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San Diego Mesa CollegeGeneral Psychology 101
Chapter OneThe Science of
Psychology
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Defining Psychology
Scientific study of behavior and
mental processes
Key terms: Science
Behavior
Mental processes
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Psychological Frame of Mind
Psychologists approach life questions as scientists.
Attitudes of scientific approach: Critical thinking
Curiosity
Skepticism
Objectivity
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Science of All Human Behavior
Not just about psychological disorders
Diverse field
Understanding truths of human life in all its dimensions
Includes people’s best and worst experiences
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Careers in Psychology
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Historical Perspective
Western Philosophy
Biology and Physiology
Wilhelm Wundt & Structuralism
William James & Functionalism
Charles Darwin & Natural Selection
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Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) German philosopher-physician First Psychology Laboratory (1879)
Identify elements, or structures, of mental processes Introspection
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Functionalism
William James (1842-1910) American psychologist and philosopher
Identify purposes, or functions, of the mind Why is human thought adaptive? Natural flow of thought, or stream of consciousness
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Evolution & Natural Selection
Charles Darwin (1809-1882) British naturalist
Natural selection is adaptive and functional. Nature favors traits that promote reproduction and
survival. Successful characteristics become dominant.
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Contemporary Approaches
Biological Behavioral Psychodynamic Humanistic Cognitive Evolutionary Sociocultural
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Biological Approach
Focus on brain and nervous system
Neuroscience Structure, function, development, genetics,
biochemistry of nervous system Brain and nervous system as central to
understanding behavior, thought, and emotion
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Behavioral Approach
Emphasis on observable behavioral responses (not thoughts or feelings) and their environmental determinants
Notable Behaviorists: John B. Watson (1878-1958) B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
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Psychodynamic Approach
Emphasis on: Unconscious (sexual and aggressive) impulses Conflict between biological drives and society Childhood early family experiences
Founding father: Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
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Humanistic Approach
Emphasis on: Positive human qualities Capacity for positive growth Freedom to choose any destiny
Notable Humanistic Psychologists Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
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Cognitive Approach
Emphasis on mental processes involved in knowing
How we . . . Direct attention
Perceive, remember, think
Solve problems
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Evolutionary Approach
Use of evolutionary ideas . . . Adaptation
Reproduction
Natural selection
. . . as basis for explaining specific human behaviors
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Sociocultural Approach
Examination of ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior
Focus on comparisons of behavior across . . . Countries
Ethnic and cultural groups within countries
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Steps in the Scientific Method
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Scientific Method: Observation
Choose a variable. Phenomenon studied by scientists
Anything that can change
Develop a theory. Idea that attempts to explain observations
Seeks to explain why something happened
Can be used to make predictions
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Scientific Method: Hypothesis
Formulate a hypothesis. Educated guess derived from theory
Prediction that can be tested
If supported, can lend credibility to theory
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Scientific Method: Research
Establish an operational definition. Objective description of variable
How will variable be measured?
Collect and analyze data. Number crunching
What do data mean?
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Scientific Method: Conclusions
Draw conclusions. Is theory supported?
Should theory be changed?
Evaluate conclusions. Publication and review
Ongoing research process
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Types of Psychological Research
Descriptive research Finding out about some variable
Correlational research Discovering relationships between variables
Experimental research Establishing causal relationships
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Descriptive Research
Describing some phenomenon without answering questions of how and why
Observation Surveys and Interviews Case Studies
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Correlational Research
Examining whether and how variables are related and change together
Correlation Coefficient: -1.00 ≤ r ≤ 1.00 Strength: Number
Direction: Sign
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Correlations: Scatterplots
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Correlation and Causation
Correlation ≠ Causation
Third Variable Problem Some other variable accounts for relationship
between two variables
Third variables also called confounds
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Longitudinal Designs
Obtaining measures of variables of interest in multiple waves over time
Can suggest potential causal relationships Causal variable would come first in time But causal relationships still not clear
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Experimental Research
Determining whether causal relationship exists between variables
Experiment Manipulation of some variable(s) while
holding others constant
Random Assignment Formation of groups using chance
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Experiments and Causation
Random assignment helps establish causation.
Independent variables Manipulated Dependent variables Measured
Experimental groups Experience manipulation
Control groups Serve as baseline for comparison
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Experimental Research: Validity
External Validity Do experimental results apply, or generalize,
to real world?
Internal Validity Are changes in dependent variable due to
independent variables?
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Experimental Research: Bias
Experimenter Bias Demand characteristics
Research Participant Bias Placebo effect
Double-blind experiment
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Research Samples
Population Sample
Random samples likely to be representative of population, to allow generalizing of research results
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Research Settings
Laboratory Research Control, but with some drawbacks
Naturalistic Observation Real-world setting
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Ethical Research
History: World War II
Research participants have certain rights. Human participants
Animal research
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
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APA Ethics Guidelines
Informed Consent
Confidentiality
Debriefing
Deception
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Psychology and You
Avoid generalizing based on little information. Distinguish between group results and individual needs. Look for answers beyond a single study. Avoid attributing causes where none have been found. Consider source of psychological information.
