Method & TheoryIn Anthropology

Method & TheoryIn Anthropology

Theoretical PerspectivesChapter 3

Prof. Fortier

Theoretical PerspectivesChapter 3

Prof. Fortier

Recap 3.1: Ethnography and Survey Research ContrastedRecap 3.1: Ethnography and Survey Research Contrasted

Theories of Cultural Anthropology

Theories of Cultural Anthropology

Evolutionism (Cultural Evolution)Historical Particularism (The Boasians)Functionalism

Structural FunctionalismConfigurationalism (Patterns of Culture)

Neoevolutionism (Multilinear Evolution)Cultural Materialism & Cultural EcologySymbolic & Interpretive AnthropologyStructuralismProcessual approachesPolitical economic approaches

Evolutionism (Cultural Evolution)Historical Particularism (The Boasians)Functionalism

Structural FunctionalismConfigurationalism (Patterns of Culture)

Neoevolutionism (Multilinear Evolution)Cultural Materialism & Cultural EcologySymbolic & Interpretive AnthropologyStructuralismProcessual approachesPolitical economic approaches

Cultural EvolutionCultural Evolution

Unilinear evolution Lewis Henry Morgan Ancient Society 1877 Savagery> Barbarism>

Civilization Fixity of the Species

Unilinear evolution Lewis Henry Morgan Ancient Society 1877 Savagery> Barbarism>

Civilization Fixity of the Species

Depiction of the “Great Chain of Being”

Edward Burnett TylorEdward Burnett Tylor Parent of British

Anthropology 1871 - Primitive

culture Unilinear

evolutionary idea about belief systems (religions)

Animism > Polytheism > Monotheism > Science

“Survivals” e.g., belief in ghosts a survival of animistic stage

Parent of British Anthropology

1871 - Primitive culture

Unilinear evolutionary idea about belief systems (religions)

Animism > Polytheism > Monotheism > Science

“Survivals” e.g., belief in ghosts a survival of animistic stage

history.prm.ox.ac.uk/collector_tylor.html

The BoasiansThe Boasians

Contributed to cultural, biological, and linguistic anthropology

Showed human biology was plasticAlfred Kroeber - One of 1st Ph.D.

students of Boas; Started anthro depts in California; studied Native Americans of Calif. region

Contributed to cultural, biological, and linguistic anthropology

Showed human biology was plasticAlfred Kroeber - One of 1st Ph.D.

students of Boas; Started anthro depts in California; studied Native Americans of Calif. region

• Franz Boas (1848-1942) is parent of four-field American anthropology

Historical ParticularismHistorical Particularism• Historical

particularism• Diverse cultural

histories can converge• Native histories

important to study

• Collect data first; theorize laterFranz Boas (1848-1942)

Independent Invention versus Diffusion

Independent Invention versus Diffusion

Boasians such as Alfred Kroeber stressed diffusionCulture traitTrait complexesCulture area Historical particularism and

diffusion were complementary

Boasians such as Alfred Kroeber stressed diffusionCulture traitTrait complexesCulture area Historical particularism and

diffusion were complementary

• Evolutionists stressed independent invention to explain cultural generalities

FunctionalismFunctionalism

Malinowski: customs and institutions in society are integrated humans have

universal biological needs

Culture functions to fulfill biol. needs

One of early modern ethnographers

Malinowski: customs and institutions in society are integrated humans have

universal biological needs

Culture functions to fulfill biol. needs

One of early modern ethnographers

Trobriand Islanders at www.art-vs.de/portal/pics/a_trobs.jpg

Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism A.R. Radcliffe-Brown The Andaman

Islanders 1922 Object of

anthropology is to discover social laws

Customs (social practices) function to preserve the social structure

Ahistorical; concerned w/ structure & function, not history

A.R. Radcliffe-Brown The Andaman

Islanders 1922 Object of

anthropology is to discover social laws

Customs (social practices) function to preserve the social structure

Ahistorical; concerned w/ structure & function, not history

Early & Recent Depictions of Andaman Is.

ConfigurationalismConfigurationalism

Culture is integrated and patterned Ruth Benedict -

Patterns of Culture; The Chrysanthemum & the Sword

Margaret Mead - Coming of Age in Samoa

Psychological Anth

Culture is integrated and patterned Ruth Benedict -

Patterns of Culture; The Chrysanthemum & the Sword

Margaret Mead - Coming of Age in Samoa

Psychological Anth

Ruth Benedict

NeoevolutionismNeoevolutionism

White: General evolution: energy capture main measure and cause of cultural advance

Steward: Multilinear evolution: culture evolved along different linesAlso pioneer in cultural ecology (known

as ecological anthropology)Technology and environment main

causes of cultural advance

White: General evolution: energy capture main measure and cause of cultural advance

Steward: Multilinear evolution: culture evolved along different linesAlso pioneer in cultural ecology (known

as ecological anthropology)Technology and environment main

causes of cultural advance

• White and Steward reintroduced evolution with study of culture (1950)

Multilinear Evolution Multilinear Evolution

Julian StewardTheory of Culture

Change (1955)Cultural EcologyEcological

AnthropologyCore culture

Julian StewardTheory of Culture

Change (1955)Cultural EcologyEcological

AnthropologyCore culture

Carrier Indian (British Columbia, Canada) consultant with J. Steward; courtesy of National Anthropology Archives

Materialist principlesMaterialist principles

Cultures adapt humans to environment.Environment shapes culturesCulture change is a process of adaptation Cultures change towards equilibriumTechnology & economy are core elementsSecondary cultural elements - religion, ritual,

world view, mythMarvin Harris, Julian Steward, Elman Service

Cultures adapt humans to environment.Environment shapes culturesCulture change is a process of adaptation Cultures change towards equilibriumTechnology & economy are core elementsSecondary cultural elements - religion, ritual,

world view, mythMarvin Harris, Julian Steward, Elman Service

Cultural MaterialismCultural Materialism

Marvin Harris (1927-2001) Studied cultural-ecological

relationships Infrastructure> Structure >

superstructure Superstructure: religion,

ideology, play determined by structure and infrastructure

Sacred Cow-evolution of the cow as a taboo food

Cannibals & Kings 1977 Cows, Pigs, Wars, &

Witches 1989

Marvin Harris (1927-2001) Studied cultural-ecological

relationships Infrastructure> Structure >

superstructure Superstructure: religion,

ideology, play determined by structure and infrastructure

Sacred Cow-evolution of the cow as a taboo food

Cannibals & Kings 1977 Cows, Pigs, Wars, &

Witches 1989Courtesy: farm1.static.flickr.com/

• Victor Turner (1920-1983) - The Forest of Symbols (1967)

• Symbolic anthropology (study of symbols in cultural context)

• Rituals in rites of passage

• Performance studies

Symbolic AnthropologySymbolic Anthropology

Rice feeding ceremony, Nepal

Symbolic principles of The Culture Concept

Symbolic principles of The Culture Concept

Culture is a system of knowledgeetic/emic knowledgerules of appropriate behaviorCompetence & performanceIdeologies & practicesUniversals of human cognitionBinary oppositionsClaude Levi-Strauss: “Universal

structures of the human mind”

Culture is a system of knowledgeetic/emic knowledgerules of appropriate behaviorCompetence & performanceIdeologies & practicesUniversals of human cognitionBinary oppositionsClaude Levi-Strauss: “Universal

structures of the human mind”

Interpretive AnthropologyInterpretive Anthropology

Culture is like a text with meanings to be deciphered

Emic approach highlighted

Culture is like a text with meanings to be deciphered

Emic approach highlighted

Clifford GeertzInterpretive

anthropology explores culture as a set of ideas

Clifford GeertzInterpretive

anthropology explores culture as a set of ideas

Balinese Cockfighting

• Lévi-Strauss (1908-) - claimed there are “Univ. structures of the human mind” common to Homo sapiens

• Goal: Outline the structure of myths and understand the underlying ideology of the society

• Binary oppositions (human/animal, life/death, good/bad, new/old, etc.)

StructuralismStructuralism

Greek Myth: Hercules & Minotaur

Processual Approaches: Practice Theory

Processual Approaches: Practice Theory

Practice theory: individuals within society have diverse motives and intentions and different degrees of power and influence

Agency: Individual actions

Pierre Bourdieu, Sherry Ortner

Practice theory: individuals within society have diverse motives and intentions and different degrees of power and influence

Agency: Individual actions

Pierre Bourdieu, Sherry Ortner

Habitus: A field of choices;From P. Bourdieu, A Theory of Practice

• Capitalist world economy – single world system committed to production for sale or exchange, with the object of maximizing profits rather than supplying domestic needs

World System(s) Theory (WST)World System(s) Theory (WST)

Capital – wealth or resources invested in business, with the intent of producing a profit

Capital is a social relationship, not an object

Capital – wealth or resources invested in business, with the intent of producing a profit

Capital is a social relationship, not an object

• Core nations - those with value-added products, highly mechanized

• Semi-peripheral nations - those with some mechanization & export to peripheral nations

• Periphery nations – nations with few mechanized economic activities

Wallerstein’s World System Theory

Wallerstein’s World System Theory

Primarily concerned with exporting raw materials and agricultural goods to core and semiperiphery nations

Primarily concerned with exporting raw materials and agricultural goods to core and semiperiphery nations

World Systems Theory (WST)World Systems Theory (WST)

Immanuel Wallerstein (1930-)

Publishing since 1961; a recent book is World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction

Redistributes resourcces from periphery to core nations

1st world, 2nd world, 3rd world...

Immanuel Wallerstein (1930-)

Publishing since 1961; a recent book is World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction

Redistributes resourcces from periphery to core nations

1st world, 2nd world, 3rd world...

Political EconomyPolitical Economy

Emphasis on tracing history of power relations

Eric Wolf -Europe & the People without History (1982)

Sydney Mintz- Sweetness & Power (1985)

Emphasis on tracing history of power relations

Eric Wolf -Europe & the People without History (1982)

Sydney Mintz- Sweetness & Power (1985)

Aurelio Tarrillo, in Peru discussing farming issues Photo: J. Fortier

Political Economies & Culture

Political Economies & Culture

Sydney Mintz’s Sweetness & Powerthe development of modern sugar

production and consumption

Sydney Mintz’s Sweetness & Powerthe development of modern sugar

production and consumption

Sugar cane harvesting in the West Indies, c. 1830s

• Anthropological studies have focused recently on -

• Identity formation• Systems of power • Diasporas & migration issues• Globalization & tourism• Cultural resistence, resilience, revitalization• Medical issues in immigration camps

Recent StudiesRecent Studies

Recap 3.2: Timeline and Key Works in Anthropological Theory

Recap 3.2: Timeline and Key Works in Anthropological Theory