collection, honest function of operator and manager. Such MHP has started better productive use of the energy for improved rural livelihood by establishing many end use activities and enterprises.Partner organization have also shown great interest and participated in promotion of productive end use.Ultimately, strong ownershipand sense of responsibilityhas been observed in such MHPs.

3. Observedcharacteristics of the sick MHPThere are some cases of sick MHPs. These are loaded by poor quality and functioning of civil, electrical and mechanical works, lack of regular technical monitoring andhigh vulnerability against natural disasters. Some technical problems can be carriedover from the time of feasibility study and not corrected in further process.Ignorance or false consideration in geology,unpredictable hydrologyand lack of application of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)tools has also led to the failure of MH structures.

In sick MHPS, most of the drawbacks were seemed in social aspect.The micro hydropower project may be a failure due to many social reasons. According to the community people the micro hydropower projects may be failure due to careless in construction and operation and maintenance, miss-understanding among MHFG, lack of social harmony, lack ofproper inventory of tools and spare parts, lack of awareness to natural calamities like land slide , weakness of MHFG and poor management and unwanted political influences. No regular audit, lack of ownership by operator, manager and MHFG, lack of water, human resources etc.has contributed for lack of the ownership resulting to the failure of MHP.

4. MHP as Rural Infrastructure as well as Social Superstructure:In successful projects, the community people contributed significantlyfor completion of the project. The community contributed in transportation of non- local materials, collection of local material e.g.stones, sand, aggregate, maintenance of canal,extension of transmission and distribution lines works etc. Community also provided land and cash.After generation of electricity, community has establishedmany types of economic activities in projects VDCs. It includes grinder, huller, expeller, desktop services, furniture industry, etc. which are the activities associated to the economic development. Furthermore, students have benefitted from practical class of computer study. Likewise, money and time has been saved after the MH projects.Replacement of keroseneand firewood has eased the works and life as observed in, drudgery reduction to women, good progress

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in information and communication. MH has generatedemployment opportunities and plays avital role for livelihood development.

The success and failure of the micro hydropower projects depend on the social superstructure. The long term sustainability and ownership of the project determine the life of the MHP infrastructure and which is based on the social superstructure. If there is poor social activities then the MHP Infrastructure will be poor functioning and there will not be a long run. Thus, MHP infrastructure and social superstructure cannot be split. The rural infrastructure and Social superstructure are like the two faces of the same coin.

5. ConclusionsThe micro hydropower is one of the important development sectors for the rural community. The beautiful establishment, operation&management and sustainability of the project depend on how the community people perceive about the project.First and the foremost is the social superstructure. Based on a sound social superstructure, technical processes can proceed well. Also well managed MHprojectcontributes to the community for development of sociological process in the society. The development of the society further supports to improve over all perception of the community towards the change. Thus, the development plays the vital role in the sociological perspectives.

We conclude that the micro hydropower projects create a social and technical phenomenon in the society.This technical phenomenon or technology transfer creates the rural infrastructure whereasthe social phenomenon creates the social superstructure. The strong linkage between the rural infrastructure and social superstructure creates the long term sustainability of the micro hydropower projects.

AcknowledgementsWe are very grateful to Ms.Sanna-LeenaRautanen, Team Leader of RVWRMP for her kind initiation to write this paper. We would like to acknowledge Rural Village Water Resources Management Project for providing the giving us valuable time and handful resources for data collection while preparing this paper. We are grateful to all the respondents for providing necessary information specially the community people. We are very thankfulto Mr.ParikshitShrestha, Mr. Narayan Wagle and Mr. Sunil Kumar Das for their support. The authors of reference materials are gratefully acknowledged.

References l Alternative Energy Promotion Center; http://www.aepc.gov.np/ l HYDRO Nepal; Journal of Water, Energy and Environment; Issue No. 9, July 2011 l Micro hydro Drives Change in Rural Nepal (www.nytimes.com); special report: business of green l Ministry of Energy; http://www.moen.gov.np/reports.php l Ministry of Environment; http://www.moenv.gov.np/newwebsite/ l Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA); Annual Report 2011; www.nea.org.np; l Peter Newell, Jon Phillips, and Dustin Mulveny; Human Development Research Paper 2011/03; Pursuing

Clean Energy Equitably; UNDP November 2011; l Renewable Energy for Rural Livelihoods (RERL),http://www.rerl.org.np/ l Rural Village Water Resource Management Project (RVWRMP); Annual Progress Report; http://www.rvwrmp.

org.np/ l Shah, R.B.; Contribution of Micro Hydropower Project in Economic and Livelihood Development in Far Western

Development Region of Nepal: A Techno-Social Analysis of Micro Hydropower Project in Bajhang, Bajura and Darchula Districts; December 2012

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DRILP-AF is one of the program within MoFALD/DoLIDAR aiming at the reduction of Rural poverty in 18 districts in very poor and remote hill and mountain regions of Nepal by widening access to social services and economic opportunities. The project features are:

l Project Number:38426 l Project Agreement Date:7 Oct 2011 l Implementation Period: Jan 2012-Dec 2016 l Estimated Completion Date:31 Dec 2016. l Project Districts:18 Nos.

» Taplejung,Solukhumbu,Okhaldhunga,Ramechhap,Gorkha,Lamjung,Baglung,Myagdi,Jajarkot,Jumla,Bajura,Bajhang,Baitadi,Darchula,Kalikot,Mugu,Humla and Dolpa.

l Allotments:

Figures in Million $.Government of Nepal 13.29 20% ADB-Loan 18.00 27.08% ADB-Grant 7.00 10.53% OFID-Loan 20.00 30.09% SDC 7.06 10.62% Local Participation 1.10 1.65% Total 66.45 100%

Project Focus: l Rural Income Uplifting-By employment generation l Capacity Building and Decentralized Governance l Fostering Rural Transport Connectivity and Complementary Community Infrastructure Investments l Maintenance Initiatives (SWAp Approach)

Project Components: l Rural Livelihood Improvement

» 90 Community Infrastructures, » 36 Link trails, » 10 Microhydros, » 54 DWS/Irrigation, » 8 Rural markets, » 10 ropeways, » Employment generation:62,00,000 Man-days. » Skill Trainings:3000 beneficiaries » Social Awareness:9000 beneficiaries » BG Saving and Credit Cooperatives

l Capacity Building and Decentralized Local Governance » Sustainable management of Rural Roads » Trainings: Planning, Construction, maintenance ,management » Technical and Management Capacity enhancement of DoLIDAR.

l Rural Transport Infrastructures » New Road Construction:200 Kms » Upgrading/Rehab.:60 Kms » Fully Maintenance : 1200 Kms » Suspension Bridge: 6500 Mts.

l Project management Improvement » Recruitment of CISC/DISC as support consultants. » Provision of Vehicles for all districts. » Development of Common Finance Management System. » Regional Study Tour.

Progress: Upto F/Y- 2069/070 » New Road Construction: 10.64 Kms. » Road Rehabilitation:15 Kms » Road Maintenance:104 Kms. » Suspension Bridges: 42 Nos. » Trainings: 70 Nos. » Employment Generation:3,00,000 MD

Decentralized Rural Infrastructure and Livelihood Program- Additional Financing (DRILP-AF) :

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An overview of Rural Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Sector Development Program (RRRSDP)

Start Date:January 2008

Completion Date: December 2011, extended to June 2013

Component Unit Target AchievementRural Roads Km 837 826Motorable Bridges No. 15 8Water Supply and Sanitation Schemes No. 367 363Trial Bridges No. 291 288Other Supplementary Infrastructures No. 220 221Livelihood Enhancement Skill Trainings Popln. 3124 2912Annual Road Maintenance Km 650 650

Project Cost: Initial total Cost 106.8 US$M, Revised cost 86.8 US$ m + 14.18mBP

Latikholsi Bhir before and after construction of Road - Kavre

Karamkhola Motorable Bridge, Sunsari

Chyamasingh Amadol Nala Road, Bhaktapur

Rural Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Sector Development ProjectProject Coordination UnitDoLIDAR Building, Shree Mahal, Pulchowk, lalitpurPhone no.:01-5532172, 01-5530685Fax no: 01-5542692web –rrr.gov.np

Lapilang WSSP, Dolakha

Core District:

Dadeldhura, Rukum, Rolpa, Mustang, Manang, Parbat, Chitwan, Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kavre, Sindhupalchowk, Dolakha, Sindhuli, Morang, Sunsari, Jhapa, Illam, Dhankuta and Panchthar.

None Core Districts:

Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang, Bajura, Humla, Mugu, Kalikot, Jumla, Dolpa, Jajarkot, Myagdi, Baglung, Gorkha, Lamjung, Ramechhap, Okhaldhuna, Solukhumbu and Taplejung.

Project Districts

Participants of Sewing training, Bhaktapur

252


Er. Prakash ThapaProject Coordinator

Community Irrigation Program, Project Coordination UnitShreemahal, Pulchowk, Lalitpur





253


Er. Umashanker SahSDE, Project Chief

Suspension Bridge DivisionPulchowk, Lalitpur





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254


Er. Kumar ThapaChief

Irrigation River Control and Other Infrastructure Development Section, DoLIDARShreemahal, Pulchowk, Lalitpur

Er. Madhav Prasad BhattaraiChief

Local Bridge Section, DoLIDARShreemahal, Pulchowk, Lalitpur









255


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