Air Traffic Control and Runway Separations

Airport Planning and Design (Antonio A. Trani)

Air Traffic Control and Runway Separations

Dr. Antonio A. TraniProfessor of Civil and Environmental

Engineering


Why learning About Air Traffic and Runway Separations?

• ATC provides the operating rules of the airport

• Airport operational rules influence airport capacity

• Runway separations influence airport capacity and safety

• Many types of ATC equipment are located at the airport site

1a


Typical Navigation, Communication

and Weather Equipment at an

Airport

source:FAA AC 150/5300-13

Chapter 6

1b


Some Nomenclature

Acronym Name Purpose

ASDE Airport surface detection equipmentProvides aircraft position information to ATC tower

controllers (aircraft on the ground)

ALS Approach lighting system Provides visual guidance to pilots in bad weather

Airport Beacon Airport BeaconProvides information to pilots on airport location

(specially at night)

ASOS / AWOSAutomated surface observation systemAutomated weather observing system Provides weather information to pilots and ATC personnel

LLWAS Low level wind shear alert system Provides information on dangerous surface wind shear

DME Distance measuring equipmentProvides distance to the airfield information to on-board

instruments

RVR Runway visual range Equipment to measure forward visibility (important to pilots and ATC personnel)

Wind Cone Wind Cone Provides visual information on wind direction

TVORTerminal Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range system Provides navigation guidance to on-board instruments

1c


Some Nomenclature (cont.)

Acronym Name Purpose

GS Glide slope antenna Part of the instrument landing system

ATCT Air traffic control tower Houses ATC personnel and equipment

ASR Airport surveillance radarRadar surveillance system use by ATC controllers (aircraft

in the air)

REIL Runway end identifier lights Lights that denote the end of the runway

RWSL Runway status lights Lights that indicate if a runway is used (used by pilots)

PAPI Precision approach path indicator Lights that provide guidance to pilots about their glide slope

VASI Visual approach slope indicator Al o;der version of lights used by pilots to know their approach glide path

WAAS Wide area augmentation system Provides navigation guidance to pilots

PRM Precision runway monitor Fast scan radar used for aircraft surveillance

RTR Remote transmitter and receiver Communication equipment used in air-to-ground communicatons

1d


Siting Criteria of Navigation, Surveillance and Communications Equipment

• Siting criteria

• Every piece of equipment requires specific siting criteria to function adequately

• Separation and clearances

• Each device requires separation and clearances to work

• Critical areas

• Some equipment require protected areas (critical areas) to function correctly

1e


Navigation Aids and

Compatibility with RSA and ROFA Areas

1f


Example: Approach Lights and REILs

• By design, they are located inside the RSA and ROFA areas of a runway

MALS system at DCA runway 19

REIL

MALS

1g


More Examples of Equipment at the Airport

• Chapter 6 of the FAA AC 150/5300-13 provides numerous examples of navigation, surveillance, communication and weather equipment located at an airport

1h

LocalizerAntenna

Runwayedge lights

Gulfstream III landing at BCB

Taxiway signs

Virginia Tech 2 of 68

Discussion of Flight Rules

Flight Rules

• IFR - instrument flight rules (ATC controlled flights)

• VFR - visual flight rules (> 3 nm visibility and 1000 ft. from clouds)

Weather conditions

• VMC - visual meteorological conditions

• IMC - instrument meteorological conditions

An airliner could fly in VMC conditions but always under IFR flight plan rules


Airways are Like Highways in the Sky

United States

Blacksburg

Miami

Airways


The Role of Air Traffic Control

Air traffic controllers maintain aircraft separations and help pilots navigate to their destination providing verbal and datalink instructions


Classification of ATC Services

There are 3 control components of ATC and one support component. These components interact all time among themselves via telephone or microwave data links.

Control Components:

• Air Traffic Control Systems Command Center (ATCSCC)

• Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC)

• Terminal Approach/Departure Control Facilities (TCA - TRACON)

• Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT)

Support Component (Information)

• Flight Service Stations (FSS)


US Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC

• Twenty one ARTCC facilities in the U.S.

• 30-50 sectors (horizontal and vertical) in each ARTCC

• Control over 200-300 nm from radar sites (use of multiple radars to track targets at long distances)

• Use of long range radars for surveillance (12 seconds between scans or update rate)

• The size of the ARTCC varies because traffic density vary over NAS (see Figure)


Enroute Control Sectors in the US

• A well organized and hierarchical system

• Communications are via Voice channels (one per controller)

source: FAA Instrument Procedure Handbook


Airspace Sectorization to Control Flights

The NAS airspace is divided into Centers to control flights

-88 -86 -84 -82 -80 -78 -76

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

2324

4049

51

55

61

62

75

77

84

8687

89

91

93

113

115

119 121

126129

131

143Latit

ude

(deg

.)

Longitude (deg.)

JacksonvilleEnroute Center

AtlantaEnroute Center

MiamiEnroute Center

Sector

WashingtonEnroute Center


Enroute Separations (Vertical)

• In January 20, 2005 the FAA instituted Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) in the domestic US airspace

• Canada and Mexico (and Gulf of Mexico) also implemented the same RVSM rules on the same day

• The new vertical separations allow six new flight levels to be selected every 1,000 between flight levels 290 and 410

• North Atlantic operations use RVSM since March 1997 and Pacific operations since February 2000

• Europe started RVSM operations in January 2002


• Asia-Europe (South of Himalayas) started RVSM operations in November 2003 Enroute Separations (vertical)


RVSM Issues

• Aircraft are required to comply with tighter altimetric capability (not all aircraft in NAS are equipped in 2005)

• Aircraft not meeting new altimetric capabilities can still operate in NAS (below FL 290 or above FL 410 if authorized by ATC)

Literature on RVSM

1. Guidance 91-RVSM, Change 2 (2/10/04) - Guidance Material on the Approval of Operators/Aircraft for RVSM Operations

2. Air Transportation Operations Inspectorís Handbook (FAA Order 8400.10). HBAT 03-06 (9/8/03). "Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum Airspace.î HBAT 03-06 is incorporated into 8400.10 Change 27 (5/25/04). 8400.10, Volume 4, Chapter 1, Section 5, Paragraph 220 is now ì RVSM Airspace".


ATC Surveillance Mechanisms

Radar (Today)

ADS-B, GPS (2005-2010)

GPS = Global Positioning SystemADS = Automatic Dependent Surveillance


Terminal Approach and Departure Control Facilities (TRACON)

• Control terminal traffic (both arrivals and departures)

• Typically 50-80 nm from the aircraft

• Some TRACON control more than one airport (SW California)

• TRACONs are divided into sectors to ease workload for controllers

• TRACONs meter traffic approaching an airport facility

• Heavy use of verbal advisories ( vectors ) - AA52 turn right heading 120- UA53 descent and maintain 170 (17,000 ft.)- Aeromexico reduce to 230 (IAS airspeed)


• Minimum separation inside TRACON is either 5 nm (>40 nm from radar antenna) or 3 nm (if < 40 nm from radar antenna) assuming no wake vortex effect is present


Sample TRACON (Roanoke)

Notes:

1) The volume of airspace controlled by ROA Approach control looks like an inverted wedding cake

2) Typical of many TRACONs in the U.S.

3) The complexity of the TRACON increases as traffic increases

Class C Airspace

R k Ai tVirginia Tech Airport

5,200 ft.

3,400 ft.3,800 ft.

1,176 ft.

2,132 ft.

Side View


Sample Flight Paths to and from Miami Airport

-84 -83 -82 -81 -80 -79 -78 -77

Longitude (deg.)

Miami Intl. Airport

Aircraft Tracks

Tampa Bay

Gulf of MÈxico

Atlantic Ocean

TRACON Radar Coverage


Detailed View of Flight Tracks (ETMS Data)

-81 -80.8 -80.6 -80.4 -80.2 -80 -79.8

Longitude (deg.)

Miami Intl. Airport

ArrivalsDepartures


Terminal Area Operations in Atlanta (Departures)


Terminal Area Operations in Atlanta (Arrivals)

Four Corner Post System


Detail of Operations at Atlanta

Arrivals in Blue Departures in Red

Airport


Terminal Area Operations in New York City

One Day of Traffic into 5 New York Area Airports


Terminal Operations in New York

• Approaches to La Guardia Airport (LGA) (dark green color lines) are executed in close proximity with departures from JFK Airport (light green color lines)

• Operations at LGA, JFK and EWR require coordination

JFK 31L DEPLGA ARR to 4

LGA ARR to 31


Air Traffic Control Tower

• Control aircraft traffic (both arrivals and departures) at the airport (includes ramps near gates, taxiways, runways, and airspace up to 5 nm from airport)

• Three controller posts- Local controller (runways and landing areas)- Ground control (taxiways and aprons)- Clearance delivery (provides information on flight plans)

• Some ATCT divide workload into East-West operations

• Use of short and precise language- AA52 taxi to RWY 36 via alpha-3- UA53 clear for takeoff, wind 040 at 12- Aeromexico clear to land RWY 36


Sample Airport (JFK) with Taxiway and Gate Detail

31L

31R

13L

22R

22L13R

4L 4R

TerminalBuilding

CEE 4674 – Airport Planning and Design (A. Trani)

Aircraft Wake Categories Used in Air Traffic Control

• FAA aircraft groups (at maximum takeoff weight)– Small (< 41,000 lb) – Large (< 255,000 lb)– B757 (255,000 to 300,000 lb)– Heavy (> 255,000 lb) – Superheavy (Airbus A380 and Antonov 225)

• ICAO groups– Light (< 7 metric tons)– Medium (> 7 tons but < 136 tons)– Heavy (> 136 tons) – Superheavy (A380 and Antonov 225)

25a


Issues in Separating Aircraft Near Runways

• Airspace criteria are intrinsically used for runway separations:– Minimum radar separations (driven by the ability to differentiate

targets in a radar display)– Wake vortex separations - driven by the hazard created by flying

behind the wake of a lead aircraft

• Runway occupancy time (ROT)– Can also be an important factor in separations on final approach– If ROT is small (i.e., due to high speed runway exits), the

airspace separations may need to be increased to avoid simultaneous occupancy of the runway

25b


Example of In-Trail Wake Airspace SeparationsIMC Conditions (ICAO)

Lang, Eriksen and Tittsworth, WakeNet 3 Europe, 2010

25c


Typical Minimum Values of Aircraft Separations ( in the United States under IMC Conditions

Radar is Available

Highlighted values are minimum radar separationsValues behind Superheavy vary from 8-10 nm

25d


VMC Separations

• Under visual meteorological conditions, pilots are expected to be responsible for separations

• Data collected at airfields in the United States indicates that VMC separations are 10% below those observed under IMC conditions

• Therefore:– Runways have more capacity under VMC conditions for the same

fleet mix– Higher runway utilization is possible under VMC conditions– Runway occupancy times and VMC airspace separations are closer

in magnitude

25e


A Hypothetical Flight

• Suppose we fly a Cessna Citation II from Virginia Tech Airport to Miami International

• The flight takes us across four ARTCC Centers in the U.S. (Washington, Atlanta, Jacksonville, and Miami)

• The aircraft is under continuos control of ATC services even if the day is clear (CAVU conditions)

Cessna Citation II


The Flight Plan (Current NAS)

• The current plan uses high-altitude Jet Routes (Jet airways)

• A codified instrument approach procedure (Heath II) is used during the transition into the Miami TRACON


Activities of the Flight

• Pilots arrive to VPI Airport (BCB) an hour before the flight (to review weather and submit a flight plan)

• Few minutes before departure they contact Roanoke ATC for flight plan approval

• BCB has no control tower (but a UNICOM frequency is used to establish intent - blind verbal statements)

• Out of BCB pilots contact Roanoke TRACON for climb instructions (to intercept J-48 a Jet Route)

• At FL 100 (10,000 ft.) the pilots contact Washington Center - ZDC (briefly)

• A few minutes later ZDC hands-off the flight to ZTL (Atlanta ARTCC)


Climb Procedure Out of BCB

Blacksburg


Flight Activities

• ZTL controllers (4 sectors total for this trip) direct this flight to switch to J-53 to Spartanburg VOR (a NAVAID facility)

• The aircraft reaches its enroute cruising altitude of FL 350 (heading is around 187 degrees - South)

• The flight then moves over to J-81 West of Augusta, GA

• 100 nm North of Jacksonville ZTL controllers hand-off the flight to ZJX controllers (Jacksonville Center)

• The flight takes J-45 and passes a few miles West of Daytona Beach (flies over Daytona Beach VOR called DAB)

• The flight is handed-off to ZMA (Miami ARTCC Center)

• ZMA controllers start descending the flight 100 nm from MIA VOR near Vero Beach VOR


Enroute Part of the Trip


Final Part of the Trip (Activities)

• The flight is handed over to MIA TRACON 60 nm from the airport East of the West Palm Beach VOR

• The flight progresses inside the MIA terminal area flying a codified Standard Terminal Arrival Route (STAR)

• The flight is continuously given vectors inside the 50 nm radius from MIA

• The TRACON controller sequences our flight behind a ì heavyî (Boeing 757 of American Airlines) and establishes 6 nm of separation

• 5 nm from MIA airport the flight is handed-off to MIA tower

• The flight lands on RWY 27 R per local controller instructions

• The flight taxis to the ramp following instructions of a ground controller


Final Approach and Terminal AreaVero Beach

Miami


Aircraft Instrumentation and Navigation

Modern transport aircraft have plenty of instrumentation to navigate across the U.S. and over the oceans


Navigation in Free Flight

In Free Flight a pilot navigates directly from an origin to a destination using Satellite Navigation (SATNAV) systems

GPS Networkof Satellites


Sample Individual Free Flight Track

Flight plans will be more flexible and allow pilots to save time and fuel

80

85

90

95

100 2626.5

2727.5

2828.5

2929.5

0

10

20

30

Longitude (deg) Latitude (deg)

Alti

tude

(kft)

Flight plan way-points

DFW

MIA

Pseudo-globe circle route

Constant headingsegments

ClimbDescent


North Atlantic and Oceanic Operations

• 1963 - Reich and Marks start development of the first Collision Risk Assessment model

• 1968 - Reich-Marks model accepted for oceanic operations

- Established longitudinal, lateral and vertical separation minimums to fly over the North Atlantic

- 120 nautical mile lateral separation (90 nm separation considered unsafe using the model)

- The longitudinal separation was 20 minutes initially- 15 minutes in-trail adopted in 1978


Reich-Marks Model

• Reich- Marks model (target level of safety at 2.5x10e-9 collisions per flight hour)

2000 ft

120 nm

Sx = 20 minutes


Composite Rule Changes

• 1971 - First reduction in lateral separation (120/60 composite rule separation)

2000 ft.

120 nm

60 nmSx = 15 minutes


MNPS Changes in NATS

• 1981-1983 Minimum Navigation Performance (MNPS)

• Navigation equipment was more accurate

2000 ft.

120 nm

60 nmSx = 10 minutes


MNPS Changes

• Avionics/aircraft equipment needs to be certified under stricter rules to operate in NATS (North Atlantic Track System)

Vertical Error PDF

Lateral NAV Error PDF

µ = 0 ft.! = 82 ft.

µ = 0 ft.! = 3000 ft.


RVSM Rule Changes

In 1990 a new study concluded that 1000 ft. vertical separation was acceptable over the North Atlantic

1000 ft.

60 nm

Sx = 10 minutes


New Separations over NATS (North Atlantic Organized Track System)

• 1000 foot vertical separation between flight levels 290 and 390 (implemented in March 1997)

• 60 nm lateral separation between adjacent flight tracks

• 10 minute longitudinal separation between successive aircraft (about 150 km if flying at Mach 0.80)

• Requires strict enforcement of Minimum Equipment Lists (MLE) and RVSM (Reduced Vertical Separation Measures) certification (aircraft specific)

• Wake turbulence and issue sometimes (pilots are given the freedom to deviate 2 miles off the track to avoid wake turbulence)


Extended Range Twin-Engine Over the Water Operations

• ETOPS is the acronym of extended range, twin-engine over the water operations

• ETOPS operations with twin engine aircraft started in 1985 with Boeing 767-200 flights (between Europe and North America)

• Today more than 90% of the North Atlantic flights are conducted using twin-engine aircraft

• Airlines worldwide conduct 1,700 ETOPS flights per day

• More than 5.5 million ETOPS flights since 1985 using twin engine aircraft (source: Boeing 2007)

• These aircraft have demonstrated high reliability and thus are certified to fly over the oceans with 180 to 207 minute diversion rules (time to a nearest airport at single engine speed)


• More recently, Boeing obtained certification for longer diversion rules for the Boeing 777 family of aircraft (see article at http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2007/q2/070514b_nr.html)

• Boeing expects to certify newer versions of Boeing 777 aircraft to fly 330 minute diversion rules

• More information at Transport Canada web site : http://www.tc.gc.ca/civilaviation/commerce/manuals/tp6327v00a/definitions.htm

• More information about ETOPS from the FAA is found at: http://www.faa.gov/newpress_releasesnews_story.cfm?newsId=7975


ETOPS Trans-Pacific Flights


ETOPS Requirements (Transport Canada)

1) Required aeroplane limitations including airline procedures for ETOPS certification

2) Revision to the performance section including fuel consumption rates;

3) Flight crew procedures;

4) Aircraft certication - "the aeroplane has been found to meet the type design reliability and performance criteria for ETOPS operations in accordance with this document. Compliance with these type design criteria alone does not constitute approval to conduct ETOPS operations"


Sample ETOPS Flight

-140 -120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Distance traveled (nm) 4359.3772

Longitude (deg.)

Latit

ude

(deg

.)

IAH (Houston)

CDG (Paris)

Note: There are critical sections of this flight where the aircraft could be ~120 minutes away from the nearest airport (assuming a single engine speed)


Possible Diversion Points (Airports)

-80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75Distance traveled (nm) 4359.3772

Keflavik

Gander

Santa Maria

Shannon


Have There Been Diversions?

Two very well known cases:

a) Air Transat Airbus A330-200 lost both engines (due to fuel starvation) over the Atlantic and landed safely at Lajes (in the Azores)

See report at: http://www.moptc.pt/tempfiles/20060608181643moptc.pdf or read article at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Transat_Flight_236

b) Boeing 767-200ER traveled more than 300 minutes in a flight from North America to Hawaii (landed safely with engine operative)


Types of Critical Failures in ETOPS Operations

Pressurization failure

• Pressure vessel (fuselage) no longer maintains a low-altitude cabin conditions (<8,000 ft) at cruise altitude

• Aircraft is required to descend to 10,000 ft. allowing passengers to breathe normally

• High drag condition (high density due to low altitude cruise)

• Fuel reserves are critical because two engines are running

Engine failure

• Engine failure requires a descent to a suitable one-engine cruise altitude

• Modern twin engine aircraft have single-engine service ceilings of 21,000-29,000 ft.


• Modest drag condition (intermediate altitude)

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.91

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5x 105

Mach Number

Dra

g or

Thr

ust (

New

tons

)

Drag (N) at: 6000 metersThrust (N) at: 6000 meters

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.90.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5x 105

Mach Number

Dra

g or

Thr

ust (

New

tons

)

Drag (N) at: 6000 metersThrust (N) at: 6000 meters

Two Engines One Engine


Separations in the National Airspace System

Much smaller than over NATS (5 nm for distance > 40 nm from radar)

• Positive control (radar control for all IFR flights)

• 2000 ft. above 41,000 ft. (flight level 410)

• 1000 ft. below FL 410

• Above FL 290 RVSM requires aircraft equipment certification

Free Flight introduces a new dimension in complexity

• NASA / FAA want to reduce incidents and collisions by a factor of 5-10 in the next decade

• Need to assess the collision risk over NAS if reduced separation criteria is used


Implications for Air Transportation Engineering

• NAS system capacity is typically constrained at the airport level

• Many ATC services housed at the airport- Airport surveillance radars- VOR - very high frequency omnidirectional range and TACAN

systems- ILS - instrument landing systems- Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

• ATC aircraft separations dictate the capacity of the airport and in some cases that of the airspace

• Runway separation criteria are dictated by ATC technology (more on this later)


Runway Separations at Airports Depend on Airport Surveillance Technology

The same technology used to establish the position of aircraft in the airspace is used to perform surveillance activities near airports

• Radar technology has inherent weaknesses for surveillance

• The farthest from the antenna, the larger the uncertainty to determine accurate positions

• Primary radar (skin paint)

• Secondary radar (transponder inside aircraft - Modes C and S)


Independent ILS or Precision Approaches

• IFR operational conditions

• 4,300 ft. between runway centerlines

• Standard radar systems (scan rate of 4.8 seconds or more)

• Radar surveillance is available

Airport Terminal

Independent arrival streamsRunway 1

Runway 2

4,300 ft. or more


Independent Parallel Approaches using the Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) in IFR

• The purpose of this standard is to use the Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) to allow independent ILS approaches to parallel runways separated down to 3,000 feet (FAA, 1998)

• This standard currently applies with PRM (fast-scan technology)

• Radar scan rate of 1 second or less


What is a PRM - Precision Runway Monitor?

Two pieces of software and hardware comprise the PRM system:

• Air Traffic Controller display (shows the aircraft blips plus the NTZ - No Transgression Zone (NTZ)

• Fast scanning radar (with tau <= 1.0 seconds)

This system reduces the uncertainty of knowing where aircraft are (i.e., thanks to its fast scan rate)


Independent Triple and Quadruple Approaches To Parallel Runways (IFR)

• The idea behind this concept is to allow triple and quadruple parallel approaches to runways separated by 5,000 feet using standard radar systems (scan update rate of 4.8 seconds) at airports having field elevations of less than 1,000 feet

• Increase to 5,300 ft. spacing between runways for elevations above 5,000 ft. p

Runway 1

R 2

5,000 ft. or more

Runway 2

Runway 3


Independent Departures in IFR Conditions and Standard Radar (" => 4.8 s.)

• Simultaneous departures can be conducted if two parallel runways are located 2,500 ft. p

Runway 1

Runway 2

2,500 ft.


Independent Departures and Arrivals in IFR Conditions and Standard Radar (" => 4.8 s.)

• Simultaneous departures and arrivals can be conducted if two parallel runways are located 2,500 ft.

Runway 1

Runway 2

2,500 ft.

ArrivalStream

DepartureStream


Staggered Runways Rule (Decreasing Separation)

If two parallel runways are staggered (i.e., their runway thresholds are offset) use:

• Decrease runway centerline separation by 100 ft. for every 500 ft. of stagger

Runway 1

Runway 2

2,300 ft.

1,000 ft.


Staggered Runways Rule (Increasing Runway Centerline Separation)

If two parallel runways are staggered (i.e., their runway thresholds are offset) use:

• Increase runway centerline separation by 100 ft. for every 500 ft. of stagger

Runway 1

Runway 2

2,700 ft.

1,000 ft.OverlapRegion


Independent Arrivals under VFR Conditions

Independent simultaneous arrivals can be conducted with at least 700ft between runway centerlines if:

• VFR conditions (visibility > 3 nm)

• No wake vortex effect is presentIndependent arrival streamsRunway 1

Runway 2

700 ft. or more

No wake vortexeffect (seldomthe case)

Increase to1,200 ft. ifaircraft belong toDesign groups V and VI


Independent Simultaneous Approaches to Converging Runways

Procedures governing independent converging approaches require that the distance between the missed approach points be 3 n.m. apart and that the Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS) surfaces not overlap. Because of these restrictions, minimums are high, thereby limiting the number of airports

NTZ - No Transgression Zone

Assumes the Missed ApproachEnvelopes are Non-overlapping


Dependent Approaches to Parallel Runways (IFR)

Procedures exist to conduct dependent arrivals when runway separation is below 4,300 ft. and above 2,500 ft. (standard radar).

Dependent arrival streamsRunway 1

Runway 2

2,500 ft. or more 1.5 nm 1.5 nm


Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches (SOIA)

Allows siimultaneous approaches to runways spaced less than 3,000 ft. but more than 750 ft.

San Francisco International airport is the first airport approved for the procedure (see diagram)

Requirements:

• Pilot training

• Dual communications

• ATC software/hardware (PRM radar)


Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches (SOIA)

ILSApproach

LDAApproach

9,000 ft.

3,000 ft.

No Transgression Zone

SFO International