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World History I World History I ((99thth/10/10thth))Bethany Christian Bethany Christian SchoolSchoolSpring Spring (( April 18, April 18, 2008 2008 ))Joseph David Rhodes, Joseph David Rhodes, M.A., .MDiv.M.A., .MDiv.

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Goals or Objectives 10:3 : Medieval Art & Intellectual Culture

Students should be able to describe the basic differences between Roman-

esque and the Gothic architectural styles.

Students should be able to briefly explain the contributions of Geoffrey Chaucer and Dante Alighieri to Medieval literature and language.

Students should be able to state /discuss the contributions to Christian and Western life and thought of main Scholastic philosophers and the curriculum of arts and sciences at Medieval Universities (1200-1500).

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Introduction to Medieval Art and Learning

One of the sad stereotypes about the Middle Ages is that it was almost entirely as an historical era a time of gross ignorance and thoroughgoing superstition – a completely “ Dark Age . ” The old view is that this all changed with the Renaissance, Reformation, and the birth of modern Science. Many careful modern critical scholars have signific-antly challenged this dull “ Monty Python ” account of the Middle Ages. While it is true that generally there was little formal education of the masses during many centuries of this period, neither literature nor science died out. And there were certainly several out-standing Christian thinkers and masters of the arts and science. The economic, political, and social hardships of the age did not mean the end of classical or even Biblical learn-ing. Among the Roman Catholic monks and secular clergy there was a large reservior of classical learning, morality, and devotion to the discovery of truth in God’s world. While the stereo type is false, it is true that the primary centers of education and even scientific inquiry remained within the monasteries and the cathedrals, particularly the cathedral schools.

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Introduction to Medieval Art and Learning It is largely true, however, that, during the later Middle Ages, the hier-archy of the Roman Catholic Church frequently tried to squelch unpopular or new ideas if and when the leadership felt threatened. Thus, your World History History textbook (Third Edition: Greenville, South Carolina: Bob Jones Uni-versity Press, 2007, p. 236) is correct when it states : “ The church, however, was often more interested in maintaining existing knowledge than in pursuing new ideas. ” The problem is that this quote gives the impression that these new ideas did not come from those medieval Catholic Christians who had themselves learned the disciplines of writing and thought from a long standing educational tradition that extended back for centuries. Also, many of the Church thinkers in the 12th to 15th centuries were themselves critical logicians, scientific pioneers, and incredibly erudite individuals. The edifice that we call the Modern World and Modern Learning owes much to their careful analyses, philosophical definitions, multitudinous crude experiments, and even classic mistakes.

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The Medieval CurriculumThe Medieval Curriculum

In the Cathedral schools and even in the newer Universities of the late Middle Ages, all higher learning had two basic parts:

The TriviumThe Trivium: : Grammar Grammar ((Latin, Latin, Rhetoric, and LogicRhetoric, and Logic ). Explain ?

The QuadriviumThe Quadrivium: : Arithmetic, Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, Geometry, Astronomy, and and Music.Music.

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Universities Universities :: The Core of The Core of SocietySociety FFor centuries the University has proved to be one of or centuries the University has proved to be one of the most importantthe most importantcontributions of Medieval Europe to the various cultures of contributions of Medieval Europe to the various cultures of the world. In that era the Universities tended to function the world. In that era the Universities tended to function as the core of the societies whereas the core of the societies wherethey were found. Indeed, the curriculum and the faculty they were found. Indeed, the curriculum and the faculty and students wereand students werea special if advanced microcosm of the cultures which a special if advanced microcosm of the cultures which produced them. Thus, what the soul of a culture is produced them. Thus, what the soul of a culture is becomes revealed in its schools and universities.becomes revealed in its schools and universities.What the culture thinks concerning the arts, economics, What the culture thinks concerning the arts, economics, history, medicine, politics, religion, and science is often history, medicine, politics, religion, and science is often easily discovered by examining the major universities of easily discovered by examining the major universities of that culture. This was true of Medieval universities as it is that culture. This was true of Medieval universities as it is also true of modern American universities and higher also true of modern American universities and higher institutions. Yet, institutions. Yet, universities were and are also places where teachers and universities were and are also places where teachers and students remove themselves from daily life in order to students remove themselves from daily life in order to think deeply and profoundly aboutthink deeply and profoundly abouttheir society and its place in the world. their society and its place in the world.

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Universities : The Core of Universities : The Core of Society Society ((22)) What may we conclude from this? What may we conclude from this? We may conclude from the previous We may conclude from the previous discourse that both faculty and discourse that both faculty and students at universities in the late students at universities in the late Middle Ages did play a vastly Middle Ages did play a vastly important role in the leadership of important role in the leadership of their cultures. The same is true of their cultures. The same is true of teachers and students in the teachers and students in the universities of today. But it is crucial universities of today. But it is crucial to note that this tre-mendous to note that this tre-mendous influence and power that the school influence and power that the school or university has on a society can be or university has on a society can be used to pro-mote the righteousness used to pro-mote the righteousness of God or it can be used to promote of God or it can be used to promote corruption and wickedness, a system corruption and wickedness, a system of pursuing truth or a vain soul-of pursuing truth or a vain soul-destroying philosophy.destroying philosophy.

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As stated in your textbook As stated in your textbook ((World History, p. World History, p. 236236), ), the twelfththe twelfth

century brought a revival of learning to the century brought a revival of learning to the urban centers of old urban centers of old

Europe. What were the factors which induced Europe. What were the factors which induced this change ?this change ?

Improved political and economic conditions Improved political and economic conditions which allowed forwhich allowed formore cultural and intellectual pursuits.more cultural and intellectual pursuits.

New knowledge and rediscovery of ancient New knowledge and rediscovery of ancient and classical ideasand classical ideas

from Greece and Rome from Greece and Rome viavia contact with contact with Arab and ByzantineArab and Byzantine

civilizations during the Crusades.civilizations during the Crusades. The new emerging towns and middle The new emerging towns and middle

classes with new govern- ment and classes with new govern- ment and leadership functions required new kinds of leadership functions required new kinds of education.education.

Medieval Art & Intellectual Medieval Art & Intellectual CultureCultureThe Rise of the The Rise of the

UniversityUniversity The The University of BolognaUniversity of Bologna ( ( Italian: : Alma Alma Mater Studio-rum Università di BolognaMater Studio-rum Università di Bologna, UNIBO, UNIBO)) is is one of the oldest con-tinually operating degree-one of the oldest con-tinually operating degree-granting universities in the world, and the second granting universities in the world, and the second largest university in largest university in Italy. It was probably the first . It was probably the first university founded in the western world university founded in the western world ( ( conventionally AD conventionally AD 1088, but the true date is , but the true date is uncertainuncertain)) and since and since 2000, its motto has been , its motto has been Alma mater studiorum studiorum ((Latin for "fostering mother for "fostering mother of studies"of studies")). The university of . The university of Bologna received a received a charter from from Frederick I Barbarossa in in 1158, but in , but in the the 19th century, a committee of historians led by , a committee of historians led by Giosuè Carducci traced the birth of the University traced the birth of the University back to 1088, making it arguably the back to 1088, making it arguably the longest-lived university in the West. The University . The University of Bologna is of Bologna is historically notable for its notable for its teaching of of canon and and civil law, and is presently one of the , and is presently one of the most important universities in Europemost important universities in Europe .

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The Rise of the UniversityThe Rise of the University The Cathedral ofSainte-Geneviève andLa Sorbonne ( ColleVge De Sorbonne ), part of the University of Paris,originally founded in1160 A.D. Actually, the Sorbonne was created a little later in1257.

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The Rise of the UniversityThe Rise of the University

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The Rise of the UniversityThe Rise of the University The University of Paris The University of Paris ( ( originally founded in 1160, cf. the originally founded in 1160, cf. the previous slidesprevious slides ) ) also included the Palace or Palatine school, also included the Palace or Palatine school, part of the castles of Louis part of the castles of Louis VIIVII. . “ “ Three schools were especially famous at Paris, the Three schools were especially famous at Paris, the palatine palatine or palace schoolor palace school, , the the school of Notre-Dameschool of Notre-Dame, and that of , and that of Sainte-Geneviève. The decline of royalty inevitably brought . The decline of royalty inevitably brought about the decline of the first. The other two, which were very about the decline of the first. The other two, which were very old, like those of the cathedrals and the abbeys, are only old, like those of the cathedrals and the abbeys, are only faintly outlined during the early centuries of their existence. faintly outlined during the early centuries of their existence. The glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, The glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until in the course of time it completely gave way to them. until in the course of time it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning. ”masters were esteemed for their learning. ”11

11 Wikipedia, “ University of Paris,” cited from Wikipedia, “ University of Paris,” cited from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ University_of_Paris .http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ University_of_Paris .

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The Sorbonne in Paris Today

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The Rise of the UniversityThe Rise of the University Similarly to the other early Similarly to the other early medieval universities ((University of Bologna, , University of Padova, , University of Oxford)), but unlike later ones , but unlike later ones ((such as the such as the University of Prague or the or the University of Heidelberg)), the , the University of Paris was only later established through a University of Paris was only later established through a specific foundation act by a specific foundation act by a royal charter or or papal bull. It grew . It grew up in the latter part of the up in the latter part of the 12th century around the around the Notre Dame Cathedral as a as a corporation similar to other similar to other medieval corporations, such as medieval corporations, such as guilds of merchants or of merchants or artisans. The medieval Latin term artisans. The medieval Latin term universitasuniversitas actual-ly had the actual-ly had the more general meaning of a guild, and the university of Paris more general meaning of a guild, and the university of Paris was known as a was known as a universitas magistrorum et scholariumuniversitas magistrorum et scholarium ((a a guild of masters and scholarsguild of masters and scholars)). . 22

2 2 Wikipedia, Op. Cit.Wikipedia, Op. Cit.

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The Rise of the University The Rise of the University The university had four The university had four Faculties: : Arts, , Medicine, , Law, and , and Theology. The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also . The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest as students had to graduate there to be admitted the largest as students had to graduate there to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students there were to one of the higher faculties. The students there were divided into four divided into four nationes according to language or regional according to language or regional origin, those of France, Normandy, Picard, and England, the origin, those of France, Normandy, Picard, and England, the last one of which later came to be known as the Alemannian last one of which later came to be known as the Alemannian ((GermanGerman)) nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply: the English-German nation in fact the names might imply: the English-German nation in fact included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. The included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. The faculty and nation system of the University of Paris faculty and nation system of the University of Paris ( ( along along with that of the University of Bologna with that of the University of Bologna )) be-came the model for be-came the model for all later medieval universities.all later medieval universities.33

3 3 Wikipedia, Op. Cit. Wikipedia, Op. Cit.

Medieval Art & Intellectual Medieval Art & Intellectual CultureCultureThe Rise of the UniversityThe Rise of the University

The first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the eleventh century include Lambert, disciple of Filbert of Chartres; Drogo of Paris; Manegold of Germany; and Anselm of Laon. These two schools attracted scholars from every country and produced many illustri-ous men, among whom were: St. Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Bishop of Kraków; Gebbard, Archbishop of Salzburg; St. Stephen, third Abbot of Cîteaux; Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of the Abbey of Fontevrault etc. Three other men who added new splendor to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abelard, and Peter Lombard. 44

4 4 Wikipedia, Op. Cit. Wikipedia, Op. Cit.

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The Rise of the UniversityThe Rise of the UniversityRepresentation of a university class, (1350s).

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University studies took six years for a Bachelors degree and up to twelve additional years for a master's degree and doctorate. The first six years were organized by the faculty of arts, where the seven liberal arts were taught: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The primary emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been conferred, the student could leave the university or pursue further studies, in one of the three other faculties – law, medicine, or theology – in which to pursue the master's degree and doctorate degree. Theology was the most prestigious area of study, and the most difficult. Courses were offered according to books, not by subject or theme. For example, a course might be on a book by Aristotle, or a book from the Bible. Courses were not elective: the course offerings were set, and everyone had to take the same courses. There were, however, occasional choices as to which teacher to use.

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The Rise of the UniversityThe Rise of the University Other Early Famous Universities of Europe & Other Early Famous Universities of Europe & EnglandEngland

The University of Montpellier The University of Montpellier ((12201220). ). ((FranceFrance).). The University of Padua The University of Padua ((12221222). ). ((ItalyItaly). ). The University of Salerno The University of Salerno ((11001100 ?). ?). ((ItalyItaly).). The University of SevilleThe University of Seville ( (15511551). ). ((SpainSpain).). The University of Toulouse The University of Toulouse ((12321232) ) ((FranceFrance) ) The University of OrleThe University of Orlevvans ans ((12351235). ). ((FranceFrance). ). The University of OxfordThe University of Oxford ( (11671167). ). ((EnglandEngland).). The University of CambridgeThe University of Cambridge ( (12091209). ). ((EnglandEngland).).

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The University of Padua in Northern Italy was one of the first to exemplify the idea of a Gymnasium Omnium Disciplinarum - an educational model that can now be seen throughout the world (founded, 1222 A.D.).

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The University of Oxford. The University of Oxford. ((FoundedFounded, , 11671167)). . Here Here :: Magdalen College in Early Morning Magdalen College in Early Morning

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Medieval Art & Intellectual Medieval Art & Intellectual CultureCultureIllustration is detail

from the charter of King Edward I, which confirmed the privileges of the University in 1291/2.

The University was actually founded 1209 in era of King John . Then, groups of scholars congre-gated at the ancient Roman trading post of Cambridge for the purpose of study, the earliest record of the University.

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Motto: Hinc lucem et pocula Hinc lucem et pocula

sacrasacra

Literal translation: “From here, light and sacred draughts”.

Non-literal: “From this place, we gain enlightenment and precious knowledge”.

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View over Trinity College, Gonville and Caius and Clare College towards King's College Chapel, seen from St Johns College chapel, Cambridge (UK).

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Clare College (left) and King’s College Chapel (centre), seen from The Backs.

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Philosophy and Theology: Philosophy and Theology: The Growth of The Growth of ScholasticismScholasticism As the new schools and unversities emerged in twelfth-

century Europe, theWest experienced a dynamic new intellectual movement

called Scholasticism. While there had been outstanding Christian scholars, learned

monks, skilledpriests, and highly educated bishops since the time of

Augustine and Jerome,in the late Middle Ages the interest in Christian philosophy and

theology tookcenter stage. This was the era when theology was the “ Queen

of the Sciences”and philosophy was its handmaiden. Men of faith and men of

“science” bothacknowledged two complimentary sources of knowledge –

faith and reason. This was the Age of Faith when earnest and brilliant men

endeavored to pro-perly harmonize faith and reason in a grand synthesis. It was

believed thatit was possible to carefully combine the teachings of the

church (i.e., faith) andprinciples of Greek philosophy ( i.e., reason).

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism The name "Scholastic" was used and is still used The name "Scholastic" was used and is still used to designate the method and system that grew out to designate the method and system that grew out of the academic curriculum of the schools or, more of the academic curriculum of the schools or, more definitely, out of the definitely, out of the dialecticaldialectical teaching of the teaching of the masters of the schools masters of the schools ((scholasticischolastici)) , e.g., the Universities of the Middle Ages. Yet, it meant much more than this. As your Yet, it meant much more than this. As your textbook textbook ((p. 238p. 238) ) statesstates: “ : “ Although the Schoolmen Although the Schoolmen acknowledge the necessity of faith, they attempted acknowledge the necessity of faith, they attempted to use logic and philosophy to explain and defend to use logic and philosophy to explain and defend the church’s teaching. They did not seek to discover the church’s teaching. They did not seek to discover new knowledge but sought to support that which new knowledge but sought to support that which already existed. By applying the test of reason to already existed. By applying the test of reason to the teaching of the church, they hoped to show the the teaching of the church, they hoped to show the reasonableness of the Christian faith. ”reasonableness of the Christian faith. ”55

55World History with Student Activities. Teacher’s World History with Student Activities. Teacher’s Edition Edition ((Third Edition; Third Edition; Green-Green- villeville,, South CarolinaSouth Carolina: : Bob Jones University Press, 2007Bob Jones University Press, 2007), ), loc. loc. citcit.[.[RhodesRhodes]]

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Philosophy and Theology:Philosophy and Theology: ScholasticismScholasticism

Another Perspective by a Modern Neo-Another Perspective by a Modern Neo-ThomistThomist:: Sidelining all the other intra-confessional debates among them was the stand-off between two sets of scholars. One group wanted to present scholastic thought as philosophy, tout court. Despite the fact that most medieval philo-sophers had been theologians, they insisted that the scholastics’ religious beliefs and professional responsibilities had in no way prevented them from being real philosophers. On the other side of the debate stood scholars who argued that, far from being a potential obstacle to philosophizing, Christian belief actually stimulated philosophical speculation, since it presented scholastics with issues requiring rational reflection that were not in the ancient Greek syllabus. Further, they asserted, the main achievement of scholasticism, at least in its golden age, had not been rationalism as such but the synthesis of reason and revelation. 66

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Philosophy and Theology:Philosophy and Theology: ScholasticismScholasticism

Another Perspective by a Modern Neo-Another Perspective by a Modern Neo-ThomistThomist::

[[FootnoteFootnote]] 66Marcia L Colish, Remapping Scholasticism. The Marcia L Colish, Remapping Scholasticism. The Etienne Gilson Series 21. Etienne Gilson Series 21. ( ( TorontoToronto: : Pontifical Institute of Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 2000Medieval Studies, 2000), ), p. 9.p. 9.

Cf. furtherCf. further::Martin Grabmann, Martin Grabmann, Die Geschichte der Die Geschichte der scholastischen Methodscholastischen Method:: Nach den gedruckten und Nach den gedruckten und ungedruckten Quellenungedruckten Quellen, 2 vols. , 2 vols. ((Freiburg im Breisgau, 1909 Freiburg im Breisgau, 1909 [[reprt. Berlin, 1988reprt. Berlin, 1988])]);; Fernand Van Steenberghen, Fernand Van Steenberghen, Aristotle in Aristotle in the West: The Origins of Latin Aristotelianismthe West: The Origins of Latin Aristotelianism, 2nd ed. , 2nd ed. ((New New York, 1970York, 1970)); idem, ; idem, La philo-sophie au XIIIe siècleLa philo-sophie au XIIIe siècle, 2nd ed. , 2nd ed. ((Louvain, 1991Louvain, 1991)); Etienne Gilson, ; Etienne Gilson, History of Christian History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages Philosophy in the Middle Ages ((New York, 1953New York, 1953)); idem, ; idem, Reason Reason and Revelation in the Middle Ages and Revelation in the Middle Ages ((New York, 1938 New York, 1938 [[reprt. reprt. 19501950])]). For an overview of this and other debates, see John . For an overview of this and other debates, see John Inglis, Inglis, Spheres of Philosophical Inquiry and the Historiography Spheres of Philosophical Inquiry and the Historiography of Medieval Philosophy of Medieval Philosophy ((Leiden, 1998Leiden, 1998))..

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Philosophy and Theology:Philosophy and Theology: ScholasticismScholasticismAnother Perspective by a Modern Neo-ThomistAnother Perspective by a Modern Neo-Thomist::

The Catholic medievalist Étienne Gilson opened his Gifford Lectures on The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy with two chapters devoted respectively to the problem and the notion of Christian philosophy, which he defined as “ every philosophy which, although keeping the two orders formally distinct, nevertheless considers the Christian revelation as an indispensable auxiliary to reason.” In a series of books and articles published over the next few decades, Gilson demonstrated the vibrancy of medieval philosophy. He convincingly argued that the biblical concepts of God, creation, history, and the human person had made a decisive impact on the whole history of modern philosophy.

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Philosophy and Theology:Philosophy and Theology: ScholasticismScholasticism

Seven Outstanding Philosophers & Thinkers of the Seven Outstanding Philosophers & Thinkers of the Middle AgesMiddle Ages::

1.1. Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury ((1033-11091033-1109).). 2. Peter Abelard 2. Peter Abelard ((1079-11411079-1141)).. 3. Thomas Aquinas 3. Thomas Aquinas ((1225? -12741225? -1274).). 4. 4. Duns ScotusDuns Scotus ( (1226-13081226-1308).). 5. 5. William of Ockham William of Ockham ((1288-13471288-1347).). 6. 6. BonaventuraBonaventura ( (1221-12741221-1274). ). 77.. Roger Bacon, monk and scientist Roger Bacon, monk and scientist ((1214-1214-12941294). ).

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Philosophy and Theology:Philosophy and Theology: ScholasticismScholasticism

1.1. Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury ((1033-11091033-1109)).. ChristianChristian Bishop, Confessor Bishop, Confessor

and Doctor of the and Doctor of the Church.Church.

Gave the classicGave the classic Medieval Medieval state- state-

ment concerning the ment concerning the relationship relationship between faith between faith

and reason and reason :: “ “Neque enim quaero Neque enim quaero

intelligere ut intelligere ut credam, sed credo ut credam, sed credo ut intelligam. intelligam.

Nam et hoc credo, Nam et hoc credo, quia, nisi quia, nisi

credidero, non credidero, non intelligam.intelligam. " "

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1.1. Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury ((1033-1033-11091109))..

Quik Facts About His Contribution to Quik Facts About His Contribution to ScholasticismScholasticism

He was of northern Italian extraction, but he held He was of northern Italian extraction, but he held thethe office ofoffice of Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 until 1109.Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 until 1109.

He is reckoned as “ the Father of Scholasticism.”He is reckoned as “ the Father of Scholasticism.” Probably his most famous philosophical idea is Probably his most famous philosophical idea is

the so-calledthe so-called “ “ Ontological Argument for the Existence of Ontological Argument for the Existence of

God.”God.” He openly opposed the Crusades as wrong for He openly opposed the Crusades as wrong for

Christians.Christians. At age fifteen he had tried to enter a monastery At age fifteen he had tried to enter a monastery

without hiswithout his father’s consent.father’s consent. He studied under Bishop Lanfranc at the He studied under Bishop Lanfranc at the

Benedictine AbbeyBenedictine Abbey at Bec, France. at Bec, France.

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1.1. Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury ((1033-1033-11091109).).

In In 1092/931092/93 one of England’s worst kings, one of England’s worst kings, William William II (II (RufusRufus), ), fearful of the damnation fearful of the damnation of his soul, reluctantly appointed the of his soul, reluctantly appointed the resistant Anselm to accept this post. resistant Anselm to accept this post. Irony ?Irony ?

During his time as archbishop Anselm had During his time as archbishop Anselm had conflict with both William conflict with both William IIII and his and his successor, Henry successor, Henry II, and was twice exiled to , and was twice exiled to France or made special journeys to Rome.France or made special journeys to Rome.

By By 11071107, the long dispute regarding , the long dispute regarding investiture was finally settled with a investiture was finally settled with a compromise in the compromise in the Concordat of London, , whereby Henry relinquished his right to whereby Henry relinquished his right to invest his bishops and abbots but reserved invest his bishops and abbots but reserved the custom of requiring them to do homage the custom of requiring them to do homage for the"for the"temporalities" " ((the landed properties the landed properties tied to the episco-patetied to the episco-pate))..

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1.1. Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury ((1033-1033-11091109))..

The groundwork of Anselm's theory of knowledge is The groundwork of Anselm's theory of knowledge is contained in the tract contained in the tract De VeritateDe Veritate, where he affirms the , where he affirms the existence of an absolute truth in which all other truth existence of an absolute truth in which all other truth participates. This absolute truth, he argues, is God, who is participates. This absolute truth, he argues, is God, who is the ultimate ground or principle both of things and of the ultimate ground or principle both of things and of thought. The notion of God becomes the foreground of thought. The notion of God becomes the foreground of Anselm's theory, so it is necessary first to make God clear Anselm's theory, so it is necessary first to make God clear to reason and be demonstrated to have real existence.to reason and be demonstrated to have real existence. ( Consider

Solomon’s words in Proverbs 1:7; 3:18-20; and 9:10 Solomon’s words in Proverbs 1:7; 3:18-20; and 9:10 ).).77

Anselm's writings represent a recognition of the Anselm's writings represent a recognition of the relationship of reason to revealed truth, and an attempt to relationship of reason to revealed truth, and an attempt to elaborate a rational system of faith.elaborate a rational system of faith.

77Wikipedia. Article on Anselm, Wikipedia. Article on Anselm, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury.

See also Richard W. Southern. See also Richard W. Southern. St. Anselm : A Portrait in a St. Anselm : A Portrait in a LandscapeLandscape. Cam-. Cam-

bridgebridge: : Cambridge University Press, 1992; and Hyman, J. and Cambridge University Press, 1992; and Hyman, J. and Walsh, J.J. Walsh, J.J.

((eds.eds.)). P. Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Second Edition; hilosophy in the Middle Ages. Second Edition; IndianapolisIndianapolis::

Hackett Publishing CompanyHackett Publishing Company, , 1973.1973.

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1.1. Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury ((1033-1033-11091109))..Anselm’s Philosophical and Theological WorksAnselm’s Philosophical and Theological Works:: Works written at Abbey in BecWorks written at Abbey in Bec::

tthe he MonologionMonologion (1075-76), the (1075-76), the ProslogionProslogion (1077-78), (1077-78), and his four and his four philosophical dialoguesphilosophical dialogues: : De grammaticoDe grammatico (1059-60), (1059-60), De veritateDe veritate, and , and De libertate arbitriiDe libertate arbitrii,, and and De De casu diabolicasu diaboli (1080-86). (1080-86). Works written at Canterbury Works written at Canterbury ::

the the Epistola de Incarnatione VerbiEpistola de Incarnatione Verbi (1094), (1094), Cur Deus Cur Deus HomoHomo (1095- (1095-

98), 98), De conceptu virginaliDe conceptu virginali (1099), (1099), De processione De processione Spiritus SanctiSpiritus Sancti

(1102), (1102), the the Epistola de sacrificio azymi et fermentatiEpistola de sacrificio azymi et fermentati (1106-7), (1106-7), De De

sacramentis ecclesiaesacramentis ecclesiae (1106-7), and (1106-7), and De concordiaDe concordia (1107-8).(1107-8).

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1.1. Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury ((1033-1033-11091109))..

Anselm’s Argument for the Necessity of God in Anselm’s Argument for the Necessity of God in the the Monologion :Monologion :Anselm concludes the first four chapters by summarizing Anselm concludes the first four chapters by summarizing his results:his results:

Therefore, there is a certain nature or substance or essence Therefore, there is a certain nature or substance or essence who through himself who through himself

is good and great and through himself is what he is; through is good and great and through himself is what he is; through whom exists what-whom exists what-

ever truly is good or great or anything at all; and who is the ever truly is good or great or anything at all; and who is the supreme good, thesupreme good, the

supreme great thing, the supreme being or subsistent, that is, supreme great thing, the supreme being or subsistent, that is, supreme among allsupreme among all

existing things. existing things. ((MM 4 4) ) He then goes on He then goes on ((in chapters 5-65in chapters 5-65)) to to derive the attributesderive the attributes

that must belong to the being who fits this description. But that must belong to the being who fits this description. But before we look at before we look at

Anselm's understanding of the divine attributes, we should Anselm's understanding of the divine attributes, we should turn to the famous turn to the famous

proof in the proof in the ProslogionProslogion. . 88 88Quote from the Quote from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

(( Stanford: Stanford University Press, The Metaphysics Stanford: Stanford University Press, The Metaphysics Research Lab, 2007 Research Lab, 2007 ) ) World Wide Web URL: World Wide Web URL: http://plato.stanford.edu/http://plato.stanford.edu/

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1.1. Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury ((1033-1033-11091109))..The Essential Argument of Anselm’s Treatise, the The Essential Argument of Anselm’s Treatise, the Prosologium.Prosologium.

Correctly understood, Anselm says, the argument of Correctly understood, Anselm says, the argument of the the ProslogionProslogion can be summarized as follows: can be summarized as follows:

That than which nothing greater can be thought can That than which nothing greater can be thought can be thought. be thought.

If that than which nothing greater can be thought If that than which nothing greater can be thought can be thought, can be thought,

it exists in reality. Therefore, that than which it exists in reality. Therefore, that than which nothing greater cannothing greater can

be thought exists in reality. be thought exists in reality. 99 [ [ TranslationTranslation: God’s : God’s existence is aexistence is a

necessary –both in idea and reality - for the world to necessary –both in idea and reality - for the world to be intelligible.be intelligible.

JRJR ]. ].

99Stanford Encyclopedia of Philososphy Stanford Encyclopedia of Philososphy ((online editiononline edition), ), Op. Cit.Op. Cit.

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1.1. Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury ((1033-1033-11091109))..

Anselm’s Views on Christ and His RedemptionAnselm’s Views on Christ and His RedemptionLike the fallen angels, the first human beings willed Like the fallen angels, the first human beings willed happiness in preference to justice. By doing so they happiness in preference to justice. By doing so they abandoned the will for justice and became unable abandoned the will for justice and became unable to will justice for its own sake. Apart from divine to will justice for its own sake. Apart from divine grace, then, fallen human beings cannot help but grace, then, fallen human beings cannot help but sin. Anselm claims that we are still free, because we sin. Anselm claims that we are still free, because we continue to be such that if we had rectitude of will, continue to be such that if we had rectitude of will, we could preserve it for its own sake; but we cannot we could preserve it for its own sake; but we cannot exerciseexercise our freedom, since we no longer have the our freedom, since we no longer have the rectitude of will to preserve. rectitude of will to preserve. ((Whether fallen human Whether fallen human beings also retain the power for self-initiated action beings also retain the power for self-initiated action apart from divine grace is a tricky question, and one apart from divine grace is a tricky question, and one I do not propose to answer here.I do not propose to answer here.)) .

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1.1. Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury ((1033-1033-11091109))..

Anselm’s Views on Christ and His RedemptionAnselm’s Views on Christ and His RedemptionSo the restoration of human beings to the justice they were intended to enjoy requires divine grace. But even more is needed than God's restoration of the will for justice. In Cur Deus Homo (Why God Became A Human Being) Anselm famously attempts to show on purely rational grounds that the debt incurred by human sin could be suitably discharged, and the affront to God's infinite dignity could be suitably rectified, only if one who was both fully divine and fully human took it upon himself to offer his own life on our behalf. 10 10

1010Professor Thomas Williams Professor Thomas Williams ((San Francisco San Francisco UniversityUniversity) ) in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, “ Anselm,” Op. Cit. “ Anselm,” Op. Cit.

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1.1. Anselm of Canterbury Anselm of Canterbury ((1033-1033-11091109))..

Translations and Secondary Reference Works on Anselm of Translations and Secondary Reference Works on Anselm of Canterbury Canterbury ::

Davies, Brian, and G. R. Evans, ed. Davies, Brian, and G. R. Evans, ed. ((19981998)). . Anselm of Anselm of Canterbury Canterbury :: The The Major WorksMajor Works. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Evans, G. R. Evans, G. R. ((19781978)). . Anselm and Talking about GodAnselm and Talking about God. Oxford. Oxford:: Clarendon Clarendon

Press, 1978.Press, 1978. Henry, Desmond Paul Henry, Desmond Paul ((19671967)). . The Logic of Saint AnselmThe Logic of Saint Anselm. .

Oxford: Clarendon Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967.Press, 1967.

Plantinga, Alvin, ed. Plantinga, Alvin, ed. ((19651965)). . The Ontological ArgumentThe Ontological Argument. . Garden City, NY: Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1965. Anchor Books, 1965.

Southern, R. W. Southern, R. W. ((19901990)). . Saint AnselmSaint Anselm:: A Portrait in Landscape A Portrait in Landscape. . CambridgeCambridge:: Cambridge University Press, 1990.Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Williams, Thomas (2007). Williams, Thomas (2007). Anselm: Basic WritingsAnselm: Basic Writings. Indianapolis: . Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Hackett Publishing Company, 2007.Company, 2007.

Williams, Thomas, and Sandra Visser (forthcoming). Anselm. Great Medieval Thinkers. New York: Oxford University Press, forthcoming.

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

2.2. Peter Abelard Peter Abelard ((1079-11411079-1141))..

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

Peter AbelardPeter Abelard ((1079-11411079-1141))..

Abelard was an early French Scholastic Philosopher and later became an outstanding Roman Catholic theologian.

He was also a preeminent teacher of dialectic or logic.

The story of his youthful love affair with Hevloi~se has become

legendary and is one of the most fantastic sources of romantic

history from the Middle Ages. He was a proponent of philosophical

conceptualism and a critic of those scholastics who were known as

“realists.”

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

Peter AbelardPeter Abelard ((1079-11411079-1141))..

Abelard, originally called 'Pierre le Pallet' was born Abelard, originally called 'Pierre le Pallet' was born in the little village of Palets, about 10 miles east of in the little village of Palets, about 10 miles east of Nantes, in , in Brittany, the eldest son of a minor noble , the eldest son of a minor noble Breton family. As a boy, he learned quickly being family. As a boy, he learned quickly being encouraged by his father, studied the encouraged by his father, studied the liberal arts and and excelled at the art of excelled at the art of dialectic ( ( a branch of a branch of philosophy) ) that at that time consisted chiefly of the logic of that at that time consisted chiefly of the logic of Aristotle trans-mitted through trans-mitted through Latin channels. Instead of channels. Instead of entering a military career, as his father had done, entering a military career, as his father had done, Abelard became an academic. During his early Abelard became an academic. During his early academic pur-suits, Abelard wandered throughout academic pur-suits, Abelard wandered throughout France, debating and learning, so as France, debating and learning, so as ((in his wordsin his words)) "he "he became such as one as the became such as one as the Peripatetics.“ The .“ The nominalist nominalist Roscellinus of of Compiegne was his teacher during this was his teacher during this period.period.1111

1111Wikipedia Article at Wikipedia Article at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Abelard .http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Abelard .

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

Peter AbelardPeter Abelard ((1079-11411079-1141)).. Abelard's life is relatively well-known: in addition to events chronicled in the public record, his inner life is revealed in his autobiographical letter Historia calamitatum [“The Story of My Troubles”] and in his famous correspondence with Héloïse. During the first years of the twelfth century, Abelard felt confident enough to set himself up as a lecturer, first at Melun and then at Corbeil, competing mainly with William of Champeaux (Paris) for students and reputation. The strain proved too much — Abelard's health failed, and he returned to Brittany for several years. 1212

1212Peter King, Peter King, “ Peter Abelard,” in the Stanford “ Peter Abelard,” in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http:/ Encyclopedia of Philosophy, http:/ /plato.stanford.edu/entries/abelard/. See also /plato.stanford.edu/entries/abelard/. See also The The Cambridge Companion to AbelardCambridge Companion to Abelard. Jeff Brower and Kevin . Jeff Brower and Kevin Guilfoy. Guilfoy. ((eds.eds.)). New York: Cambridge University Press 2004.. New York: Cambridge University Press 2004.

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

Peter AbelardPeter Abelard ((1079-11411079-1141))..Abelard’s Early Scholastic AccomplishmentsAbelard’s Early Scholastic Accomplishments::

He studied intensely in his retreat in Brittany and He studied intensely in his retreat in Brittany and returned to returned to Paris some-Paris some- time between 1108 and 1113 with new health and time between 1108 and 1113 with new health and high ambition.high ambition. Abelard actually gave up a lucrative inheritance and Abelard actually gave up a lucrative inheritance and knighthood to pursueknighthood to pursue fulltime the study of philosophy.fulltime the study of philosophy. After attending a few months of lectures by William After attending a few months of lectures by William of of Champeaux‘sChampeaux‘s lectures in the University of Paris, he entered into a in the University of Paris, he entered into a vigorous debate with his profess-vigorous debate with his profess- or over the nature of universals. Most historical or over the nature of universals. Most historical accounts say that he bestedaccounts say that he bested his former teacher in dialectical argument.his former teacher in dialectical argument. Henceforth,Henceforth, Abelard studied and taught on his own Abelard studied and taught on his own and soon became the and soon became the scholar-in-residence at Notrescholar-in-residence at NotreV-V- Dame, a position Dame, a position which held until his troubles.which held until his troubles.

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

Peter Abelard Peter Abelard ((1079-11411079-1141))..Abelard’s Love-Affair with HeAbelard’s Love-Affair with Hevvloiloi~~seseLiving within the precincts of NotreLiving within the precincts of NotreVV-Dame, -Dame,

under the care of her uncle, the canon Fulbert, was a under the care of her uncle, the canon Fulbert, was a girl named girl named Héloïse ((d. 1164d. 1164)). She is said to have been . She is said to have been beautiful, but still more remarkable for her knowledge beautiful, but still more remarkable for her knowledge of of classical letters, which extended beyond , which extended beyond Latin to to Greek and and Hebrew. Abelard sought and gained a place in . Abelard sought and gained a place in Fulbert's house, where he then fell in love with her; and Fulbert's house, where he then fell in love with her; and becoming tutor to the girl, he used his power for the becoming tutor to the girl, he used his power for the purpose of seduction, and she returned his devo-tion. purpose of seduction, and she returned his devo-tion. Their relations interfered with his public work and were Their relations interfered with his public work and were not kept a secret by Abelard himself. Soon everyone not kept a secret by Abelard himself. Soon everyone knew except the trusting Fulbert. Once her uncle found knew except the trusting Fulbert. Once her uncle found out, the lovers were separated, only to meet in secret. out, the lovers were separated, only to meet in secret. Héloïse found her-self pregnant, and was sent by Héloïse found her-self pregnant, and was sent by Abelard to Brittany, where she gave birth to a son. She Abelard to Brittany, where she gave birth to a son. She named her child named her child Astrolabe after the after the scientific instrument recently im-ported from the Islamic world. recently im-ported from the Islamic world.

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Abelard’s Love-Affair with HeAbelard’s Love-Affair with Hevvloiloi~~sese To appease her furious uncle, Abelard proposed a To appease her furious uncle, Abelard proposed a secret marriage, in order not to mar his prospects of secret marriage, in order not to mar his prospects of advancement in the church; but Héloïse opposed the advancement in the church; but Héloïse opposed the idea. She appealed to him not to sacrifice for her the idea. She appealed to him not to sacrifice for her the independence of his life, independence of his life, but reluctantly gave in to pressure. The secret of the but reluctantly gave in to pressure. The secret of the marriage was not kept by Fulbert; and when Héloïse marriage was not kept by Fulbert; and when Héloïse boldly denied it, life was made so difficult for her that boldly denied it, life was made so difficult for her that she sought refuge in the convent of she sought refuge in the convent of Argenteuil at at Abelard's bidding. Im-mediately Fulbert, believing that Abelard's bidding. Im-mediately Fulbert, believing that Héloïse's husband, who had helped her run away, Héloïse's husband, who had helped her run away, wanted to be rid of her, plotted his revenge. He and wanted to be rid of her, plotted his revenge. He and some others broke into Abelard's chamber by night, some others broke into Abelard's chamber by night, and and castratedcastrated him. The priesthood and ecclesi-astical him. The priesthood and ecclesi-astical office were, thereby, canonically closed to him. Héloïse, office were, thereby, canonically closed to him. Héloïse, still only in her twenties, agreed to become a still only in her twenties, agreed to become a nun at the at the bidding of Abelard, who would never be able to bidding of Abelard, who would never be able to function as a husband again. function as a husband again. 1313

1313Wikipedia article on Abelard, Op. Cit.Wikipedia article on Abelard, Op. Cit.

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

Peter AbelardPeter Abelard ( ( 1079-11411079-1141))..Abelard’s Later Life & WorkAbelard’s Later Life & Work

In ca. 1118-1119 the sad and disfigured Abelard , In ca. 1118-1119 the sad and disfigured Abelard , almost forty, re-almost forty, re- treated to the Abbey of Saint-Denis to recover treated to the Abbey of Saint-Denis to recover from his woes and now from his woes and now earnestly a celibate life as a monk. earnestly a celibate life as a monk. He was, however, insecure in the cloistered life, He was, however, insecure in the cloistered life, and he began to seriouslyand he began to seriously study philosophy againstudy philosophy again and eventually opened and eventually opened another school in an un-another school in an un- known priory. known priory. While his lectures were now given in a devoted While his lectures were now given in a devoted Christian manner, his oldChristian manner, his old adversariesadversaries soughtsought to question him on some to question him on some disputed remarks he made indisputed remarks he made in explaining the nature of the Trinity. Part of the explaining the nature of the Trinity. Part of the motivation here may havemotivation here may have been that Abelard’s lectures drews scores and been that Abelard’s lectures drews scores and even hundreds of students. even hundreds of students.

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

Peter Abelard Peter Abelard (( 1079-1141 1079-1141))..Abelard’s Later Life & WorkAbelard’s Later Life & Work

When Abelard published the first parts or tomes of When Abelard published the first parts or tomes of his systematic theologyhis systematic theology lectures in 1120, i.e., his lectures in 1120, i.e., his Theologi Summi BoniTheologi Summi Boni, , his opponents began a his opponents began a second attack, accusing him of the Trinitarian second attack, accusing him of the Trinitarian heresy of Sabellianism.heresy of Sabellianism. In his earlier lectures at Paris, he had already In his earlier lectures at Paris, he had already published an important published an important treatise entitled treatise entitled Sic et Non Sic et Non ( ( Yes and NoYes and No) ) where where he had examined in ahe had examined in a dialectical and highly rationalistic way 158 dialectical and highly rationalistic way 158 propositions from Christianpropositions from Christian tradition and the Bible.tradition and the Bible. Abelard asserted Abelard asserted :: “ The first key to wisdom . . . “ The first key to wisdom . . . Is assiduous and fre-Is assiduous and fre- quent questioning . . . . For by doubting we quent questioning . . . . For by doubting we come to inquiry, and bycome to inquiry, and by inquiry we arrive at the the turth.” inquiry we arrive at the the turth.”

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

Peter Abelard Peter Abelard ( ( 1079-11411079-1141))..Abelard’s Later Life & WorkAbelard’s Later Life & Work

But while Abelard’s zest for dialectical doubt and Socratic inquiry won fans among many students, it tended to alarm some Christian leaders. Then, some bishops and others found in his rationalistic explanation of Trinity evidence of the heresy of Sabellianism, an ancient error of belief. This charge ( probably unjust) led to his first condemnation for heresy by a church council at Soissons in 1121. As a result . he was made to burn his book before being shut up in the convent of St. Medard at Soissons. This was low point in his life.

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

Peter Abelard Peter Abelard (( 1079-1141 1079-1141))..Abelard’s Later Life & WorkAbelard’s Later Life & Work

After his condemnation at Sossions, life at the After his condemnation at Sossions, life at the monastary became unbearablemonastary became unbearable for Abelard. He thus was permitted to leave in ca. for Abelard. He thus was permitted to leave in ca. 1122-23. 1122-23. In a deserted place near In a deserted place near Nogent-sur-Seine, he built , he built himself a cabin of himself a cabin of stubble and reeds, and turned into a religious stubble and reeds, and turned into a religious hermithermit. But Abelard’s fame was such that in a little while flocks of students sought him out , even in the wilderness. The new seekers built Abelard a better and more permanent shelter, cleared and tilled a farm, and begged Abelard to teach the and tilled a farm, and begged Abelard to teach the dialectic once more ! dialectic once more ! Soon, the desolate place was filled with tents and Soon, the desolate place was filled with tents and huts of eager pupils ! huts of eager pupils !

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

Peter Abelard Peter Abelard (( 1079-1141 1079-1141))..Abelard’s Later Life & WorkAbelard’s Later Life & Work

Because Abelard had found consolation in this place, he soon consecrated his former hermitage as the New Oratory of the Paraclete. But, fearing new persecution and attacks from unsympathetic clerics, P. Abelard sought out a new refuge at the Abbey of Saint-Gildas-de-Rhuys, on the far-off shore of Lower Brittany. He remained here for ten years. Ironically, HeVloi~se’s convent at Argentuil was broken up at this time, and Abelard managed to get her installed as the head of a new religious house for women at the deserted Paraclete. They corresponded by letter during this time ( Cf. EtienneV Givlson. Heloise and Abelard. City: UMP, 1960 ).

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Philosophy and TheologyPhilosophy and Theology:: ScholasticismScholasticism

Peter Abelard Peter Abelard (( 1079-1141 1079-1141))..Peter Abelard’s Final Days

In 1136 Abelard returned to Mount St. Genevieve, where he had begun his brilliant career as a young man. Again, he lectured to scores of students, including the young John of Salisbury. But since the mid-1120s, Abelard had powerful opponents among the monks; however, his most vocal critic was the powerful and influential Abbot, Bernard of Clairvaux, the preacher of the Crusades. He sternly and zealously condemned Abelard. He declared: “ The faith of the righteous believes . . . It does not dispute ! ” Thus, at Bernard’s instigation, a new church council at Sens condemned Abelard in 1140. Abelard retired to the Abbey of Cluny; and then, during his last few months, sick and broken, friends moved him to the Oratory at St. Marcel, where he died.

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3.3. Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas ((1225? 1225? -1274-1274))..

Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic MastersApex or Zenith of the Scholastic Masters Called “ the Prince of the Schoolmen” and “ Called “ the Prince of the Schoolmen” and “

The AngelicThe Angelic Doctor, ” Aquinas was the greatest of Doctor, ” Aquinas was the greatest of

the schoolmen.the schoolmen. An Italian Catholic priest of the Dominon An Italian Catholic priest of the Dominon

Order.Order. He was both a philosopher and a He was both a philosopher and a

theologian, but chieflytheologian, but chiefly a faithful son of the church a faithful son of the church ((as he as he

understood itunderstood it).). He was the classical proponent of what is He was the classical proponent of what is

now called now called “ “natural theology.”natural theology.”

He is the founder of what is called the He is the founder of what is called the Thomistic Thomistic tradition in philosophy tradition in philosophy and also of Neo-Thomism . and also of Neo-Thomism .

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3.3. Thomas Aquinas ( Thomas Aquinas (1225? -1225? -1274).1274).

Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic MastersMasters

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33. Thomas Aquinas . Thomas Aquinas ((1225? -1225? -12741274))..

Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic MastersMasters

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33. Thomas Aquinas . Thomas Aquinas ((1225? -1225? -12741274).).

Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic MastersMasters

I.I. His Early LifeHis Early Life Aquinas was born in 1224 at his father Count Aquinas was born in 1224 at his father Count Landulph's castle of Landulph's castle of RoccaseccaRoccasecca in the Kingdom of Sicily, in in the Kingdom of Sicily, in the present-day the present-day RegioneRegione

LazioLazio. Through his mother, Theodora Countess of . Through his mother, Theodora Countess of Theate, Aquinas Theate, Aquinas was related to the Hohenstaufen dynasty was related to the Hohenstaufen dynasty of Holy Roman emperors. of Holy Roman emperors.

Landulf's brother Sinibald was abbot of the original Landulf's brother Sinibald was abbot of the original Benedictine Benedictine mon-mon-

asteryastery at Monte Cassino. The family intended for at Monte Cassino. The family intended for Aquinas to follow Aquinas to follow

his uncle into that position. This would have been a his uncle into that position. This would have been a normal career path normal career path

for a younger son of southern Italian nobility.for a younger son of southern Italian nobility.1414

14 14 Wikipedia, Article on “Thomas Aquinas,” Wikipedia, Article on “Thomas Aquinas,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Thomas_Aquinas. See the Bibliography at the end Thomas_Aquinas. See the Bibliography at the end of Presentation of Presentation ((JRJR))..

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3.3. Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas ((1225? -1225? -12741274))..

Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic MastersMasters

I.I. His Early LifeHis Early Life Educated from the age of the five at the monastery, young Educated from the age of the five at the monastery, young

Aquinas went Aquinas went to the University of Naples to study at age sixteen. He to the University of Naples to study at age sixteen. He

stayed six years.stayed six years.

While there he came under the influence of the Dominicans, While there he came under the influence of the Dominicans, who were verywho were very

interested in enlisting this brilliant collegian in their order.interested in enlisting this brilliant collegian in their order.

But young Aquinas heartfelt desire did not meet with his But young Aquinas heartfelt desire did not meet with his parent’s plansparent’s plans

and approval. As a result, as he traveled toward Rome, his and approval. As a result, as he traveled toward Rome, his own brothersown brothers

kidnapped him and his family kept him prisoner at the kidnapped him and his family kept him prisoner at the castle of castle of SanSan

Giovanni.

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33. Thomas Aquinas . Thomas Aquinas ((1225? -1225? -12741274))..

Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic MastersMasters

I.I. His Early Life His Early Life Finally, Finally, Pope Innocent Pope Innocent IVIV intervened and Aquinas intervened and Aquinas

assumed the habit assumed the habit of St. Dominic in his 17th year. From that moment on, of St. Dominic in his 17th year. From that moment on,

he was a monkhe was a monk and brother of Blackfriars, the Dominican Order.and brother of Blackfriars, the Dominican Order. His superiors observed for nearly four years his

erudition and strong dedication to learning at the University of Naples. Thus,

in 1244, they transferred him to the Dominican school in Cologne,

where he completed his philosophical theological studies under the sage,

Albert Magnus. In 1245, Thomas joined his mentor Albert at the In 1245, Thomas joined his mentor Albert at the

University of Paris,University of Paris, where he remained for three years. While there he where he remained for three years. While there he

entered into the con-entered into the con- between the Dominicans and the University over the between the Dominicans and the University over the

liberty of preaching.liberty of preaching.

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33. Thomas Aquinas . Thomas Aquinas ((1225? -1225? -12741274))..

Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic MastersMasters

I. I. His Early Life His Early Life When the Pope was alerted of this dispute, the When the Pope was alerted of this dispute, the

Dominicans selected Aquinas to defend his order. He did Dominicans selected Aquinas to defend his order. He did so with great success. He even overcame the arguments so with great success. He even overcame the arguments of Guillaume de St Amour, the champion of the university, of Guillaume de St Amour, the champion of the university, and one of the most celebrated men of the dayand one of the most celebrated men of the day..1515

Aquinas would later argue that God had established Aquinas would later argue that God had established certain truths whichcertain truths which

man’s reason could discover and understand. On the man’s reason could discover and understand. On the other hand, he believedother hand, he believed there were certain truths of revelation which were only there were certain truths of revelation which were only accessible by faith.accessible by faith.

1515Wikipedia article on Thomas Aquinas, Op. Cit. Wikipedia article on Thomas Aquinas, Op. Cit.

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3.3. Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas ((1225? -1225? -12741274))..

Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic MastersMasters

I.I. His Early Life His Early Life In ca. 1246, Thomas received his bachelors degreee in theology from the faculty at the University of Paris. But in 1248 he returned to Cologne where he was appointed lecturer and magister studentium . For several years, Aquinas remained the colleague of AlbertusMagnus. Aquinas's long association with this great philosopher-theologian was the most important influence in his development. In the end, he became a comprehensive scholar who permanently utilized Aristotle's method. In 1252, Thomas again journeyed to Paris to finish his Master’s degree. By 1256, he was nominated for his Doctor’s degree – together with his friend Bonaventura. Later, both lectured in France and Italy.

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33. Thomas Aquinas . Thomas Aquinas ((1225? -1225? -12741274))..

Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic Apex or Zenith of the Scholastic MastersMasters

I.I. His Early Life His Early Life In 1252 he returned to Paris to receive his Masters In 1252 he returned to Paris to receive his Masters

degree and in 1256,degree and in 1256, both he his friend and fellow Dominican, John both he his friend and fellow Dominican, John

Bonaventura, received theBonaventura, received the Doctor of Theology. Thereafter, he lectured in Paris, Doctor of Theology. Thereafter, he lectured in Paris,

Rome, and otherRome, and other European cities European cities ( ( and Universitiesand Universities).).

At various times in advised Popes At various times in advised Popes ((i.e., Urban IVi.e., Urban IV) ) and and kings kings ( ( Louis Louis

VIII and Charles II VIII and Charles II ) ) and labored tirelessly in organizing, and labored tirelessly in organizing, preaching, preaching,

teaching, and writing. teaching, and writing. During these later years he also completed his immense During these later years he also completed his immense

tomes of scholastictomes of scholastic theology, the theology, the Summa TheologicaSumma Theologica and the and the Summa Contra Summa Contra

GentilesGentiles..

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II. The Significance of Aquinas Like most famous Medieval figures the real “ Thomas ” of history sometimeshas been obscured by pious legends and holy “ nonsense.” Two examples ofthis tendency toward ledgermain follow: “ It has reported that Aquinas heard a voice from a cross that told him he had written well. On one occasion, monks claimed to have found him levitating. ”

The twentieth century Catholic writer/convert G.K. Chesterton describes these and other stories in his work on Aquinas, The Dumb Ox , a title based on early impressions that Aquinas was not proficient in speech. Chesterton quotes Al-bertus Magnus' refutation of these impressions: "You call him 'a dumb ox,' but I declare before you that he will yet bellow so loud in doctrine that his voice will resound through the whole world."

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By being instinctively Aristotelian rather than Platonic (or Augustinian),

Aquinas felt he could come up with the best of all worlds.

Thus, knowledge came principally through

the rational ordering of what our senses

revealed to us about the natural order.

The world around us was the reality that

we truly had to deal with in the here and now

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And this world was not in itself evil, not something

to be dismissed, as did the Platonist-Augustinian mindset still strong in his times.

By subscribing to Albertus' views, he affirmed the primacy of the "higher" revelation knowledge which alone gives us an under-

standing of the divine mysteries of faith.

But for Aquinas, such revelation knowledge meant only the logical

revelation of Scripture, as interpreted traditionally by the Church

Fathers.

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II. The Significance of Aquinas Aquinas opposed Platonic-Augustinian mysticism with its emphasis

upon truth derived from Spirit-inspired insight. To him, mystically-derived wisdom seemed too dubious a source of

knowledge. Mysticism was, to his way of thinking, terribly liable to abuse by milk-

maids and overly imaginative cowherds. Thus, Aquinas downplayed the role in knowledge of the Holy Spirit and replaced it with the power of the Church and its wide range of sacraments

in dispensing God's grace. [ See on Aquinas’ view of salvation in later slides ].

However, ironically enough, he had a powerful mystical experience of his own shortly before his death. At this point, he commented on his life-long work of scholastic thought as being "mere straw.”

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To Aquinas, the physical and spiritual – body and soul – are not inde-

dependent phenomenon but of one substance (in distinction to the dualism

of the Platonist-Augustinians). However, he acknowledged that the soul alone survives

death, where it rests while it waits to be reunited with the body at the Last Day.

Aquinas took the view that the human mind was essentially a blank slate at birth. 1616

1616MMichael D. Berdine, Ph.D. (Pima Community College Tucson, Arizona) http./we.

pima.edu ~mberdine/ [Internet Powerpoint] History. 101: Western Civilization:

The High Middle Ages. Cited by Joseph David Rhodes, M.A., Bethany Christian

School ( World History I: Unit 4 : The Medieval World ).

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Professor Berdine [ Continued . . .]: Gradually in its own development, the senses begin to organize

physical perceptions in the mind, slowly bringing us to the awareness of

physical reality as fact or data.

At the same time, the active intellect focuses on this data and organizes it

into useful information--or ideas or truths.

The source of this organizational power of the mind comes as a gift of God,

who has placed an element of His own divine light within us, so that we

might recognize forms or ideas.

God draws all things from potentiality to actuality, and draws us ever-forward in our thoughts, helping us to realize our humanity, in order to approach fulfillment of His Divine Plan

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II. The Significance of Aquinas

Indeed, its is God's design that man's purpose in life is to come to know

fully all things, as the sum of all things gives testimony to the essence of

God. But, God does not impart knowledge by impressing every

human thought with His thought (Platonism), but by fully endowed man

at birth with his own potential, through his own human reason, to come to

the knowledge of all things. By expanding his own mind, man is making an intellectual

journey toward God, is being conformed to God, is participating in God –

a matter of great pleasure for God.

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And by "expanding his own mind," Aquinas meant rational

inquiry, empirical investigation of reality, the pursuit of

science. Thus to Aquinas the pursuit of empirical

knowledge was the way of mystical union with God.1717

1717MMichael D. Berdine, Ph.D., History 101, World Civilization: The High Middle Ages

1050-1400. Lecture. Internet Powerpoint, Op. Cit. [ Note: While we agree with

Professor Berdine’s general assessment, we diverge with his analysis on some key

points – as will be seen in what follows. – Joseph Rhodes ]

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Indeed, its is God's design that man's purpose in life is to come to know

fully all things, as the sum of all things gives testimony to the essence of

God. But, God does not impart knowledge by impressing every

human thought with His thought (Platonism), but by fully endowed man

at birth with his own potential, through his own human reason, to come

to the knowledge of all things. By expanding his own mind, man is making an

intellectual journey to- ward God, is being conformed to God, is participating in

God – a matter of great pleasure for God.

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II. The Significance of Aquinas It must be emphasized that while Thomas’ frame of mind

and method was “scientific” (i.e., from a Medieval viewpoint), he

was not only a philosopher. He was also a Christian theologian. Professor Samuel E. Stumpf (Vanderbelt University)

comments: “ That he brought together philosophy and theology did

not mean that he confused these two disciplines. On the contrary, it

was his view that philosophy and theology played complimentary roles in

humanity’s quest for truth . . . .” “ Philosophy proceeds from principles discovered by

human reason, whereas theology is the rational ordering of principles

received from authoritative revelation and held as a matter of faith.”

[Continued]

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II. The Significance of Aquinas “ Again, theology and philosophy do not contradict each

other, but not everything that philosophy discusses is significant for a

person’s reli- gious end. Theology deals with what people need to

know for their salvation, and to ensure this knowledge, it was made

available through revelation. ” “ Some of the truths of revelation could never be

known by natural reason, whereas other elements of revealed truth

could be known by reason alone but were revealed to ensure their being

known.”1818 1818Socrates to SartreSocrates to Sartre: : A History of Philosophy A History of Philosophy ((Revised Fifth Revised Fifth

EditionEdition: : New York:New York: and Londonand London: : McGraw-Hill, 1993McGraw-Hill, 1993), ), Ch. 9, p. 180. See further, Ch. 9, p. 180. See further,

pp. 181-199 for thepp. 181-199 for the full topical survey of Aquinas’ thought. See also the later full topical survey of Aquinas’ thought. See also the later

bibliography of criticalbibliography of critical studies on Thomas Aquinas’s Philosophy and Theology studies on Thomas Aquinas’s Philosophy and Theology ((e.g., e.g.,

bibliography slidesbibliography slides).).