Ch08

LEARNINGCHP. 8

LearningLearning• Learning

–relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience

–experience (nurture) is the key to learning

AssociationAssociation• We learn by association

– Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence

– Aristotle 2000 years ago– John Locke and David Hume 200 yrs ago

• Associative Learning– learning that two events occur together

• two stimuli• a response and its consequences

AssociationAssociation

• Learning to associate two events

Event 1 Event 2

Sea snail associates splash with a tail shock

Seal learns to expect a snack for its showy antics

Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning


• We learn to associate two stimuli

Two related events:

Lightning

Stimulus 1

Thunder

Stimulus 2

Result after repetition

We see lightning

Stimulus

We wince anticipatingthunder

Response

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

• We learn to associate a response and its consequence

Response: Pushingvending machine button

Consequence: Receiving a candy bar

BehaviorismBehaviorism•John B. Watson

– viewed psychology as objective science•generally agreed-upon consensus today

– recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes•not universally accepted by all schools of thought today



• Ivan Pavlov – 1849-1936– Russian physician/

neurophysiologist– Nobel Prize in 1904– studied digestive secretions

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment

Pavlov’s Classic Experiment

Before Conditioning

During Conditioning After Conditioning

UCS (foodin mouth)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

Nosalivation

UCR (salivation)

Neutralstimulus(tone)

UCS (foodin mouth)

UCR(salivation)

CS(tone)

CR (salivation)



• Pavlov’s device for recording salivation



• Classical Conditioning– organism comes to associate two

stimuli•lightning and thunder•tone and food

– begins with a reflex– a neutral stimulus is paired with a

stimulus that evokes the reflex– neutral stimulus eventually comes to

evoke the reflex



• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)– effective stimulus that unconditionally-

automatically and naturally- triggers a response

• Unconditioned Response (UCR)– unlearned, naturally occurring

automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus•salivation when food is in the mouth



• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)– previously neutral stimulus that, after

association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

• Conditioned Response (CR)– learned response to a previously neutral

conditioned stimulus

ConditioningConditioning• Acquisition

– the initial stage of learning, during which a response is established and gradually strengthened

– in classical conditioning, the phase in which a stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response

– in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

ConditioningConditioning• Extinction

– diminishing of a CR – in classical conditioning, when a UCS does

not follow a CS– in operant conditioning, when a response is

no longer reinforced


Strengthof CR

Pause

Acquisition(CS+UCS)

Extinction(CS alone)

Extinction(CS alone)

Spontaneousrecovery ofCR



• Spontaneous Recovery– reappearance, after a rest period, of

an extinguished CR

• Generalization– tendency for a stimuli similar to CS

to evoke similar responses



• Discrimination– in classical conditioning, the ability to

distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal and UCS

– in operant conditioning, responding differently to stimuli that signal a behavior will be reinforced or will not be reinforced

GeneralizationGeneralizationDrops of salivain 30 seconds

60

50

40

30

20

10

0Hindpaw

Pelvis Shoulder Frontpaw

Thigh Trunk Foreleg

Part of body stimulated



UCS(passionate kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)

CS(onionbreath)

CS(onion breath) CR

(sexualarousal)

UCS(passionate Kiss) UCR

(sexualarousal)

Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients

Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

CS(waiting room)

CS(waitingroom) CR

(nausea)

UCS(drug)

UCR(nausea)

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning• Operant Conditioning

– type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

• Law of Effect– Thorndike’s principle that behaviors

followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning• Operant Behavior

– complex or voluntary behaviors•push button, perform complex task

– operates (acts) on environment– produces consequences

• Respondent Behavior– occurs as an automatic response to

stimulus– behavior learned through classical

conditioning


• B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)– elaborated Thorndike’s Law of

Effect– developed behavioral

technology

Operant ChamberOperant Chamber

• Skinner Box– soundproof

chamber with a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a food or water reward

– contains a device to record responses

Was Deborah a lab rat?Was Deborah a lab rat?


• Reinforcer– any event that strengthens the behavior it

follows

• Shaping– conditioning procedure in which reinforcers

guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal

• Successive Approximations– reward behaviors that increasingly resemble

desired behavior

Principles of ReinforcementPrinciples of

Reinforcement• Primary Reinforcer

– innately reinforcing stimulus– satisfies a biological need

• Secondary Reinforcer– conditioned reinforcer– learned through association with primary

reinforcer

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of

Reinforcement• Continuous Reinforcement

– reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs

– learning occurs rapidly– extinction occurs rapidly

• Partial Reinforcement – reinforcing a response only part of the

time– results in slower acquisition– greater resistance to extinction


Reinforcement

• Fixed Ratio (FR)– reinforces a response only after a

specified number of responses– faster you respond the more

rewards you get– different ratios– very high rate of responding– like piecework pay


Reinforcement•Variable Ratio (VR)

– reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

–average ratios– like gambling, fishing–very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability


Reinforcement• Fixed Interval (FI)

– reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

– response occurs more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near


Reinforcement

• Variable Interval (VI)– reinforces a response at

unpredictable time intervals– produces slow steady responding– like pop quiz


Reinforcement

Variable Interval

Number of responses

1000

750

500

250

010 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (minutes)

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Fixed Interval

Steady responding

Rapid respondingnear time forreinforcement

80

PunishmentPunishment• Punishment

– aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows

– powerful controller of unwanted behavior

Problems with Punishment


• Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed- behavior returns when punishment is no longer eminent

• Causes increased aggression- shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems- Explains why aggressive delinquents and abusive parents come from abusive homes


Problems with Punishment• Creates fear that can generalize to

desirable behaviors, e.g. fear of school, learned helplessness, depression

• Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior- reinforcement tells you what to do--punishment tells you what not to do- Combination of punishment and reward can be more effective than punishment alone

• Punishment teaches how to avoid it

Neg. Reinforcement vs Punishment

Neg. Reinforcement vs Punishment

STIMULUS TYPE

SUPPLY A STIMULUS

REMOVE A STIMULUS

Appetitive Stimulus (Something Desired)

Aversive Stimulus (Something not

desired)

Positive Reinforcement Time Out

PunishmentNegative Reinforce

ment

Operant vs Classical Conditioning

Operant vs Classical Conditioning

Extinction CR decreases when CS is Responding decreases whenrepeatedly presented alone. reinforcement stops.

Classical Conditioning

OperantConditioning

The Response Involuntary, automatic “Voluntary,” operates on environment

Acquisition Associating events; Associating response with aCS announces UCS. Consequence (reinforcer or

punisher).

Cognitive Subjects develop expectation Subjects develop expectation that processes that CS signals the arrival of a response will be reinforced or

UCS. Punished; they also exhibit latentlearning, without reinforcement

Biological Natural predispositions Organisms best learn behaviors predispositions contain what stimuli and similar to their natural behaviors;

responses can easily be unnatural behaviors instinctivelyassociated. drift back toward natural ones.

Cognition and Operant Conditioning


• Cognitive Map– mental representation of the layout of one’s

environment– example- after exploring a maze, rats act

as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

• Latent Learning– learning that occurs, but is not apparent

until there is an incentive to demonstrate it• Ex.



• Overjustification Effect– the effect of promising a reward for

doing what one already likes to do– the person may now see the reward,

rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task

Mindful LearningMindful LearningImportance of cognitive process**

Mindfulness - actively engaged in the present, sensitive to new things**increased competence, improved memory, fewer accidents

Mindlessness - programmed to act according to the sense our behavior made in the past

3 myths on ability to learn3 myths on ability to learn

1. Basics should be learned so well they become second nature

2. To pay attention to something we should hold it still and focus on it

3. It is important to learn how to delay gratification

Observational LearningObservational Learning• Observational Learning

– learning by observing and imitating others

• Modeling– process of observing and imitating

behavior

• Prosocial Behavior– positive, constructive, helpful behavior– opposite of antisocial behavior

Albert BanduraAlbert Bandura

• Influenced by Watson, Pavlov, & Skinner

• Theories blend of environmental influences with information processing(brain) & being shaped by the social situation

• Bobo doll experiment• Overcoming phobias

The Adaptive BrainThe Adaptive Brain

• Discuss behavior using 3 components:– Biological (DNA/Hormones)– Psychological (mind & how we process

information) – Environmental (factors outside of

ourselves)

• No simple answer for what makes us “tick”

Can you explain the supermarket tantrum?

Can you explain the supermarket tantrum?

• What behaviors maintain those tantrums?

• What behavioral principals would work best in extinguishing tantrum behaviors?

Group Assignment/Review “Treatment Plan”

Group Assignment/Review “Treatment Plan”

• A smoking cessation module for heavy smokers• A procrastination-prevention module for high

school AP students• A treatment module for aviatophobics (fear of

flying)• An anxiety-reducing module for young children

who fear going to dentist (dentophobia); or• A treatment module for compulsive shoppers who

are mired in credit-card debtsInclude as many of the following terms/concepts as possible:habituation, classical conditioning, acquisition, extinction,

stimulus generalization, discrimination, operant conditioning, reinforcement, punishment, reward, response cost, delay of gratification, shaping, token economy, modeling

Technology

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