The Illustrated Encyclopediaof

Body-Mind Disciplines

The Illustrated Encyclopediaof

Body-Mind Disciplines

Nancy Allison, CMAEditor

The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.New York

Important notice to readers of this book: This book is not intended to substitute for diag-nosis or treatment by or consultation with a qualified, licensed health care practitioner. Aphysician should be consulted before deciding to participate in any body-mind discipline.The Publisher is not recommending or advocating the use or practice of any body-mind dis-cipline or program of treatment mentioned or described in this book. The Publisher shall notbe responsible for any consequences or ill effects resulting from the practice of any programof treatment mentioned or described in this book.

Published in 1999 by The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010

© 1999 by Nancy Allison

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Allison, NancyThe illustrated encyclopedia of body-mind disciplines/Nancy Allison, editor

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and indexISBN 0-8239-2546-31. Alternative medicine—Encyclopedias. 2. Mind and body therapies—Encyclopedias.

I. Allison, Nancy, 1954-R733.I46 1998615.5—dc21 98-24969

CIP

Manufactured in the United States of America

v

About the Editor

Nancy Allison, CMA, has always been interested in the role of movement inhuman society, its inner impulses and outer forms. This interest led her to pursue acareer in dance. She performed during her childhood with the National Ballet ofWashington, DC, and with Moscow’s world-renowned Bolshoi Ballet during its 1963American tour. She graduated with honors from Ohio University with a B.F.A. inDance. While at Ohio University she augmented her study of dance with courses inphilosophy and psychology. As a young professional dancer she joined the Theaterof the Open Eye in New York City, founded by choreographer Jean Erdman and thelate Joseph Campbell. Allison distinguished herself as the leading interpreter ofErdman’s dance repertory from the 1940s and 1950s, producing the three-volumevideo archive Dance and Myth: The World of Jean Erdman.

Inspired by both Erdman and Campbell, Allison expanded her exploration ofmovement to include the body-mind relationship. She has studied hatha yoga, t’ai chich’üan, the Pilates Method, bioenergetics, authentic movement, and Laban move-ment analysis, in which she earned a degree as a certified movement analyst. A muchsought after teacher, Allison has taught master classes and workshops throughout theUnited States. She currently resides in New York, where she teaches at the School ofEducation of New York University.

Acknowledgments

So many people have helped create this volume that it is probably impossible toname them all, but given this opportunity, I would like to try. I feel deeply indebtedto Joseph Campbell, whose personal encouragement guided my early explorationsinto the world of body-mind and whose spirit and knowledge are a constant well-spring of inspiration to me. I also want to thank my husband, who believed in myability to complete this project and nurtured both it and me with his constant loveand support.

I am eternally grateful to all of the distinguished teachers, healers, and writerswho contributed entries to this volume. Their dedication to their respective fields andtheir generous gifts of time and knowledge to this project have earned my undyingrespect and admiration. I believe they are, each in their own wonderfully unique way,helping to make this world a better place.

Certain writers and consultants have been particularly influential in my owndevelopment, and I want to acknowledge their gifts to me: T’ai chi master SophiaDelza, who passed away during the course of our work, taught me to follow the flowof the life force in its endless cycle from full to empty and back to full again; Ed Groff;Janet Hamburg; Clio Pavlantos and Jackie Hand, who taught me to recognize theendless permutations of that force through the language of Laban movementanalysis; Nina Robinson, who introduced me to the thrill of liberating that forcethrough bioenergetics; Lillo (Leela) Way, who taught me the true nature of a spir-itual practice; Jane Magee and Jackie Hand, whose healing hands managed tountangle the knots into which I seem to want to endlessly entangle my body; and Dr.

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Domenick Masiello, whose healing artistry has restored me and so many of my lovedones to a vibrant state of health. I am also indebted to Dr. Masiello for the many finecontributing writers he recommended to this project. In that regard I am also deeplyindebted to Thomas Claire and Ken Frey.

There are also those who, while not contributing writers, were important to my abil-ity to realize this project: Clifford Schulman, Jeff McMahon, Anne Johnson, JoannaKosartes Vergoth, and Cynthia Reynolds, all of whom recommended contributing writ-ers to the project; Romana Kryzanowska, who gave me my first teaching job in the body-mind arena at the Pilates Studio; Carol Walker and Steven Giordano, who encouraged meto expand and explore that skill and knowledge at SUNY Purchase; Miriam RoskinBerger, who has supported so many of my creative endeavors and gave me the opportu-nity to develop my teaching at New York University, and all of my students over theyears who continually show me through their amazing transformations that myapproach to this material is valuable and life-enhancing.

Finally, I would like to thank the staff at the Rosen Publishing Group, all of whomwere extraordinarily helpful and supportive; especially Christine Slovey, who workedlong and diligently to uphold cohesive reference standards while allowing each individ-ual voice to be heard; Michael Isaac and Margaret Haerens, who each offered their ownperspective and editing skills; Kim Sonsky, whose artistic talents created the coverdesign; Vera Amadzadeh, whose tireless photo research efforts brought such vivid visu-al expression to the ideas contained in the writing; and Olga Vega, whose layout anddesign expertise give such visual clarity and accessibility to the volume.

With such a huge task, spanning so many years, I'm sure there are others I havemissed. Please forgive me and know that you have my deepest respect and gratitude.

—Nancy Allison, CMA, Editor

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Acupressure, Process AcupressureAminah Raheem, Ph.D. and

Diplomate of Process Work, is a transper-sonal psychologist, bodyworker, writer,and the originator of process acupres-sure, who has worked for many yearswith the integration of bodywork andconsciousness. She was an adjunct facul-ty member of the Institute forTranspersonal Psychology for ten years.

AcupunctureRobert J. Abramson, D.D.S, M.D.,

had a private dental practice for over adecade before earning his M.D. from theState University of New York and com-pleting a bachelor’s course in acupunc-ture at the College of Traditional ChineseMedicine in England. Dr. Abramson iscurrently a privately practicing acupunc-turist in New York City.

AikidoClio Pavlantos, M.A., CMA, holds a

master’s degree in dance, a certificate inLaban movement studies, and a blackbelt in aikido. She has taught all three dis-ciplines at colleges, universities, and pri-vate institutions. Dance and Labanmovement analysis helped her in learn-ing and teaching aikido, which she findsto have many of the rhythms and expres-sive qualities of dance.

Marvin Bookman has been involvedin the martial arts for twenty years. He iscertified as an aikido instructor by theUnited States Aikido Federation. In 1989,he founded Aikido of Greenwich Village.Currently, Bookman gives seminars andclasses throughout the United States.

Alexander TechniqueDiane Young, NASAT, is a certified

teacher and trainer of the Alexander

technique. She has a modern dancebackground, having choreographedand performed in New York City since1983. She is on the faculty at SUNYStony Brook in the music departmentand maintains a private practice in NewYork and Connecticut. She has writtenvarious journals on body-mind healingand has received a grant from the NewYork Cardiac Center to study and reporton complementary medicine.

Art TherapyCathy Malchiodi, M.A., ATR, LPAT,

LPCC, is the director of the Institutefor the Arts and Health in Salt LakeCity, Utah. She is the editor of ArtTherapy: Journal of the American ArtTherapy Association and the author ofseveral books and articles on the topicof art therapy with trauma, child phys-ical abuse, and medical applications.Ms. Malchiodi has lectured at manyuniversities, agencies, and institutionsthroughout the United States, Canada,Europe, and Asia.

Aston-Patterning®

Allison Funk has been working inthe fields of bodywork and movementeducation for twelve years. A licensedphysical therapist assistant, shereceived her Aston-Patterning® certifi-cation in 1996 and is currently enrolledin the faculty training program at theAston-Patterning Center in Lake Tahoe,Nevada. Funk owns a private Aston-Patterning practice in Winter Park,Colorado, where she uses her skills toassist a variety of clients.

Authentic MovementDaphne Lowell is a professor at

Hampshire College and the Five College

Contributors

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Dance Department. She is also codirec-tor of the Hampshire College Programin contemplative dance.

Ayurvedic MedicineDr. Vasant Lad, BAMS (bachelor of

ayurvedic medicine and surgery),MASc (master of ayurvedic science), isthe founder, director, chairman of theboard, and principal instructor of theAyurvedic Institute in Albuquerque,New Mexico. He practiced and taughtayurveda in Pune, India, before comingto the United States and teaching at theSanta Fe College of Natural Medicinein 1981.

Bartenieff FundamentalsSM

Janet Hamburg, CMA, M.A., directsthe dance division at the University ofKansas, Lawrence. She was a facultymember of the Laban/BartenieffInstitute of Movement StudiesCertificate Extension Program in NewMexico. She has taught LMA classesinternationally, and throughout theUnited States Hamburg’s work withathletes has been featured on nationaltelevision, including the programScience World.

Behavioral Vision TherapyDr. Joseph Shapiro is a behavioral

optometrist with twenty-five years ofexperience. He is the director of theCenter for Unlimited Vision in NewYork City. He received his doctor ofoptometry degree from theMassachusetts College of Optometryand did his intern and residency pro-gram in vision therapy at theUniversity Optometric Center, StateCollege of Optometry, State Universityof New York. He has taught rehabilita-tive optometry at six major hospitals inthe New York metropolitan area. He is

coauthor of Out of Sight into Vision, aconsumer self-help book presenting newmodels of seeing and vision therapy.

BioenergeticsNina Robinson, ADTR, M.A., CMA,

has been a dance/movement therapistsince 1973. She has taught in the NewYork University dance therapy program,from which she received her master’sdegree. She is a member of the Academyof Dance Therapists Registered. She hasintegrated bioenergetics into her dancetherapy work throughout her career. Shebegan her many years of bioenergetictherapy with Alexander Lowen, M.D.,from 1965 to 1967.

BiofeedbackLes Fehmi, Ph.D., organized and

chaired the first national meeting ofbiofeedback researchers in 1968. He hasa Ph.D. in physiological psychologyfrom UCLA and has been recognized bythe Association for Applied Physiopsy-chology and Biofeedback for his contri-butions to the development of appliedphysiopathology and biofeedback. Hedirects biofeedback centers in New YorkCity and Princeton, New Jersey.

Body-Mind Centering®

Vera Orlock is an assistant profes-sor of dance at Kansas State Universityand has taught at Indiana University,Bloomington, and the University ofNorth Carolina, Charlotte. Her chore-ography has been recognized by grantsfrom the Ohio Arts Council and theNew York State Council on the Arts.She is on the faculty of the School forBody-Mind Centering® and is also acertified practitioner of structural inte-gration, the work of Ida P. Rolf. Orlockis frequently a guest artist/teacher inEurope and the United States.

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Bodynamics AnalysisPeter Bernhardt, MFCC, is director

of the Clement Street Counseling CenterFaculty at California Institute of IntegralStudies in Somatics program, in SanFrancisco, California, and a foundingmember of the Bodynamics Institute,USA. He has led trainings and work-shops throughout the United States andEurope, has twenty years’ experience asa body psychotherapist, and is in privatepractice near Berkeley, California.

Bowen TechniqueOswald H. Rentsch is the principal

and founder of the Bowen TherapyAcademy of Australia, the official orga-nization of Bowtech®. From 1974 to 1976he studied under Thomas A. Bowen,who commissioned Rentsch to docu-ment and teach his original techniques.He has earned a diploma of osteopathyfrom the South Pacific Council ofNatural Therapies, an honorary doctor-ate of massage therapy from theAustralian Registrar of MassageTherapists, and a diploma of homeopa-thy ionization principles from theAustralian Academy of Homeopathy.Oswald Rentsch has twenty-two yearsof experience with the Bowen techniqueand, together with his wife Elaine, hasspent ten years as a Bowtech teacher.

Brain Gym®

Lark Carroll has been teaching BrainGym in the Bay Area since 1986. Shecompleted certification in educationalkinesiology, neurolinguistic program-ming, acupressure massage, andBowen Therapy. Additionally, sheholds training in a variety of modali-ties, including CranioSacral therapy,Living VisionTM, meditation, Chinesefive-element theory, and nutritionalapproaches to health and balance.

ChiropracticDr. Trina Marx is a doctor of chiro-

practic with a degree in clinical nutri-tion, also specializing in exercisepsychology and holistic treatments. Inaddition to her private practice, she isthe chiropractor for the American TapDance Orchestra. Her volunteer workincludes providing chiropractic ser-vices for the Gay Men’s Health Crisisand for children born with addictionsand HIV. She has also written BodyAlmanac and Tap Dance.

Connective Tissue TherapySM

Jackie Hand, M.A., is a certifiedLaban movement analyst (CMA) and aregistered movement therapist (RMT).She is a movement consultant and adance specialist, performing movementretraining and bodywork. On the facul-ty at the Laban/Bartenieff Institute ofMovement Studies, she integrates heryears of dance training with her move-ment observation skills to educateclients in movement awareness andobservation. She studied anatomy withIrene Dowd and Connective TissueTherapy™ with Theresa Lamb. She has aholistic approach to movement andbodywork and is nationally certified intherapeutic massage and bodywork(NCTMB).

Contact ImprovisationPaul Langland is a dancer, singer,

choreographer, and teacher. A longtimepractitioner of contact and other improvi-sational dance forms, he often presents hisown work, as well as performing withothers. His work has been seen at DanceTheater Workshop, PS 122, FranklinFurnace, and Movement Research. Since1983, he has been a core faculty member ofNew York University’s ExperimentalTheater Wing.

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Core EnergeticsPamela L. Chubbuck, Ph.D., LPC, is

on the senior international teaching fac-ulty of the Core Energetic Institute inNew York City, where she is also directorof faculty development. Dr. Chubbuckis the director of Core Energetics Southand has worked personally and exten-sively with John C. Pierrakos, M.D., formore than twenty-five years. Dr.Chubbuck is the author of Passages toWomanhood: Stories of Celebration forYoung Women, and numerous articleson the core energetics process.

coreSomatics®

Kay Miller is certified in theRubenfeld synergy method and theFeldenkrais Method® and received hergestalt training in the three-year post-graduate program at the GestaltInstitute of Cleveland. She has servedas consultant, staff, and/or workshopleader for the Pennsylvania Departmentof Education, the University ofPittsburgh, Carlow College, theUniversity of West Virginia, Long IslandUniversity, the Gestalt Institute ofCleveland, and the Western PsychiatricInstitute.

CORE Structural Integrative TherapyGeorge P. Kousaleos has been a

licensed massage therapist specializingin structural integration and myofascialtherapy since 1978. A graduate ofHarvard University and the SOMAInstitute of Neuromuscular Integration,he has practiced and taught in Germany,Greece, and throughout America. In1990, he founded the CORE InstituteSchool of Massage Therapy ofTallahassee, Florida, a state-licensed andnationally accredited program. Hetrains massage therapists in continuingeducation certification courses in CORE

myofascial therapy and CORE structur-al integrative therapy. Kousaleos alsoserved as the general manager of theBritish Olympic Sports MassageTherapy Team (1994–1996).

Gary N. Genna, LMT, is the founderand owner of the CORE Institute ofTennessee. A graduate of SUNY Cortlandwith a degree in biology and education,Genna has been an advanced instructorfor the CORE Institute since 1989. He haspresented at various state and interna-tional conferences and spent more thanthree years working as a neuromusculartherapist at St. Anthony’s Hospital SportsMedicine and Orthopedic RehabilitationCenter in St. Petersburg, Florida. He hasbeen both a massage therapist and a mas-sage educator for more than twenty-fiveyears, highlighted as the head coach forthe British Olympic Sports MassageTeam in 1995 and 1996.

CranioSacral TherapyKenneth I. Frey, PT, is director of

the Institute of Physical Therapy, a pri-vate practice and clinical resource cen-ter in New York City.

Dance TherapyAnne L. Wennerstrad is a

dance/movement therapist, clinicalsocial worker, and dance educator work-ing in mental health and education.Currently she is coordinator of under-graduate dance education at New YorkUniversity, where she teaches and advis-es students. She has presented and writ-ten on the arts in education and therapy.Her clinical work focuses on creativemind/body approaches to helping peo-ple with eating problems, anxiety,depression, and chronic mental illness. Aformer professional dancer, she is also onthe staff of Career Transition for Dancers,a nonprofit counseling service.

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Do-InJohn Kozinski has taught do-in, tra-

ditional exercises, and healing throughfood and natural therapies throughoutthe United States and in Asia and SouthAmerica. He offers seminars on do-in,traditional exercises, and the macrobi-otic approach to health and healing atthe Kushi Institute in Massachusetts, aswell as in Connecticut and New York.He also has an active health counselingpractice in which he recommends spe-cific traditional foods, remedies, andnatural lifestyle practices to foster heal-ing and general well-being.

Drama TherapyProfessor Patricia Sternberg

RDT/BCT (registered dramatherapist/board certified trainer) is thechairperson of the Board of Examiners ofthe National Association for DramaTherapy. She is a full professor of theDepartment of Theater at Hunter Collegein New York and heads the developmen-tal drama program there. She is a play-wright with more than twenty-five playsproduced and/or published and is theauthor of seven books, includingSociodrama: Who’s in Your Shoes? (withAntonina Garcia). She is currently work-ing on her eighth, Theater for ConflictResolution. A well-known presenter andworkshop leader, having presented bothnationally and internationally, Sternbergis a practicing drama therapist and forthe past ten years has worked with a vari-ety of populations in both psychiatricand educational facilities.

Emotional-Kinesthetic PsychotherapyLinda Marks has practiced body-cen-

tered psychotherapy with individuals,couples, and groups for twelve years. Shehas helped found and served on theBoard of the Interface Business

Association (1984), the OrganizationTransformation Network (1985), theMassachusetts Association of Body-Oriented Psychotherapy and CounselingBodyworkers (1989), and the SomaticsCommunity of the Association forHumanistic Psychology. In 1990 shefounded the Institute for Emotional-Kinesthetic Psychotherapy. She has writ-ten a column on psychology for Spirit ofChange magazine for the past ten years.She is the author of Living with Vision:Reclaiming the Power of the Heart.

EnneagramJanet Levine is an author, educator,

and organizer. She is founder of Learningand The Enneagram, an educationalenterprise dedicated to spreading knowl-edge of the enneagram system and itsapplications in education and relatedfields. She has taught at Milton Academy,Massachusetts, for ten years. She is direc-tor of the National Educators Institute forEnneagram Studies at Milton Academy.She has presented her work on educationand the enneagram at national confer-ences and many other venues.

EurythmyBeth Dunn-Fox was raised and edu-

cated in northern California, where shestudied and performed ballet, charac-ter, and modern dance. A graduate ofEurythmy Spring Valley, she has touredthroughout North America and Europewith their professional ensemble fortwelve years. In addition to perform-ing, she has also carried the finance anddevelopment work of Eurythmy SpringValley over a number of years.

Eye Movement Desensitization andReprocessing

Barbara A. Parrett, RN, M.S., is anurse and psychotherapist who brings a

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holistic approach to her work withindividuals and organizations. She hasbeen thoroughly trained in EMDR andteaches this discipline to other thera-pists on an international scale, whereshe is in much demand as trainer andeducator.

Feldenkrais Method®

Alan S. Questel is a founding mem-ber of Delman/Questel Associates,Inc., and is a Feldenkrais practitioner.

Feng ShuiMarilyn Saltzman is a feng shui prac-

titioner. She studied feng shui withNancy SantoPietro, a certified teachertrained by Master Lin Yun. In addi-tion, she has studied TranscendentalMeditation and reiki, and she is a cer-tified rebirther and hypnotherapist.Saltzman has given lectures and work-shops on feng shui throughout Virginiaand Maryland.

Flower RemediesLeslie J. Kaslof is an internationally

recognized pioneer, researcher, writer,and educator in the field of holistichealth, preventative medicine, and nat-ural approaches to stress reduction. Hehas written numerous articles in profes-sional and popular publications and haswritten many other works, includingHerb and Ailment Cross-Reference Chart,the pioneering book Wholistic Dimensionsin Healing, and The Traditional FlowerRemedies of Dr. Edward Bach: A Self-HelpGuide.

FocusingJoan Klagsbrun, Ph.D., is a clinical

psychologist practicing focusing-ori-ented psychotherapy in private prac-tice in Boston, Massachusetts. A collegeprofessor and a certified focusing train-

er and coordinator, she has been prac-ticing and teaching focusing for twentyyears.

Hakomi Integrative SomaticsPat Ogden, M.A., is a founding mem-

ber of the Hakomi Institute, serves on itstrainers’ board, and is the originator anddirector of hakomi integrative somatics.Trained in a wide variety of somaticapproaches, she is a structural integrator(Guild for Structural Integration) andserves on the faculty of Ergos Institute(founded by Peter Levine, specializing inhealing the effects of trauma) and theNaropa Institute.

Halprin Life Art ProcessDaria Halprin-Khalighi, M.A., CET,

is the cofounder and director of theTampala Institute. She maintains a pri-vate practice in Marin County and is acertified expressive arts therapist. Sheis the author of Coming Alive: TheCreative Expression Method.

Hanna Somatic Education®

Eleanor Criswell Hanna, Ed.D., isprofessor of psychology and formerchair of the psychology department,Sonoma State University, California. In1975, she cofounded, with ThomasHanna, the Novato Institute for SomaticResearch and Training, Novato,California. She trained in somatic edu-cation with Thomas Hanna in his 1981Australian training program; she hasworked closely with him in the develop-ment of the field of somatics over theyears. She is currently serving as presi-dent of the Somatics Society and editorof Somatics. A licensed psychologist, shemaintains a private practice in psy-chotherapy, biofeedback, and somaticeducation. She is the author ofBiofeedback and Somatics.

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Herbal MedicineMark Blumenthal is the founder

and executive director of theAmerican Botanical Council (ABC), aleading nonprofit research and educa-tion organization in Austin, Texas. Healso edits the quarterly magazineHerbalGram.

Holistic HealthSuzan Walter, MBA, is cofounder

and current president of the AmericanHolistic Health Association and pastpresident of the American HolisticMedical Foundation. She is the creatorand director of the Global Health Calendaron the Internet at HealthWorld Online(www.healthy.net). She also facilitatesnetworking for speakers, practitioners,and health care associations within thisWeb site.

Homeopathy, OsteopathyDomenick John Masiello, D.O.,

DHt, CSPOMM, has been a solo, office-based practitioner of traditionalosteopathy and classical homeopathyin New York City since 1986. He wascertified with special proficiency inosteopathic manipulative medicineand is also certified in homeotherapeu-tics. He has written the foreword toOsteopathy: An Integrated Whole BodyTherapy and has been published in theJournal of the American Institute ofHomeopathy.

Holotropic Breathwork™

Kylea Taylor, M.S., is a certifiedHolotropic Breathwork™ practitionerand has been working in the field ofaddiction recovery since 1970. She hasstudied with Christine and StanislavGrof, M.D., Ph.D., since 1984 and is amember of the teaching staff of GrofTranspersonal Training. She is the

author of The Breathwork Experience:Exploration and Healing in NonordinaryStates of Consciousness and The Ethics ofCaring: Honoring the Web of Life in OurProfessional Healing Relationships. Shehas served as editor of the Inner Door,the newsletter of the Association forHolotropic Breathwork International.

HydrotherapyDouglas C. Lewis, ND, is a naturo-

pathic physician in Seattle, Washington.

HypnotherapyOscar A. Gillespie, Ph.D., is the

president of NYSEPH, the New YorkMilton H. Erickson Society forPsychology and Hypnosis, and is onthe faculty of its training program. Hetaught psychology at FordhamUniversity and currently is in privatepractice in New York City.

IdeokenesisAndre Bernard teaches ideokenesis,

drawing upon his background in sci-ence and the performing arts. He stud-ied chemical engineering at theUniversity of South Carolina, where hetook his B.S. degree in chemistry andmathematics. Pursuing a professionalacting career, he appeared in more thana hundred theatrical productions. Healso studied dance and toured exten-sively with the Charles Weidman DanceTheater. He studied Mabel ElsworthTodd’s movement therapy techniques,the foundation of ideokenesis, withBarbara Clark. He has been a memberof the faculty at New York University,teaching Todd’s work, since 1966.

Infant Massage TherapyMindy Zlotnick has worked with

parents and their families as a teachersince 1975. She holds an M.A. in special

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education and worked for many yearswith deaf children, communicating insign language. She was trained in mas-sage in 1987 and began communicatingthrough touch in her practice with adults.She became a certified infant massageinstructor in 1989, combining her love forteaching and her love of massage. Herpractice includes teaching parents withhealthy babies as well as parents withbabies who are medically fragile or havedevelopmental delays.

Integral YogaReverend Kumari de Sachy, Ed.D.,

has been a student of SwamiSatchidananda since 1980. In 1981, shebecame an integral yoga instructor andproceeded to teach at integral yoga insti-tutes, colleges, universities, and prisons.In 1994, she was ordained as an integralyoga minister. For the past ten years, sheand her husband have been living andserving as whole-time members atSatchidananda Ashram–Yogaville withthe spiritual master Sri SwamiSatchidananda. At Yogaville, she hastaught English and French, in addition toserving as director of the YogavilleSummer Program for Children andTeens. She is also the editor of IntegralYoga Publications, which publishesSwami Satchidananda’s books and thequarterly magazine Integral Yoga.

Interactive Guided ImageryMartin Rossman, M.D., is a 1969

graduate of the University of MichiganMedical School and is board certified inacupuncture. He is the founder anddirector of the Collaborative MedicineCenter in Mill Valley, California. As thecodirector of the Academy for GuidedImagery in Mill Valley, he has taughtclinical guided imagery to more than9,000 health care professionals since

1982. He was a founding member of theScientific Advisory Board of theInstitute for the Advancement ofHealth. He has written numerous arti-cles and publications and was a winnerof the American Health Book Award in1987.

Iyengar YogaJanet MacLeod teaches yoga full-

time, offering ongoing classes in SanFrancisco and teaching workshopsaround the country. She is on the facultyof the Iyengar Yoga Institute of SanFrancisco teacher training program. Sheis a certified teacher at the intermediatelevel and continues to study in Pune withthe Iyengar family on a regular basis.

Jin Shin Do® Bodymind AcupressureTM

Iona Marsaa Teeguarden, M.A., isthe originator of Jin Shin Do® BodymindAcupressureTM. She founded the Jin ShinDo Foundation and began offering JSDteacher training programs. She has writ-ten several books and articles on thepractice of JSD.

Jin Shin Jyutsu® Physio-PhilosophyIan Kraut is a practitioner of Jin

Shin Jyutsu and a licensed massagetherapist. He is a member of the staff atJin Shin Jyutsu, Inc., in Scarsdale,Arizona. He has a B.A. in music fromSUNY Binghamton and has studiedAndean music in South America.

Journal TherapyKathleen Adams, M.A., LPC, is a

licensed psychotherapist and thefounder/director of the Center forJournal Therapy in Denver, Colorado,an organization dedicated to teachingthe healing art of journal writing toindividuals, groups, and mental healthprofessionals. She has specialized in

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journal therapy since 1985 and is oneof the pioneers in the field. She is theauthor of three books on the use ofjournal writing as a therapeutic tool.

Ju Jutsu, KarateStefan Nikander is a certified karate

and ju jutsu instructor. Having taughtsoccer to children since the age of fif-teen, he became certified as a soccertrainer in 1983. He is also a certifiednursery school teacher and has workedprofessionally at schools and play cen-ters since 1990. He is the vice chairmanof the children’s committee of theSwedish Budo Federation, a martialarts organization. His writing hasappeared in various martial arts maga-zines in several countries, and he haswritten columns for Scandinaviannewspapers on the subject of martialarts as a means to stop violence. He iscurrently training to become a personaltrainer and massage therapist.

KendoDaniel T. Ebihara is the chairman of

Ken Zen Institute Ltd. and a member ofthe board of directors of All UnitedStates Kendo Federation. He has writtenseveral articles about the martial arts forvarious periodicals and is an advancedstudent of karate, kendo, and judo.

Bruce Robertson Smith is a first-degree black belt in kendo, having stud-ied martial arts in Japan with the Budomaster Fushi Sensei. He has trainedextensively in bodywork and structuralintegration and has done shamanic jour-neywork.

Kestenberg Movement ProfileSusan Loman is the director of a mas-

ter’s program in dance/movement ther-apy at Antioch New England GraduateSchool in Keene, New Hampshire, and

the author of numerous articles on theKMP. She has given intensive courses onthis material in Germany and Italy. She isthe coeditor of a textbook on the KMPpublished in 1997.

Janet Kestenberg Amighi is ananthropologist who has done fieldworkin Iran and Bali. She is the author ofZoroastrians in Iran: Assimilation,Conversion and Persistence. She coteachesa course on the KMP with Susan Lomanand is coeditor of a textbook on the KMP.

Kinetic AwarenessEllen Saltonstall, M.A., MCKA, is a

certified master teacher of kineticawareness, a licensed massage thera-pist, and a teacher and practitioner ofhatha yoga. She has taught at the NewSchool, Columbia University, and BardCollege and is currently is on the staffof the Mind/Body Medical Institute ofSt. Peters Hospital in New Brunswick,New Jersey.

J. Robin Powell, Ph.D., CSW, MCKA,is a certified master teacher of kineticawareness and teaches at New YorkUniversity and other institutions, as wellas privately. She is a founding boardmember of the Kinetic Awareness Center,Inc., and teaches in the teacher trainingprogram.

Michelle Berne, M.A., MCKA,introduced the first university course inbody/mind therapies while on the fac-ulty of New York University, where shetaught for twelve years. As a profes-sional dancer and choreographer inNew York, she presented original workwith her own company and performedwith others. She is a certified masterteacher of kinetic awareness and cur-rently teaches kinetic awareness, neu-romuscular reeducation, and alignmentin Los Angeles, California. She is also acelebration artist who choreographs

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and produces large-scale communityart events for cities and nonprofit orga-nizations across the country.

Kung-Fu Wu SuOswald Rivera is a senior instructor

at Alan Lee’s Chinese Kung-Fu Wu-SuAssociation. He has practiced Shaolinstyle kung-fu for twenty-four years. Heis also the author of the novel Fire andRain and the cookbook Puerto RicanCuisine in America.

Laban Movement AnalysisEd Groff, M.F.A., CMA, is currently

director of graduate studies in thedepartment of modern dance at theUniversity of Utah. He has served onthe faculties of Temple University,Hampshire College, ConnecticutCollege, Tufts University, andEvergreen State College. He has taughtin the certification programs in LabanMovement Analysis at schools and insti-tutions in New York, Seattle, Salt LakeCity, Columbus, Rotterdam, and Berlin.His choreography has been presented inthe United States, Europe, and Asia.

Light TherapyDr. Brian J. Breiling is a licensed mar-

riage, family, and child counselor andschool psychologist. He is the co-editorand publisher of Light Years Ahead: TheIllustrated Guide to Full Spectrum andColored Light in Mindbody Healing. He isalso the author of three chapters in thisbook on the professional and self-careapplications of light therapy. For the lastten years, he successfully used flashingcolored light stimulation through theeyes to aid his clients in uncovering andworking through emotional traumas,depression, and pain, as well as toenhance learning and intellectual perfor-mance in adults and children.

Magnet TherapyDr. John Zimmerman earned his

Ph.D. in biological psychology andneurosciences at the University ofColorado at Boulder in 1981. He is amember of the American SleepDisorders Association and the NorthAmerican Academy of MagneticTherapy. Currently he serves as thelaboratory director of the WashoeSleep Disorders Center in Reno. Dr.Zimmerman is also the founder andpresident of the nonprofit organiza-tion called the Bio-Electro-MagneticsInstitute (BEMI), which researches andprovides resources on magnet therapy.

Martial ArtsMichael Maliszewski received his

Ph.D. in psychology from theUniversity of Chicago. He has held anumber of positions at the Universityof Chicago and has conductedresearch and published in a variety ofareas ranging from medicine to reli-gious studies. He is currently a consul-tant in psychiatry at MassachusettsGeneral Hospital and lecturer atHarvard Medical School. He has beeninvolved in the study of martial artsand meditative traditions since 1970and has studied throughout theUnited States and Asia. Includedamong his publications in the martialarts are the book Spiritual Dimensionsof the Martial Arts, as well as articlesthat have appeared in the Journal ofAsian Martial Arts, where he alsoserves as an associate editor.

MassageKatie Scoville is a New York State-

licensed massage therapist who prac-tices Swedish massage, shiatsu, med-ical massage, and pregnancy massage.She has a private practice in

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Manhattan, Studio of Massage Arts(SOMA), and also works with physicaltherapists. She is a shiatsu and clinicinstructor at the Swedish Institute ofMassage Therapy and Allied HealthSciences in New York City and a mem-ber of the American Massage TherapyAssociation. Katie holds a B.F.A. indance and brings to her practice morethan fifteen years of dance trainingand professional dance experience.

Medical Orgone TherapyDr. Peter Crist received his M.D.

from the UCLA School of Medicine in1977. Dr. Crist is a fellow of theAmerican College of Orgonomy andhas been its president since 1991. As amember of the ACO training faculty,he has been training medical orgono-mists since 1982. He has authored clin-ical and theoretical articles as well asbook reviews and is an assistant editorof the Journal of Orgonomy. Dr. Crist isalso assistant clinical professor,Department of Psychiatry, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson School ofMedicine, New Brunswick, NewJersey. He has a private practice inBelle Mead, New Jersey.

Dr. Richard Schwartzman, D.O.,graduated from the PhiladelphiaCollege of Osteopathic Medicine in1966. He is a member of the faculty ofHahnemann University, an assistantclinical professor of psychiatry, andmedical director of the HahnemannUniversity Correctional Mental HealthProgram. He is a fellow of theAmerican College of Orgonomy,where he conducts the advanced train-ing seminar. He is an assistant editorand contributing author of the Journalof Orgonomy. Dr. Schwartzman main-tains a private practice in medicalorgone therapy in Philadelphia.

MeditationEugene Taylor, Ph.D., is a lecturer

on psychiatry, Harvard Medical School;executive faculty, Saybrook Institute;and director of the Cambridge Instituteof Psychology and Religion.

Marilyn Schlitz, Ph.D., is a socialanthropologist and director of researchat the Institute of Noetic Sciences inSausalito, California.

Meir Schneider Self-Healing MethodCarol Gallup works at the Center

for Self-Healing in San Francisco,California.

Movement Pattern AnalysisWarren Lamb developed movement

pattern analysis with Rudolf Laban. In1950 Lamb joined Paton Lawrence & Co.,management consultants, to apply thenewly developed assessment method.He has been a professional dancer, a pro-ducer of plays, and a lecturer in theUnited Kingdom and United States. In1952 he founded his own consultancyfirm to use movement pattern analysisfor top management teams worldwide.His publications include Posture andGesture, Management Behavior, Body Code,and more than 100 journal articles.

Multi-Modal Expressive Arts TherapySusan Spaniol, Ed.D., ATR-BC,

LMHC, is assistant professor in theExpressive Therapies Division ofLesley College. She received her Ed.D.at Boston University and is a board-cer-tified art therapist and a licensed men-tal health counselor. She serves asassociate editor of Art Therapy: Journalof the American Art Therapy Associationand is an associate in psychiatry atHarvard Medical School.

Phillip Speiser, Ph.D., REAT, RDT, isdirector of Arts Across Cultures, Boston.

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Speiser is a psychodrama, drama, andexpressive arts educator/therapist whohas been developing and implementingintegrated arts programs since 1980. Heis an adjunct professor at Lesley Collegein Cambridge, Massachusetts, and hastaught and lectured extensively at train-ing institutes and colleges throughoutScandinavia, Europe, Israel, and theUnited States. He is the former chairper-son of Very Special Arts, Sweden, andthe International Expressive ArtsTherapy Association.

Mariagnese Cattaneo, Ph.D., ATR,LMHC, is a professor in the ExpressiveTherapies Division at Lesley College,Cambridge, Massachusetts. She is anexpressive therapist and has trainedexpressive therapists for more thantwenty-five years. Presently she is thecoordinator of art therapy specializa-tion and director of field training.

Muscular TherapyBen E. Benjamin holds a Ph.D. in

sports medicine and education and isthe founder and president of theMuscular Therapy Institute inCambridge, Massachusetts. He is theauthor of the widely used books in thefield: Are You Tense?—The BenjaminSystem of Muscular Therapy, SportsWithout Pain, and Listen to Your Pain—Understanding, Identifying, and TreatingPain. He has been a regular contributorto the Muscular Therapy Journal since1986. He has been in private practicefor more than thirty-five years and hasbeen teaching massage therapists inworkshops internationally since 1973.

Mary Ann diRoberts, LICSW, CMT,is on the faculty of the Muscular TherapyInstitute in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Music TherapyAdva Frank-Schwebel has been a

music therapist for fifteen years. Her

work in music therapy has includedchild psychology, group therapy, andprivate practice. She studied musicolo-gy and anthropology at the HebrewUniversity of Jerusalem, and classicalguitar in Israel and London. She holdsa master’s degree in musicology fromBar Ilan University and teaches at theInstitute for Art Therapy of DavidYellin College in Jerusalem and at theDepartment of Music Therapy of BarIlan University.

Myofascial Trigger Point TherapyElliot Shratter has been practicing

trigger point myotherapy since 1987. Heis board certified by the NationalAssociation of Trigger Point Myo-therapists Certification Board and theAmerican Academy of Pain Manage-ment. He has served as president andjournal editor of the National Associationof Trigger Point Myotherapists and chair-person of the Trigger Point Myo-therapists National Certification Board.He is currently in practice inAlbuquerque, New Mexico, at SynergyPhysical Therapy.

Naturopathic MedicineLauri M. Aesoph, ND, a graduate of

Bastyr University, is a medical writer,editor, and educator. Over the past tenyears, Dr. Aesoph’s work has appearedin dozens of magazines and numerousbooks. She makes her home in SiouxFalls, South Dakota, with her husbandand two sons.

Network Chiropractic Donald Epstein, DCA, is a chiro-

practor and developer of networkspinal analysis. He is the president ofthe Association for NetworkChiropractic. He is also the author ofseveral articles on the practice of thisdiscipline.

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Organismic PsychotherapyElliot Greene, M.A., is a counselor

who has specialized in body psy-chotherapy for the past twenty-fouryears. His principal training has been inorganismic body psychotherapy withDr. Malcolm Brown and KatherineEnnis-Brown. He is also trained inbioenergetics, gestalt, and other relatedbody-oriented methods. In addition, heis nationally certified as a massage ther-apist and served as president of theAmerican Massage Therapy Associationfrom 1990 to 1994. He has a private prac-tice in Silver Springs, Maryland.

Orthomolecular MedicineCalifornia freelance writer Martin

Zucker has been writing for manyyears about health, nutrition, and pre-ventive medicine. He is a formerAssociated Press foreign correspon-dent. He has written numerous pub-lished articles, coauthored five books,ghostwritten several others, and writ-ten many safety and environmentalvideos for the National Safety Counciland other organizations. He has been acontributing editor to Let’s Live, a lead-ing health magazine, since 1978.

Pesso Boyden System PsychomotorAlbert Pesso cofounded Pesso

Boyden system psychomotor (PBSP)psychotherapy with his life partner,Diane Boyden Pesso, in 1961. He ispresident of the Psychomotor Institute,Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, a nonprof-it organization that promotes PBSPinternationally. He has been supervisorof psychomotor therapy at the McLeanHospital in Belmont, Massachusetts;consultant in psychiatric research at theBoston Veterans Administration Hospital;and director of psychomotor therapy atthe Pain Unit of the New EnglandRehabilitation Hospital. Albert Pesso is

the author of Movement in Psychotherapy(1969) and Experience in Action (1973)and coeditor with John Crandell ofMoving Psychotherapy: Theory andApplications of Pesso Boyden System/Psychomotor Psychology (1991).

Pilates Method of Body Conditioning®

Leah Chaback, director of theMovement Center, is a certified Pilatesinstructor and teacher-trainer. Shebegan studying the Pilates Method in1986 at SUNY Purchase, New York.Ms. Chaback has trained and workedextensively with Romana Kryzanowska,disciple of Joseph Pilates and masterteacher of his method for more thanfifty years. After teaching the PilatesMethod in New York City studios, sheopened the Movement Center in 1990.

Poetry TherapyNicholas Mazza, Ph.D., is a profes-

sor at the School of Social Work atFlorida State University. He is also edi-tor of the Journal of Poetry Therapy. Hehas lectured and published extensivelyon the use of poetry and music in clini-cal practice.

Polarity TherapyJohn Beaulieu, ND, Ph.D., is the

author of the Polarity Therapy Workbook(1994).

Process Oriented PsychologyDr. Joseph Goodbread is a long-

time student and colleague of ArnoldMindell. He is a cofounder of theResearch Society for Process OrientedPsychology in Zurich, of the ProcessWork Center of Portland, Oregon, andof the Global Process Institute inPortland. He is the author of TheDreambody Toolkit: A PracticalIntroduction to the Philosophy, Goals and

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Practice of Process Oriented Psychologyand Radical Intercourse: How InevitableRelationships Are Created by Dreaming, abook on the dynamics of therapeuticrelationships. He practices and teachesprocess work in Portland and through-out the world.

PsychodramaAdam Blatner, M.D., is the author

of several books and articles on thepractice of psychodrama.

PsychoneuroimmunologyLeonard A. Wisneski, M.D., is a

physician, board certified in internalmedicine and in endocrinology andmetabolism; he is also certified inacupuncture and homeopathy, whichhe has incorporated into his practice.Dr. Wisneski is a member of the boardof directors of the Integral HealthFoundation.

Leonard Sherp is a medical writerand reiki practitioner. Mr. Sherp is pro-gram director of the Integral HealthFoundation.

PsychosynthesisRichard Schaub, Ph.D., cofounded

the New York Psychosynthesis Institutewith Bonney Gulino Schaub, M.S., RN,CS. They have worked in every phase ofmental health, alcohol and drug rehabili-tation, and health care in careers thatspan thirty years. They teach internation-ally in the fields of psychotherapy, recov-ery, higher self-education, clinicalimagery, and contemplation. They havepublished numerous professional arti-cles, are associate editors of AlternativeHealth Practitioner, and are the authors ofHealing Addictions.

QigongKenneth S. Cohen, M.A., director

of the Taoist Mountain Retreat in the

Colorado Rocky Mountains, is aninternationally renowned China schol-ar, qigong master, and health educator.He has been teaching qigong for morethan twenty-five years and is helpingto build a bridge between qigong andmedical science. He was one of nine“exceptional healers” studied in theMenninger Clinic’s Copper WallProject, where he demonstrated unusu-al physiological control while practic-ing qigong. Cohen has written morethan 150 articles and is the author ofThe Way of Qigong.

RadixErica Kelley has shared the growth

of Radix since its inception in the late six-ties, including its teaching, training,facilities, and administration in theUnited States and Europe. She maintainsa part-time practice in Vancouver andadministers Kelley/Radix and K/RPublications.

RebirthingMaureen Malone is the director of

the New York Rebirthing Center.Tony Lo Mastro is the director of

the Philadelphia Rebirthing Center.

ReflexologyLaura Norman is a certified reflex-

ologist and New York State-licensedmassage practitioner. She is alsoauthor of Feet First: A Guide to FootReflexology. With a B.S. from BostonUniversity and three master’s degreesfrom Adelphi University, she original-ly embarked on a career in education.She discovered the potency of reflexol-ogy when she used it in her early workwith hyperactive and emotionallydysfunctional children at MaimonidesInstitute in Brooklyn. She establishedthe Laura Norman Method ReflexologyTraining Center in New York, offering

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a comprehensive training and certifi-cation program.

ReikiElaine J. Abrams is a reiki master

instructor. In private practice in NewYork City since 1987, she brings her exten-sive experience with more than 800clients and knowledge as a reiki instruc-tor to her workshops. As founder of theReiki Group, she provides a continuingsupport system for her practitioners.

Relaxation Response TechniqueRichard Friedman, Ph.D., was a

Professor of Psychiatry at the StateUniversity of New York, Stonybrook.

Herbert Benson, M.D., is theMind/Body Medical InstituteAssociate Professor of Medicine,Harvard Medical School; Chief of theDivision of Behavioral Medicine at theBeth Israel Deaconess Medical Center;and the founding president of the Mind/Body Medical Institute. A graduate ofWesleyan University and the HarvardMedical School, he is the author or co-author of more than 150 scientific pub-lications and six books.

Patricia Myers is a research associateat the Mind/Body Medical Institute atthe Beth Israel Deaconess Hospital,Harvard Medical School. Her areas ofinterest include the economics of behav-ioral medicine and the use of behavioralinterventions in the treatment of pain.

Rolfing®

Allan Davidson was trained by IdaRolf in Big Sur and San Francisco,California, in 1973-75. He has beenRolfing® and lecturing, teaching andwriting about Rolfing ever since. In the1980s, he cofounded the ChicagoSchool for Advanced Bodywork, a pio-neering clinic and forum for new ideasand technologies. He now codirects the

Structural Therapy Institute, where heteaches bodywork problem-solvingcourses to health professionals. He isalso trained in the hakomi method ofbody-centered psychotherapy and inCranioSacral therapy.

ROM DancePatricia Yu, M.A., co-creator of the

ROM dance, is the director of the T’ai-Chi Center in Madison, Wisconsin. Sheoriginally learned t’ai chi ch’üan and taokung meditation in 1970 with Master LiuPei Ch’ung in the Republic of China. Shecontinues to practice daily.

Rosen Method Ivy Green is a professor of psychol-

ogy, a certified Rosen method practi-tioner, a certified teacher of theAlexander technique, and a licensedmassage therapist. Her book on theRosen method, a psychospiritual body-work, was published in 1998.

Rubenfeld Synergy MethodIlana Rubenfeld, a pioneer in inte-

grating bodywork with psychotherapy,has been an influential healer for thepast thirty-five years. She originatedthe Rubenfeld synergy method in theearly 1960s and started its professionaltraining program in 1977. Formerly onthe faculties of the NYU GraduateSchool of Social Work and New Schoolfor Social Research, she currently teach-es at the Omega and Esalen Institutesand the Open Center.

Sandplay TherapyLois Carey, MSW, BCDSW, is a

practitioner of sandplay therapy.

Sensory AwarenessMary Alice Roche was cofounder

with Charlotte Selver of the SensoryAwareness Foundation. She served as

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managing secretary until she retired in1988 but continued as bulletin editorand archivist. She has a private practiceand is a member of the SensoryAwareness Leaders Guild.

ShamanismHal Zina Bennett, Ph.D., is a long-

time student of shamanism. He is alsothe author of twenty-five books,including ones on health (The Well BodyBook, with Mike Samuels, M.D.), psy-chology (The Holotropic Mind, with StanGrof, M.D.), and Native American spir-ituality (Zuni Fetishes). He is an adjunctfaculty member at the Institute ofTranspersonal Psychology, a privategraduate school in Palo Alto,California. He is a frequent contributorto Shaman’s Drum magazine and SacredHoop, published in England.

SHEN®

Richard Pavek is director of theSHEN Therapy Institute. It providesinformation regarding SHEN research,development, and certification proce-dures.

Shiatsu Massage, Therapeutic TouchThomas Claire is a licensed massage

therapist and author of the authoritativebook Bodywork: What Type of Massage toGet—and How to Make the Most of It. Agraduate of the Swedish and OhashiInstitutes, he is a reiki master and apractitioner of Swedish massage, shiat-su, CranioSacral therapy, myofascialrelease, and therapeutic touch. Hiswork has been featured in numerouspublications, and he is a frequent gueston radio and television.

Skinner Release Technique Joan Skinner is the originator of the

Skinner release technique. She earned a

B.A. from Bennington College and anM.A. from the University of Illinois.She is Professor Emeritus at theUniversity of Washington and a mem-ber of the Martha Graham and MerceCunningham Dance Companies.

Soma Neuromuscular Integration Marcia W. Nolte, LMP, has a back-

ground in movement studies rangingfrom performance dance, as a profession-al ballet and modern dancer and teacher,to a variety of therapeutic modalities ofmovement. She has been in private prac-tice of soma bodywork since 1979 andcontinues to explore with her clients theuse of movement as medicine.

Karen L. Bolesky, M.A., CMHC,LMP, has been a mental health coun-selor since 1972 and a soma practition-er since 1985. Karen trained withElisabeth Kübler-Ross, M.D., andGregg Furth, Ph.D., in interpretation ofspontaneous drawings as an aid to thecreative process.

Somato-Respiratory IntegrationDonald Epstein is a chiropractor

and developer of network spinalanalysis. He is the president of theAssociation for Network Chiropractic.He is also the author of several articleson the practice of this discipline.

SoundingDon Campbell is an internationally

renowned expert in music, sound,health, and learning. In 1988, he found-ed the Institute for Music, Health, andEducation in Boulder, Colorado, andserved as executive director until 1995.He has written several books on therelationship between music, health,and education and travels extensivelyteaching musicians, teachers, physi-cians, therapists, and trainers. Presently,

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Mr. Campbell directs year-long studyprograms on the therapeutic and trans-formational uses of sound and music.

Spatial DynamicsSM

Jaimen McMillan is the originator ofSpatial Dynamics. He has trained hun-dreds of students as movement special-ists and has worked with a broadspectrum of clients ranging fromOlympic athletes to severely handi-capped children. He is the director ofthe Spatial Studies Institute, Inc., as wellas the Spatial Dynamics Institute.

Swedish MassageJanie McGee is a licensed massage thera-pist with a private practice in New YorkCity for fifteen years. She is also alicensed staff physical therapist in a geri-atric facility. She studied physical therapyat Long Island University and premed-ical studies at Hunter College.

Tae-Kwon-DoMark V. Wiley, an internationally

renowned martial arts master and schol-ar, has been involved in the martial artsfor twenty years. He has written the best-selling books Filipino Martial Arts: CabalesSerrada Escrima and Filipino MartialCulture and is the author of more thanfifty articles on the martial arts whichhave appeared in leading martial artsmagazines and journals. He currentlyserves as martial arts editor for theCharles E. Tuttle Publishing Companyand associate editor for the Journal ofAsian Martial Arts. He is the cofounder oftalahib-marga, a contemporary, cross-cul-tural, martial-meditative discipline.

T’ai Chi Ch’üan Sophia Delza was the first western

woman master of t’ai chi ch’üan,

dancer, lecturer, and writer. She is cred-ited as being the first Westerner tobring the martial art to the UnitedStates. She was the 1996 recipient of theChinese Martial Arts Association’sLifetime Achievement Award. Shedied on June 27, 1996.

Tomatis MethodDr. Billie Thompson, founder and

director of Sound Listening & LearningCenters in Phoenix, Arizona, andPasadena, California, received her Ph.D.from Arizona State University in 1979.Dr. Thompson was one of the pioneerswho brought the Tomatis method to theUnited States. She edited the Englishtranslations of Tomatis’s autobiography,The Conscious Ear, and his first book, TheEar and Language. She established thePhoenix Center in 1987 to provide bothcorrective and accelerated learningopportunities for individuals, corpora-tions, and other organizations.

Traditional Chinese MedicineCindy Banker is a certified instructor

and practitioner of Oriental bodyworktherapy. She began her shiatsu trainingwith Shizuko Yamamoto in 1976 andnow uses both five-element shiatsu andChinese herbal medicine in her privatepractice. She is currently the NationalDirector of Education for the AmericanOriental Bodywork TherapyAssociation. She is an active member ofthe National Certification Commissionfor Acupuncture and Oriental medi-cine‘s task force, which is developingthe first national certification exam fororiental bodywork therapy. She hasbeen teaching shiatsu in complete train-ing programs since 1983 and currentlyowns and teaches at the New EnglandCenter for Oriental Bodywork inBrookline, Massachusetts.

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Trager Psychophysical Integration Deane Juhan has been on staff at

Esalen Institute since 1973 and a Tragerpractitioner there since 1978. He lec-tures on anatomy and physiology forbodyworkers and has recently pub-lished a major work on that subject,Job’s Body: A Handbook for Bodywork.Deane is also an instructor at the TragerInstitute.

Transcendental MeditationRobert Roth is the author of the

popular book Transcendental Meditation,which has now been translated into tenlanguages. Roth has lectured andtaught TM for more than twenty-fiveyears to tens of thousands of people inthe United States, Canada, andthroughout Europe. He is a senior advi-sor to the Maharishi CorporateDevelopment Program, the nonprofitorganization that teaches the TM pro-gram in business and industry, as wellas a founder of the Institute for Fitnessand Athletic Excellence, which offersthe technique to amateur and profes-sional athletes.

Tui NaGina Martin is a licensed massage

therapist and chair of the EasternStudies Department of the SwedishInstitute School of Massage Therapy.She was chair of the New York StateBoard of Massage Therapy from 1994to 1998 and is a current board member.Ms. Martin is recognized by theAmerican Oriental BodyworkTherapy Association as a certifiedinstructor in fine element style shiatsu.She has been featured in the magazineFirst for Women and is a contributingauthor to the Reader’s Digest FamilyGuide to Natural Medicine. Her bookThe Shiatsu Workbook is an Eastern

anatomy coloring book published bythe Swedish Institute. She maintains aprivate practice in Eastern bodywork,specializing in shiatsu, tui na, andnuad bo ran.

UnergiUte Arnold is an artist and thera-

pist in private practice and is thedirector of the UNERGI Center. She isa certified Rubenfeld synergy practi-tioner and trainer and holds degreesin art and design from SchaefferSchool of Design, San Francisco, andChelsea School of Art, London. Shehas been leading workshops andtrainings since 1978 for centers inScandinavia, France, Canada, and theUnited States.

WellnessBrian Luke Seaward, Ph.D., is a fac-

ulty member of the University ofColorado. He is recognized internation-ally as a leading expert in the fields ofstress management, mind-body-spirithealing, and human spirituality. Dr.Seaward is the author of the criticallyacclaimed collegiate textbook ManagingStress: Principles and Strategies for Healthand Wellbeing and the popular best-seller, Stand like Mountain, Flow likeWater: Reflections on Stress and HumanSpirituality.

YogaLillo (Leela) Way is certified by the

Integral Yoga Institute to teach hathayoga asana (poses), prenatal yoga,panayama (breathing practices), deeprelaxation, chanting, and meditation.She is an actor and dancer and has beenthe director of her own dance company.Way taught at New York University forseven years. She also taught at HunterCollege and was a visiting professor at

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Princeton University. In addition to herprivate practice, she is currently on thefaculty of the Integral Yoga Institute andthe Soho Sanctuary in New York.

Zero Balancing®

Originator of Zero Balancing®, Dr.Fritz Smith has taught body energywork to hundreds of health care practi-tioners since 1973. He is an OsteopathicM.D., acupuncturist, and teacher. Dr.Smith is a pioneer in the blending ofEastern energy systems with Westernscience and bodywork. He is the authorof Inner Bridges: A Guide to EnergyMovement and Body Structure.

Staff Credits

Editors: Margaret Haerens, Michael Isaac, Jane Kelly Kosek, Christine SloveyPhoto Researcher: Vera AhmadzadehBook Designer: Olga M. VegaProduction Designer: Christine Innamorato

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Table of Contents

Introduction

I. Alternative Health ModelsAyurvedic Medicine Holistic HealthHomeopathyNaturopathic MedicineShamanismTraditional Chinese MedicineWellness

II. Skeletal Manipulation MethodsChiropracticCranioSacral TherapyNetwork ChiropracticOsteopathyZero Balancing®

III. Nutritional and Dietary PracticesHerbal MedicineOrthomolecular Medicine

IV. Mind/Body MedicineBiofeedback TrainingGuided Imagery HypnotherapyInteractive Guided ImageryPsychoneuroimmunology

V. Sensory TherapiesAromatherapyBates MethodBehavioral Vision TherapyEye Movement Desensitization and ReprocessingFlower RemediesHydrotherapyLight TherapySounding Tomatis Method

.

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333740434550

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646871737778

82868890949699

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VI. Subtle Energy PracticesDo-InFeng ShuiMagnet Therapy Polarity TherapyQigongReikiSHEN®

Therapeutic Touch

VII. Massage Bowen TechniqueConnective Tissue TherapySM

CORE Structural Integrative TherapyInfant Massage Muscular TherapyMyofascial ReleaseMyofascial Trigger Point Therapy ReflexologyRolfing®

Rosen MethodSt. John Method of Neuromuscular Therapy Swedish Massage

VIII. Acupuncture and Asian BodyworkAcupressureAcupunctureJin Shin Do® Bodymind AcupressureTM

Jin Shin Jyutsu® Physio-PhilosophyProcess AcupressureShiatsuTui Na

IX. Movement Therapy MethodsAlexander TechniqueAston-Patterning®

Bartenieff FundamentalsSM

Body-Mind Centering®

Feldenkrais Method®

Hanna Somatic EducationTM

HellerworkIdeokinesisKinetic AwarenessMeir Schneider Self-Healing MethodSensory Awareness

115118119124126129133137139

142148150152153157158160163165168172174

177180183187191192194197

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Soma Neuromuscular Integration Somato Respiratory IntegrationTrager Psychophysical Integration

X. Somatic PracticesBrain Gym®

Contact ImprovisationContinuumEurythmyGurdjieff MovementsPilates Method of Body ConditioningTM

ROM DanceSkinner Releasing TechniqueSpatial DynamicsSM

T'ai Chi Ch'üan

XI. Martial ArtsAikidoCapoeiraJu-JutsuJudoKarateKendoKung Fu Wu SuTaekwondo

XII. YogaIntegral Yoga Iyengar Yoga Kripalu Yoga

XIII. MeditationRelaxation Response Transcendental Meditation

XIV. Psycho-Physical Evaluation FrameworksEnneagramKestenberg Movement ProfileLaban Movement AnalysisMovement Pattern Analysis

XV. Expressive and Creative Arts TherapiesArt Therapy

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Authentic MovementDance TherapyDrama TherapyHalprin Life/Art ProcessJournal TherapyMulti-Modal Expressive Arts TherapyMusic TherapyPoetry TherapySandplay Therapy

XVI. Body-Oriented PsychotherapiesBioenergeticsBodynamic Analysis Core Energetics coreSomatics®

Emotional-Kinesthetic PsychotherapyFocusingGestalt Therapy Hakomi Integrative SomaticsHolotropic BreathworkTM

Medical Orgone TherapyOrganismic Body PsychotherapyPesso Boyden System Psychomotor Process Oriented PsychologyPsychodramaPsychosynthesisRadixRebirthingRubenfeld Synergy MethodUnergi

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378382385387391392394397399402405409411415416419421422425428

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Introduction

Body-mind is a term often seen in print and heard in conversation today. It is usedfrequently both in private discussions about disease and healing and in publicforums on health care, where the value of alternative or complementary medicine isgaining recognition. Today, many educators are developing new methods that usethe body-mind connection to help children learn how to live productive and creativelives in today’s complex technological society. The phrase body-mind resonatesthrough the halls of gymnasiums, physical conditioning studios, and in self-defenseclasses. It echoes in theaters, dance studios, and music practice rooms. What exactlyis this concept that is exciting so many people and changing the way we heal, learn,work, and play?

Body-mind is a way of seeing and understanding the human organism. To see ahuman being in terms of body-mind is to see him or her as a totality wherein his orher physical, psychological, and spiritual aspects are all interrelated and reflective ofone another. In other words, the body is not simply the material receptacle of themind or spirit, it is the medium through which we experience, each in a unique andindividual way, the unfolding, transforming nature of spirit itself.

From this perspective, the functioning of the body influences the functioning ofthe mind and the emotions. In a like manner, thoughts and feelings have a profoundand direct effect on the body. On a deeper level, many body-mind models believethat the physical, emotional, and mental aspects of human experience are a reflectionof and inextricably linked to an all-pervasive spiritual essence. In different culturesand in different times, this spiritual essence has had many names: Atman, the Tao,God, energy, the force.

A body-mind discipline is an organized program of activity that seeks to awakenand activate the links between body, mind, and spirit. The practice of a body-minddiscipline may involve a variety of activities, all of which aim to incorporate thephysical body with the sensing, feeling, thinking, and/or intuiting faculties of themind. Through the practice of a body-mind discipline, one develops awareness ofphysical sensations and mental and emotional processes. This awareness can be thebasis of healing and improved health, greater efficiency and expressiveness in one’sactivities, more rewarding relationships and interactions, and a deeper, clearer senseof purpose in one’s life.

The practice of body-mind disciplines is ancient. We have evidence that some, suchas yoga and various forms of touch therapy, were widespread even well before writtentreatises were available. The ancient disciplines were based on one of the earliest andmost perseverant of human desires—to live a long, meaningful, and healthy life. Formost of human history this meant living in a state of balance and harmony, bothwithin oneself and within one’s environment. The body-mind disciplines thatevolved in all cultures addressed, each in their own particular way, the many ele-ments that create and maintain this balance and harmony.

Western culture, with its roots in the civilizations of the Fertile Crescent andAncient Greece, once shared this same value for balance and harmony. For example,the Greek physician Hippocrates understood the importance of balance and believedhis patients’ health could be affected by many factors. He believed it was more

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important to know the kind of person he was treating than to know what kind of dis-ease the person had. He was known to prescribe herbs, dietary changes, forms ofhydrotherapy, skeletal manipulation, movement therapy, and creative arts therapiesto help his patients regain a state of balance and harmony.

Over many centuries, however, there has been a gradual erosion of this holisticviewpoint as Western culture developed a highly technical and specialized perspec-tive. By comparison, today most of us no longer have a single physician who knowsus as a total human being and draws on any number of healing methods. Instead wego to one specialist for a problem in our ears, nose, and throat, another for our gas-trointestinal tract, and still another for troubling emotional situations. Although eachspecialist may have a wealth of information regarding his or her area of expertise, noone seems to be looking at the whole picture. Often, the pharmaceutical or surgicalsolutions each specialist recommends address only one aspect of our problem andsometimes create new problems.

This segmented, specialized perspective is evident not only in our approach tohealth care, but our approach to education and the arts as well. Instead of encourag-ing each person to feel alive, whole, and connected to the rest of the world, this per-spective seems to foster a lack of confidence in one's experience and judgment, aweakened sense of personal agency, and a feeling of spiritual isolation. For this rea-son, more and more people today are seeking the holistic, centering experience ofbody-mind disciplines.

In this volume we have tried to include all of the major disciplines with which areader may come into contact. With a subject of such scope it was necessary to createcertain limits in order to complete the task at all. We deliberately excluded any art orskill that is used primarily for performance or competition, although we recognize thatany such art or skill may be practiced from a body-mind perspective. We also exclud-ed any practice that is exclusively associated with a specific religious practice,although here again we do not diminish the value of any religious practice and itsability to incorporate body and mind. What we have included is a cross-cultural sam-pling of techniques and methods developing the body-mind connection that haveevolved in the worlds of health care, education, physical conditioning, self-defense,spirituality, psychology, and the arts.

We have arranged the entries in sixteen sections that generally reflect the worldin which the disciplines developed, highlight the multicultural approaches to a par-ticular practice, or sometimes draw attention to historical connections. Each sectionis introduced by an essay that provides an overview of the histories, theoretical foun-dations, and methodologies of the disciplines that are included in the section. Theintroductory essays also help relate each individual section to other sections of theencyclopedia. It is possible to get a broad perspective of the entire world of body-mind by simply reading the sixteen introductory essays.

Most of the entries are written by certified practitioners of these disciplines. Theentries describe in detail the history, philosophy, and techniques of the specific disci-plines. The entries also describe what it feels like to practice or experience the disci-pline. It is our hope that the reader will not only gain intellectual knowledge fromreading an entry, but will be stimulated on a sensory level as well.

Within each of the sections the reader will find disciplines that work along sever-

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al different continuums. The broad spectrum of approaches reflects the belief of body-mind disciplines that each individual is unique and has specific strengths, weakness-es, and predilections. The first of these continuums may best be described as thepercentage of physical work as compared to the percentage of mental or emotionalwork required of the practitioner. For example, somato respiratory integrationrequires the practitioner to remain relatively still, focusing the mind on physical sen-sations and emotional memories, whereas the Feldenkrais Method® develops aware-ness of mental and emotional patterns by moving the body through prescribed spatialforms. This continuum, found within individual sections of the encyclopedia, is alsoapparent from section to section. For example, all of the practices in the Meditationsection approach the process of building the body-mind connection somewhat morefrom the use of the mind, whereas all of the disciplines in the somatic practices sec-tion come at the process somewhat more from the use of the body. A person may enterthe world of body-mind at any point along this continuum that suits his or her needsor temperament.

Another continuum along which the various practices can be viewed concernsthe degree of spontaneous action as compared to structured action used by the dis-cipline. For example, contact improvisation and Skinner release technique worklargely through improvisational forms created by the practitioner. The quality ofone’s conscious control of the movement patterns is loose and free flowing. By con-trast, the Pilates Method and t'ai chi ch' üan use intricately structured movementsequences that rarely vary. They require a different kind of control in order to achievea free-flowing connection of body and mind.

Another of the continuums along which one might view these disciplines con-cerns the degree of involvement of the practitioner, or receiver, as a whole. In any ofthe forms of massage therapy the receiver is relatively passive, in contrast to the veryactive participation required by any of the forms of martial arts. All body-mind dis-ciplines, however, ultimately encourage the active participation of the practitioner onsome level. As the practice awakens awareness of physical sensations and mental oremotional processes, the participant naturally becomes more capable of taking anactive role in the practice, whether that means learning how to relax and experiencephysical sensations more deeply or follow complex thought, breath, and movementpatterns more effortlessly and subtly. This active awareness and participation is abasic value of all body-mind disciplines.

Some of the disciplines included in this volume have as their primary goal therelief of physical pain. It may not seem immediately clear how such practices devel-op the body-mind connection. In body-mind terms, the response to pain can be thefirst step toward awakening a deeper awareness of the body. The theoretical under-pinnings of every discipline included here view pain as a message from the body tothe mind that some vital link between the two is not functioning. Pain is the cry ofthe body when it has been ignored, when the body-mind connection has not beenhonored. When viewed this way, pain is transformed from a symptom to be eradi-cated into a call to undertake a journey of self-discovery.

We hope this volume will offer the reader useful information for his or her uniquejourney. We wish each of you a voyage filled with the excitement of discovery, thecreativity of transformation, and the joys of fulfillment.

1

Alternative health mod-els consist of a variety ofways of viewing health andsickness and depicting therelationship between bodyand mind. Each model hasdeveloped a system ofhealth care with associatedpractices and disciplines.These health models arecategorized as alternativebecause they are differentfrom the allopathic para-digm, the scientific frame-work of contemporaryWestern health care.

In the allopathic modelthe body is viewed as aself-contained machine orcollection of systems thatmalfunction with age,injury, or when invaded byinfectious microbes orgerms. Allopathic healthcare practices developed abattery of defensive tech-niques for dealing withthese causes of malfunc-tion. In contrast, alterna-tive health models see the body as one aspect of a whole person, along with mind andspirit. They view illness as an imbalance between these three interdependent aspects ofa human being, or between a human being and his or her environment. Since the 1960s,because of the high cost and sometimes ineffectiveness or damaging side effects of allo-pathic health care practices, more and more people are exploring the possibilities ofother health models.

Herbal remedies play a role in many health models, including tradi-tional Chinese medicine.

PART I: ALTERNATIVE HEALTH MODELS

Ayurvedic Medicine • Holistic Health • Homeopathy • Naturopathic Medi-cine • Shamanism • Traditional Chinese Medicine • Wellness

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A Historical Survey of Health ModelsThe oldest and most widespread alternative health model is used by shamanism

and contemporary shamanistic counseling. Shamanic healers believe that all thingshave a spirit, including rocks, rivers, the sky, and the earth. According to theshamanic model of health, spirits are responsible for the physical and psychologicalhealth or sickness of all individuals and communities. Ancient shamans developedmethods of interacting with spirits to affect individual or communal health. Con-temporary shamanic counselors continue to use these traditional healing tech-niques today.

Over time, more abstract metaphors evolved to describe the spirit world and itsinteractions with the material world. The concept of energy or energetic forcesreplaced the discussion of individualized spirits in human philosophical and med-ical thought. Health models such as ayurveda in India and traditional Chinese med-icine in Asia developed intricate theories and practices to work with the complexpatterns of energies they perceived moving through the universe and all the peoplein it.

The ancient Greeks also conceived of the world as a complex of energies, andmany of their healing practices reflected an integrated view of spirit and matter. Thephilosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) articulated an important new tendency in West-ern thought. He believed that the workings of the natural world could be knownthrough observation, experimentation, and classification. While Aristotle himselfbelieved that spiritual truth could be known through a study of the material world,his scientific method created the possibility of a split in Western thought betweenspirit and matter.

During the Renaissance, many important Greek texts were rediscovered. Many ofthe great thinkers of the day embraced the Aristotelian scientific method of the pur-suit of knowledge. This method of inquiry met with tremendous opposition from thedominant religious and political institution of that time, the Church. The Churchregarded science as a threat to its most basic theological doctrines. This oppositioncreated in Western thought a deeper schism between the material and spiritual realms.

Certain Western philosophers and scientists, however, continued to investigatehealth models that unify body, mind, and spirit. Health models such as Samuel Hah-nemann’s (1755–1843) Homeopathy, which combines the science of chemistry andbiology with the belief in an invisible vital life energy, developed in Europe toward theend of the Age of Reason. Later, healers like Father Sebastian Kneipp (1821–1897)found other ways to integrate spiritual beliefs with scientific inquiry. His reexamina-tion of ancient herbal cures and indigenous European health modalities eventuallymade its way to the United States in the form of naturopathy.

Spiritual and material models of health coexisted in Europe and the United Statesfor many years. However, in the 1930s the materialistic allopathic model of healthbecame institutionalized in organizations such as the American Medical Association,which proceeded to discredit holistic methods of healing. The successful control ofinfectious disease with penicillin, along with other pharmaceuticals developedthroughout the 1930s to 1950s, appeared to substantiate the allopathic approach andhelped it become the dominant health model.

3

In the 1960s dissatisfaction with social conventions and institutions, includingallopathic health care, caused Westerners to investigate the ancient health models ofEastern and indigenous cultures, as well as older European-based models. Many peo-ple began to feel that allopathic strategies did not provide a complete approach tohealth care. Disciplines combining Western psychological insights with ancient con-cepts of harmony and balance, such as holistic health and wellness, became morepopular.

In the 1970s and 1980s soaring health care costs and the appearance of manychronic health problems caused even greater interest in alternative health models.Today, these disciplines are practiced individually and as a complement to allo-pathic care. The philosophical viewpoint upon which these disciplines are basedcontinues to exert an ever-growing and far-reaching influence on the practice ofcontemporary medicine.

Some Theoretical ConsiderationsAll of the health models presented in this section believe that in addition to the

physical body, human beings are comprised of nonmaterial aspects. These includethoughts, emotions, and intuitions of the mind, along with a person’s spiritualessence. In these holistic models, all three aspects—body, mind, and spirit—areinterdependent and determine an individual’s state of health. In addition, many ofthe disciplines adhering to this viewpoint believe that each person’s spiritualessence interacts with the spiritual essence of the universe in much the same waythat his or her body interacts with the material environment. Health care modalitiesthat developed from this philosophical viewpoint seek to maintain the balancebetween all aspects of human beings and their relationship with their environ-ments.

One of the major differences between the practices based on these health modelsand those of allopathic health care is the emphasis they place on the maintenance ofhealth, rather than the spectacular and dramatic treatment of illness. Maintaininghealth requires monitoring the subtle physical, mental, and emotional ways that thespirit manifests itself in the body.

Symptoms are viewed as physical evidence of a spiritual imbalance. They are rarelysuppressed. These health models generally believe that while the suppression ofsymptoms may offer temporary relief from physical pain, it blocks the natural healingprocess and will invariably result in more serious problems. Instead of suppression, aphysician follows the sequence of symptoms to find the proper way to help the body,mind, and spirit regain their state of balance.

The alternative health models included in this section believe that each individualhas the potential for self-healing. While each model recognizes that there are manysimilarities in self-healing processes, each individual’s process is respected as unique.Specialists in these modalities use various techniques to enhance a person’s self-heal-ing abilities. They help clients interpret and find patterns in their symptoms, developgreater sensitivity to their physical bodies, and create a broader awareness of theinterrelationship between body, mind, and spirit. In this way, these methods encour-age each person to participate in his or her own healing.

The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

What It Might Mean to Adopt One of These ModelsThe health models examined in this section aim to help each individual live a

happy, healthy, meaningful life. Adjusting to the methods and practices of a newhealth model may cause a healing crisis. Once a person no longer suppresses symp-toms, old physical or emotional problems may temporarily reappear, causing a per-son to feel weaker or more vulnerable. Eventually these suppressed causes of illnessare released, physical and emotional trauma are diminished, and the foundation hasbeen laid for many years of continued good health and development.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

4

Further Reading:

Manning, Clark A., and Louis J. Vanreen. Bioener-

getic Medicines East and West: Acupuncture and

Homeopathy. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic

Books, 1988.

Ayurvedic Medicine

AYURVEDIC MEDICINE

A yurvedic medicine, the ancientIndian science of healthy living,places great emphasis on disease

prevention. It encourages the mainte-nance of health by paying close atten-tion to the balance of one’s body, mind,and spirit. Ayurvedic medicine teachespatients to bring about and maintainthis balance through proper lifestyle,diet, exercise, herbs, and meditation.Practitioners of ayurveda learn to iden-tify the patient’s personal “constitu-tion,” understood as a unique mixtureof three distinct life energies, or doshas.A healthy person employs positivethinking, diet, and lifestyle to maintaina perfect proportion of life energies.

The History of Ayurvedic MedicineAyurvedic medicine is considered bymany scholars to be the world’s oldesthealing science. It dates back five thou-sand years to the ancient Vedic cultureof the Rishis, the philosophers and reli-gious leaders of ancient India. Ayurve-da, which means “the science of life” inthe ancient Indian language of Sanskrit,was passed on in the oral tradition frommaster to disciple for thousands ofyears. Some of this knowledge was pub-lished a few thousand years ago,notably in the ancient holy texts of Hin-duism, one of the world’s oldest existingliteratures. It is believed that much ofthe tradition has actually been lost.

Ayurveda has been practiced in dailylife in India for more than four thousandyears. Western medicine has influenced(and been influenced by) ayurvedic med-icine, but the traditional ayurvediclifestyle management is, for many Indi-ans, still the primary therapy for ailments.The principles of many natural healingmethods now familiar in the West, such ashomeopathy, wellness, and polarity ther-apy, have their roots in ayurveda.

Philosophy of AyurvedaAccording to ayurvedic philosophy, theentire cosmos is made up of the five

great elements—space (also known asEther), air, fire, water, and earth. Thesefive elements combine to form threedistinct types of energy, called doshas,that are present in all people and things.There are no words in English todescribe these energies, so we use theoriginal Sanskrit words vata, pitta, andkapha. In the physical body vata, com-posed of air and ether, is the subtle ener-gy associated with movement. It governsbreathing, blinking, muscle and tissuemovement, pulsation of the heart, andall movements in the cytoplasm and cellmembranes. Pitta, made up of fire andwater, is considered the body’smetabolic energy. It governs digestion,absorption, assimilation, nutrition,metabolism, and body temperature.Kapha is formed from earth and waterand is the energy that forms the body’sstructure—bones, muscles, tendons—and provides the “glue” that holds thecells together. Kapha also supplies thewater for all bodily parts and systems. Itlubricates joints, moisturizes the skin,and maintains immunity.

All people have vata, pitta, andkapha; one is usually primary, one sec-ondary, and the third least prominent.The cause of disease in ayurveda isviewed as the lack of proper cellularfunction because of an excess ordeficiency of one of these three energiesand/or the presence of toxins.

A Balanced LifeJust as everyone has an individual faceor thumbprint, according to ayurveda,each person has a particular pattern ofenergy—an individual combination ofphysical, mental, and emotional charac-teristics—that is his or her constitu-tion. This constitution is determined atconception. Many factors, both internaland external, can disturb this balance,which is reflected as a change in one’s con-stitution.

When all of the three doshas are prop-erly proportioned, they nourish and buildmental and physical health in a person.The proper amount of vata promotes cre-ativity and flexibility; pitta engenders

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understanding and intelligence; kaphais expressed as love, calmness, and for-giveness.

Disease is viewed as improper bodyfunctioning that is caused by an excessor deficiency of vata, pitta, or kapha ascompared to the original balance ofthese doshas. This imbalance can becaused by any number of factors. Genet-ic or congenital traits may predispose aperson to develop unhealthy habits suchas overeating or smoking. Accidents orother upsetting events can cause physi-cal, mental, or emotional trauma, furtherdisrupting the individual’s balance. Fur-thermore, all of us have certain personalsensitivities, such as weather conditions,spicy food, and flower pollen, that candisrupt the body’s function.

In all of these cases, when mindand/or body are upset, the doshasbecome imbalanced. When this happens,the process of disease begins, as fear andanxiety can raise vata in a person. Toomuch or too little vata can produce fearand anxiety. Similarly, pitta can stir anger,hate, and jealousy, and kapha can lead togreed, attachment, and envy.

Typical AyurvedaIn times of health, when there are nodominant outside traumas or toxinsafflicting a person, practitioners ofayurveda pay strict attention to diet andlifestyle. Just as each person has aunique constitution, there exists foreach person a specific “right” lifestyle,tailored to cultivate the exactly perfectlevels of the three doshas. This rightlifestyle engages body, mind, and spir-it—three distinct but interrelatedaspects of each person—in a regimen ofdiet, breathing exercises, meditation,and physical activity.

In times of illness, an ayurvedicphysician must first determine which ofthe three basic constitutional types thepatient is. Then the symptoms must beunderstood as to whether they are ofvata, pitta, or kapha type. Vata heartpain is different from pitta or kaphaheart pain. Accordingly, a battery of testsare applied, including taking the pulse,

observing the tongue and eyes, and lis-tening to the tone of the patient’s voice.The results of these tests, coupled with apatient’s physical attributes and familytraits, are used to understand the causeof disease, the dosha(s) involved, andthe stage of the disease process.

The assessment provides the doctorwith a standard of the patient’s normalfunctioning. Armed with this knowledge,the ayurvedic physician can suggest stepsto help return the client’s health to a bal-anced state. Typically this involves theimplementation of a different lifestylewith a new diet, exercise, and meditationplan. In cases where disease can be attrib-uted to toxins or other external stresses,the ayurvedic physician may prescribeadditional herbal remedies, breathingexercises, and sun and massage therapies.In some cases, participation in an inten-sive cleansing program known as “pan-chakarma” is suggested to help the bodyrid itself of accumulated toxins.

Benefits and RisksAyurvedic medicine is and has beenpracticed throughout the world forthousands of years. Its patients claimincreased longevity and better health.Proper ayurvedic practice demandsadherence to a strict, carefully plannedlifestyle. Furthermore, many in theayurvedic field have integrated Westernmedicine into their practices, acknowl-edging that different systems can com-plement each other. For these reasons,anyone interested in pursuing ayurveda,particularly patients with preexistingconditions, should consult an estab-lished clinic or ayurvedic physician.

—Dr. Vasant Lad

Resources:

American Institute of Vedic Studies

1701 Sante Fe River Rd.

Sante Fe, NM 87501

Tel: (505) 983-9385

Provides information on training programs and

practitioners.

Holistic Health

7

American School of Ayurvedic Sciences

10025 NE 4th St.

Bellevue, WA 98004

Tel: (206) 453-8022

Offers a program in ayurvedic medicine.

Ayurvedic Foundation

P.O. Box 900413

Sandy, UT 84090-0413

Tel: (801) 943-1480

e-mail: Dean@ayur.com

Web site: www.ayur.com

Conducts workshops and custom training. Also

produces cassette tapes and provides ayurvedic

counseling.

Ayurvedic Institute

11311 Menaul N.E., Suite A

Albuquerque, NM 87112

Tel: (505) 291-9698

Provides a two-year program in ayurveda, as well

as offering panchakarma workshops and

ayurvedic herbs, supplies, and products.

Further Reading:

Chopra, Deepak, M.D. Ageless Body, Timeless

Mind. New York: Harmony Books, 1993.

———. Perfect Health. New York: Harmony Books,

1991.

———. Quantum Healing. New York: Bantam

Books, 1990.

Frawley, David, OMD. Ayurvedic Healing. Salt

Lake City: Morson Publishing, 1990.

Lad, Vasant, M.D. Ayurveda: The Science of Self-

Healing. Wilmot, CA: Lotus Light Press, 1984.

———. Secrets of the Pulse: The Ancient Art of

Pulse Diagnosis. Albuquerque: The Ayurvedic

Press, 1996

HOLISTIC HEALTH

Holistic health is an approach tolife. Rather than focusing on ill-ness or specific parts of the body,

this ancient approach to health consid-ers the whole person and how he or sheinteracts with his or her environment. Itemphasizes the connection of mind,body, and spirit. The goal is to achievemaximum well-being, where everythingis functioning the very best that is pos-sible. With holistic health, peopleaccept responsibility for their own levelof well-being, and everyday choices areused to take charge of one’s own health.

How Holistic Health DevelopedAncient healing traditions, as far backas 5,000 years ago in India and China,stressed living a healthy way of life inharmony with nature. Socrates (fourthcentury BCE) warned against treatingonly one part of the body “for the partcan never be well unless the whole iswell.” Although the term holism wasintroduced by Jan Christiaan Smuts in1926 as a way of viewing living things as“entities greater than and different fromthe sum of their parts,” it wasn’t untilthe 1970s that holistic became a com-mon adjective in our modern vocabu-lary.

Holistic concepts fell temporarily outof favor in Western societies during thetwentieth century. Scientific medicaladvances had created a dramatic shift inthe concept of health. Germs were iden-tified as outside sources causing disease.Gaining health became a process ofkilling microscopic invaders with syn-thesized drugs. People believed that theycould get away with unhealthy lifestylechoices, and modern medicine would“fix” them as problems developed.

However, for some conditions med-ical cures have proven more harmfulthan the disease. In addition, manychronic conditions do not respond toscientific medical treatments. In look-ing for other options, people are turn-ing back to the holistic approach tohealth and healing. The holistic healthlifestyle is regaining popularity eachyear, as the holistic principles offerpractical options to meet the growingdesire for enjoying a high level of vitalityand well-being.

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The Basic Principles of Holistic HealthHolistic health is based on the law ofnature that a whole is made up of inter-dependent parts. The earth is made upof systems, such as air, land, water,plants, and animals. If life is to be sus-tained, they cannot be separated, forwhat is happening to one system is alsofelt by all of the others. In the same way,an individual is a whole made up ofinterdependent parts, which are physi-cal, mental, emotional, and spiritual.When one part is not working at its best,it impacts all of the other parts of thatperson. Furthermore, this whole per-son, including all of the parts, is con-stantly interacting with everything inthe surrounding environment. Forexample, when an individual is anxiousabout a history exam or a job interview,his or her nervousness may result in aphysical reaction—such as acne or astomachache. When people suppressanger at a parent or a boss over a longperiod of time, they can develop a seri-ous illness—such as migraine head-aches, emphysema, or even arthritis.

The principles of holistic health statethat health is more than just not beingsick. A common explanation is to viewwellness as a continuum along a line. Theline represents all possible degrees ofhealth. The far left end of the line repre-sents premature death. On the far rightend is the highest possible level of well-ness or maximum well-being. The centerpoint of the line represents a lack ofapparent disease. This places all levels ofillness on the left half of the wellness con-tinuum. The right half shows that evenwhen no illness seems to be present, thereis still a lot of room for improvement.

Holistic health is an ongoing process.As a lifestyle, it includes a personalcommitment to be moving toward theright end of the wellness continuum. Nomatter what their current status ofhealth, people can improve their level ofwell-being. Even when there are tempo-rary setbacks, movement is always head-ed toward wellness.

The U.S. Centers for Disease Controland Prevention report that the key factors

influencing an individual’s state of healthhave not changed significantly over thepast twenty years. Quality of medical careis only 10 percent. Heredity accounts for18 percent and environment is 19 per-cent. Everyday lifestyle choices are 53percent. The decisions people makeabout their life and habits are, therefore,by far the largest factor in determiningtheir state of wellness.

The most obvious choices peoplemake each day are what they “consume”—both physically and mentally. The cells in aperson’s body are constantly beingreplaced. New cells are built from what isavailable. Harmful substances or lack ofneeded building blocks in the body canresult in imperfect cells, unable to do whatis required to keep that person healthy.Similarly, on the non-physical level, a per-son’s mental attitudes are “built” fromwhat he or she sees and hears.

The majority of illnesses and prema-ture deaths can be traced back tolifestyle choices. There are the well-known dangers connected with drugs,alcohol, nicotine, and unprotected sex-ual activity. Less recognized is theimpact of excesses in things like sugar,caffeine, and negative attitudes. Com-bined with deficiencies in exercise,nutritious foods, and self-esteem, thesegradually accumulate harmful effects.With time they diminish the quality ofthe “environment” within that humanbeing, and can set the stage for illness totake hold. Quality of life, now and in thefuture, is actually being determined by amultitude of seemingly unimportantchoices made every day.

How Holistic Health Is PracticedWhile preventing illness is important,holistic health focuses on reachinghigher levels of wellness. The right halfof the wellness continuum invites peo-ple to constantly explore which every-day actions work for them and discoverwhat is appropriate to move themtoward maximum well-being. Peopleare motivated by how good it feels tohave lots of energy and enthusiasm forlife, knowing that what they are doing

Holistic Health

9

Training in Holistic Health

The conventional (or allopathic) medical model taught in most Western medical schoolsdoes not include the holistic principles. Complementary (or alternative) medical tradi-tions, such as acupuncture, chiropractic, homeopathy, massage therapy, and naturopa-thy, include many of the principles of holistic medicine. Yet some medical doctors areholistic in how they deal with their patients, and some practitioners using complemen-tary therapies are not holistic. Patients are learning to check for both technical expertiseand whether a practitioner uses the holistic principles.

People interested in a career as a holistic practitioner must first become qualified in one ormore methods of delivering health care, such as chiropractic, massage therapy, medicine,naturopathy, or psychology. Then they add on the holistic qualities and philosophy.

that day will allow them to continue tofeel this great for years to come.

When disease and chronic condi-tions do occur, the holistic health princi-ples also can be applied. The term isusually changed to holistic medicine,and additional factors are added. Thehealth care professionals using theholistic approach work in partnershipwith their patients. They recommendtreatments that support the body’s nat-ural healing system and consider thewhole person and the whole situation.

A holistic approach to healing goesbeyond just eliminating symptoms. Forexample, taking an aspirin for a headachewould be like disconnecting the oil lighton the dash of a car when it flashes. Theirritation is eliminated, but the real prob-lem still exists. In holistic medicine, asymptom is considered a message thatsomething needs attention. So the symp-tom is used as a guide to look below thesurface for the root cause. Then what real-ly needs attention can be addressed.

The Benefits of Holistic HealthHolistic health supports reaching high-er levels of wellness as well as prevent-ing illness. People enjoy the vitality andwell-being that results from their posi-tive lifestyle changes, and are motivatedto continue this process throughouttheir lives.

—Suzan Walter

Resources:

American Holistic Health Association (AHHA)

Dept. R

P.O. Box 17400

Anaheim, CA 92817-7400

Tel: (714) 779-6152

e-mail: ahha@healthy.net

Web site: www.ahha.org

This nonprofit educational organization has com-

piled lists of self-help resources available in the

United States. These free materials and a booklet,

Wellness From Within: The First Step, which

introduces the holistic approach to creating well-

ness, are available on the Internet or by mail.

Graduate Certificate Program in Holistic Health

Care

Director: Molly B. Vass, Ed.D.

Western Michigan University

College of Health and Human Services

Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5174

Tel: (616) 387-3800

Fax: (616) 387-3348

e-mail: Brenda.Bell@wmich.edu

Unique opportunity to study holistic health care in

an accredited academic program. Consists of 18

semester hours of study in holistic health care and

related topics. Can be taken as an independent

certificate or can be used to supplement graduate

training in related fields. Three main areas of

holistic health care (promotion, prevention, and

treatment) are addressed through a combination

of education, research, promotion, training,

administration, program planning, and program

development efforts. Graduates are able to work

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within their chosen professional areas from a

holistic perspective.

Further Reading:

Collinge, William, Ph.D. The American Holistic

Health Association Complete Guide to Alterna-

tive Medicine. New York: Warner Books, 1996.

Gordon, James S., M.D. Holistic Medicine. New

York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1988.

Travis, John W., M.D., and Regina Sara Ryan.The

Wellness Workbook. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press,

1988.

HOMEOPATHY

Homeopathy is a holistic systemthat is used to treat chronic andacute illness and disease. Founded

by Samuel Hahnemann in the late 1700s,homeopathy is based on the concept of“like cures like,” which means that reme-dies are matched to symptom patternsin the patient. To “match” symptomsmeans that the physician analyzes apatient’s symptoms to find a substance,usually from plants, minerals, and ani-mals, that induces the same symptomsin a healthy person. By ingesting small,diluted doses of these substances, thebody is stimulated to fight illness. Inrecent times, homeopathic practiceshave grown dramatically in popularity aspeople all over the world rediscover theinexpensive, natural remedies used tocure illnesses that do not respond toconventional treatment.

History of HomeopathyThe founder of homeopathy, SamuelHahnemann, was born in Meissen, Ger-many in 1755. He was thin, delicate, andhighly intelligent, with an interest in thenatural sciences and languages. Heestablished his first medical practice in1780. Hahnemann was appalled by the

prevalent practices of bloodletting,purging, vomiting, and the administra-tion of large doses of harsh drugs.

It was not until 1789, when translat-ing A Treatise of Materia Medica by Dr.William Cullen, that Hahnemann firstconceived of his homeopathic method.He decided to experiment on himselfwith cinchona (Peruvian bark), one ofthe drugs mentioned in that work. Henoticed that when a healthy person tookdoses of cinchona, the substance fromwhich quinine is derived, it producedmany of the symptoms that it wasintended to alleviate.

The official birth date of homeopathyis 1796, when Hahnemann published anarticle in the Journal of Practical Medi-cine, in which he delineates three meth-ods of healing: preventative treatment,which is the removal of the causes of ill-ness; palliative treatment by the princi-ple of contraria contraris, which meansthe healing by opposites; and the treat-ment of likes with likes, namely the pre-scribing of medicines that cause similarsymptoms in healthy individuals. Hah-nemann coined the term Homeopathy,from the Greek words homois, similar,and pathos, meaning disease. The wordhomeopathic first appeared in print inan article he published in 1807.

Published in 1810, the Organon ofRational Medicine is Hahnemann’s quin-tessential work, a complete exposition ofhis healing method. To this day it formsthe foundation of homeopathy. Theprinciple of similia similibus, first setforth in his essay of 1796, was nowexpanded to similia similibus curentor—let likes be treated by likes—the coreprinciple of homeopathy. The receptionof this work was lukewarm.

Despite the apathetic receptionOrganon had received, he attempted toteach homeopathy through his newlyformed Institute for the PostgraduateStudy of Homeopathy. Not one personresponded to his advertisement. In 1812Napoleon was driven from Germany, andthe war flooded the area with refugees,starvation, and no less than 80,000dead and another 80,000 wounded.

Homeopathy

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Dr. Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843), founder of homeopathy

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Hahnemann and other physicians werepressed into service trying to help themany who suffered not only from thebattle but from an outbreak of typhus.Armed with twenty-six homeopathicremedies, Hahnemann achieved remark-able results in treating typhus. He wouldlater report that only two of the 180typhus patients he treated had died.

In 1819 a group of envious physiciansand angry pharmacists filed a courtaction against Hahnemann to preventhim from dispensing his own medicinesin Leipzig, where he was living at thetime. Despite Hahnemann’s growingreputation and successful treatment ofroyalty and famous people such asJohann Goethe, Hahnemann lost the

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case. Although he subsequently won inthe Appeals Court of Dresden, Hahne-mann closed his practice and leftLeipzig for the city of Kothen in 1821.

Shortly after his arrival in Kothen,Hahnemann, through his political andsocial connections, procured permissionfrom the authorities to practice home-opathy with total immunity. Duringthese years he wrote his last great work,Chronic Diseases: Their Peculiar Natureand Their Homeopathic Treatment. Firstpublished in Dresden, in 1828, it ulti-mately ran to five volumes by 1839 andtotaled in excess of 1,600 pages. Thiswork set forth another deep insight, thatnot only could patients be cured of acuteconditions but that their patterns ofacute conditions over the years allow fora classification of chronic tendenciestoward types of disease. These chronictendencies Hahnemann called miasms,the patient’s inherited predispositiontoward certain types of illness. By know-ing the miasmatic type, a homeopathicphysician could now treat preventively,and this tendency could be mitigated sothat the next generation’s health could beimproved. Hahnemann had intuited thebasis for treating genetic disorders.

In 1831, a cholera epidemic sweptEurope. The Hahnemannian protocolfor treating cholera, which also includ-ed cleanliness, ventilation, and disin-fection, resulted in a drastic reductionin mortality. Records at that time indi-cate that under homeopathic treatmentmortality was between 2 and 20 percentwhile conventional treatment carried amortality of over 50 percent.

Homeopathy began to spread to Eng-land and the United States. By 1844 theAmerican Institute of Homeopathy wasfounded by homeopathic physiciansfrom New York, Philadelphia, and Boston.The first national medical organization inthe United States, it was established topromote standardization of the practiceand teaching of homeopathy.

This period in American homeopa-thy was its golden age. There were liter-ally thousands of homeopathic booksand journals published. There were no

less than twenty-two homeopathic med-ical schools and countless homeopathichospitals and clinics throughout theUnited States. Estimates are that by theturn of the century there were about15,000 homeopathic physicians in theUnited States.

Around the same time, the sciencesof cellular and molecular biology, as wellas physiology, began to replace the rudi-mentary medical knowledge of Hahne-mann’s time. Together these sciencesproduced medicines used by conven-tional physicians to quickly and effec-tively remove or modulate their patients’symptoms at relatively low costs. By the1960s homeopathy in the United Stateswas virtually dead and medical histori-ans predicted the complete death of this“medical heresy” by 1980.

But instead, by the late 1970s Ameri-can homeopathy was well into a revival.By 1996, the bicentennial anniversary ofHahnemann’s discovery of homeopathy,more books and articles were beingwritten about homeopathy than at anytime since the turn of the century. Salesof homeopathic medicines haveincreased by 30 percent per year in theUnited States since 1990.

Eight FundamentalsThe fundamentals of homeopathy, aslaid down by Hahnemann, are as fol-lows:

1. There is a natural and universal sci-entific law of cure, namely, that likescan be cured by likes. This meansthat small amounts of any sub-stance that causes disease in ahealthy person can be used to treatthat same disease in a patient.

2. The knowledge of the action of reme-dies is harvested from single- or dou-ble-blind experiments in which smalldoses are given to healthy subjectswho later record their detailed reac-tions to the test substance. This iscalled a homeopathic proving. Theknowledge base for a particular sub-stance or remedy is also determinedfrom case histories of treatment with

Homeopathy

the substance, which has not under-gone a proving but which has yield-ed a cure in clinical practice. Addedto this is the information of symp-toms produced by accidental poi-sonings with toxic substances. Theproving, clinical, and toxicologicaldata form the materia medica of theremedy.

3. The ability of an organism to feel,sense, act, or achieve homeostasis(or equilibrium) is maintained by anon-material principle called thedynamis. This dynamis, or “spirit-like” vital force is, according to Hah-nemann, similar in nature to gravityor magnetism. It is a force that todate has eluded explanation or clas-sification by the natural sciences.Diseases, therefore, are not actualmaterial things; rather they aredescriptions or classifications ofsymptom patterns. Symptoms arenot things to be removed or sup-pressed by drugs; rather they are anexpression of the vital force’sattempt to heal. The properly pre-pared, selected, and administeredhomeopathic remedy somehow“resonates” with the vital force andstimulates the healing process.

4. A single remedy at a time is given. Sin-gle-remedy administration also allowsa clear evaluation of its efficacy.

5. A minimum dose must be used.Small doses of a substance stimulatehealing, medium doses paralyze thepatient, and large doses kill.

6. Individualization of the treatment isessential. No two people are exactlyalike in either sickness or health,and although homeopaths use clas-sifications of disease types, finer,individual distinctions must alwaysbe made since, although the actionof two remedies may often be simi-lar, they are never exactly the same.

7. The mere removal of symptoms bysuppressive means is a grave dangerbecause it defeats the vital force’sattempt at homeostasis and puts thepatient at risk for a more serious dis-ease.

8. There is a distinction between acuteor epidemic diseases and chronic dis-ease patterns of patients. Preventativehomeopathic care requires an under-standing of these chronic patterns.

Despite more than 200 years of clinicalefficacy, the way that these remedieswork is still a mystery. We do not yetpossess the technology or the method-ology necessary to unlock homeopa-thy’s secrets.

Philosophically, homeopathy is holis-tic (not merely alternative) because theessential task is to understand thepatient as a whole person. As a method,homeopathy is a synthesis of the naturalscience approach and the phenomeno-logical or descriptive approach. Thephysician must blend his or her naturalscience training in anatomy, physiology,pathology, biochemistry, physical diag-nosis, etc., with observation of thepatient and understanding of thepatient’s self-description. The challengeof homeopathy, even in the treatment ofapparently purely physical conditions, isto select a few probable remedies fromthe thousand or more possible remedies.

Just like a novel with many chaptersand plot twists, so a patient’s cureunfolds. The process is highly individ-ual. The homeopathic physician will beguided by certain principles of cure:healing occurs from above downward,from the center to the periphery, frommore vital organs to less vital organsand in reverse order of the appearanceof the original symptoms.

Practicing HomeopathyA typical session with a homeopathicphysician begins with the patient’s his-tory. The patient is allowed to tell his orher story without interruption. Onlyafter the patient is finished will thephysician ask specific questions tounderstand the symptoms, namely howthey vary according to time of day orseason, rest or activity, temperature,bathing, position, eating, thirst, sleep,social intercourse, perspiration, externalstimuli, emotions, etc.

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The Importance of Women in Homeopathic Medicine

Women figured prominently in the history of American homeopathy. By 1900 it is esti-mated that 12 percent of homeopathic physicians were women. The Cleveland Homeo-pathic College was one of the first coeducational medical institutions in the country.Women auxiliaries raised large amounts of money to open many of the homeopathichospitals, and it was women, in their role of family caretaker, who were the lay pre-scribers introducing homeopathy to many communities. Some members of the earlywomen’s suffrage movement were either homeopathic physicians or their patients. Dr.Susan Edson, a graduate of the Cleveland Homeopathic College, was personal physicianto President Garfield.

Most important, the physicianattempts to understand the patient’spersonality. Inquiries are made intohow the patient copes with stress, andabout the patient’s fears and worries.The patient describes him- or herself.This process is often the most reveal-ing.

The physician uses these descriptionsto generate an understanding of thepatient. He or she also obtains a conven-tional medical and surgical history, andfinally performs a physical examination.

The physician then attempts to rankvarious symptoms, modalities, andgeneralities by degree of intensity. A listof symptoms is generated and thesymptoms are then repertorized, thatis, they are cross-indexed with theremedies known to have caused orcured these same symptoms. Thislabor-intensive process was for cen-turies performed by hand, but is nowdone by computer.

Having narrowed the field to severalprobable remedies, the homeopathicphysician must then determine whetherthe patient’s problem is an acute,chronic, or inherited illness, or perhapsan illness due to the suppressive effectsof previous treatment.

The art of homeopathy is in the abil-ity of the homeopathic physician toprocess all of this information into asynthesis, a “remedy portrait” or gestalt,which corresponds to the remedy likely

to stimulate a healing response. Havinggiven a dose of the indicated remedy, thepatient and physician must now wait.Depending on the patient, the nature ofthe problem and the potency of the rem-edy, a return visit is scheduled weeks ormonths after the initial dose. While therehave been miraculous homeopathiccures after just one dose, most chroniccases take months or years to cure. Theprocess is highly individual.

Benefits of HomeopathyHomeopathic treatment is appropriateand safe for all ages and is especially use-ful in childhood and during pregnancy,labor, and the postpartum period. Home-opathy has successfully treated patientswith conditions such as otitis, bronchitis,pneumonia, migraines, hepatitis, pan-creatitis, appendicitis, and cholecystitis.Historically, homeopathy has been usedto treat potentially dangerous infectionssuch as cholera, influenza, syphilis, gon-orrhea, scarlet fever, polio, measles, andtuberculosis. Chronic conditions such asarthritis, asthma, eczema, psoriasis, andchronic fatigue syndrome have all beenalleviated by homeopathic treatments. Itis reported that devastating diseasessuch as multiple sclerosis can be broughtto remission if treated early enough. His-torical homeopathic literature containsmany references to cures of various typesof cancer, though admittedly these aresome of the most difficult for any system

Naturopathic Medicine

of medicine to cure and are best dealtwith on a preventive basis.

—Dr. Domenick Masiello

Resources:

The American Institute of Homeopathy

1585 Glencoc Street, Suite 44

Denver, CO 80220-1338

Tel: (303) 321-4105

Facilitates conferences, publishes a journal, and

provides referrals.

The National Center for Homeopathy

801 North Fairfax, Suite 306

Alexandria, VA 22314

Tel: (703) 548-7790

e-mail: nchinfo@igc.apc.org

Nonprofit organization that promotes homeopa-

thy in the United States. Publishes monthly maga-

zine entitled Homeopathy Today.

Videotape:

Winston, Julian. The Faces of Homeopathy: A Pic-

torial History. Alexandria, VA: The National

Center of Homeopathy, 1995.

Further Reading:

Cook, Trevor M. Samuel Hahnemann: His Life and

Times. Middlesex, Eng.: Homeopathic Studies

Ltd., 1981.

Coulter, Harris. Homeopathic Medicine. St. Louis:

Formur, 1972.

Hahnemann, Samuel. Organon of Medicine.

Translated by Jost Kunzli, Alain Nuadé, and

Peter Pendleton. Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher, 1982.

———. The Chronic Diseases: Their Peculiar

Nature and Their Homeopathic Cure. New

Delhi: B. Jain Publishers, 1985.

———. Materia Medica Pura. New Delhi: B. Jain

Publishers, 1984.

Kent, James Tyler. Lectures on Homeopathic Philoso-

phy. Richmond, VA: North Atlantic Books, 1979.

Roberts, Herbert. The Principles and Art of Cure

by Homeopathy. Santa Barbara, CA: Health

Science Press, 1942.

Weiner, Michael, and Kathleen Gross.The Complete

Book of Homeopathy. Garden City, NY: Avery

Publishing Group, 1989.

Wright-Hubbard, Elizabeth. A Brief Study Course

in Homeopathy. St. Louis, MO: Formur, 1977.

NATUROPATHIC MEDICINE

Naturopathic medicine is a form ofhealth care that utilizes and inte-grates different natural therapies

such as clinical nutrition, homeopathy,hydrotherapy, botanical medicines,minor surgery, Oriental medicine, physi-cal medicine, lifestyle counseling, andother treatments with a knowledge of tra-ditional diagnostic and medical therapiesin order to treat a range of afflictions. Alicensed doctor of naturopathy (ND)must graduate from a four-year programthat specializes not only in naturopathicstudies, but also basic medical science.Practitioners are then qualified to provideprimary care, perform diagnostic testing,and prescribe a course of treatment thatdraws from a long list of natural remediesand techniques.

The Origins of Naturopathic MedicineThe development of naturopathic medi-cine began with Benedict Lust, a Germanwho immigrated to the United States in1892. A few years after arriving, Lust wasstruck down with tuberculosis. WhenAmerican doctors couldn’t help him,Lust returned to Europe and sought outFather Sebastian Kneipp, a priest livingin Bavaria who was known for his“nature cure” treatments.

Kneipp did what Lust’s doctor couldnot—he successfully treated Lust. Thiswas a turning point in Lust’s life. In1896, Kneipp gave Lust permission tobring his treatments to America. Once

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back in the United States, Lustresearched other natural healthphilosophies and used them to reshapeand mold Kneipp’s ideas to appeal tothe American people. By broadeningthe scope of his work, Lust and otherKneipp disciples developed what is nowknown as naturopathic medicine.

In 1902, Lust bought the word“naturopathy” from a New York physi-cian who had coined the term sevenyears earlier. In 1909, California becamethe first state to recognize the new disci-pline by enacting regulatory lawsregarding the practice of naturopathicmedicine. Popularity of naturopathyrose significantly early in the century,but began to decline with the improve-ment and accessibility of pharmaceuti-cal drugs. Alternative methods of healthcare, including naturopathic medicine,have enjoyed a resurgence of interest aspeople rediscover that natural remediesare also valuable.

The Five Principles of NaturopathicMedicineToday’s brand of naturopathic medicineembodies five main principles. The first,Vis medicatrix naturae, means “thehealing power of nature.” Naturopathicphysicians use therapies that help thebody to heal itself.

Primum non nocere, the secondprinciple, means “first do no harm.”This translates into safe, naturopathictreatments that have no or minimalside effects. Naturopathic physiciansrefer patients to other health-care prac-titioners, such as medical doctors(M.D.s), when it is appropriate for thepatient.

True health can be achieved onlywhen your doctor practices Tolle causam,or “finds the cause.” Diagnosing the truecause of disease and illness is fundamen-tal to naturopathic care. Sometimes it isas simple as poor diet or sleeping habits.These basic issues can significantly affectone’s health. Other times, more complexfactors are responsible.

A commitment to treating the wholeperson is an important principle of

naturopathic healing. Illness is generallythe result of many factors. Part of “wholeperson,” or holistic, care is investigatingnot only physical symptoms, but emo-tional and mental ones too. How andwhat you eat, lifestyle habits, genetictendencies, as well as social interactionsare all important in assessing and treat-ing health problems.

The final principle of naturopathicmedicine is the emphasis on preventa-tive medicine. Practitioners aim tolessen and even eliminate the chance ofdisease by encouraging patients to takea proactive role in their health care byimplementing and maintaining ahealthy lifestyle.

A Visit to a Naturopathic PractitionerNaturopathic physicians are often pri-mary caregivers. This means they canbe your family or general practitioner,except they use natural treatments.When you call an ND’s office, a recep-tionist will greet you and ask whenyou’d like to make an appointment,much as in a medical doctor’s office.

On the day of your visit, you’ll findthat a naturopathic medical office isjust that—a medical office. You mightfill out some forms and then be invitedto see the doctor. Your naturopathicphysician will ask what’s wrong, andwill then spend about an hour to dis-cover the cause of your ailment.

Your ND will take a lengthy medicalhistory and perform a thorough physi-cal examination. Laboratory tests willbe ordered as needed. An ND relies onboth standard medical lab tests andspecialized tests more fitting to a natur-al medical practice.

Your ND then recommends treatmentbased on his or her investigation. Diet isdiscussed, and perhaps vitamins or othernutrient supplements suggested. Herbsare common medicines used by NDs aswell as homeopathic remedies, which arespecially prepared substances used toboost healing. Various techniques likehydrotherapy, exercise, or ultrasound,just as physical therapists use, might be

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A Naturopathic Medical Career

Before applying for naturopathic medical school, one must complete a minimum ofthree years of college, including specific prerequisite courses. It takes four years of grad-uate-level study to earn the degree of Doctor of Naturopathic Medicine. Anatomy, phar-macology, gynecology, and radiology are just some of the medical sciences taught.Training in natural therapeutics is also included, as is time spent working in a clinical set-ting seeing patients.

While an ND degree specifically prepares you for naturopathic medical practice, thereare other career opportunities. NDs also teach, do research, work for the natural healthindustry, write, lecture, and work as consultants. As natural medicine expands and grows,so does the potential for naturopathic medicine.

Naturopathic Medicine

employed. And where appropriate,stress management or counseling issuggested.

NDs are trained to perform minorsurgery such as repairing superficialwounds, but will refer you to surgeonsand other doctors for major operations.Some states allow qualified NDs to pre-scribe some drugs like antibiotics.

It’s perfectly appropriate, and some-times desirable, to mix and matchnaturopathic therapies with allopathictreatment. This should be done onlyunder professional guidance to preventpotential problems. While all naturo-pathic doctors are trained in the basicsof Oriental medicine, there are somewho specialize in acupuncture, herbalmedicine, and related therapies. SomeNDs offer natural childbirth, includingpre- and postnatal care, for pregnantwomen.

Benefits of Naturopathic MedicineNaturopathic medical care is suitablefor all age groups and most acute andchronic conditions. Its whole-person,natural-care approach allows you toattain the best health possible in aneffective and safe manner. Becausenaturopathic physicians are concernedwith solving, not masking, symptoms,healing can take longer than with conventional treatment. Naturopathicmedicine also requires that patientstake an active role in their health care.

NDs take their role as teacher very seri-ously as they instruct their patients inhow to stay healthy.

As primary caregivers, NDs cooper-ate with other medical and health pro-fessionals. An ND, like any generalpractitioner, is the gatekeeper for yourhealth care. When you’re sick, you seeyour ND first. He or she will consult withor refer you to other physicians and spe-cialists when appropriate.

—Lauri M. Aesoph, ND

Resources:

American Association of Naturopathic Physicians

(AANP)

601 Valley Street, Ste. 105

Seattle, WA 98109

Tel: (206) 298-0125

Web site: www.infinite.org/naturopathic.

physician

e-mail: 74602.3715@compuserve.com

This professional organization provides referrals to

naturopathic physicians in the United States. A

myriad of information on naturopathic medicine

is also available.

Bastyr University

14500 Juanita Dr. NE

Bothell, WA 98011

Tel: (206) 823-1300

Web site: www.bastyr.edu

Four-year postgraduate university that offers

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degrees in naturopathic medicine and related

health care disciplines.

Canadian Naturopathic Association

4174 Dundas Street W, Suite 304

Etobicoke, ON M8X 1X3

Canada

Tel: (416) 233-1043

Fax: (416) 233-2924

This professional group offers referrals to naturo-

pathic doctors throughout Canada.

National College of Naturopathic Medicine

049 SW Porter

Portland, OR 97201

Tel: (503) 499-4343

Web site: www.ncnm.edu

A postgraduate, four-year institution that provides

classes in naturopathic medicine.

Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine &

Health Sciences

2140 East Broadway

Tempe, AZ 85282

Tel: (602) 858-9100

Fax: (602) 858-0222

Web site: www.healthworld.com/pan/pa/

naturopathic/aanp/SW/SW.college.home.html

Four-year postgraduate college that offers degrees

in naturopathic medicine and related health care

disciplines.

Further Reading:

Aesoph, Lauri. How to Eat Away Arthritis. Para-

mus, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996.

Brown, Donald. Herbal Prescriptions for Better

Health. Rocklin, CA: Prima Publishing, 1996.

Kirchfeld, Friedhelm, and Wade Boyle. Nature

Doctors: Pioneers in Naturopathic Medicine.

East Palestine, OH: Buckeye Naturopathic

Press, 1994 (distributed by Medicina Biologi-

ca, Portland, OR).

Murray, Michael, and Joseph Pizzorno. Encyclope-

dia of Natural Medicine. Rocklin, CA: Prima

Publishing, 1991.

Murray, Michael. The Healing Powers of Foods,

New York: Ballantine Fawcett, 1993.

Ullman, Robert, and Judith Reichenberg-Ullman.

The Patient’s Guide to Homeopathic Medicine.

Kent, WA: Pacific Pipeline, 1995.

SHAMANISM

Shamanism is an ancient healing method that allows a person toenter and interact with an unseen

world of spirits. Contemporary shaman-ism encompasses a wide range of spiri-tual practices originating in civilizationsin North and South America, Siberia,Indonesia, Australia, Southeast Asia,Japan, and Tibet. Throughout history,shamanic healers have been known bymany names, including medicine manor medicine woman, witch, warlock, orin African-based vodoun religions—priest or priestess. The word shamanwas derived from the Asian wordsaman by nineteenth-century Euro-pean scholars intrigued by the culturesand practices of ancient shamanism.Currently many Western medicalresearchers and psychologists areexploring shamanism, not as a curiosi-ty, but as a creative and constructiveway of viewing the world.

The Early ShamansIn ancient times, shamans served manyroles in their societies. They performedrituals to mark the migrations of the ani-mals that their societies hunted. Huntersconsulted shamans to learn where ani-mals could be found. The shamans alsodesigned and performed rituals to markthe changing of seasons, the migration oftheir people to different locations, andindividual rites of passage such as birth,the transition from adolescence to adult-hood, marriage, and death.

Early shamans were also teachers. Inmany early societies, storytelling was animportant part of the shaman’s skills.Often, the stories he or she told taughtlessons about the society’s beliefs, fears,and traditions.

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A Navajo shaman ministers to a mother and baby for better health.

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Shamans were also healers. Sincemany societies believed that all illnesseshad a spiritual source, the shamanswere often chosen for their ability tocommunicate with the spirit world.Healing rituals designed to removeharmful spirits from individuals orcommunities often took place in sacredspaces such as caves or mountains andincluded wearing ceremonial clothing,using herbs, playing drums, rattles, andflutes, and dancing.

The Unseen WorldShamans believe that there are two reali-ties: the “seen” world, which is the worldwe perceive through our five senses, andthe “unseen” or “invisible” world, whichour five senses cannot detect. The unseenworld can be compared to the world ofdreams, emotions, instincts, and intu-ition. Emotions, such as fear, joy, love,and grief, or human sexual drives, cannotbe seen but are very real forces in humanlife. Ancient shamanic cultures honoredthe forces of the unseen world in the form

of gods, goddesses, and monsters in thenarratives of their mythologies.

Shamanism is founded on a beliefthat most diseases and grievancesbetween individuals or nations arecaused by an imbalance in the naturalorder of the seen and unseen worlds. Ashaman interacts with the invisibleworld of forces and energies and restoresthe balance. His or her stories, rituals,and dances are used to subdue or stimu-late feelings that may bring new hope,motivate a person to act, or simplyincrease energy for healing and change.

Shamanism in Today’s WorldIt is unlikely that you will find the ser-vices of a shaman advertised at yourfamily health clinic, but many clinics dorefer patients to therapists who usetechniques borrowed from the shaman-ic tradition. For example, psychologistsand hypnotherapists use hypnosis andmental visualization (a traditionalshamanic technique) to help peoplestop smoking, control their appetite,

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Traditional shamanic practices in Comalapa, Guatemala.

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Shamanism

reduce anxiety, manage chronic pain, andrecover from an addiction. Mental visual-ization is a process in which a person setsa goal by imagining himself or herselfaccomplishing it. For example, a personwho wants to calm his or her anxietybefore delivering a speech may imaginegetting up on the podium, confidentlydelivering a successful talk, and receiving astanding ovation. For many people theseimages can replace the old memories thatcaused the fear. While shamans helpedtheir communities by telling stories or per-forming rituals, today’s practitionerssometimes use “guided imagery” toachieve a similar goal.

There is also an increasing number oforganizations teaching traditionalshamanic practices throughout the world.Courses are taught by anthropologists,psychologists, and shamans from NativeAmerican, African, Hawaiian, SouthAmerican, Australian, or other traditions.Typical workshops might include lecturesabout basic principles of shamanism,drumming workshops, and experiences inthe basic shamanistic technique of “jour-neying” into the unseen world.

Shamanic counseling is availabletoday in many parts of the United States.It is used to aid a person’s physical, emo-tional, or spiritual health. A typical sessionmay begin with a “smudging” ceremony.This consists of burning a small amountof dried sage, often mixed with otherherbs such as sweet grass and cedar.Smoke from the smudge pot might bewafted with a feathered fan over the per-son’s body, sometimes from head to toe.Shamans believe that the person is“cleansed” as the smoke lifts away dark ornegative influences and energies.

The smudging ceremony may be fol-lowed by a “journey” in which theshaman enters the unseen world inorder to consult guiding spiritual forces.A person may also journey to the unseenworld for him- or herself. In this prac-tice, the shamanic counselor may beginby discussing the person’s problem. Theperson may then be told to close his orher eyes, relax, and imagine the journeythat he or she is about to make. With the

image clearly in the person’s mind, theshaman or shamanic counselor begins asteady rhythm with a hand drum, a rattle,or recorded music. He or she may use arhythm similar to the human heartbeat—between fifty-five and seventybeats per minute. This rhythm puts theperson into a light trance, allowing him orher to relax and enter a dreamlike state.

Upon entering the trance state, theperson might meet and work with aninner guide or adviser. During the jour-ney, the person might ask his or herguide questions, listen for answers, andpossibly carry on a dialogue for severalminutes or more. Eventually, theshamanic counselor will change therhythm of the drum to indicate that theperson should return to the “seen”world. After returning, there might befurther discussion with the shamaniccounselor to help the person interpretthe meaning of the journey.

Benefits of ShamanismAlthough many people still view the practices of shamanism as more fiction than fact, a growing number of peoplevalue the emphasis these practices placeon the unseen world of emotions,dreams, and spiritual forces to help healillnesses and guide them in living ahealthy and fulfilling life. While shaman-ism rarely offers a quick fix for acute ill-nesses, many people have reportedprofound physical and emotional reliefthrough contemporary shamanic prac-tices. With a history as long and enduringas humankind itself, it is hard to find amore time-tested method for bringingharmony and comfort to body and mind.

—Hal Zina Bennett

Resources:

Conference on the Study of Shamanism and Alter-

native Modes of Healing

Ruth-Inge Heinze, Ph.D.

2321 Russell Street, Suite 3A

Berkeley, CA 94705

Promotes shamanism as a healing practice.

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Other Shamanic Techniques

Vision Quests: In this practice, a person spends a day or more alone in the wilderness.There he or she is able to fast and meditate without distractions. This can be used tohelp people contemplate their own inner worlds, their fears, dreams, strengths, andgifts. It can also be used to experience a oneness with nature.

Sun Dances: The sun dance was originally used to help warriors get in touch with theirinner strengths and to draw strength from the spirits of nature such as those found intrees, rocks, clouds and sky. Usually over a period of several days, the young warriorwas prepared through fasting, meditation, and counsel with an elder. Then smallhooks or barbs were placed in the fleshy portions of his chest. Cords fastened thesehooks to a tree or post and the dancer leaned back against them, naturally causingsome pain. The dancers stood in this way from dawn to dusk, usually in the hot sun. Itwas a test of one’s endurance and one’s ability to deal with his or her own fears and dis-comforts. People who experienced the sun dance claimed to have gained dramaticself-knowledge. Even today there are those who repeat the sun dance every year.

Drumming Circles: This practice uses drums for therapeutic purposes. Usually there isa lead, or “mother,” drum with a deep voice that sets a simple rhythm based on theheartbeat. People participate in these circles to help focus their energies, rather thanto perform or make music. During a drumming circle, there are many conversationswith the drums, which are used to teach participants how to listen and communicatewith one another. Some people look upon drumming circles as times of communion,where people are brought together at a deep spiritual level.

Medicine Wheel: The medicine wheel is an important practice in most shamanic tra-ditions; evidence of its use can be found in every part of the world. People form awheel by gathering in a circle to discuss a problem or to bring about a change thataffects them all. At the wheel, all people have equal status and an equal chance tospeak. The wheel is used to allow a joining of their “spirits,” that is, the inner worlds ofeach participant. It is understood that no single person at the wheel ever has the ulti-mate answer; rather, the solution is to be found as a community.

Sweat Lodge: A dome-shaped structure is constructed with willow branch poles, cov-ered with hides or blankets. Prayers are offered and each participant is blessed uponentering the lodge. Then rocks, which have been heated at a fire outside the lodge, arebrought inside and placed in the center. Water is poured over the rocks and the heatinside the lodge rises. In this steamy, hot environment, the participants meditate andcontemplate their own lives or the lives of their community. The ceremonies and ritu-als that are performed vary with each lodge. Some create a medicine wheel. Othersmay sing. Still others may eat ritual herbs or peyote, a drug that produces hallucina-tions. The purpose of the sweat lodge, as with most shamanic practices, is to get intouch with the forces and energies of the invisible world in order to improve the qual-ity of life.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

The Foundation for Shamanic Studies

P.O. Box 1939

Mill Valley, CA 94942

Tel: (415) 380-8282

Sponsors workshops on shamanic training. Call or

write for a catalog of their workshops.

Further Reading:

Books:

Andrews, Lynn. Medicine Woman. San Francisco:

HarperCollins, 1981.

Beck, P. V., Anna Lee Walters, and Nia Francisco,

eds. The Sacred Ways of Knowledge, Sources of

Life. Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Publishing Co.,

1990.

Bennett, Hal Zina. Spirit Guides. Ukiah, CA:

Tenacity Press, 1997.

———. Zuni Fetishes: Using Native American

Objects for Meditation, Reflection, and Personal

Insight. San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1995

Campbell, Joseph. Primitive Mythology. New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1978.

Castaneda, Carlos. The Teachings of Don Juan: A

Yaqui Way of Knowledge. New York: Ballantine,

1968.

Harner, Michael J. The Way of the Shaman: A

Guide to Power and Healing. San Francisco:

HarperCollins, 1980.

Morgan, M. Mutant Message. New York: Harper-

Collins, 1994.

Journals:

Shaman’s Drum: A Journal of Contemporary

Shamanism.

TRADITIONAL CHINESEMEDICINE

Traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) is an ancient approach tohealth care. Still practiced today in

one form or another by almost onequarter of the world’s population, TCM

traces its mixture of herbal medicine,acupuncture, and massage therapy backto the origins of Taoism and Confucian-ism. With a heavy emphasis on under-standing the patient and his or herneeds, as opposed to focusing on the ill-ness and its symptoms, TCM offers acounterpoint and complement to thebio-science of Western medicine.

TCM has been studied and practicedin many Asian countries such as Japan aslong ago as 600 CE. Some Asian countriessuch as Korea and Japan have developedtheir own modifications to TCM. For thisreason, the term Oriental medicine issometimes used instead of Chinese med-icine. However, all forms of traditionalOriental medicine are considered to haveoriginated from the work done in Chinaduring the Han dynasty.

Because of the sociopolitical climatein modern China, a wide gap existsbetween current TCM theory and tradi-tional TCM. Unfortunately, Englishtranslations of TCM have been avail-able for only the past fifteen years, eventhen usually for a modern, officiallysanctioned version of TCM. Differenttranslations often contain confusingvariations. For example, an importantword we will discuss later like qi may bespelled chi (using an older translationsystem) or ki (Japanese). All three ver-sions have the same meaning. In thisessay, the modern Pinyin form of Chi-nese will be provided when possible.Understanding these translation princi-ples can help you to read and under-stand other books and articles on thesubject of TCM.

The History of TCMIn China an extremely organized systemof healing developed during the periodknown as the Han dynasty (approxi-mately 213 BCE–240 CE). At this time inChinese history the country was finallyreunited into one empire after hundredsof years of fighting in the Warring Statesperiod (476–221 BCE). Both Confucianand Taoist philosophies emerged fromthe Warring States period, and both ofthese philosophies had an important

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While discussing a patient’s state of health, TCM doctors observe other indicators, including skin color-ing, body structure, tone of voice, and scent.

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impact on TCM. At the time of the Handynasty there were many different kindsof healers and teachers in China. Confu-cianism was the main political power incourt. During this time Ssu-ma Chienbecame the Grand Historian of the Court,and great importance was placed onorganizing and recording written records.

During this time three books werewritten that are still considered the cor-nerstones of TCM. The first was calledthe Yellow Emperor’s Internal Classic(Huang di-nei Jing or simply Nei Jing).The Nei Jing refers to both Taoist andConfucian concepts. The Taoist perspec-tive of health emphasizes living in har-mony with nature and achievinglongevity. The Confucian ideals describean integrated system within the humanbody that reflected the orderly socialstructure finally made possible in oneunified state.

This organized structure was eventu-ally mapped into the specific lines andpathways we see on acupuncture charts.

The lines or pathways are usually calledmeridians. Places where the qi comesright up to the surface are called acu-points. The qi is believed to circulatethrough this system connecting thedeepest internal organs to places on theskin where the energy can be influencedand treated. The points can be treatedwith needles (acupuncture), heat (moxi-bustion), or manipulation (acupressure).

The qi system was described in moredetail in the second book, called theClassic of Difficult Issues (Nan Jing). TheNan Jing is believed to have been writtenat least one hundred years after the NeiJing. The Nan Jing refers to informationin the Nei Jing and expands on thoseideas. The Nan Jing goes so far as to saythat a person’s health can be directlyanalyzed just from carefully feeling theqi and blood as it moves through theradial artery in the wrist. This is calledthe radial pulse. Modern practices ofTCM still use this map of the qi systemto diagnose and treat their clients.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

The third book is believed to havebeen written around 220 CE. Written by avery famous physician and scholarnamed Zhang Zhong-Jing, it is calledthe Treatise on Harm Caused by Cold(Shang Han Lun). This book deals withhow outside influences such as colds,flu viruses, and plagues can attack andmake people sick, and describes how totreat these problems with Chineseherbal medicine.

Zhang Zhong-Jing described sixspecific layers of the body’s defense sys-tem and matched these with already rec-ognized meridian pathways. Hedescribed the qualities of illness as theyinvaded each layer and gave specificherbal formulas that could be used fortreatment. Using a wide variety of herbsgiven in specific dosages, he created for-mulas that could match detailed patternsof diagnosis. Zhang’s use of herbal medi-cine introduced a whole new level ofsophistication within the possibilities ofTCM. While he cannot be credited withinventing Chinese herbal formulas, hisability to understand and match patternsof illness with the herbs that will curethem place him as one of the foundingfathers of Chinese herbal medicine.

Over the next 1,500 years, China con-tinued to develop and perfect the ideasthat originated in the Han dynasty. Manyphysicians and scholars continued topractice and write about their ideas andresults. Ideas that were originally usedby particular authors and schools ofthought were eventually homogenizedinto guiding principles for one predomi-nant system of medicine.

By the end of the Ming dynasty (1643CE) another idea, now described as theeight principles, began to emerge. Thismodel included all of the dynamics thatimpact health. These are internal andexternal factors, hot and cold, yin andyang, and excess vs. deficiency. Thismodel was used to integrate many of theprevious models in TCM. The Ming wasthe last dynasty in which traditionalChinese medicine continued to evolveand flourish without being influencedby Western thought and medicine.

The introduction of Western culturein China began a period of slow declinefor TCM. The obvious realities revealedthrough anatomical study made manyChinese physicians and scholars feel lessconfident in some of TCM’s less tangibletheories. The Chinese government alsoapplied political pressures that affectedthe publication of certain literature.Eventually there began a trend to weedout the more “esoteric” ideas from Chi-nese medical literature. While ideas asfundamental as the qi and bloodremained intact, references to the spiri-tual components became more andmore simplified. Under the Communistregime, many ideas came to be viewed assuperstitious and unscientific. Theseideas were disregarded and systematical-ly eliminated from revised texts.

To this day very little of original TCMliterature has been translated into West-ern languages. Subsequently, TCM isoften described in terms of the clinicalapproach presently being used in hospi-tals in mainland China. While this sys-tem offers very effective clinicalapplications for the treatment of dis-ease, much of the broader perspectiveand theories remain buried in literaryChinese characters.

Guiding PrinciplesInfluenced by its Taoist origins, TCMviews the human body as an image of thenatural world. This is reflected in the ter-minology of TCM. Energy is said to flowthrough the body in “rivers,” often to abodily “reservoir” or “sea.” A diagnosismight describe an ailment as “liver fire,”or an entire organ system as part of thewater element. These terms do notreflect a lack of sophistication on the partof TCM, but rather a conscious decisionto accept that the human body is a par-ticipating, not an isolated, part of thesurrounding world. The language ofTCM reflects how the ancients tried toreconcile their observations of thehuman body with what they observed innature.

Continuous, dynamic movement issomething the ancient Chinese observed

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in both the human body and in allnature. They viewed this movement asan interaction between two opposite butcomplementary energies that theycalled yin and yang. In Chinese philoso-phy these forces are understood to com-plement and help nourish each other.Neither can exist without the other.Examples of dynamic interactionbetween pairs of opposites can be seenin the constant interplay of day andnight, male and female, or hot and cold.All the organs and actions of the bodymay be categorized as either yin or yang.

TCM identifies five “essential sub-stances” at work in the human body:

1. Spirit (shen), which determines howpeople direct and conduct them-selves in life.

2. Energy or electromagnetic force(qi ), a Chinese concept that cannotbe translated into just one Englishword. Qi is how the spirit moves andbecomes materialized in the body.It describes both activity and amaterial substance. The concept ofqi bridges the line of distinctionthat the English language makesbetween energy and matter.

3. Blood is the same blood we refer tofrom a Western anatomical view, butfrom the TCM perspective, it isimbued with the nutritional andenergetic qualities TCM attributesto qi. This aspect of blood is calledthe ying qi and it circulates with andin the blood, as it moves through the vessels and performs its various functions.

4. Body fluids ( jin ye), which includesweat, tears, cerebral spinal fluid,and other fluids of the body.

5. Essence ( jing), which in English maybe understood as potential. Thisincludes our genetic potential aswell as the potential of any person orthing to take an action.

These essential substances are under-stood to exist as a continuum of eachother. None can be considered asentirely separate, just as no one part of

the body can be treated as entirely sep-arate from the whole.

TCM uses the term resonance todescribe the relationship between thefive essential substances and their rolein our health. Resonance describes theidea that certain qualities may be iden-tified as similar within different spheresof existence. For example, the morningtime of day has a quality of energy thatis similar to or resonates with the springtime of the year. This quality of risingenergy identifies them as a particularstage in a cycle of change.

Such stages of change are referred toas elements or transformations. Thespring and morning are categorized asbelonging to the wood element stage ofwhat is known as the five-element cycle.This cycle is used to explain how energy isconstantly changing. It can be applied tothe day, the year, the human body, or any-thing else we want to understand.

In TCM the five-element cycle hasproved to be an exceptionally versatileframe of reference for explaining thepatterns of dynamic change in our phys-ical bodies. Each of our ten primaryorgans is correlated with one of the fiveelements of nature: fire, soil, metal,water, and wood. Doctors of Chinesemedicine then correlate the ways inwhich these elements interact in natureat large with the way these organs andthe dynamic qualities of yin and yangwork together in the physical body. Forexample, an inflamed liver might beseen as having too much fire. The solu-tion to the problem is best deduced fromthe way nature cools fire with water. Inthe case of “liver fire,” a yang excess con-dition, the patient will naturally be verythirsty and want to drink large quantitiesof cold water. The practitioner treatingsuch a condition knows that the excess“fire” needs to be dispersed or drainedand more “water” quality added to themeridian in order to keep the fire incheck. Using either needles, acupres-sure, magnets, or other techniques, askilled practitioner will choose to use adispersing technique on the fire point of

Traditional Chinese Medicine

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the liver meridian and will tonify thewater point. Understanding that theentire kidney organ system reflects thewater element, a practitioner may alsochoose to bring in more water or yinquality using specific kidney meridianpoints.

Just as the five essential substancesare all seen as part of one living whole,the dynamic interplay of yin and yangenergies and the five elements areunderstood as having a complex inter-active relationship with one another.Extensive study of Chinese medicine isneeded to truly understand and effec-tively direct these complex interactions.

Traditional Chinese Herbal MedicineOver the last two decades, the ancientarts of acupuncture, Chinese herbology,and Oriental bodywork therapy haveemerged from the privacy of Asian-American communities and into thegreater American consciousness.

Unlike acupuncture and Orientalbodywork therapy, which use physicalpressure and manipulation to effectchanges in the way a patient’s bodyfunctions, Chinese herbal medicinecounts on the properties of differentplants and foods to stimulate or calmdifferent parts of the body. In manyways, this is similar to the drugs ofWestern medicine, but because Chineseherbal medicine employs “whole” natu-rally occurring food substances, the riskof causing harmful side effects is greatlyreduced.

Chinese herbal medicine must bestudied as a distinct skill. Its practition-ers must learn the pharmacopiae, aname for the knowledge of the names,characteristics, and actions in the bodyof all the individual herbs. Dosage for-mulas must be memorized along withvarious modifications for each. Knowl-edge of contraindications and hiddeneffects for specific herbs is an importantpart of what must be studied. Thisinformation can take years to assimi-late. Nevertheless, all this informationis necessary for the experienced clini-

cian to create formulas that skillfullymatch the patient’s condition.

Chinese herbal medicine stores canusually be found in any major city of theUnited States where there is a significantAsian population. Often these herbshops are owned or run by practitionersor “doctors” of Chinese herbal medicine.When this is the case “customers” havethe option of becoming “patients” whenthey go into the store. Often a number ofpractitioners in one area will refer alltheir patients to one local herb store inorder to have their herbal prescriptionsfilled. In this way Chinese herbal medi-cine stores act as pharmacies.

Four ExaminationsTCM practitioners use a system calledthe “four examinations” to diagnose apatient and determine a proper courseof treatment. The examinations includethe following steps:

1. Questioning : Starting with informa-tion about a specific complaint orcondition, the experienced practi-tioner asks about other symptomsand signs that can help point towarda specific pattern. In the Mingdynasty Zhang Jie-Bin developed aset of ten specific questions, andmodified versions of this are stilluseful today.

2. Looking : The practitioner carefullyobserves the patient’s appearance.This usually includes looking at theperson’s tongue, face, and bodystructure.

3. Touching : The practitioner carefullyfeels the radial pulse in the patient’swrist for a very specific assessment ofthe patient’s qi, blood, and otheressences. Some practitioners can getmost of their information from thisone source. If the person’s complaintis a pain or injury, then the practi-tioner must examine the injured orpainful area. A number of other setsof points and microsystems (thehand, foot, ear) may also be used forpalpation.

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4. Listening and smelling : This aspectof the four examinations involveslistening to the patient’s voice,noticing any strange odors (whichcould, for example, indicate infec-tion), and otherwise gleaning infor-mation that a patient does notactually report to the practitioner.

Once the assessment is clear, the doc-tor of herbal medicine writes out a pre-scription to be filled with exact dosages ofeach herb. Some prescriptions call forbags or batches of herbs, which are oftenpacked in wrapped paper. For such pre-scriptions, dosage is determined by thenumber of bags to be cooked and usedwithin a specified time frame. Patientswho are unfamiliar with their formulasneed to be instructed on how to cook theirprescription into a tea or soup. Some-times one or two herbs need to be addedseparately to make their cooking timelonger or shorter than other ingredients.For less serious problems, experiencedcustomers are able to use the herbal storeas a pharmacy, buying familiar, simpleremedies without a prescription.

Benefits and RisksThe three disciplines of traditional Chi-nese medicine have evolved over thou-sands of years and are considered to besafe for almost anyone who wishes totry them. Many schools for TCM haveadjusted their programs to incorporatemore training in modern Western sci-ence. More medical schools, such asHarvard Medical School, are includingcourses to help Western physicians torefer to and work with alternative medi-cine. For this reason, anyone thinkingabout choosing a full program of TCMshould consult with both TCM andWestern doctors to understand thestrengths and shortcomings of each.

As with all health programs, choosinga therapist is a crucial decision. To decidewhether your herbalist or therapist isproperly qualified, a prospective patientshould carefully ask the doctor where andhow he or she learned this discipline. ForChinese herbal medicine, national

certification through the National Com-mission for Certification of Acupunctureand Oriental Medicine (NCCAOM) isone clear way to be sure that a practi-tioner is at least competent. It is quitepossible, however, to find master-levelpractitioners who have not chosen to getsuch a credential.

—Cindy Banker

Resources:

American Association of Acupuncture and Orien-

tal Medicine

4101 Lake Boone Trail, Suite 201

Raleigh, NC 27607

Tel: (919) 787-5181

Offers information on TCM.

National Commission for Certification of

Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine

(NCCAOM)

1424 16th St. NW, Suite 501

Washington, DC 20026

Provides certification for practitioners of acupunc-

ture, Chinese herbal medicine, and Oriental body-

work therapy.

The New Center for Wholistic Health, Education

and Research

6801 Jericho Turnpike

Syosset, NY 11791

Promotes the study and practice of TCM.

Further Reading:

Cheng, Xinnong, editor. Chinese Acupuncture and

Moxibustion. Beijing: Foreign Language Press,

1987.

Enqing, Dr. Zhang, editor. Practical English-Chi-

nese Library of traditional Chinese medicine.

Shanghai: Publishing House of Shanghai Col-

lege, 1990.

Kaptchuk, Ted J. The Web That Has No Weaver.

New York: Congdon & Weed, 1983.

Unschuld, Paul, editor. Introductory Readings in

Classical Chinese Medicine. Dordrecht, Nether-

lands: Kluwar Academic Publishers, 1988.

Yubin, L. & L. Chengcai. Advanced Traditional Chi-

nese Medicine Series. Amsterdam: IOS Press, 1996.

Wellness

WELLNESS

Wellness programs are based onholism, sometimes called holis-tic wellness, a philosophy of

health that believes well-being is not justa condition of physical health or theabsence of disease and illness. Rather,health is a balance of elements thatinclude the mental, emotional, spiritual,and physical aspects of the human condi-tion. In other words, wellness is the inte-gration, balance, and harmony of mind,body, spirit, and emotions, where thewhole is thought to be greater than thesum of the parts. Wellness professionalsbelieve that the lines separating the men-tal, physical, emotional, and spiritualaspects exist in theory, but not in actuali-ty. Research in the field of psychoneu-roimmunology (the relationship betweenemotions and the body) reveals that thereis no division between these aspects, andthey should be regarded as one.

History of the Wellness ApproachAlthough the concept of wellness isthousands of years old, the word well-ness was introduced into the Americanvernacular in the 1960s. Thought bymany to be an expansion of the fitnessmovement of the late 1970s and early1980s, wellness is considered to be amore comprehensive approach to opti-mal health than standard health educa-tion programs that treated specificsymptoms or were used to prevent dis-ease. Addressing more than physical ail-ments, wellness programs integrate,balance, and harmonize the physical,mental, emotional, and spiritual aspectsof the wellness paradigm. Today pro-grams are offered in corporate, commu-nity, hospital, and fitness club settings.

The Basic Principles of WellnessIt may seem as if mind, body, spirit, andemotions are separate aspects—apremise proposed by the French philoso-pher René Descartes (1596–1650) statedthat the mind and body are separate

entities. Descartes’ premise, known asthe Cartesian Principle, led to the mech-anistic paradigm, which eventually ledto the belief that the human body actslike a machine and the way to treat dis-ease and illness (the opposite of health)was through medications and surgery.

The wellness paradigm holds thatthere is no separation between mind,body, spirit, and emotions. All aspects ofthe human condition are so tightly con-nected that it is impossible to distin-guish one from the other. An ancienttheory that is supported by manyexperts in several disciplines suggeststhat each aspect of the human condi-tion is comprised of energy, with themost dense energy being the most obvi-ous and tangible: the physical body.Here then are definitions for eachaspect of the wellness paradigm:

• Emotional well-being is best definedas the ability to feel and express theentire range of human emotionsfrom anger to love, and to controlthem, not be controlled by them.

• Physical well-being is defined as the optimal condition of each of thebody’s physiological systems. Theseinclude pulmonary, cardiovascular,nervous, immune, reproductive, uri-nary, endocrine, musculoskeletaland digestive.

• Mental well-being is understood asthe ability to gather, process, recall,and communicate information. Likea computer, the mind can gather andstore mass quantities of information.

• Spiritual well-being is defined as thematuration of higher consciousnessas developed through the dynamicintegration of three facets: relation-ships (internal, how you relate toyourself and a higher power, howeveryou conceive this to be; and external,how you relate and interact with allpeople in your life), a personal valuesystem, and a meaningful purpose inlife.

An important figure in the wellnessarea, Dr. Elizabeth Kübler-Ross, outlinesa theory that suggests that although all

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four components are always present inthe human condition, each componentdominates in our lives as we journeythrough the life cycle. The first compo-nent is the emotional, in which weexperience the array of human emo-tions. During this time, we may be con-ditioned by parents, guardians, or evensociety to suppress our feelings, whichcould likely result in emotional dys-function later in life. The influence ofphysical development begins to domi-nate at puberty and continues wellthroughout the teen years. The mentalor intellectual aspect kicks in during thecollege years and endures well into mid-life, as we exercise our mental capabili-ties through the thinking processes ofthe right and left brain and the con-scious and unconscious minds. The lastsection of the wellness paradigm, thespiritual, emerges during the mid-life

years. As Kübler-Ross and others note,there are many people who never moveinto this phase of development becauseof laziness, mistrust, or fear.

How Wellness WorksWith the help of a thorough personalhistory and open discussions betweenthe patient and practitioner, the practi-tioner will be able to recognize animbalance or problem in one of the fourareas. He or she will then be able toguide the patient to a program or ser-vices that address the patient’s needs.The wellness professional has a wholerange of programs to choose from and isaware of how these services and pro-grams interact and affect the patient.Wellness professionals work in partner-ship with their patients and recom-mend treatments that support thebody’s natural healing system.

The wellness model of a complete human being.

Spiritual Well-being

MentalWell-being

Emotional Well-being

Physical Well-being

Wellness

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Physical Well-being:Aerobic FitnessCholesterol ScreeningsBlood Pressure ScreeningsBlood Sugar ScreeningsWeight TrainingNutritional AssessmentsBiofeedbackMassage TherapyHatha YogaT’ai Chi

Mental Well-being:MeditationMental ImageryStress ManagementTime ManagementCreativity & Creative Problem SolvingCommunication SkillsDream Analysis

Spiritual Well-being:Values Clarification and AssessmentJournal WritingDance TherapyMeditationCommuning with NatureInner Resource DevelopmentHuman Potential DevelopmentCommunity Service ProjectsSocial Support Group

Emotional Well-being:Humor TherapyMusic and Art TherapyAromatherapyCodependency TherapyGrieving TherapyCommunication SkillsCreative Anger ManagementStress Management

Wellness Programming

When evaluating the dynamics of wellness applications, there are many programsand services that need to be considered. Below is a partial list of wellness programservices, by their respective holistic components. Keep in mind that a service listed inone area has a crossover effect in all the other areas.

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The Benefits of a Wellness Approachto HealthWellness programs focus on reachinghigher levels of wellness as well as pre-venting illness. Many patients are moti-vated by the energy and vitality thatresult from a holistic approach to life,especially when they realize that thebenefits could continue and allow themto feel good for many years.

—Brian Luke Seaward, Ph.D.

Resources:

National Wellness Association (NWA)

1045 Clark St., Suite 210

Stevens Point, WI 54481-0827

Tel: (715) 342-2969

Fax: (715) 342-2979

e-mail: nwa@wellnesswi.org

Web site: www.wellnesswi.org/nwa.html

A nonprofit professional membership organization

that disseminates information and provides ser-

vices to professionals working in wellness areas.

National Wellness Institute

1045 Clark St., Suite 210

Stevens Point, WI 54481-0827

Tel: (800) 243-8694

Fax: (715) 342-2979

Founded in 1977, this is a full resource center for

wellness practitioners and those interested in well-

ness programs.

Further Reading:

Edlin, Gordon, Eric Golanty, and Kelli McCormack

Brown. Health and Wellness. Sudbury, MA:

Jones and Bartlett, 1996.

Travis, John, and Regina S. Ryan. The Wellness

Workbook, Second Edition. Berkeley, CA: Ten

Speed Press, 1988.

33

PART II: SKELETAL MANIPULATIONMETHODS

Chiropractic • CranioSacral Therapy • Network Chiropractic • Osteopathy• Zero Balancing®

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Skeletal manipulationmethods are a group ofhealing practices that focuson the form of the skeletonto improve the functioningof the whole person. Theyare part of a larger group ofpractices that have come tobe known collectively asbodywork. Bodywork is ageneral term describing awide variety of methodsthat use touch to improveawareness of feelings andsensations in the body andimprove physical function-ing. Bodywork methods arealso used to relieve painand encourage relaxation.There are many disciplinesin this book included in thebodywork category. Theycan be found in the sec-tions entitled Acupunctureand Asian Bodywork, Body-Oriented Psychotherapies,Massage, Movement Ther-apy Methods, SomaticPractices, and Subtle Ener-gy Practices.

The oldest methods in this section, chiropractic and osteopathy, developed inresponse to the conventional medical practices prevalent in America in the mid- tolate nineteenth century. The other skeletal manipulation methods evolved from theseseminal practices. In addition to their historical roots, these methods also share a the-oretical framework. They view the human being as an integrated whole of body, mind,

Dr. Andrew Taylor Still, founder of osteopathy, championed the ideathat a thorough knowledge of the human skeleton could be the basis

for a complete health care method.

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and spirit, possessing its own innate healing and balancing mechanisms that guidecommunication between the interrelated systems of the body. The goal of all of thesedrugless methods is to remove any structural alterations to the natural skeletal align-ment that may impede the operation of these innate healing and balancing mecha-nisms. The older methods, osteopathy and chiropractic, are used by millions asprimary health care modalities for treating a wide variety of health problems. Theyounger methods derived from them are generally used to treat specific problems orto enhance general physical health and emotional well-being.

The Development of Skeletal Manipulation for Health The practice of manipulating the skeleton for optimal health is ancient and wide-

spread. Some medical historians report that the Egyptians used such techniques. Theearliest written record of skeletal manipulation comes to us from China, where meth-ods of bodywork were developed several thousand years ago as part of a completehealth care system. The Asian bodywork methods practiced today that are derivedfrom these ancient practices are similar to the skeletal manipulation methodsdescribed in this section in that both of them manipulate the physical body with thegoal of influencing a vital life force. There is no evidence that these Eastern practicesdirectly influenced the development of the earliest skeletal manipulation methods.But it is very likely that the philosophy upon which these Eastern practices are based,which was introduced into American cultural discourse in the late nineteenth centu-ry, indirectly influenced the founders of chiropractic and osteopathy.

Hippocrates (c. 430–377 BCE), the father of modern Western medicine, is reputed tohave said that dislocations of the spine are the origin of many ailments, but it isunclear how this belief affected his medical practice. The recorded history of manip-ulating the skeleton as a means of treating disease and creating optimum healthbegins in the West with the work of Andrew Taylor Still (1838–1917). A controversialfigure in American medical history, Still rebelled against the medical practices of hisday, which included heavy use of drugs, purging, and bloodletting. He formulated thegentle, drugless, noninvasive principles and techniques of osteopathy and estab-lished its first school in Kirksville, Missouri, in 1892.

Unlike Still, Daniel David Palmer (1845–1913), the founder of chiropractic, had noformal medical training, but practiced various forms of energy healing popular at theend of the nineteenth century. Chiropractic was formally introduced as a healingmodality in 1895. Some medical historians report that Palmer was treated by Still inKirksville in 1893. Whether or not this particular treatment occurred, given Palmer’slifelong interest in unconventional healing techniques, it is certainly probable that hewas familiar with Still’s groundbreaking work.

Both osteopathy and chiropractic have had long, arduous struggles for accep-tance within the conventional medical establishment. Today doctors of osteopathy(D.O.s) and doctors of chiropractic (DCs) are licensed to practice throughout theUnited States and Canada. In recent years a number of D.O.s and DCs have addedtheir own insights to these century-old healing modalities to create more personal-ized approaches to healing the whole person through manipulation of the skeleton.These new methods include CranioSacral therapy, which focuses primarily onmanipulating the bones of the skull; network chiropractic, which blends Western

35

psychotherapeutic theory with gentle chiropractic techniques; and Zero Balancing®,which integrates Eastern concepts of energy with skeletal manipulation.

Using the Body’s Inborn Healing PotentialAll the methods described in this section believe that the body has an inborn heal-

ing potential. This potential is called by many names, such as “energy,” “spirit,” or“innate intelligence,” by the practitioners of these methods. Andrew Taylor Stillbelieved this energy was transmitted primarily through the blood, whereas DanielDavid Palmer postulated that it moved primarily through the nervous system. Ineither event, both methods, and all the methods derived from them, when practicedin their most pure form, are drugless, concentrating on releasing structural misalign-ments in the skeleton and thereby allowing the body’s own internal healing and bal-ancing systems to work freely.

Practitioners of skeletal manipulation methods see the relationship between struc-ture and function in the body to be interdependent. Just as the wooden or steel frameof a building supports its heating, plumbing, and electrical systems, practitioners ofskeletal manipulation methods see our bones as the supporting framework of all othersystems of our body. If the framework is faulty or collapsing at any point, it is likely tocause damage to the interior systems. Likewise, if there is a problem in an interior sys-tem such as a leaky pipe, which on a body level might correspond to a diseased organsuch as kidney, liver, or heart, that malfunction will eventually cause a structuraldefect in the building such as a bulge in a wall with peeling paint, or buckling wallpa-per. On a body level these changes in structure will appear as misalignments in theskeleton and as pain caused by muscles responding to the skeletal changes.

Furthermore, skeletal manipulation methods view the systems of the body asinterrelated. A common everyday activity such as reaching high for something tuckedaway on a closet shelf or vigorously swinging a baseball bat could initiate a series ofsystemic changes that begin as a small change in the alignment of the upper spine. Ifleft unchecked this dislocation could cause localized muscular pain in the shoulder orupper back area, and then shortness of breath as muscles between the ribs in theupper torso contract in response to the structural change. Restricted breath may inturn lead to any number of complicated health problems, including bronchitis, asth-ma, heart conditions, and even depression.

In a like manner, emotional problems such as a traumatic experience, phobias, andeven addictions, which can cause chemical toxicity, are seen as possible causes ofstructural changes in the body. These structural changes then initiate a chain reactionin the interdependent systems of the body, which stimulates further emotional orphysical cravings. Many practitioners of skeletal manipulation methods extend thisholistic view of the causes and effects of alterations to skeletal alignment to everyaspect of a person’s life including genetic inheritance, diet, exercise, daily activities,and stress from work and personal relationships.

Experiencing Skeletal ManipulationPractitioners of skeletal manipulation methods rely predominantly on the use of

the hands, physical contact, and knowledge of anatomy to diagnose patients. Touch-ing and physically moving the patient in various ways allows the practitioner to feel

The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

36

the alignment of the skeleton and the state of the muscular system. In this way theyare able to treat a spectrum of chronic and acute health problems.

Each of these disciplines has its standard techniques for manipulating the skele-ton. Chiropractors focus on the manipulation of the spine itself. They see the flow ofinformation from the central nervous system housed inside the spine as the primaryself-regulating system of the body. CranioSacral therapists focus on the relationshipof the bones of the skull to each other to monitor the wavelike flow of cerebrospinalfluid, which they believe to be a barometer of healthy functioning throughout all thesystems of the body. Zero Balancers focus on special joints, called foundation joints,which they believe are the primary regulators of energy throughout the body.Osteopaths may manipulate the spine, including the skull, or any other joint of theskeleton where they feel skeletal misalignment is negatively affecting the whole per-son. Although in their original and most pure forms osteopathy and chiropracticused only manipulation techniques, today many D.O.s and DCs add other tech-niques to treatment plans, including recommendations of specific exercises, dietaryor lifestyle changes, and in some cases herbal or pharmaceutical remedies.

Providing Relief for Millions of People Each YearSkeletal manipulation methods are reported to help more than 15 million people

each year who are suffering from a variety of physical and emotional problems. Theyhave been found to help with problems that have not responded to conventionalWestern medical practices. Whether you are looking for a comprehensive healthmodality or relief from a specific pain or condition, these methods may offer unique,drug-free, holistic approaches to healing and maintaining optimum health of bodyand mind.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

Resources:

American Chiropractic Association

1701 Clarendon Boulevard

Arlington, VA 22209

Tel: (703) 276-8800

Provides information about chiropractic, including

monthly publications, newsletters, and clinical

councils.

American Association of College of Osteopathic

Medicine (AACOM)

5550 Friendship Blvd. Suite 310

Chevy Chase, MD 20815-7231

Tel: (800) 621-1773, ext. 7401

Fax: (312) 280-3860

Web site: www.aacom.org

Offers educational and professional support to

osteopathic physicians.

Further Reading:

Montague, Ashley. Touching: The Human Signifi-

cance of Skin. New York: Columbia University

Press, 1986.

Chiropractic

CHIROPRACTIC

Chiropractic is a mode of bodyworkthat promotes self-healing bymanipulating the spine so as to

remove blocks in the transmission ofnerve impulses from the brain throughthe spinal nerves and out to all parts ofthe body. It postulates that malfunctionin any aspect of the individual can beattributed to subluxations, misalign-ments of the vertebrae that disturb thespinal nerves in their mediation ofmind and body. Further, chiropracticsubscribes to the basic principle thatthe immune system will function per-fectly and maintain the person inrobust, good health as long as misalign-ments of the spine do not constrict thenervous system. Other therapeuticmethods such as nutritional counselingmay be included in chiropractic, buttreatment always focuses upon detec-tion and adjustment of vertebral mis-alignments. Chiropractic is the second-largest primary health care field in theworld. Proponents credit it with a widerange of benefits, from relief of chronicback pain to successful treatment ofasthma and depression.

A Long HistoryThere is strong evidence that adjust-ment of the spine has been used as aform of medical treatment since civi-lization first began. A Chinese manu-script of 2700 BCE records details of softtissue manipulation, and the Greeks areknown to have developed similar prac-tices around 1500 BCE. In a treatise of thefifth century BCE, Hippocrates encour-aged his patients to “get knowledge ofthe spine, for many diseases have theirorigin in dislocations of the vertebralcolumn.”

David Daniel Palmer is responsiblefor developing the form of spinaladjustment used today. Born in 1845,Palmer was an American who worked asa healer through most of his life but hadno formal medical training. While itsGreek name, chiropractic, meaning

“done by hand,” evokes ancient Hippo-cratic teachings, virtually all its princi-ples and techniques are late nineteenthcentury in derivation. Manual “bone-setting” was accepted practice, andirregularities in the nervous systemwere commonly viewed as the cause ofillness. The third major component inchiropractic, the use of the hands toharmonize the circulation of nervousenergy, came from Palmer’s experienceas a magnetic healer, or Mesmerist. InMesmerism the hands are passed overthe person’s field of electromagneticenergy with the aim of correcting imbal-ances regarded as the cause of illness.

Palmer advanced beyond Mesmeristconcepts as his work progressed, but henever relinquished its vision of a treat-ment that bypasses drugs and surgeryin favor of direct contact between thehands of the healer and the life force ofthe person. By 1895 he had put togetherthe basic principles of chiropractic andwas winning renown throughout theMidwest for “miracle cures” of appar-ently irreversible problems.

Palmer’s son, Bartlett Joshua Palmer(1881–1961), transformed chiropracticinto a profession with a following thatwas devoted but rocked by persistentcontroversy. Doctors of medicine weregenerally opposed to the growth of acompeting system of health care andled efforts to make chiropractic illegal.Attacks on its lack of scientific rigorintensified debate about the interpre-tation of Palmer’s legacy within the chi-ropractic community. “Straights”argued that chiropractic should consistsolely of hands-on vertebral adjustmentand condemned as traitors those who“mixed” spinal adjustment with otherforms of therapy or used mechanicaldevices in lieu of their hands.

Present-day chiropractors continue toidentify themselves as either “straights”or “mixers,” but the struggle to win publicrespect and authority for chiropractic islargely over. During the 1930s John J.Nugent started a movement that gradual-ly raised the standards at chiropracticschools and set up chiropractic licensing

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Chiropractic techniques manipulate the spine to aid the healing process in any part of the body.

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laws in all the states. More recently chiro-practic has benefited from a swingtoward natural medicine that stimulatedbroad interest in its history and potentialas an alternative mode of health care.Because of the experiments of “mixers,”chiropractic is rapidly becoming morediversified and offers nutritional coun-seling, massage, and an increasing use ofmechanical devices.

Finding the True CausePalmer believed the human being isborn with an ever vigilant “innate intel-ligence” or “innate mind” that superin-tends all the body’s functions and seeksto achieve homeostasis, a state of bal-ance that extends “to every individualcell in the living organism.” Thus in chi-ropractic, much as in therapeutic touchor osteopathy, virtually unlimited pow-ers of self-healing are imputed to theperson, and drugs are seen as detrimen-tal to the workings of the body’s owndefense mechanisms. Palmer alsotaught that diagnosis of disease through

study of symptoms generally overlooksthe true cause of the crisis. Ninety-fivepercent of all disease, he contended, isattributable to vertebral misalignmentthat interferes with the transmission ofinformation from the “innate intelli-gence” to the spinal nerves.

Contemporary chiropractors aremore apt to speak of an inborn switch-board than of “innate intelligence,” butthey adhere to Palmer’s belief that ill-nesses are often caused by subluxatedvertebrae and in numerous instancesare misdiagnosed because the symp-toms do not point directly to back trou-ble. For example, chronic bladderinfection may be the result of a mis-alignment of the lower vertebrae thatirritates the nerves leading to the blad-der. Palmer performed his most famouscure, restoring the hearing of a mandeaf for seventeen years, by correcting asubluxation of the upper spine.

Diagnosis and treatment in chiroprac-tic are therefore organized, not arounddisease, but around signs of systemic

Chiropractic

39

Chiropractic Training

Chiropractic education consists of a four-year, postgraduate program similar in overallstructure to medical school. Graduates receive the degree, Doctor of Chiropractic (DC),and are required to take courses basic to Western health care during the first two years oftraining. Study in the third and fourth years is devoted to the diagnostic and therapeutictools specific to chiropractic. Work with patients at clinics affiliated with the chiroprac-tic school is a standard part of advanced training.

malfunction likely to start in vertebralmisalignment: aberration of muscu-loskeletal development, or kine-siopathology; abnormality in themuscles proper, or myopathology; irri-tation of the nerves, or neuropathology;inflammation indicative of abnormalityin the blood cells, or histiopathology;and deterioration of the sense of mentaland physical well-being, or pathophysi-ology. The misalignments themselvesare attributed to any of several causes,such as injury, mental or physical stress,and genetic defect or predisposition.

Experiencing ChiropracticChiropractic treatment begins with thetaking of a thorough case history and aphysical examination that includesanalysis and touching of the spine todetermine imbalances and subluxations.X rays of the spine are sometimes madeto get additional information. Recom-mendations for rest, physical therapy, ordiet may be made as part of a therapyplan that generally entails spinal adjust-ments carried out over a series of ses-sions. The adjustments are done throughhands-on contact that varies from gentletouch to firm pressure depending on theneeds of the patient and the orientationof the chiropractor. Some advocate amaneuver in which the joint is stretchedto just beyond its normal range ofmotion and makes an audible click. Oth-ers rely upon a repertory of “non-force”techniques to manipulate the vertebrae.The adjustments are not painful and are

often described as relaxing, relieving, lib-erating, or energizing. Length and fre-quency of the sessions are established bythe chiropractor and patient and dependon the nature of the problem.

The Benefits of ChiropracticA wide variety of health problemsrespond favorably to chiropractic treat-ment. It is beneficial for musculoskele-tal disorders, particularly whiplashinjuries, neck and back pain, scoliosis,sciatica, arthritis, and bursitis. It can beeffective in alleviating migraineheadaches and other organic condi-tions, sinusitis, gastrointestinal disor-der, bronchial asthma, high bloodpressure, and heart trouble. Spinaladjustment is also regarded as a drug-free means of releasing nervous tensionthat contributes to the formation ofmental and physical disability. Exten-sive research today is also testing theefficiency of chiropractic in the treat-ment of addictions.

—Dr. Trina Marx

Resources:

American Chiropractic Association

1701 Clarendon Boulevard

Arlington, VA 22209

Tel: (703) 276-8800

Provides a myriad of information about chiroprac-

tic, including monthly publications, newsletters,

and clinical councils.

The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

40

International Chiropractors Association

1110 North Glebe Road

Suite 1000

Arlington, VA 22201

Tel: (703) 528-5000

A professional organization dedicated to chiro-

practic.

World Chiropractic Alliance

2950 N. Dobson Road, Suite 1

Chandler, AZ 85224

Tel: (800) 347-1011

Fax: (602) 732-9313

Web site: worldall@ix.netcom.com

A professional support group that provides refer-

rals for chiropractors nationwide.

Further Reading:

Coplan-Griffiths, Michael. Dynamic Chiropractic

Today: The Complete and Major Guide to This

Major Therapy. San Francisco: Harper-Collins,

1991.

Gevitz, Norman. Other Healers: Unorthodox Medi-

cine in America. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins

University Press, 1988.

Martin, Raquel. Today’s Health Alternative.

Tehachapi, CA: American West Publishers, 1992.

Moore, J. Stuart. Chiropractic in America: The His-

tory of a Medical Alternative. Baltimore: The

Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.

Palmer, Daniel D. The Chiropractor’s Adjuster.

Davenport, IA: Palmer College Press, 1992 (first

published 1910).

CRANIOSACRAL THERAPY

C ranioSacral therapy is a gentleform of bodywork based on releas-ing restrictions in the craniosacral

system to help people achieve their high-est levels of physical, mental, and emo-tional well-being. It was developed over

a twenty-year period by Dr. WilliamSutherland, an osteopathic physicianintrigued by the movement of differentbones in the skull. He discovered that byexerting gentle pressure on selectedareas of the skull or the rest of the body,a craniosacral therapist can effectivelytreat chronic pain, lowered vitality,recurring infections, and dysfunctionsaffecting the head, spine, and wholebody.

Origins of CranioSacral TherapyCranioSacral therapy developed fromcranial osteopathy, the origin of whichdates back to the 1890s, when Dr.Andrew Still founded the osteopathicprofession. Distraught by the death ofhis wife and two children from meningi-tis and not knowing whether the diseaseor the mercury used to treat them wasresponsible, Dr. Still began an intensivestudy of anatomy and non-drug-basedhealing ways. He realized everything innature was ordered: that the body func-tions as a unified whole; structure andfunction are interrelated; the body hasan inherent self-corrective mechanism;and that drugs can be harmful. Basedupon these principles, Dr. Still foundedthe first osteopathic college.

Dr. Still’s star student was WilliamSutherland. Dr. Sutherland wasintrigued by the idea that the bones ofthe skull were structured to allow formovement. For more than twenty yearshe explored this concept, eventuallydeveloping a system of treatmentknown as cranial osteopathy.

In 1970 osteopathic physician JohnE. Upledger observed the rhythmicmovement of the craniosacral systemduring surgery. Dr. Upledger and hiscolleagues could not find an explana-tion for this mysterious movement.

After studying the work of Dr. Suther-land, Dr. Upledger worked to scientificallyconfirm the mobility of the cranial bonesand the subsequent existence of the cran-iosacral system. From 1975 to 1983, heserved as clinical researcher and a profes-sor of biomechanics at Michigan State

CranioSacral Therapy

University. There he supervised a high-level team of anatomists, physiologists,biophysicists, and bioengineers to testand document the influence of therapyon the craniosacral system.

This team developed the theoreticalPressureStat Model to describe how thecraniosacral system functions. Dr.Upledger’s continued work in the fieldresulted in the further development ofCranioSacral therapy, including a ten-step protocol used to alleviate a range ofconditions.

Insights Through TouchThe craniosacral system consists of thecentral nervous system, brain, andspinal cord, as well as the membranesand cerebrospinal fluid that surroundsand protects the cord. The central ner-vous system interconnects with the con-nective tissue that surrounds it, which inturn interconnects with all other bodilystructures. Functionally there is oneuninterrupted tissue sheath from thetop of your head to the tips of your toes.Therefore, CranioSacral therapists arehighly trained in sensing through toucha restriction in your system and deter-mining how it affects other areas in yourbody. For instance, practitioners believea restriction in your leg might have aprofound effect on your lower back,shoulder, neck, or even head. Cran-ioSacral therapists are highly trained insensing through touch to track, identify,and release root restrictions affectingthe person.

How does CranioSacral therapywork? First, as cerebrospinal fluid filtersinto the craniosacral system, pressurebuilds. As the amount of fluid increases,the increased pressure forces the fluidto travel down the spinal cord. As thefluid moves, the membranes surround-ing the fluid and the interconnected fas-cial tissue of the entire body pulse in arhythmic fashion, normally at a rate ofsix to twelve cycles per minute. It is thisrhythm that the therapist monitorswhen evaluating and performing aCranioSacral therapy session.

One unique feature of CranioSacraltherapy is its emphasis on very delicatepalpation. Therapists are taught to use,appreciate, and develop profoundinsights through applying a very light,gentle touch—generally the pressure isequal to the weight of a nickel. It isbelieved that this light touch allows thetherapist to receive as much informa-tion as possible from the patient’s body,and to interact in a respectful, highlytherapeutic manner.

Another distinction of CranioSacraltherapy relates to its facilitation of thebody’s self-corrective ability. Cran-ioSacral therapists believe engagingbody restrictions with a gentle touch canbreak down tissue, emotional, and ener-getic blocks to self-release. CranioSacraltherapy is not a manipulative therapeu-tic modality in which therapists imposewhat they think should happen on theirpatients. Rather, therapists are trained tofollow their patients’ bodies to facilitatetheir own healing process.

CranioSacral therapy aims to be verydirect yet highly respectful of thepatient. A gentle touch directed towarda patient’s primary restrictions isbelieved to provide profound access tothe very fabric of an individual’s being.This respect for the patient’s own heal-ing abilities reflected through touch cre-ates a safe environment for people tofrequently access deep, non-consciousparts of themselves they may haveblocked or simply couldn’t access bythemselves.

The training of a therapist’s touch bythe CranioSacral therapy technique isrecognized as a profound foundationfor advancement in manual therapies,massage, and therapeutic bodywork.

Practicing CranioSacral TherapyA typical session of CranioSacral thera-py lasts forty-five minutes to an hour.The client is fully clothed and lies on acomfortable, padded table. In a verygentle manner, the therapist evaluatesthe patient by testing for craniosacralmotion in various parts of the patient’s

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The Growth of CranioSacral Therapy

Dr. Upledger is credited with introducing CranioSacral Therapy to a broad spectrum ofthe world’s health care professionals representing diverse specialties. In 1985 he foundedThe Upledger Institute to educate the public and health care practitioners about the ben-efits of CranioSacral Therapy. To date, this health care resource center and clinic based inPalm Beach Gardens, Florida, has trained more than 25,000 health care practitionersworldwide in the use of CranioSacral Therapy. Alumni include osteopaths, medical doc-tors, psychiatrists, psychologists, dentists, physical therapists, occupational therapists,acupuncturists, doctors of chiropractic, nurse practitioners, massage therapists, andbodyworkers.

body. Experienced practitioners are ableto feel the craniosacral rhythm any-where on a patient’s body. They canquickly gain valuable information bypalpating the craniosacral motion forrate, amplitude, symmetry, and quality.

Lack of craniosacral rhythm or anasymmetrical craniosacral rhythm isused to locate problems throughout thebody. The problem may be any type thatcauses loss of natural physiologicalresponses, pain, trauma, adhesions, neu-rological and orthopedic disorders, sys-temic disease processes, and others. Thetherapist’s job is to restore the symmetri-cal craniosacral motion to problem areas.As the asymmetry is eliminated and nor-mal physiological motion is restored, theproblem is being or has been alleviated.

Benefits of CranioSacral TherapyCranioSacral therapy has been used toimprove the functioning of the brain andspinal cord, to alleviate pain and theeffects of stress, and to enhance generalhealth as well as resistance to illness anddisease. It has been especially effectivefor conditions such as migraines, hyper-activity, chronic neck and back pain,TMJ pain and dysfunction, chronicfatigue, eye difficulties, stress and ten-sion-related problems, scoliosis, emo-tional difficulties, motor-coordinationimpairments, central nervous systemdisorders, learning disabilities, child-hood developmental disabilities, andmany others.

—Kenneth I. Frey, PT, Diplomate CST

Resources:

Kenneth I. Frey, PT, Diplomate CST

Director, Institute of Physical Therapy

30 W. 60th St., Suite 1BC

New York, NY 10023

Tel: (212) 245-1700

World recognized for its clinical services and as a

educational resource center in New York City dedi-

cated to the application and development of

advanced holistic physical therapies. Treatment inte-

grates whole body evaluation and advanced manual

therapies, clinical sciences, and therapeutic exercise.

The Upledger Institute, Inc.

11211 Prosperity Farms Rd., D-325

Palm Beach Gardens, FL 33410-3487

Tel: (800) 233-5880 ext. 9283

An educational and clinical resource center that

integrates the best of conventional health care with

advanced complementary techniques. Dedicated to

the natural enhancement of health, it is recognized

worldwide for its continuing education programs,

clinical research, and therapeutic services.

Further Reading:

Claire, Thomas. Bodywork. New York: William

Morrow, 1995.

Sutherland, William. Teachings in the Science of

Osteopathy. Portland, OR: Rudra Press, 1990.

Upledger, John E., and Jon D. Vredevoogd. Cran-

ioSacral Therapy. Chicago: Eastland Press, 1983.

Upledger, John. Your Inner Physician and You.

Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1991.

Network Chiropractic

43

NETWORK CHIROPRACTIC

Network chiropractic is a branch of chiropractic, a health caremethod that views all health as a

result of the body’s inability to express,relay, and distribute energy and infor-mation through the nervous system.Chiropractors aim to enable the brainand the body to better communicatethrough the elimination of disruptionsin the central nervous system, which ishoused in the protective bones of thespinal column. To do this, they use gen-tle manual pressure and adjustment toreduce muscular tension, skeletal tor-sion or twisting, and compression of thespinal cord or the nerves branchingfrom it which may result in a disruptionof the body’s essential energy and infor-mation highway.

Network chiropractic is a form ofchiropractic that seeks to develop thebody’s self-corrective mechanism. It isbelieved that this improvement willenhance a person’s health, wellness,and quality of life.

Establishing a NetworkDonald Epstein, D.CA., a 1977 graduate ofNew York Chiropractic College, devel-oped this method of chiropractic, whichhas been researched through the Depart-ment of Anatomy and Neurobiology andSociology at the College of Medicine atthe University of California–Irvine, and atthe University of Southern California,Department of Engineering. Epstein’smethod resulted from his efforts to incor-porate many different approaches andtheories into a single “network” of estab-lished chiropractic techniques. Alsoknown as network spinal analysis, thesystem has been evolving since 1982 andis currently practiced by chiropractorsunder the trade name network chiro-practic.

Enhancing CommunicationAdjustment is a central technique of chi-ropractic doctors. Adjustment means

using the hands to apply leverage andthrust to a joint to restore function tothe joint or muscles, nerves, and tissuearound the joint. This therapy relies onthe body’s ability to recover withoutsurgery or drugs.

Network shares the historical philos-ophy of chiropractic, which is based onthe concept that the information thebody needs to function is conveyedthrough oscillation, or vibration. Thenervous system coordinates all vibrationthrough the body, relaying energy andinformation to all body parts, andinfluencing all body functions. Tensionon the spinal cord or the nerves exitingfrom the spinal cord causes an energydisturbance. Network chiropractic seeksto enhance communication betweenthe brain and the body through the cor-rection (adjustment) of vertebral sub-luxations.

Network practitioners believe thatsubluxations are caused by physical,emotional, mental, or chemical stress-es. In network care it is common for thebody to express the energy unavailableto the body as spontaneous muscularmovement, stretching, or the outwardexpression of emotion such as laughteror crying. This liberates the spine fromthe interference caused by the inabilityto effectively “move the energy” and cir-culates the body’s information.

The Practice of Network ChiropracticBefore beginning sessions, the chiro-practor will request that individualscomplete a questionnaire that discussesthe individual’s physical, emotional,mental, and chemical stresses and histo-ry. The spine will be evaluated for pos-ture, muscle tension patterns, tension inthe extremities that may be related tospinal cord tension, range of motion, orthe involvement of spinal motion withrespiration. Some practitioners may uti-lize various noninvasive instrumenta-tion to further assess the functioning ofthe nervous system. Spinal X rays are notroutine, however, and are taken as indi-cated on an individual basis.

The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

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Dr. Donald Epstein, founder of network chiropractic, demonstrates the light pressure tech-niques he developed to release tension.

A chiropractor’s office usually con-tains a special device called an adjust-ing table, which allows patients to sit orlie in the optimal position for receivingcare, whether that be faceup, facedown,seated, or on the side. Time spent on theadjusting table is often ten minutes orso—not an extended period.

Rather than addressing the structur-al misalignment as a primary distortion,the network practitioner views it as aprotection for a spinal cord under ten-sion. The doctor begins with light pres-sure applied to the tissue around thespine. Precise touch adjustments andtouches are used to release tension inthe spinal cord and to assist the body inrecognizing the distortion and generateself-correction.

It is common that as tension is relievedfrom the spine a spontaneous release of

emotional tension occurs. The practi-tioner will reassess the patient regularly,perhaps every two months, until thedesired improvement has been made.

Benefits and RisksNetwork chiropractic is one of the mostnonaggressive types of adjustmentavailable. Adjustments are not given inthe areas of maximum tension, fixation,swelling, or pain. Most adjustments arevery gentle. The practitioner is not seek-ing to inhibit the body or alter pain;instead, the objective is to enhance thebody’s own self-corrective, self-healingmechanism. For these reasons, networkis considered a very safe application ofchiropractic.

—Donald Epstein, D.CA.

Osteopathy

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Health and Well-Being

The largest study of health and wellness benefits of a chiropractic method was per-formed at the University of California–Irvine. Patients evaluated their own improve-ments through a wide range of health and wellness indicators. The study showedevidence of significant improvement in the areas of physical symptoms, emotional andmental state, stress evaluation, life enjoyment and overall quality of life.

Resources:

Association for Network Chiropractors

444 North Maine Street

Longmont, CO 80501

Tel: (303) 678-8101

Professional organization of network chiroprac-

tors.

International Chiropractors Association

1110 North Glebe Rd.

Suite 1000

Arlington, VA 22201

Tel: (703) 528-5000

Provides information on practitioners.

World Chiropractic Alliance

2950 N. Dobson Rd., Suite 1

Chandler, AZ 85224

Tel: (800) 347-1011

Promotes the practice of network chiropractic.

Further Reading:

Books:

Epstein, Donald, and Nathaniel Altman. The

Twelve Stages of Healing: A Network Approach

to Wholeness. San Rafael, CA: Amber-Allen Pub-

lishing, 1994.

Maynard, Joseph E. Healing Hands: The Story of

the Palmer Family, Discoverers and Developers

of Chiropractic. Fourth edition. Woodstock, GA:

Jonorm Publishers, 1992.

Woodham and Peters. Encyclopedia of Healing

Therapies. New York: DK Publishers, 1997.

Journals:

Journal of Vertebral Subluxation Research, Vol. 1,

No. 1 (1996).

OSTEOPATHY

O steopathy is a holistic and drug-less approach to health and dis-ease. It is based on the idea that a

human being is not merely a collectionof parts but a totality imbued with spir-it. The human body functions as a unitand possesses self-healing and self-reg-ulating mechanisms. Osteopathy main-tains that there is a reciprocalrelationship between structure andfunction, that is, an alteration in struc-ture (the musculoskeletal system)through injury, will result in a change infunction (in internal organs), namely,disease. Likewise, a diseased internalorgan will result in an alteration in themusculoskeletal system. The osteo-pathic physician, by his or her intimateknowledge of human anatomy, can rec-ognize even subtle deviations from nor-mal bodily functioning and by theapplication of various techniques canrestore the proper structure and func-tion and assist the inherent self-healingpowers of the body.

A Rejection of Conventional MedicineThe practice of osteopathy was devel-oped by Andrew Taylor Still, M.D.

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The first class of the American School of Osteopathy in Kirksville, Missouri, winter term (1892-1893).

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(1828–1917), the son of an itinerantMethodist preacher who supported hisfamily by farming and practicing medi-cine. It was during the time spent withhis father tending to the medical needsof Native Americans that Still decided totake up medicine himself, under theguidance of his father. He studied thestandard medical texts of the time,including ones on anatomy, physiology,pathology, surgery, and other topics.

Early on, Still became aware of thelimitations of the medical practice of hisday, particularly the almost total preoc-cupation of conventional, or “allopath-ic,” medicine that focused onidentifying symptoms and suppressingthem. Still thought that this under-standing of disease was crude at bestand was based on vague notions of“physiological tension” that needed tobe relieved by such devices as purging,bloodletting, and the administering oflarge doses of morphine, opium, alco-hol, and mercury. Still believed thatrather than treating only the symptoms

of a disease with such agents, a doctorshould attempt to discover the cause ofthe disease itself. He originated the con-cept of wellness and developed princi-ples of proper exercise and diet toprevent disease. He also created a sys-tem of manipulating various joints andtissues to realign the bones and musclesand thereby increase blood circulationand nerve functioning.

In the 1870s, in America, this holisticperspective was heresy. Still’s early lifeprovided many unfortunate opportuni-ties to witness the shortcomings of con-ventional medicine. He lost his firstwife and six children to infectious dis-eases of one kind or another. He sawthe impotency of medical care duringhis service as an Army field surgeon andwhen he cared for Native Americansduring epidemics. He had pneumoniafor three months and took three yearsto recover from typhoid. In many waysosteopathy was Still’s unique synthesisof his personal experience and severalmajor intellectual and philosophical

Osteopathy

movements making their way acrossAmerica during his lifetime.

Over the years Still continued topractice conventional medicine—including service as a surgeon in theUnion army during the Civil War—andto develop his unique healing methods.He devised a system of manipulationand spinal reflexes with which he treat-ed all types of conditions.

Despite his therapeutic successes hewas viewed as a medical heretic, a graverobber, and a “crazy crank” because ofhis unorthodox views, study of corpses,long hours of solitary study, and casualdress. His methods obtained resultsthat were seemingly inexplicable, sosome viewed his practice as the work ofthe devil. In 1873, while living inKirksville, Missouri, Still saved manylives during an epidemic of infectiousdiarrhea, without the use of any drugs.Despite this success, his reputation asan eccentric followed him and he wasshunned by most until he cured aprominent Presbyterian minister’s crip-pled daughter.

In 1874 Still severed his ties to con-ventional medicine and announced thefounding of his new medical science,which he called osteopathy. This newschool of medical thought was con-ceived as a reformation or improvementof conventional medicine, not an alter-native system. During the 1880s he con-tinued to refine his science and madeseveral attempts to train others.Although he initially had trouble train-ing others in the practice of osteopathy,Still hoped to establish an osteopathicschool. During this time patientsflocked to Kirksville from all over Amer-ica for his treatment. Hotels were builtin the town to house the many patientsarriving daily, and several railroad com-panies advertised train service toKirksville.

On November 1, 1892, the AmericanSchool of Osteopathy was opened. Thefirst class of eleven students consistedof former patients, family friends, andfive of Still’s children. Five women wereamong the members of this first class,

and Still was later reported to have saidthat he thought women made betterosteopaths than men.

Still was assisted in his teaching byWilliam Smith, M.D., an 1889 graduateof the University of Edinburgh. Afterone year Still determined that for themost part his attempt to teach osteopa-thy was a failure. He issued certificatesbut beseeched the graduates to returnfor another year of instruction. Somedid not return.

However, in 1893, Still did receivesome confirmation that his methodcould be successfully learned when twoof his sons saved many lives during ablack diphtheria epidemic in Minneso-ta. Graduation for those members of thefirst class who had returned was held onMarch 4, 1894. Slowly, the curriculumimproved, more and better studentsgraduated, and an infirmary was built in1895. In that year Still and his studentsperformed thirty thousand osteopathictreatments. By the late 1890s his school,infirmary, and new surgical hospitalwere increasingly successful, both acad-emically and financially.

In its struggle for acceptance, orga-nized osteopathy had to battle the pow-erful American Medical Association,which sought to maintain its control ofthe practice of medicine in America.Denied the right to serve as physiciansin the military and other governmentjobs, the osteopathic profession lobbiedhard for inclusion.

It wasn’t until the Vietnam War thatosteopaths were allowed to serve theircountry as physicians. Today there areseventeen osteopathic colleges. Some arestate-supported schools where facultyand facilities are shared with students ofallopathic medicine. Osteopathic physi-cians can now practice in all medical andsurgical specialties and serve in allbranches of the military and governmenthealth service organizations.

The curriculum at osteopathic schoolsis identical to its allopathic counterpartwith the exception that D.O.s learn osteo-pathic philosophy and manipulation.However, with equality comes paradox.

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48

As the osteopathic curriculum improvedover the years, it became more like con-ventional medicine. Today there areapproximately 35,000 osteopathic physi-cians in practice in the United States.Only about 3 to 5 percent of osteopathspractice the original healing art as envi-sioned by Still. Yet the original osteopath-ic concept is powerful and has made alasting impression on medicine through-out the world. Chiropractic, Rolfing, andCranioSacral therapy borrow heavily frommuch of Still’s pioneering work.

The osteopathic concept has alsospread worldwide. There are colleges inEngland, Canada, and Europe. To date,thirty-two countries have grantedosteopathic physicians unlimited prac-tice privileges, with an additional ninecountries granting privileges limited tomanipulation.

Holistic Approach to the BodyIn many ways osteopathy was Still’sunique synthesis of his personal experi-ence and several major intellectual andphilosophical movements that weremaking their way across America dur-ing his lifetime. He viewed disease as aneffect of derangement from theanatomical perfection intended by God,the divine architect.

Still was most influenced by HerbertSpencer, a nineteenth-century Britishphilosopher who coined the term “evo-lution” and influenced the thinking ofCharles Darwin. In Still’s philosophy ofosteopathy one can find many ofSpencer’s ideas—the concepts of causeand effect, the relationship betweenstructure and function, the holisticnature of humans, and the interrelated-ness of parts. The fascinations withphrenology, spiritualism, and Mes-merism, prevalent in the nineteenthcentury, also had an influence on Still.

These systems theorized the exis-tence of the flow of certain healing andself-regulating electromagnetic andspiritlike fluids in the body, and Stillincorporated these concepts into hisnotion of the healing effects of an unim-peded flow of blood. According to Still,

osteopathic manipulation could relievethe restrictions to the free flow of bloodand nerve power by removing the bonydislocations and easing muscle con-tractions. Moreover, Still revealed to oneof his students toward the end of his lifethat he was able to see the human aura,the human energy field.

Modern doctors of osteopathy take aholistic approach to the human body andmind and, accordingly, take a patient’semotional and mental states into consid-eration, as well as his or her physical con-dition. Osteopaths emphasize theinteraction between the brain and ner-vous system and the musculoskeletal sys-tem, paying particular attention to themusculoskeletal system, which theybelieve influences all other organs andsystems. They contend that physical andemotional disease is brought about byinterrupted nerve flow caused by musclespasms, injury, or improper alignment ofthe spine and other bones. By applyinghands-on manipulation, palpation, andother physical therapies to the spine,bones, muscles, and connective tissues,D.O.s (doctors of osteopathy) treat a vari-ety of disorders.

Experiencing OsteopathyA typical office session with anosteopath begins by taking a history ofthe current problem, including all med-ications or other therapies being used.This is augmented to include all pastmedical and surgical treatments and,especially, any physical or emotionaltraumas. Family and occupational his-tories are also obtained. In the case ofan infant or child, the medical historyincludes the details of the pregnancy,labor, delivery, and perinatal period forthat individual, and questions aboutdevelopmental milestones are asked.Next comes a physical exam based onthe patient’s history, and laboratory andimaging studies (X rays, CT scans) maybe ordered if appropriate.

In addition, the osteopathic physi-cian performs either a regional (focus-ing just on the problem area) or acomplete body examination, searching

Osteopathy

49

Popularity of Osteopathy

There are currently around 35,000 osteopathic physicians in the United States, yet onlyabout 500 osteopaths practice the original healing art, as many use manipulation tech-niques merely as an adjunct to their conventional practices. Nevertheless, the originalosteopathic concept has made a lasting impression on medicine throughout the world.Osteopathic and conventional forms of research have validated and confirmed many ofStill’s original ideas. Today even the conventional medical world has many manual med-icine societies, and the specialties of psychiatry and rehabilitation medicine benefitfrom Still’s pioneering work. The osteopathic concept has also spread worldwide. Thereare colleges in England, Canada, and continental Europe. To date, thirty-two countrieshave granted osteopathic physicians unlimited practice privileges, with an additionalnine countries granting privileges limited to manipulation techniques.

for areas of somatic (body) dysfunction,that is, impaired or altered functioningof parts of the musculoskeletal system.The dysfunction may lie in bone, joint,fascia, and muscle, or in related vascu-lar, lymphatic, cerebrospinal, and neur-al elements. Once a diagnosis is made,treatment can begin. The entire bodymay be treated with a wide variety ofnatural techniques, using varyingdegrees of force according to the natureof the problem and the patient. Anypoint on or within the body that can bereached with the hands can be treatedosteopathically.

The treatments are given on apadded table to a patient wearing com-fortable, loose-fitting clothing (althoughthe patient may have to undress partial-ly for the initial screening examination).If it is performed properly, there is nocontraindication for osteopathic manip-ulative treatment.

In osteopathic hospitals treatmentsare given to patients in intensive careunits, emergency rooms, labor anddelivery rooms, and newborn nurseries,as well as in general medical and surgi-cal units. After the first session thepatient’s condition and treatment planare discussed. Return visits are sched-uled based on the individual’s responseto the first treatment and not on a fixedor routine schedule.

—Dr. Domenick Masiello

Resources:

American Association of College of Osteopathic

Medicine (AACOM)

5550 Friendship Blvd. Suite 310

Chevy Chase, MD 20815-7231

Web site: http://www.aacom.org

Promotes the study of osteopathic medicine. Pro-

vides information on the seventeen osteopathic

schools in the United States.

American Osteopathic Association (AOA)

142 E. Ontario St.

Chicago, IL 60611

Tel: (800) 621-1773, ext. 7401

Fax: (312) 280–3860

Web site: www.am-osteo-assn.org

Offers educational and professional support to

osteopathic physicians.

Further Reading:

Gevitz, Norman. The D.O.’s: Osteopathic Medicine in

America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1982.

Hildreth, Arthur Grant. The Lengthening Shadow

of Dr. A.T. Still. 3rd ed. Kirksville, MO: Osteo-

pathic Enterprise, 1988.

Magoun, Harold Ives, Sr. Osteopathy in the Cra-

nial Field. 3rd ed. Kirksville, MO: Journal Print-

ing Company, 1976.

Still, A. T. Autobiography. Kirksville, MO: privately

printed, 1897.

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50

———. Philosophy of Osteopathy. Kirksville, MO:

privately printed, 1899.

———. Philosophy and Mechanical Principles of

Osteopathy. Kirksville, MO: privately printed,

1902.

———. Osteopathy: Research and Practice.

Kirksville, MO: privately printed, 1910.

Still, Charles F., Jr. Frontier Doctor, Medical Pio-

neer: The Life and Times of A.T. Still and His

Family. Kirksville, MO: The Thomas Jefferson

University Press, 1991.

Sutherland, William Garner, and Ann L. Wales,

eds. Teachings in the Science of Osteopathy. Fort

Worth, TX: Sutherland Cranial Teaching Foun-

dation, Inc., 1990.

Trowbridge, Carol. Andrew Taylor Still: 1828–1917.

Kirksville, MO: The Thomas Jefferson Universi-

ty Press, 1991.

Ward, Robert C., ed. Foundations for Osteopathic

Medicine. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1997.

ZERO BALANCING®

Z ero Balancing® (ZB) is a hands-onbody-balancing and integratingapproach that aligns body energy

fields with body structure. ZB is basedon the Western understanding of anato-my and physiology but is distinct in thatit uses Eastern concepts of energy asworking tools as well as guiding princi-ples for the integration of the wholeperson. Alignment through ZB balancesbody energy and structure, createsclearer fields of vibration throughoutthe body, releases tension patterns fromthe body tissue, the mind, and the emo-tions, and allows the vibration of stressto pass more freely through the person.

The History of Zero Balancing®

Fritz Frederick Smith, M.D., developedthe system of Zero Balancing over several

years. The son of a prominent chiro-practor, Smith trained as an osteopathand medical doctor in the 1950s, andlater as a five element acupuncturistwith Professor J. R. Worsley. He was alsoa student of shakti yoga as taught bySwami Muktananda, a massage thera-pist and certified Rolfer (while he wasstudying with Ida Rolf he was her modelfor seven of the ten-hour sessions). Outof these various experiences he formu-lated his own distinct set of ideas andtechniques that later became known asZero Balancing.

The Basic Principles of ZBAccording to Dr. Smith, Zero Balancingdraws from Eastern concepts of energyand yet is fully consistent with contem-porary quantum physics and the view-point that matter is composed of bothparticle and wave. In ZB the practition-er considers both of these componentsas they are found in the body—particleis represented by structure or matter,and wave by energy or vibration. If wecompared the body to a sailboat, thesail would represent the structure andthe wind the energy. ZB focuses on theinterface and relationship of where thewind meets the sail—where the energymeets structure within the body andmind—knowing on another level thatall these aspects are forms of energy.

Smith postulates that the strongestfields of energy are in the bones of theskeletal system. This is the densest tis-sue in the body and therefore entrapsthe densest energy of the body. WhereasZB also addresses soft tissue, its mainfocus is on the skeletal system. Withinthe skeletal system its main focus is onthe foundation and semi-foundationjoints of the body—those joints thathave more to do with the transmission,absorption, and equalization of energyin the body than with locomotion ormovement. Examples of these joints arethe sacroiliac joints, the tarsal andcarpal joints of the feet and hands, andthe inter- and costo-vertebral articula-tions of the spine.

Zero Balancing®

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Another Way to Consider ZB

ZB has been conceived of as analogous to wind (energy) and the sail (structure) of a sail-boat—knowing that somewhere the wind meets the sail. A well-functioning body is onein which the body and its parts are well tacked into the movement of energy as it passesthrough the system. The person is well tacked into his or her life. Clinical experience hasshown that if the relationship of energy and structure within the body is discordant, itcan be improved and aligned through touch, which results in enhanced performanceand feelings of well-being.

In addition to being intimatelyinvolved with energy forces in the body,these joints have several other charac-teristics that make them especiallyimportant in energy medicine. Theyhave small ranges of motion, and whenthey become compromised in functionthe body tends to compensate aroundthe dysfunction rather than resolve itdirectly. The compensatory patternsthat result impact not only the physicalbody but the mind, emotions, and spir-it as well. This means that these joints(and other tissues that hold vibration)can lock imbalances within the wholeperson. Many of these imbalances are atfirst subtle and do not come to the levelof a person’s awareness until symptoms(such as muscle pulls, increasing irri-tability, stress burnout) have ensuedand magnified the problem. The struc-tural/energetic work of ZB can releasethese patterns while they are still hid-den from awareness and before theycreate symptoms. ZB can also improvethe fundamental imbalance after a per-son develops symptoms and create aclimate in which nature can improve orheal the person’s complaint.

ZB is taught as a postgraduate stud-ies program for the health care practi-tioner. It is not designed as a start-upprogram for the beginning student ofhealth care. A program of training hasbeen established; the graduate of theprogram receives in-house recognitionas a certified Zero Balancer and is given

permission to use the registered trade-mark of ZB. It is not designed or intend-ed to give the student any specific legalrecognition or permission to work inthe health care field. ZB is practicedunder the umbrella of other health carestudies.

ZB in PracticeThe Zone Balancer assesses the body bytesting and evaluating the currentsand/or stagnation of energy withinbone, within the foundation joints ofthe skeleton, and within certain soft tis-sues of the body. In places where theenergy and structure are not well bal-anced, the ZBer uses touch to create afulcrum or balance point in the tissue.When this balancing field of tension isheld stationary for a few seconds itallows the two variables—energy andstructure—to reorganize in terms ofeach other. Improved function, move-ment of energy, and feelings of well-being ensue. By repeated use of fulcra,placed properly and where necessary,the skilled Zero Balancing practitionercan balance a person in terms of theperson’s own energy and structure.

A typical ZB session requires aboutthirty to forty minutes and is done witha person fully clothed. It is done in twopositions, with a person first sitting andthen lying on his back, comfortably, on amassage table. Everything in ZB shouldeither feel good to the client or “hurtgood.” If any of the Zero Balancing is

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ever uncomfortable or “hurts bad,” theclient should notify the ZBer.

Why Practice ZB?Zone Balancing’s major strength arisesfrom the ability to balance and integratea person in terms of his or her own bodyenergy and body structure. This abilitycomes from integrating Eastern con-cepts of energy as working principlesand tools into the practice of body han-dling. ZB is extremely effective in reliev-ing stress and assisting a person as he orshe is going through stressful periods inlife. When a person is well balancedbetween energy and structure, thevibration of stress passes through thebody more easily and has less tendencyto become stuck, to cause tension pat-terns, and to progress to physical oremotional dysfunction. ZB also has aparticularly important place in relievingpain and suffering if they are the resultof blocked energy.

Of course, like any system of balanc-ing or healing, it is not always theappropriate therapy for a given situa-tion. The ZBer is schooled as to whereZB is of particular value, as to specificrisks for the use of ZB, and to situations

where a medical opinion is mandatory.ZBing is not meant to delay or replacestandard medical care, but rather is anadjunct to high-level function and feel-ings of well-being.

—Fritz Smith, M.D.

Resources:

Zero Balancing® Association

P.O. Box 1727

Capitola, CA 95010

Tel/fax: (408) 476-0665

e-mail: zbaoffice@aol.com

Web site: www.zba.com

Conducts training programs throughout North

America. Continuing education credit is granted

for most programs by the Board of Nurses (Califor-

nia), Acupuncture Committee (California), and the

National Certification Board for Therapeutic Mas-

sage and Bodywork [NCBTMB].

Further Reading:

Smith, Fritz Frederick, M.D. Inner Bridges: A Guide

to Energy Movement and Body. Atlanta:

Humanics New Age, 1990.

Nutritional and dietarypractices are body-minddisciplines that adhere tothe popular adage, “Youare what you eat.” Advo-cates of these practicesbelieve that everything youingest becomes a part ofyou, affecting your physicalhealth, mental abilities, andemotional outlook. Nutri-tional and dietary practicesare some of the oldest body-mind disciplines known tohumankind. Although thereare many specific practicespopular today, this sectionexamines one ancient andone modern practice cur-rently used to maintainwellness, prevent disease,and treat specific condi-tions, both chronic andacute.

The Development ofNutritional and DietaryPractices

The roots of nutritional and dietary practices are firmly planted in the deepest bio-logical and psychological instincts of the human race. When ill, humans and manyother animals instinctively fast, which cleanses and rests the digestive system. Inaddition, animals have been observed in their natural environments searching outand eating specific plants for medicinal purposes.

Indigenous peoples also use plants from their surrounding environment for medici-nal purposes. Much of our knowledge of herbal medicine comes from anthropologists

53

Herbs are the primary ingredient in many commercial pharmaceuticals.

PART III: NUTRITIONAL ANDDIETARY PRACTICES

Herbal Medicine • Orthomolecular Medicine

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who have lived with these peoples and learned their age-old wisdom. The diets of thesepeoples invariably include a variety of fruits, vegetables, grains, and sometimes animalproducts native to their area. These locally produced diets create a chemical balancewithin each person’s body and between the people and their environment.

Nutritional practices and herbal medicine form an integral part of all classical healingsystems. Both ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine doctors diagnose patients, inpart, by knowledge of their dietary preferences and cravings. Both systems prescribedietary changes and herbal medicines to balance the body-mind disharmonies they per-ceive through their diagnostic methods. Like those of indigenous peoples, both of thesehighly developed healing systems are based on a belief that disharmony of body andmind, or of the body-mind complex and the surrounding environment, is the root causeof disease.

In classical Greece, where the modern Western healing system originated, thephysician Hippocrates (c. 460–c. 377 BCE) also believed in health as a balance betweenthe individual and his or her environment. Discussing the prescription of food asmedicine, Hippocrates is believed to have said, “Food or drink which is in itself slight-ly inferior, but more pleasant should be preferred to that which is better in itself, butless pleasant.” In this recommendation Hippocrates seems to affirm not only a beliefthat food could be used as medicine, but that the human organism has the innateability to direct its own healing, in part at least, through the sense of taste.

Throughout European history people continued to rely on their sense of taste todevelop a varied, balanced, moderate diet that made use of local fruits, grains, and ani-mal products. They also used various herbs and foods to heal specific conditions. Forexample, garlic has been used by people in many European countries for centuries toheal infections. Chamomile tea has long been recommended to calm the nerves.

The French chemist Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) was the first person to see bacteriaunder a microscope. This momentous discovery led to many innovations in Westernhealth care including sterilization of surgical instruments, hygienic standards ofcleanliness in hospitals, and the process known as pasteurization of milk and otherliquids. It also led to the development of the germ theory of disease in which all dis-ease was believed to be caused by outside organisms invading the human body.

In order to fight the outside invaders, biochemists developed an arsenal of antibi-otics and other pharmaceutical germ-killers. These medicines appeared to work morequickly and to be more effective than the traditional dietary and herbal cures. Doctorsbegan to pay less and less attention to the diet of their patients. Instead they began torely more and more on a growing stockpile of synthesized drugs to relieve painful anduncomfortable symptoms.

Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries there were many voices ofdissent against this shift away from natural whole-food diets and toward dependenceon pharmaceutical drugs for healing. Some of those voices, such as that of Americandoctor Sylvester Graham (1794–1851), were dismissed as alarmists by allopathic, orconventional Western, doctors. Other individuals such as Japanese doctor MichioKushi, a leading proponent of macrobiotics, were dismissed as exotic and extremist.

In the mid-twentieth century scientists such as two-time Nobel Prize winner LinusPauling (1901–1994) began using Western biochemical methods to study the effects of

55

the individual vitamins found in foods on various physical, mental, and emotionalconditions. The discoveries made by Pauling and other scientists form the basis oforthomolecular medicine, a contemporary scientific nutritional practice that recom-mends individualized whole food diets and high doses of vitamins instead of drugs toheal disease and create optimum health.

In the 1960s a growing number of people became increasingly disillusioned with theuse of pharmaceutical drugs. Some people felt, as many feel today, that the drugs are cost-ly, increasingly ineffective, and that they often produce as many side effects and compli-cations as they appear to cure. For these reasons many individuals, and eventually the U.S.government through the National Institutes of Health, began to reconsider nutritional anddietary practices as a safe and effective means of disease prevention and health care.

Eating to Maintain the Body’s Natural Chemical BalanceThe basic theoretical foundation of all dietary and nutritional practices is the belief

that whatever we take into our bodies will affect our bodies. If we eat a diet that main-tains the natural chemical balance of our cells and provides for extra vitamins and min-erals in times of stress or high demand, we will remain healthy. However, if we don’t eata balanced diet we may create an imbalance in our cellular chemistry. This may lead ourorgans and systems to malfunction and eventually may lead to disease and illness.

Many scientific studies conducted by the National Institutes of Health and privatefoundations such as the National Cancer Institute have pointed to a strong connec-tion linking diets high in fats, especially saturated fats, and low in fiber to diseases andconditions such as coronary artery disease, strokes, diabetes, high blood pressure,and breast and colon cancer. Conversely, changes in diet or eating specific herbs andnutrients seem to activate the body’s natural defenses, enabling it to heal itself. Todayscientists are looking at whole foods, specific vitamins, and herbs to discover, in sci-entific terms, how diet can prevent and cure illnesses. Among the things they have dis-covered are that orange and dark green vegetables like carrots, sweet potatoes,pumpkins, spinach, broccoli, and kale, which all contain high levels of beta carotene,seem to help prevent certain kinds of cancer. High doses of vitamin B3 (niacin) havebeen used with positive results to help people suffering from a variety of mental andemotional symptoms often diagnosed as schizophrenia. And Hypericum perforatum,more commonly known as St. John’s wort, seems to be a safe and effective remedyagainst mild to moderate depressions.

Nutritional and Dietary Methods in PracticeMany different nutritional and dietary practices are in use today. Naturopaths, tra-

ditional Chinese medicine doctors, ayurvedic physicians, osteopaths, chiropractors,and bodyworkers may prescribe or suggest nutritional or dietary practices during acourse of treatment. Herbalists and orthomolecular physicians are two types of prac-titioners who focus specifically on dietary or herbal practices as a means of maintain-ing health and curing disease.

A visit to one of these practitioners can be like a visit to a general practitioner. Bothwill want to know about the nature of your problems and information about your diet.The orthomolecular physician may make use of tests, whereas the herbalist may rely

The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

more on his or her physical observations and questioning of you to arrive at a diagnosis.Once diagnosed, both will probably recommend changes in your diet and pre-

scribe specific supplements. An herbalist may recommend that you buy a specificherb or combination of herbs that can be prepared and eaten in various ways, where-as the orthomolecular physician may recommend various doses of vitamins.Whichever practice you follow, these practitioners work with you and your otherhealth care professionals to help you attain your maximum state of health.

Learning About Your BodyLike other body-mind disciplines, nutritional and dietary practices require that

you take responsibility for your own health and healing. After all, an herbalist ororthomolecular physician can prescribe a course of treatment, but no one can makeyou prepare the prescription or take it!

Some people enjoy the heightened awareness of the body-mind connection thatdevelops over time as they participate in a particular dietary or nutritional practice.Others find the process cumbersome, time consuming, or too restrictive. In addition,some people find the scents and tastes of various herbal cures unpleasant, whereasothers enjoy the experience of preparing their own remedies and tonics.

Nutritional and dietary practices are designed to balance your body chemistry inorder to develop its natural resilience and resistance to disease. After working with adietary or nutrition professional, balancing your body chemistry, and becoming moreknowledgeable about your nutritional needs, you may formulate a delicious andenjoyable diet that will help you heal minor ailments, prevent disease, and create opti-mum health of both body and mind.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

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Resources:

American Botanical Council (ABC)

P.O. Box 201660

Austin, TX 78720-1660

Tel:(800) 373-7105

Fax:(512) 331-1924

e-mail: custserv@herbalgram.org

Web site: www.herbalgram.org

Nonprofit research and educational organization.

Offers a quarterly magazine called HerbalGram,

which publishes the latest herbal research, legal

and regulatory issues regarding herbal medicine,

detailed profiles of herbs, conference reports, and

book reviews.

The International Society for Orthomolecular

Medicine

16 Florence Avenue

Toronto, ON M2N 1E9

Canada

e-mail: centre@orthomed.org

Web site: www.orthomed.org

Founded in 1994, this organization lists and recom-

mends orthomolecular practitioners in Canada. Also

publishes the periodical Journal of Orthomolecular

Medicine.

Further Reading:

Books:

Gladstar, Rosemary. Herbal Healing for Women.

New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993.

Kowalchik, Claire, and Hylton Williams, eds.

Rodale’s Illustrated Encyclopedia of Herbs.

Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press,1987.

Santillo, Humbert B.S., MH. Natural Healing with

Herbs. Prescott Valley, AZ: Hohm Press, 1984.

Journals:

Willoughby, John, “Primal Prescription.” Eating

Well ™ Inc. (May-June 1991).

Herbal Medicine

HERBAL MEDICINE

Herbal medicine has become one of the most popular forms of alter-native medicine in the United

States today. People use herbal reme-dies for a variety of reasons: to aiddigestion; to relax; to alleviate minoraches, pains, and headaches; to staveoff disease; and to diminish the symp-toms of the common cold or flu. Besidesaddressing specific symptoms or needs,some herbalists believe that theseremedies bring the body and mind intobalance and can therefore cure chronicor long-term illnesses.

Herbal Medicine Throughout the AgesHerbal remedies have been utilized inmany cultures throughout time to alle-viate pain and cure disease. The waysthat herbs are used in diverse geograph-ical areas reflect the philosophy and val-ues of each particular culture as well aswhat herbs are available in each region.For instance, in traditional Chinesemedicine, herbs are used to restore bal-ance in the body and are part of a long-term treatment that seeks to maintainthe health of both mind and body. InWestern medicine, herbal medicationshave been developed to treat particularphysical symptoms immediately. Thispharmacologically based system hasbeen especially successful in the treat-ment of acute illness.

Herbs form the basis of many mod-ern pharmaceutical drugs. Today, about25 percent of all prescription medicinesare derived from medicinal plants.Pharmaceutical companies are doingresearch on herbs from the Brazilianrain forests. In fact, the word drugderives from the old Dutch word droge,which means “to dry.” During the Mid-dle Ages, Dutch pharmacists driedplants for use as medicines.

In 1994 an estimated 17 percent of allAmericans used herbs for some medicinalor health reason. The herbal industry isestimated to have earned $2 billion in

sales in the United States in 1996, andsales are increasing at the rate of about 25percent per year. A poll conducted in early1997 indicated that one-third of adultAmericans are using herbal medicines,spending an average of $54 per personannually, thus creating a total estimatedretail market of $3.24 billion. Once foundonly in health food stores, mail-order cat-alogs, and marketing organizations,herbal medicines are now sold in drug-stores, supermarkets, and mass-marketretailers, where herbal preparations con-stitute one of the fastest growing areas.

Increased popular interest in herbshas been fueled in part by the passage ofthe Dietary Supplement Health andEducation Act of 1994 (DSHEA). In 1993and 1994, when the act was being con-sidered, Congress received more mailfrom American voters concerning thisnew law than they had concerning anyother single issue since the VietnamWar. This overwhelming response sug-gests that consumers are interested inusing herbs and other dietary supple-ments for their health.

In addition, the heightened interest inherbal medicine reflects consumer con-cern about the high cost of Western med-icine in general and pharmaceuticaldrugs in particular. Further, there is agrowing perception among consumersthat many conventional medicines aretoxic and produce adverse side effects,despite the fact that they have beenapproved by the Food and Drug Adminis-tration (FDA). These concerns haverevived interest in many traditional herbsand medicinal plants, as well as otherforms of alternative medicine. ManyAmericans have also become interestedin this area because of the increasedmedia coverage in alternative medicineand the creation of the Office of Alterna-tive Medicine (OAM) at the NationalInstitutes of Health (NIH) to study herbsand other alternative modalities.

A Description of Herbal MedicinesHerbs are popular all over the world.The World Health Organization (WHO)

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An herbalist teaches about the medicinal use of common trees and plants.

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estimates that about 80 percent of peo-ple in developing countries still rely onsome form of traditional medicine forprimary health care. In every type of tra-ditional medicine, that is, medicinebased on historical uses and used byindigenous cultures, herbs and medici-nal plants constitute the major basis forthe remedies used.

In a very real sense, herbs are notalternative medicine; they are integral tothe development of all medicinal sys-tems, both modern and traditional.Despite the fact that many moderndrugs are derived from plants, there is amajor distinction between a plant-derived drug (e.g., quinine) and anherbal medicine. Plant-derived drugsare single chemical compounds that areextracted and purified from plants.Herbal medicines, on the other hand,can be defined as a whole plant or plantpart that is used for its medicinal prop-erties. Thus, an herbal remedy containssmall amounts of many naturally occur-ring chemicals from the plant.

Most herbal medicines are used forminor, self-limiting conditions or illnesses.

Herbal medicines can be as simple as acup of chamomile tea (Matricaria recu-tita) to help digestion after a big meal, toease an upset stomach, or to help as arelaxing beverage before bedtime. Othersimple herbal medicines include anextract of the roots or leaves of echi-nacea (Echinacea spp.) to help reduce theseverity or duration of a cold or flu, espe-cially when taken at the onset of symp-toms; the use of feverfew leaf (Tanacetumparthenium) to allay migraine headaches;and valerian root (Valeriana officinalis) tohelp assure a good night’s sleep, espe-cially for persons with insomnia or othersleep disorders.

Today many people are also usingherbs to help prevent long-term illness.Cardiovascular disease is the the biggestkiller of all Americans. Millions of Amer-icans are turning to such simple reme-dies as garlic (Allium sativum) to helpreduce cardiovascular risk factors. Infact, the German government approvesgarlic for such use, including loweringof the LDL cholesterol, known as the“bad” cholesterol—a property of garlicthat has been documented in more than

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two dozen clinical studies. Because theGerman government allows such claimson garlic tablets, garlic is the biggest-selling over-the-counter medicine soldin German pharmacies.

Another increasingly popular use forherbs is as alternatives to modern syn-thetic prescription drugs. Millions ofAmerican men have begun to use theextract of the fruits of the native Ameri-can saw palmetto plant (Serenoa repens)as a safe and clinically documented rem-edy for benign prostatic hyperplasia(BPH), nonmalignant enlargement of theprostate that affects about half of menover fifty years of age. Gaining popularityis the standardized extract of St. John’swort (Hypericum perforatum), which isconsidered a safe and effective remedyfor mild to moderate depression. Theefficacy of this herb, called a phytomedi-cine in Europe, has been established innumerous clinical studies.

There are many more examples.Standardized extract of ginkgo leaf(Ginkgo biloba) has been shown inmany clinical studies to be safe andeffective in stimulating peripheral cir-culation, especially in the brain. Thisherb is especially useful in geriatric

care to help treat senile dementia andshort-term memory loss in elderlypatients. Another useful phytomedi-cine is the standardized extract of milkthistle fruits (Silybum marianum). Thispreparation is a safe and effective tonicto the liver, especially for persons whosuffer from alcohol-induced cirrhosisof the liver, who have been exposed totoxic industrial chemicals, or who suf-fer from certain types of hepatitis.

How Herbal Remedies Are UsedHerbal medicines can be taken as teasthat have been either steeped or boiledin water, known as an infusion anddecoction, respectively. They can beingested as powdered herbs in capsulesand tablets, or as liquid extracts madewith water and alcohol or just alcohol.They can also be taken as standardizedextracts, which have recently been devel-oped. In these extracts, the level of onenaturally occurring chemical compoundor group of compounds is chemicallyguaranteed from one batch to another inorder to ensure reliable content.

Herbs can also be used topically.Fresh aloe gel (Aloe vera) can be directlyapplied to the skin to help reduce the

Types of Herbs and Their Uses

Adaptogenic: Helps to reduce and resist stress.Alterative: Improves health and increases energy.Anthelminitic: Kills or expels intestinal worms.Anti-inflammatory: Soothes and lessens inflammation.Antimicrobial: Strengthens resistance to dangerous microorganisms.Antispasmodic: Reduces cramps and tension in skeletal muscles.Astringent: Produces a barrier against infection.Bitter: Functions as a general aid to disease prevention.Carminative: Improves the operation of the digestive system.Demulcent: Reduces inflammation.Diuretic: Stimulates production of and increases the elimination of urine.Emmenagogue: Aids in the functioning of the female reproductive system.Expectorant: Helps to remove mucus from the lungs.Hepatic: Strengthens the liver.Hypotensive: Lowers blood pressure.Laxative: Stimulates bowel movements.Nervine: Promotes the healthy functioning of the nervous system.Stimulating: Increases the metabolic activity of the body.Tonic: Invigorates, supports, and calms the body.

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pain of a minor burn or sunburn. Aloeis used as an ingredient in sunburncreams, skin lotions, and even shavingcreams—all of which attests to the pop-ularity and widespread acceptance ofthe healing dermatological propertiesof this plant recognized since ancienttimes. In addition, in Germany manyskin-care products rely on extracts ofchamomile for their scientificallyproven skin-healing properties. Also inGermany, manufacturers sell echinaceaproducts intended for external use forslow-healing wounds.

Enduring Popularity of Herbal MedicineA qualified herbalist or a well-respectedherbal guide or specialist should be con-sulted for the most effective herbal treat-ment. Herbs have certain qualities andmust be used with care. Like conventionaldrugs, they are not recommended in everyinstance. For example, the herb ephedra(Ephedra sinia, commonly called by itsChinese name, ma huang), functions as astimulant and is not recommended forthose with high blood pressure, diabetes,glaucoma, and related conditions wherehypertensives are contraindicated.

The world of plants is rich and diver-sified and produces numerous herbalremedies that have been used for thou-sands of years. Modern scientific researchcontinues to document and validate thehistorical traditional uses of many herbsas well as new uses of some traditionalmedicines. The safe and responsible use ofherbal medicines offers an important wayto lower health care costs and increase thewellness of the American public. It is mostlikely that more scientific research willcontinue to place herbs in a position tooffer many benefits in the new medicineof the twenty-first century.

—Mark Blumenthal

Resources:

American Botanical Council (ABC)

P.O. Box 201660

Austin, TX 78720-1660

Tel: 1-800-373-7105

Fax: (512) 331-1924

e-mail: custserv@herbalgram.org

Web site: www.herbalgram.org

Leading nonprofit research and educational orga-

nization. Offers a quarterly magazine called

HerbalGram, which publishes the latest herbal

research, legal and regulatory issues regarding

herbal medicine, detailed profiles of herbs, confer-

ence reports, and book reviews.

American Herbalists Guild

P.O. Box 1683

Sequel, CA 95073

Provides a directory of schools and teachers of

herbal medicine.

Further Reading:

Castleman, Michael. The Healing Herbs. Emmaus,

PA: Rodale Press, 1991.

Foster, Steven. 50 Herbs for Your Health. Loveland,

CO: Interweave Press, 1996.

Hoffmann, David. The New Holistic Herbal. Rock-

port, MA: Element Books, 1992.

Tierra, Leslie. The Herbs of Life. Freedom, CA:

Crossing Press, 1992.

ORTHOMOLECULAR MEDICINE

Orthomolecular medicine strives toachieve optimum health of itspatients, as well as treat and pre-

vent disease, by creating the uniquelyindividual levels of nutrients needed ineach body through diet, vitamin supple-mentation, and lifestyle changes. Practi-tioners employ what is more commonlyknown as megavitamin therapy, which isthe use of large doses of certain vitaminsbased on thorough biochemical analysisto correct ineffective or destructive

Orthomolecular Medicine

chemical balances in the body. Ortho-molecular medicine also addresses avariety of psychiatric disorders, such asschizophrenia and severe depression.

History of Orthomolecular MedicineIt was Linus Pauling, the two-time NobelPrize winner (one for chemistry, theother for peace), who, in 1968, firstcoined the term orthomolecular medi-cine to describe more accurately whathad been popularly known as megavita-min therapy.

Pauling’s concept was to create anoptimum nutritional micro-environ-ment for every cell in the body by givingit the “right amounts of the right mole-cules”—vitamins, minerals, aminoacids, enzymes, and other substancesused by the body. This would not justcorrect the deficiencies or imbalancesthat make us more susceptible to dis-ease and degeneration. It would alsopromote the highest level of health,enabling us to reach our physical, men-tal, and spiritual potential and enjoy amaximum life span. The path to thisgoal, according to Pauling, is accom-plished through dietary changes andsupplementation.

For many years before his death in1994 at the age of ninety-three, Paulingwas an outspoken champion of non-toxic therapies and nutritional supple-mentation. He attracted considerableattention—and controversy—with hisbooks on the beneficial effects of vita-min C supplementation against thecommon cold and cancer.

Pauling formulated a modern nutri-tional paradigm—an approach empha-sizing optimum intake of nutrients forachieving powerful prevention andhealing benefits. Orthomolecularphysicians have used this approach tosuccessfully treat schizophrenia,depression, alcoholism, drug abuse,and individuals with gastrointestinaldisorders, arthritis, cardiovascular dis-ease, and even cancer.

During the first half of the twentiethcentury, there was much excitement and

interest in vitamins because peoplebelieved that they were a quick way togood health. From 1925 to 1940, manywere isolated from food, then identifiedand synthesized. Nutritional pioneersbegan exploring the clinical uses ofthese newly available substances andusing amounts that were above the lev-els considered necessary to preventdeficiency-state diseases such as scurvy,beri-beri, and pellagra.

In North Carolina, a country doctornamed Fred Klenner used large doses ofvitamin C effectively against viral illness.The infants delivered by mothers on hissupplement program were so robust andhealthy that the local hospital staff nick-named them the “vitamin C babies.” InCanada, two physician brothers, Evan andWilfrid Shute, found that vitamin E offereda valuable treatment against heart disease.

In the early 1950s, two other Canadianphysicians, Abram Hoffer and HumphreyOsmond, began to use high doses ofniacin (vitamin B3) and other nutrients tohelp schizophrenic patients. The nutri-tional treatments they pioneered for avariety of mental conditions were later for-malized into orthomolecular psychiatry.

Over the years, the orthomoleculararsenal has expanded dynamically fromjust a few vitamins. Today, it includes abroad spectrum of vitamins, minerals,amino acids, enzymes, hormones, andplant-derived supplements.

Many commentators believe that allo-pathic, or more conventional, medicinehas given little respect to nutritional ther-apy in an age of pharmaceutical, surgical,and high-tech techniques. In the past, vit-amins and minerals were considered nec-essary only in tiny amounts in order toprevent certain diseases; furthermore,conventional Western medical practition-ers maintained that if people ate right, itwould result in obtaining enough nutri-ents from food. As a result, conventionalmedical schools have not thoroughly edu-cated their students about the role ofnutrition in causing and healing disease.

Times may finally be changing. Thereis a growing interest in alternative

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Is Orthomolecular Therapy Dangerous?

Some people have argued that high doses of certain vitamins can be dangerous, eventoxic, to those who take them. Studies have shown that the dangers are minor comparedto the dangers of taking high doses of pharmaceutical medications.

If symptoms occur, or you feel that you are taking too much of a certain vitamin, ask yourorthomolecular practitioner. He or she will be aware of the dangers and can tell you allyou need to know about your treatment.

If you are taking too much of a certain nutrient, the practitioner will lower your dosageimmediately, and the level of that nutrient will adjust within a very short time. The mostimportant issue is to keep your doctor aware of any changes or symptoms you mightexperience during orthomolecular therapy.

treatments because of the cost and sideeffects of pharmaceuticals and the fail-ings of modern conventional medicineto impact the crisis of chronic diseaseand runaway medical costs. A growingnumber of medical schools are offeringprograms in nontoxic treatments andclinical nutrition. In addition, there hasbeen quite a bit of research proving thatvitamin supplementation, at doses high-er than those usually present in the diet,has a significant preventive and thera-peutic effect and represents a potent,safe, and inexpensive medical option.

In 1992, the New York Academy of Sci-ence convened a landmark conferencecalled “Beyond Deficiency: New Views onthe Function and Health Effects of Vita-mins.” At this meeting, researchers pre-sented new findings on the positive effectsof vitamins and minerals against cancer,heart disease, and other illnesses. A jointUnited Nations and World Health Organi-zation conference in 1996 on healthyaging reflected a growing recognition ofnutrition in the fight against disease.

The Basic Principles ofOrthomolecular Medicine“Let food be thy medicine and thy med-icine be thy food,” said Hippocrates tohis students. More than 2,500 yearslater, this advice from the “father ofmedicine” has been overlooked, but notaltogether ignored, by modern doctorsusing pharmaceutical drugs and

sophisticated technology. Practitionersof alternative medicine, among themorthomolecular physicians, regard foodand nutrition as the bedrock of theirprofessions.

Orthos is a Greek word meaning“straight.” Just as orthopedic medicinerefers to the straightening of deformedor broken bones, and orthodontics tothe straightening of crooked teeth,orthomolecular medicine literallymeans to straighten or correct thebody’s molecules.

Orthomolecular practitioners basetheir recommendations to patients onthe concept of biochemical individuali-ty, an idea put forward by RogerWilliams, Ph.D., the University of Texasscientist who discovered vitamin B5.This concept holds that each of us isuniquely different. We look different,react to stress and chemicals differently,live and work in different environments,have different genetic makeup, drinkdifferent water and eat different food,and have different requirements for var-ious nutrients. Although the number ofnecessary nutrients is the same for eachof us, the optimum amounts we needindividually are very different.

For this fundamental reason, ortho-molecular physicians regard the govern-ment-promoted RDAs (recommendeddaily allowances) and MDRs (minimumdaily requirements) as irrelevant. “Even if90 percent of any population requiredonly the minimal daily requirement of

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vitamins, it would leave huge numbers ofpeople needing 10, 100, or 1,000 times asmuch,” contends orthomolecular physi-cian Abram Hoffer. “With sick people therange of need is many times greater.”

The perspective of pioneers like Hof-fer and other orthomolecular specialistsis that their form of medicine is not acure-all or a replacement for convention-al treatment. Rather, explains Hoffer, “aproportion of patients will require ortho-dox treatment, a proportion will do betteron orthomolecular treatment, and therest will need a skillful blend of both.”

How Orthomolecular Physicians CanHelpOrthomolecular physicians practicethroughout the world. They are primari-ly medical doctors (M.D.s), but alsoosteopaths (D.O.s), naturopaths (NDs),and chiropractors (DCs).

Orthomolecular practitioners zero inon the individuality of patients throughlaboratory tests and comprehensivemedical reviews that consider diet, stress,exercise, levels of sensitivity to foods orchemicals, and the use of alcohol, drugs,or pharmaceuticals. These tests are per-formed in a physician’s office.

Recommendations typically involvenot just nutritional supplements butalso the elimination or reduction ofdrugs, contaminants, and allergens, andthe replacement of junk food and nutri-ent-poor diets with complete, fresh, andnourishing diets.

Benefits and Risks Orthomolecular medicine is beneficialfor a wide range of physical and mentalconditions, and its concepts are widelypracticed by health-conscious individu-als concerned about preventative care.

To get comprehensive and effectivetreatment, one should see an orthomo-lecular specialist first rather than trying toattempt self-treatment.

—Martin Zucker

Resources:

International Academy of Nutrition & Preventive

Medicine

P.O. Box 18433

Asheville, NC 28814

Tel: (704) 258-3243

Offers a list of practitioners by state. Publishes the

Journal of Applied Nutrition, a quarterly journal

that covers nutritional issues.

The International Society for Orthomolecular

Medicine

16 Florence Avenue

Toronto, ON M2N 1E9

Canada

e-mail: centre@orthomed.org

Web site: www.orthomed.org

Founded in 1994, this organization lists and rec-

ommends orthomolecular practitioners in Cana-

da. Also publishes the periodical Journal of

Orthomolecular Medicine.

The Society for Orthomolecular Medicine of America

2698 Pacific Avenue

San Francisco, CA 94115

Tel: (415) 922-6462

Provides information on orthomolecular practi-

tioners in the United States.

Further Reading:

Hoffer, Abram, and Morton Walker. Putting It All

Together: The New Orthomolecular Nutrition.

New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing, 1996.

Hoffer, Abram. Orthomolecular Medicine for

Physicians—A Survey/Introduction Textbook.

New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing, 1989.

Janson, Michael. The Vitamin Revolution in

Health Care. Greenville, NH: Arcadia Press,

1996.

Pauling, Linus. Vitamin C and the Common Cold.

San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1970.

Pauling, Linus, with Ewan Cameron. Cancer and

Vitamin C. New York: Linus Pauling Institute of

Science and Medicine, 1979.

Mind/body med-icine is a contem-porary term used todescribe a numberof disciplines thatstudy or approachhealing the physi-cal body, or trans-forming humanbehavior, by engag-ing the conscious orunconscious powersof the mind. While“mind/body medi-cine” is a term usedin this section ofthe encyclopedia todescribe a growingfield of study andpractice in contem-porary Westernmedicine, it is alsoused by others todescribe ancientEastern disciplinessuch as yoga, medi-tation, traditionalChinese medicine,and subtle energytherapies. The vari-

ety of disciplines that comprise mind/body medicine in this encyclopedia combinea theory of the relationship between body and mind that has much in common withthese ancient Eastern disciplines with Western scientific models of biology andchemistry. These disciplines are also characterized by an emphasis on individual

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Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815), now called the “Father of Hypnosis,”was one of the earliest Western scientists to investigate the connection

between body and mind.

PART IV: MIND/BODY MEDICINE

Biofeedback Training • Guided Imagery • Hypnotherapy • Interactive GuidedImagerySM • Psychoneuroimmunology

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motivation in the healing process and a more personal relationship between caregiv-er and receiver. These practices have been used to treat stress-related conditions,such as chronic pain, allergies, chemical and emotional dependencies, and perfor-mance anxiety.

Mind/Body Medicine—Ancient and ModernWhile the disciplines discussed in this section emerged from a context of contem-

porary Western science, the theories and techniques they use have much in commonwith approaches to healing developed by ancient cultures and still in use worldwide.Both ancient and modern approaches to mind/body medicine believe that the causeof disease is not restricted to the physical body. For ancient disciplines, the non-phys-ical causes of disease may include spirits, emotions, or the mind, which bridges spir-it and body. Contemporary Western methods of mind/body medicine attempt tounderstand the cause of disease by investigating the effect of thoughts or emotions onbehavior and the physical workings of the body.

Shamanism, an ancient method of healing, is based on the belief that all illness isa result of disharmony between the spirit world and the material world. Traditionalshamanic practices include trance states and mental focusing techniques similar tothose used by hypnotherapy and guided imagery today.

The highly disciplined Indian practice of hatha yoga is driven by the belief that allmatter is a materialized form of the one great spirit motivating the universe. Itincludes numerous health-enhancing physical exercises, internal cleansing tech-niques, and breathing practices to help people refine the physical body and experi-ence its spiritual nature. Hatha yoga practitioners develop a control of the bodysimilar to that developed through biofeedback today.

In China, healers practiced within the framework of the ancient Chinese religionof Taoism, which seeks a balanced, harmonious existence between humankind andnature. Over thousands of years, Chinese herbal treatments evolved by correlatingobservations of the interaction of elements in nature with the physical, emotional,and mental characteristics associated with human illnesses. The relationships Chi-nese healers noted between elemental balances, emotional states, and physicalhealth are similar to those recognized by psychoneuroimmunology today.

The Development of Mind/Body Medicine in the WestWhile ancient Greek medical practices were originally holistic, ways of viewing the

body began to change with the influence of the philosophical pragmatism of Aristotle(c.384–c.332 BCE) and his desire to know and categorize all aspects of the material world.Ancient Greeks began to separate the observation and treatment of matter, or body, fromthe observation and treatment of spirit, or mind. This trend in Western thinking andhealing was later reinforced by the medieval Christian church, which glorified the devot-ed mind of humankind as the true channel to the spirit of God while denigrating thephysical body as an instrument of the devil. In the seventeenth century, the Frenchphilosopher René Descartes helped establish the philosophical foundation of theEnlightenment by proclaiming the mind a non-material, transcendent aspect of humanbeings, to be separate and infinitely more valuable than the physical body.

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Split off from philosophical or spiritual inquiry, Western medical science devel-oped by studying the physical body and treating it as a purely mechanical instrumentthat could be broken down into smaller and more knowable components. While thisapproach yielded many amazing, lifesaving achievements over the last 300 years, itinvestigated only the physical treatment of ailments. The relationship of the mind andbody was not fully investigated by Western medicine until the beginning of this cen-tury, gaining ever more momentum in the last thirty-five years. The neurologist Sig-mund Freud’s (1856–1939) theory of the unconscious mind opened new ways ofconsidering the mind’s effect on behavior and physical health. The research thatinspired Freud’s theories employed many of the techniques that are a part of hyp-notherapy and guided imagery practices.

Throughout the twentieth century, data pointing to a relationship between ourthoughts, emotions, and health began to appear from many branches of science,including sociology, anthropology, and psychology. For example, in 1956 Hans Selye,a Canadian physiologist, revealed the devastating effects of traumatic experiences,which he termed stress, on an organism’s health. Then in the 1960s a more specificclue to the connections between mind and body appeared. Drs. Elmer and AlyceGreen, pioneering researchers in biofeedback, documented the profound abilities ofadvanced yoga practitioners to control consciously their heart rate, temperature, andbrain wave patterns. As the century continued, scientists in the newly developing fieldof psychoneuroimmunology presented evidence linking particular chemical sub-stances, such as endorphins, to specific human emotions, such as pleasure. Theyshowed how certain levels of endorphins in the body may act as a chemical shieldagainst invading viruses or germs.

Today mind/body medicine practices are a respected part of treatment in manymajor hospitals and clinics throughout the United States. They may be used for reliefof pain before or during surgery and to aid in the postoperative process. In addition,individuals seeking help for a variety of chronic physical conditions, including cancerand AIDS, as well as those seeking to change painful and destructive behavior pat-terns, such as chemical addictions or eating disorders, are enhancing traditional West-ern methods of treatment with mind/body medicine practices.

Some Basic Mind/Body Medicine BeliefsThe disciplines discussed in this section represent an expansion of traditional

Western approaches to medicine. While research in each discipline has yielded differ-ent theories and techniques, together these fields share certain basic principles. First,approaches to mind/body medicine are unified by their belief that real and usefulconnections exist between our bodies and our minds. Whether the discipline uses thepowers of the conscious mind to interact with and affect the systems of the body, as inbiofeedback, or employs the powers of the unconscious mind to effect changes inbehavior, as in hypnotherapy, the pathways between body and mind are at the heartof these healing modalities.

The disciplines discussed in this section share the belief that a person’s emotionsand attitudes will influence his or her body’s innate ability to heal. In clinical studiesin the 1940s and 1950s patients were given a placebo, or neutral substance such as

sugared water, and told that it would relieve their chronic pain. The patients’ emo-tional attitudes about their pain, as well as their physical progress, were closely mon-itored. The results showed that patients who believe they will recover are much morelikely to do so than those who think they won’t, or those who think they will get worse.Mind/body medicine practitioners believe that these results strongly suggest thatemotions and mental attitudes play an important role in the body’s ability to heal.

Finally, all mind/body medicine practices believe in the importance of personalmotivation in the healing process. This belief is supported by clinical research, whichshows that cancer patients who become actively involved in their treatment are morelikely to recover than those who passively accept their diagnosis and fail to examinetheir treatment options. Taking charge of one’s life fends off feelings of hopelessnessand lack of control, both of which have been shown through psychoneuroimmunolo-gy studies to reduce the number of disease-fighting cells in the body. By emphasizingpersonal responsibility, mind/body medicine practitioners aim to empower patientsto make a successful healing journey.

Because mind/body medicine practitioners emphasize the individual’s participa-tion in the healing process, special attention is given to the relationship between care-giver and receiver. For instance, in guided imagery the caregiver is often referred to asa guide or knowledgeable aide. The guide’s role is viewed as helping the receiveraccess his or her own inner sources of physical, mental, and emotional health andoffering positive reinforcement as he or she learns to navigate the channels betweenbody and mind.

The Future of Mind/Body MedicineMind/body medicine practices have helped millions of people find relief from a

multitude of physical and emotional problems. People suffering from migraineheadaches, insomnia, hypertension, asthma and other respiratory conditions, ulcersand other gastrointestinal disorders, incontinence, cardiac and vascular irregularities,muscular problems caused by strokes or accidents, arthritis, anxiety, attention andlearning disorders, depression, chemical and emotional addictions, and phobias andother stress-related disorders have all been helped by mind/body medicine practices.Although the field is still young, with continued research, creative and caring practi-tioners, and courageous health care consumers willing to view illness as a messagefrom the body to begin an active healing journey, mind/body medicine may providenew solutions for health care in the twenty-first century.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

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Further Reading:

Borysenko, Joan. Minding the Body, Mending the

Mind. New York: Bantam Books, 1988.

Chopra, Deepak. Quantum Healing. New York:

Bantam Books, 1989.

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BIOFEEDBACK TRAINING

Biofeedback training is a means ofenhancing mental awareness ofbody changes. It is a process that

offers techniques for regulating thebody’s vital functions and fosteringoverall health. Electronic biofeedbackinstruments supply information aboutthe body not usually available to theconsciousness. Heart rate, muscle ten-sion, blood circulation, brain waveactivity, and other body functions aremade perceptible as visual and auditorysignals that enable an individual tomonitor his or her physiological reac-tion to various stimuli or situations.With the help of the biofeedback instru-ment it is possible to develop new,healthier patterns of response through-out the body’s systems, even those pre-viously regarded as involuntary andoutside the reach of the consciousmind. Biofeedback training has a vastrange of diagnostic, therapeutic, andpreventive applications, particularly incases where stress and related psycho-logical factors play a role.

The History of Biofeedback TrainingThe use of biofeedback devices to mod-ify behavior started in 1938, whenHobart G. Mowrer introduced an alarmtriggered by urine to stop children fromwetting their beds. Beginning in the1940s muscle-tension biofeedback wassuccessfully used in the field of neuro-muscular rehabilitation. Biofeedbackdeveloped rapidly in America duringthe 1950s and 1960s because of a coinci-dence of two factors. There was growingawareness that stress was a principalcause of disease and an accompanyinginterest in expanding the mind’s abilityto respond to stress more positively andnurture all parts of one’s self. At thesame time the invention of the elec-troencephalograph machine (EEG) andsimilar electronic equipment gave sci-entists new tools for monitoring theinternal workings of the body-mind

connection. Alyce and Elmer Greenused the EEG to study the techniquesthat enable masters of yoga meditationto alter the rhythms and responses ofthe body so extensively that they canbecome impervious to extremes of tem-perature and pain. Under the directionof Joe Kamiya, volunteers in anotherstudy learned to use feedback from theEEG to recognize and achieve the alphastate, an alert sense of effortless well-being normally associated withadvanced stages of meditation.

During the late 1960s the excitementgenerated by the initial findings ofbiofeedback research led to overly opti-mistic claims about “miracle cures” ofthe future. Nonetheless, it was clear thata fundamental concept in the humansciences, the distinction between vol-untary and involuntary nervous activity,had been discredited. Vital functionslike blood pressure were now seen assubject to the control of the individual.Behavioral modification accordinglybecame an ever more accepted mode ofhealth care. The first professional meet-ing of feedback researchers was held in1968, chaired by Les Fehmi. In 1969biofeedback researchers founded a pro-fessional support group, the BiofeedbackResearch Society, later renamed theAssociation for Applied Psychophysiol-ogy and Biofeedback (AAPB). The volu-minous scholarly literature on variousaspects of biofeedback attests to theinterest it has attracted in the scientificcommunity.

The Theory of Biofeedback TrainingBiofeedback training approaches thebrain as a control center that sendsimpulses through the nervous system toprogram the body’s vital functions:heart rate, blood pressure, circulation,digestion, breath, perspiration, and soforth. By automatically signaling thedifferent systems when to turn on or off,people live safely and comfortably intheir surroundings without deliberatingover the body’s basic activities. Butstress, illness, or an accident can dis-rupt the natural process and cause it to

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A biofeedback machine translates some aspects of a client’s physical functioning, such as heartrate or blood pressure, into a sound or visual signal.

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send signals that produce commonhealth problems like insomnia, muscu-lar or vascular pain, and irritable bowelsyndrome, to name just a few. Whilethese stress-aggravated processes makethe body seem unpredictable andbeyond control, biofeedback trainingcan help reverse overreactions.

The use of electronic instruments tomeasure and reflect the status of bodyfunctions is only one element of biofeed-back training. It also uses relaxation tech-niques derived from ancient meditationpractice and requires participants to beopen to the idea of attentional flexibility.Contrary to popular belief, the machinesdo not intervene in the information travel-ing between the body and mind. Instead,the instruments act as a mirror of one’sinternal reactions, allowing an individualto observe this behavior and to be aware ofharmful reactions. This information helpsuncover hidden patterns of physiologicalreactions to stress, for example, tensing of

muscles and a fall in body temperature,that the person may never have noticed.Furthermore, the machines serve as a pre-cise, objective gauge of the physiologicaleffects accomplished by using a relaxationtechnique such as visualizing a pleasantscene or soothing color. The true source ofthe self-healing promoted and reflected bybiofeedback training are techniques thatnormalize physiological functioning.These techniques enable the person tostabilize erratic or unhealthy physicalresponses and to take responsibility for hisor her own well-being.

Biofeedback Training in PracticeIn its most frequent application,biofeedback training is used to teachpeople techniques for coping withhealth problems that have already beendiagnosed by a medical doctor or psy-chologist. The role of the certified prac-titioners who administer biofeedbacktraining is to show the client how to

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interpret control and the electronicbiofeedback. The client sits duringtraining and remains fully clothed,though sensors are placed on the skinover the region to be monitored. Thesensors do not cause pain or discom-fort. Body information from thebiofeedback instrument is presented inany of several forms: flashing lights,beeping sounds, patterns on a comput-er screen, or tactile sensations. Current-ly available instruments have thecapacity to monitor skin temperature,electrical conductivity in the skin, mus-cle tension, heart rate, brain wave activ-ity, and other body processes.

The nature of the work in a trainingsession varies according to the needs ofthe client. In the case of compulsive teethgrinding and temporomandibular joint(TMJ) disorder, for example, trainingfocuses on regulation of muscular ten-sion in the jaw. Attention deficit disordercan be addressed by means of a comput-er game controlled by brain wave activity.The client watches the game but cannotplay unless he or she produces brainwaves of an appropriate pattern. In thisway the client becomes minutely attunedto different levels of concentration andlearns how to heighten, expand, andfocus his or her attention.

As a biofeedback training session un-folds, the practitioner recommends tech-niques for attaining the desired result andprovides positive reinforcement. Learn-ing and achieving the body-mind benefitsof a training program generally requiresseveral sessions with a practitioner, whomay advise additional work with homebiofeedback instruments or audio tapes.Success in biofeedback training generallydepends on the effort expended by theclient. Over time, and with consistentpractice, one progresses to the pointwhere one can monitor and adjust bodyprocesses without the aid of electronicinstruments.

Benefits of Biofeedback TrainingMost practitioners still limit their prac-tice of biofeedback to EMG and blood

flow biofeedback. However, there is agrowing movement toward providingother types, especially neurofeedback,for a variety of disorders. The most com-mon applications are for headaches,pain management or pain dissolution,and general stress reduction. Stressreduction is therapeutic for a variety ofsymptoms such as irritable bowel syn-drome, migraine headaches, hyperten-sion, breathing difficulties, cardiac andvascular irregularities, anxiety, depres-sion, insomnia, as well as symptomsrelated to addiction, attention disor-ders, and for the reduction of otherlearning disabilities. The AAPB can pro-vide a list of clinical symptoms thathave responded favorably to biofeed-back treatment as well as a referral to acertified biofeedback provider in yourarea.

—Les Fehmi, Ph.D.

Resources:

Association for Applied Psychophysiology and

Biofeedback

10200 West 44th Avenue, Suite 304

Wheat Ridge, CO 80033

Tel:(303)422-8436

Provides a nationwide referral service. To receive a

free copy of their brochure “What Is Biofeedback?”

send a self-addressed stamped envelope to the

address above.

Biofeedback Certification Institute of America

(BCIA)

10200 West 44th Avenue, Suite 304

Wheat Ridge, CO 80033

Tel:(303)420-2902

A professional organization that determines mini-

mum standards for certification in biofeedback

training. BCIA also certifies organizations that

provide training for biofeedback practitioners.

Further Reading:

Crow, Mark, and David Danskin. Biofeedback: An

Introduction. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Publish-

ing Co., 1981.

Guided Imagery

GUIDED IMAGERY

Guided imagery is a therapeutictechnique in which a person with-draws into his or her mind to

focus on scenes and symbols pertainingto an illness, accident, or personal issue.Within one’s imagination, problems arereplaced with a “make-believe” story ofrecovered health and happiness. Guid-ed imagery is based on the principlethat the imagination has the capacity torelieve pain and promote healing whenit is optimistic and confident and,inversely, can help trigger a breakdownwhen it is consumed by worry. The tech-niques of guided imagery are designedto teach individuals how to use theirown powers of imagination to steeraway from negative thoughts towardmodels of well-being. Guided imagerygenerally serves as an adjunct to med-ical treatment and has been incorporat-ed in sports training programs andmethods of self-care.

The Development of Guided Imageryfor HealingWhat is now called guided imagery canbe traced back to practices found inearly civilizations around the world.Symbols and spirits were summoned topromote healing, and envisioning one’shealth was a key element in rituals per-formed by shamans. When medicinewas first separated from religion in clas-sical Greek culture, imagery continuedto be regarded as a valuable tool in themaintenance of physical and mentalwell-being. According to the Greekphilosopher Hippocrates, inner picturesproduce a “spirit” that arouses the heartand other parts of the body. They needto be controlled if the person is to behealthy. Renaissance doctors took asimilar view of the role of the imagina-tion. Paracelsus, for example, wrote that“the power of the imagination is a greatfactor in medicine. It may produce dis-eases . . . and it may cure them.”

After the Renaissance, interest intherapeutic imagery declined becauseof radical changes in the interpretationof the links between mind and body.Following the precepts of RenéDescartes, the body was considered amechanical structure, and the imagina-tion’s role in either the body or the oper-ations of the intellect was severelyrestricted. Sigmund Freud’s study ofhysteria, a psychosomatic disorder,marks the beginning of a revolution inmedicine that can be viewed as a revivalof ancient and Renaissance teachingsabout the power of the imagination. Byexplaining hysteria as a physical mani-festation of emotional trauma, Freudchallenged Descartes’ notion that ill-nesses may have only a physical cause.He believed that an effective treatmentmust also address the patient’s innerexperiences.

The current American approach toguided imagery is based on Carl Simon-ton’s work with cancer patients duringthe 1970s. He instructed cancer patientsto imagine white cells as warriorsdefeating the cancer cells and discov-ered that these patients lived twice aslong as those relying on medical treat-ment alone. After Bernie Siegel con-ducted an equally successful pilotprogram at Yale University, there was arapid expansion in medical researchinto the benefits and workings of sys-tems of internal visualization from day-dreaming to self-hypnosis to doodlingand drawing. By 1990, guided imageryhad emerged as an established mode oftreatment, acclaimed by advocates ofboth traditional and alternative medi-cine.

The Theory of Guided ImageryRecent research has suggested thatmental imagery can modify the func-tioning of the body. The brain respondsto an image much as if it were the realthing, recalling past experiences andtriggering a set of responses that leadfrom the cerebral cortex to the hypo-thalamus. The hypothalamus, in turn,

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transmits messages to the autonomicnerves controlling the body’s involun-tary functions—heart rate, blood pres-sure, breathing, digestion, temperature,sexual arousal, and immunity. As aresult, a seemingly passive activity, likeguided imagery, can bring aboutchanges beneficial to physical health.

While guided imagery resemblesother relaxation techniques that inter-vene in the autonomic nervous system,such as biofeedback training, it is dis-tinctive in one regard. By releasing theimagination, it allows the person to getin touch with repressed emotions thatmay be at the root of his or her healthproblems. By finding a concrete imagefor a persistent problem, participantsoften bring troublesome needs andconflicts out into the open, where theycan be resolved.

Guided Imagery in PracticeIt is possible to learn guided imageryfrom a self-help manual or tape, butmost people begin by working with atherapist at a doctor’s office or healthcare center. The exact nature of thetraining depends on the individual’sgoals and the professional backgroundof his or her therapist. Some therapistsrely on a prepared script of healingimages, whereas others encourage indi-viduals to let their imaginations roam.Another major difference in approachconcerns the use of imagery. In sometechniques, it is directed toward relax-ation and healing. In a variant of guidedimagery, known as Interactive GuidedImageryTM, the emphasis is shifted awayfrom creating ideal images to picturingsymbolic scenes that may reveal hiddenemotions. Given the many variants thatare now available, it is advisable to ask aprospective therapist to explain thecourse of therapy before starting atraining program.

Guided imagery training generallyinvolves learning a procedure to followat home or work, two or even threetimes a day for five to twenty-five min-utes. In many instances, the first stepsof the procedure parallel those followed

in meditation: the person withdraws toa quiet place, assumes a comfortableposition, and turns his or her thoughtsinward. But, unlike meditation, in guid-ed imagery a person fashions an alterna-tive version of his or her circumstances.Frequently, participants are instructed toimagine themselves mounting stairsthat lead to a place where they feelsecure and content, then to picturethemselves gradually getting well. Toexit from the imagery exercise theyreverse the process: they imagine them-selves leaving the pleasant place,descending the stairs, and returning tonormal activity.

When guided imagery was firstintroduced in American medicine, itemployed aggressive images of combatbetween the forces of health and dis-ease. Over the past decades, researchershave discovered the importance ofadjusting imagery to suit the individ-ual’s personality and have broadenedthe range of things considered“imagery.” For instance, among partici-pants without a strong visual sense, lis-tening to music may take the place ofimagining pictures. There has also beenincreased stress on “sensory recruit-ment” in the imaging process. Ratherthan rely simply on one sense, individu-als are urged to incorporate all the sens-es—sight, hearing, touch, smell, andtaste—into their imagery exercises. Inthis way, they intensify the impact of thehealing messages that the autonomicnervous system sends to the immunesystem and other vital functions of thebody.

The Benefits of Guided ImageryDaily practice with a routine of guidedimagery has been used to relieveheadaches and chronic pain. It has alsohelped people tolerate medical proce-dures, stimulate healing, and explorethe emotions that may have caused anillness. Guided imagery can also givepeople a heightened sense of their ownpotential and encourage them to findcreative solutions to personal and pro-fessional problems.

Hypnotherapy

Resources:

Academy for Guided Imagery

P.O. Box 2070

Mill Valley, CA 94942

Tel: (800)726-2070

Offers a training program in guided imagery for

health professionals; also provides information

about guided imagery, including a list of practi-

tioners, books, and videotapes.

Exceptional Cancer Patients

1302 Chapel Street

New Haven, CT 06511

Tel: (203)865-8392

Organization that maintains a referral list of

imagery practitioners who work with cancer

patients and offers books and tapes about guided

imagery.

Health Associates, Inc.

P.O. Box 220

Big Sur, CA 93920

Fax: (408)667-0248

Provides workshops on various uses of guided

imagery.

Further Reading:

Achterberg, Jeanne. Imagery in Healing: Shaman-

ism and Modern Medicine. Boston: New Sci-

ence Library/Shambala, 1985.

Borysenko, Joan. Minding the Body, Mending the

Mind. Reading, MA: Bantam, 1988.

Rossman, Martin. Healing Yourself: A Step-by-Step

Program for Better Health Through Imagery.

New York: Pocket Books, 1989.

Siegel, Bernie. Peace, Love, and Healing. New York:

Harper & Row, 1989.

Simonton, Carl, Stephanie Simonton, and

Creighton Simonton. Getting Well Again. Los

Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 1978.

HYPNOTHERAPY

Hypnotherapy is the use of hypno-sis, trance states, and suggestionfor therapeutic results. It is used

to address a diversity of problems,including anxiety, phobias, and emo-tional problems and to help breakhabits like smoking. Doctors and den-tists are increasingly using hypnosiswith patients to help relieve pain andassist healing. It is also used to improveperformance in sports activities, exami-nations or public speaking and socialactivities. By inducing altered states ofconsciousness, hypnotherapists helpclients use the resources of the uncon-scious mind to bring about psychologi-cal and physical benefits. Hypnotherapyasserts that the unconscious mind is avast reservoir of learnings and skills.

Founders of Hypnotherapy Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815), nowcalled the “Father of Hypnosis,” isresponsible for beginning the scientificinvestigation of trances. Mesmer usedauspicious passes of the hands, dramaticgestures, and magnetic apparatuses toinduce sleeplike states in willing subjects.He termed the phenomenon “animalmagnetism,” believing that a magneticfluid had passed from his hands to thesubject. In 1784, a commission for theAcademy of Science in France (includingBenjamin Franklin) was appointed toinvestigate Dr. Mesmer’s practices andconcluded, “Imagination is everything,magnetism nothing.” However, futureresearchers would confirm the power ofsuggestion.

James Braid (1795–1860), a Scottishsurgeon, used Mesmer’s hand gesturesto produce anesthesia in patients in hishospital in India, reducing his infectionrate from 50 percent to 5 percent in theprocess. He first coined the term “hyp-nosis,” shortened from neuro-hypnosis,meaning nervous sleep. Braid notedthat a trance consisted of fixed andfocused concentration that rendered asubject open to suggestion.

Auguste Ambroise Liebault(1823–1904) began the first scientificinvestigation of hypnotic phenomena,founding the School of Nancy in Franceand developing the doctrine of sugges-tive therapeutics. Working under him,

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as a professor of internal medicine,Hyppolyte Bernheim (1837–1919) gaveus the foundation of our current under-standing of hypnotic suggestion. Heasserted that hypnosis is not a disorderof the nervous system, as many medicalauthorities of the day believed. It isinstead a product of suggestion. He alsobelieved that suggestion was a commonoccurrence in all interactions and notspecific to a hypnotist’s gestures.

One of the most famous suggestionsin hypnotherapy comes from ÉmileCoué (1857–1926), another pupil ofLiebault. He thought that all suggestionis really self-suggestion. His exerciseinvolved repeating the phrase, “Everyday in every way I am getting better andbetter.” He found that slowly repeatedsuggestions, such as this, can becomeabsorbed into the unconscious andaffect one’s life. This is the basis for allthe audio tapes on the market promis-ing reprogramming of the unconscious.

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939),although initially interested in the psy-chological use of hypnosis, abandoned itin treatment because he was not able toobtain successful trances in his neurol-ogy patients. He became more interest-ed in the causes of neurosis and insteadused free association for his “analyticinquiry.”

Freud’s influence on the medicalestablishment’s view of mental illnessand its treatment set back the accep-tance of hypnosis until Clark Hull, anAmerican professor of psychology at theUniversity of Wisconsin, published thebook Hypnosis and Suggestibility in1933. It describes some of the firstexperimental research on hypnosis. Astudent of Hull’s, Milton H. Erickson(1910–1980), who founded the Ameri-can Society for Clinical Hypnosis, iscredited with bringing the techniques ofhypnotherapy into mainstream medicaland psychological practice and devel-oping its most comprehensive form.

He stressed that hypnotherapy ismost effective when it is part of aunique program of therapy, developedfor each patient according to his or her

situation or needs. Erickson believedthat hypnosis is a specialized form ofcommunication in which both con-scious and unconscious channels canlearn. A patient’s natural capacities andunique ways of learning and respond-ing are utilized as part of the therapy.So, rather than being controlled by sug-gestions, a patient is actively findingsolutions. In this model, indirect sug-gestions in the form of metaphors orstories are used in addition to directand authoritative suggestions. This isintended to facilitate unconsciouslearning and bypass conscious imita-tion and resistance.

What Is a Hypnotic Trance and Hypnosis?While the word trance may conjure upthe idea of a zombielike state from ahorror movie, in reality we all experi-ence different trance states every day.When we become absorbed in readingor watching television we often shiftinto a trance state where time is sus-pended, cares and worries are forgot-ten, or surrounding stimuli are tunedout. More intense trances can occurduring meditation or prayer, or understates of extreme emotion, such asfalling in love. More tranquil trancesoften are induced during procedureslike relaxation training, guided imagery,or massage. Most therapeutic trancesare very relaxing, but they can also bearousing and invigorating.

A hypnotherapist induces trances tosuspend the limitations of the conscious,analytical mind. This allows all the possi-bilities of a person’s imagination andunconscious to solve, reinterpret, or reor-ganize an experience, issue, or problem.

Using Hypnosis for TherapyTrances in and of themselves have littletherapeutic value. But they greatly facil-itate therapeutic goals. Unlike tradition-al psychotherapy, in which unconsciousthoughts and impulses are brought toconsciousness for analysis and under-standing, in hypnotherapy the patient

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A group of French doctors in the 1890s watch a colleague put a patient into a trance.

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is trained in using trance to learn andpractice new skills for alleviating symp-toms or changing behavior. Suggestionsmay be incorporated unconsciouslyand can be brought to normal con-sciousness when that part of the mind isready.

At the start of a typical hypnotherapysession, the therapist first will ask ques-tions about the client’s problem andwhat he or she hopes to gain from thetreatment. After discussing the prob-lem, the procedure to be used, and thegoals to be realized, the therapist thenwill explain what is to be done andanswer any questions or concerns. Aseries of instructions will be providedthat help guide the person into arelaxed trance state. Since hypnosis is alearned skill, the induction process ispracticed slowly until the person feelscomfortable and is able to relax andfocus. Suggestions then are offered tohelp with the problem or issue at hand.As a person’s conscious thinking is

increasingly withdrawn from the out-side environment, while suggestionsengage more and more of his or herinner awareness, the trance will becomedeeper. The goal of the trance is to allowone to experience an expanded aware-ness, unhindered by ordinary limita-tions. In this state intuitive, instinctive,and imaginative thoughts and feelingsare used to address the issue at hand.Most work is done in light or mediumtrances, but catalepsy, a conditionwhere the limbs stay where they areplaced, often occurs. Unconscious handlevitation is a common technique forverifying and deepening the tranceexperience. The session is usuallyended with suggestions to feelrefreshed, alert, and completely readyfor the rest of the day.

The induction procedure is oftentaught to the client so that it can bepracticed at home, or used when need-ed, for example, at times of stress.Appropriate suggestions are prepared

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So far as I know hypnosis as a human activity has been used since the beginning of thehuman race.

—Milton H. Erickson.

All suggestion is self-suggestion.—Émil Coué.

ahead of time. For example, a personmay rehearse by visualizing himself orherself accomplishing a goal and feelingprepared. Another method of self-hyp-nosis is to repeat simple affirmationsuntil they become absorbed into behav-ior. For example, a person may repeat, “Iwill become naturally more confidentas I practice these skills.”

Benefits of HypnotherapyThe uses of hypnosis in psychologicaltherapy are well known. People mayenter hypnotherapy to gain greaterconfidence in their own resources fordealing with problems and difficulties.Hypnosis is also used to produce relax-ation and relieve anxiety. Learning theability to control emotions, impulses,and urges is used to bring greater self-confidence, self-control, and mastery.These general results occur from mosthypnotherapy interventions, evenwhen the focus or problem is quite spe-cific.

Common issues include smoking,overeating, insomnia, and fears such asflying, public speaking, or performing insports or examinations. The range ofproblems addressed by hypnosis isexpanding as scientific knowledge aboutunconscious communication and moti-vational processes increases.

Its use in medical situations isincreasing as more and more hospitalsemploy hypnotherapists to help createoptimal conditions for patient recoveryand health. For decades, it has beenused successfully to manage pain andstress, often in preparation for child-birth and surgery. Migraines, respiratoryconditions, ulcers, and arthritis aresome of the medical conditions com-monly treated.

PrecautionsAnyone interested in pursuing hyp-notherapy should take certain precau-tions. While inducing trance is easy andcan be learned by anyone, only trainedpractitioners with the appropriatelicensing, experience, and knowledge inpsychology and physiology should beconsulted. Learn about the hypnothera-pist’s background, credentials, and edu-cation and experience. The AmericanSociety for Clinical Hypnosis and theMilton H. Erickson Institutes in the Unit-ed States set the guidelines for propertraining and certification for hypnother-apists. The International Medical andDental Hypnotherapy Association, theSociety for Clinical and ExperimentalHypnosis, and the American Associationof Professional Hypnotherapists are alsolong-standing associations with muchexperience in all aspects of hypnothera-py. Finally, be aware of the limitations ofhypnosis. It is not a cure-all, and itseffects depend completely on the abili-ties and limitations of the client. Skilledhypnotherapists utilize a client’s internalresources but do not replace a person’sown skills and capacities. It is highlyindividual. Avoid practitioners whomake exaggerated claims and promiseall-purpose cures. While hypnotherapy isa powerful tool, it is not able to solveevery problem.

—Oscar A. Gillespie, Ph.D.

Resources:

American Association of Professional Hypnother-

apists

P.O. Box 29

Boones Mill, VA 24065

Tel: (540) 334-3035

Interactive Guided ImagerySM

The American Society of Clinical Hypnosis

2250 E. Devon Avenue., Suite 336

Des Plaines, IL. 60018

Tel: (847) 297-3317

Has sections in major cities in the United States.

Publishes the newsletter American Journal of Clini-

cal Hypnosis and has regional workshops for pro-

fessionals throughout the year. ASCH provides the

most rigorous credentialing process for profession-

als.

International Medical and Dental Hypnotherapy

Association

4110 Edgeland, Suite 800

Royal Oak, MI 49073

Tel: (248) 549-5594

Toll-free: (800) 257-5467

The Milton H. Erickson Foundation, Inc.

3606 N. 24th Street

Phoenix, AZ 85016

(602) 956-6196

Presents the National and International Erickson

Congresses and publishes a newsletter that

includes information on training programs. Sepa-

rate Erickson Institutes and Societies can be found

in major cities in the United States and in several

other countries.

The New York Milton H. Erickson Society for

Psychotherapy and Hypnosis (NYSEPH)

440 West End Avenue, #1C

New York, NY 10024

Tel: (212) 873-6459

Provides a 100-hour comprehensive training pro-

gram (chartered by the Board of Regents of New

York State) in Ericksonian approaches in psy-

chotherapy and hypnotherapy and a referral ser-

vice for the New York tristate area.

The Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypno-

sis, Inc.

111 North 49th Street

Philadelphia, PA 19139

Publishes The International Journal of Clinical

and Experimental Hypnosis.

Further Reading:

Cheek, David B., and L.M. LeCaron. Clinical Hyp-

notherapy. New York: Grune and Stratton, 1968.

Hammond, D. Corydon, ed. Hypnotic Suggestions

and Metaphors. New York: W. W. Norton, 1990.

Hunter, Marlene Elva. Creative Scripts for Hyp-

notherapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1994.

Lynn, Steven Jay, and Judith W. Rhue, eds. Theo-

ries of Hypnosis: Current Models and Perspec-

tives. New York: Guilford Press, 1991.

Phillips, Maggie, and Claire Frederick. Healing the

Divided Self: Clinical and Ericksonian Hyp-

notherapy for Post-traumatic and Dissociative

Conditions. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1995.

Rowley, David T. Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy.

Philadelphia: Charles Press, 1986.

Rosen, Sydney. My Voice Will Go with You : The

Teaching Tales of Milton H. Erickson. New York:

W. W. Norton, 1982.

Yapko, Michael D. Trancework: An Introduction to

the Practice of Clinical Hypnosis. New York:

Brunner/Mazel, 1989.

INTERACTIVE GUIDEDIMAGERYSM

Interactive Guided ImagerySM is amethod of using the mind to supporthealing and growth. An expert will use

certain techniques to help a personenhance his or her awareness of uncon-scious images and help him or her to learnto effectively interact with them. With theaid of a guide, people use Interactive Guid-ed Imagery sessions to learn to relax,relieve stress, enhance body-mind com-munication, sharpen intuition, andbecome more effective at reaching goals. Itis used to mobilize the latent, innate heal-ing abilities of the client to support reha-bilitation, recovery, and health.

Interactive Guided Imagery was cre-ated by Martin L. Rossman, a medicaldoctor, and David E. Bresler, a health psy-chologist. Both had been independently

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researching clinical applications of body-mind effects in health since the late1960s. In 1982 Dr. Rossman co-createdthe Power of Imagination Conference,where leading clinicians and researchersintroduced to more than 1,400 healthprofessionals nationwide the practicalapplications of imagery work. Frequentrequests for clinical training led to thecreation of “clinical guided imagery”courses taught by Drs. Rossman andBresler around the United States from1982 to 1989. In 1989, Dr. Rossman andDr. Bresler founded the Academy forGuided Imagery. In 1995, the mission ofthe academy was expanded to includeteaching the public and organizations towork with the imagery methods theacademy had refined over the years.

A session in Interactive GuidedImagery begins with a simple relaxationtechnique used to help a client focus hisor her attention inward. The guide willthen teach skills to help with problemsolving, conflict resolution, goal setting,stimulating healing responses in thebody, or using personal strengths andresources most effectively. Participantsare fully aware of their guide’s sugges-tions and questions, and are engaged inan active dialogue at all times. In onetypical technique, a client is asked toclose his or her eyes to allow the mind topresent a picture representing the expe-rience of his or her problem. The clientmay then be guided in an imaginary dia-logue with this image to explore andreveal its meaning and relevance to theproblem or issue. These images can pro-vide information not only about theproblem, but also about clients’ beliefs,hopes, expectations, fears, resources,and solutions. The imagery process isused to reveal the clients’ intuitionsabout a problem and its solution.

The guide works to make a personbecome more aware of his or her ownthoughts, feelings, and body responses,allowing him or her to have more con-trol of how he or she feels. Many Inter-active Guided Imagery self-caretechniques can be learned from books,home study programs, and tapes. A

certified guide can assist a person withthese approaches.

Interactive Guided Imagery seeks tohelp a person learn to relax, mentally andphysically, relieve pain or other physicalsymptoms, stimulate healing responsesin the body, solve difficult problems,resolve emotional issues, and envisionand plan for the future. It may be used forself-care or by physicians, psychothera-pists, nurses, and other professionals.

Interactive Guided Imagery can posecertain risks when used by poorlytrained personnel. There is a possibilityof uncovering traumatic insight or over-whelming effects. A certified InteractiveGuided Imagery guide is trained andprepared to help prevent this wheneverpossible, and to help a person workthrough it, should it occur.

—Martin Rossman, M.D.

Resources:

Academy for Guided Imagery

P.O. Box 2070

Mill Valley, CA 94942

Tel: (800) 726-2070

Fax: (415) 389-9342

Sponsors professional training conferences, semi-

nars, and retreats, and produces educational books

and tapes to teach imagery skills to professionals,

businesses, and the general public.

Further Reading:

Bresler, David. Free Yourself from Pain. New York:

Simon & Schuster, 1979.

Rossman, Martin. Healing Yourself: A Step-by-Step

Program for Better Health Through Imagery.

New York: Pocket Books, 1989.

PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY

Psychoneuroimmunology, also com-monly referred to as PNI, is the studyof how thoughts and emotions may

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Psychoneuroimmunology

affect the body’s immune system. Theimmune system is the body’s elaborateand varied defense mechanism thatfights against disease and illness. Advo-cates of this discipline have observedthat the quality of a person’s mentalstate, when improved through humor,positive thinking, and relaxation, canimprove his or her body’s ability to fightdisease. Accordingly, stress, grief, andpain are seen to cause the body’sdefenses to weaken. Many supporters ofthis theory promote the use of relax-ation techniques as a preventive mea-sure for ensuring physical well-being.Some also see these techniques as a partof treatment for patients with chronicillnesses.

PNI ResearchFor most of this century, science hastaught that the nervous system, includ-ing the brain, and the immune systemfunction independently. The body’sability to fight disease was thought to bebeyond our conscious control. In the1960s, several researchers suggestedthat there is actually a complex networklinking these two systems. Nerve cells,for instance, penetrate into the princi-pal organs of the immune system,including the thyroid, spleen, andlymph glands, where lymphocytes, ordisease-fighting cells, reside until theyare called into action. Researchers alsodiscovered that the chemicals nervecells use to communicate with oneanother lock onto the membranes oflymphocytes; thus the information thatthe brain is sending and receiving is alsoshared with the immune system.

The idea of the connection betweenthe nervous and immune systemsgained attention after an experiment in1975 appeared to confirm that the mindcould affect physical health. Researchersfed rats saccharin-flavored water alongwith a drug that suppressed theirimmune functions. Later, when the ratswere given the saccharin-flavoredwater without the drug, the researchersfound that the rats’ immune systemsdid not recover. As a result, the rats

became ill and some died. Researchersbelieved that the rats had learned toassociate the sweet water with theeffect of the drug, thus proving that athought or mental association couldalter an animal’s immune system. Thisexperiment inspired similar studiesthat concluded that mental attributes,such as attitudes, sensations, memo-ries, and emotions could change theimmune system’s ability to resist infec-tions.

These early experiments developedinto the field of study known today asPNI. Much of current PNI researchinvestigates the physical effects of stress.Some researchers believe that stress,especially over long periods of time, canweaken the body’s ability to recoverfrom illnesses. To find out the physicaleffects of stress, researchers have testedthe concentrations of lymphocytes inpeople’s bodies while they were experi-encing stressful situations. In one ofthese experiments, widowers were test-ed during the months following thedeath of their wives. The widowers’immune systems were found to be func-tioning more weakly than those of menwho had not suffered the loss of theirpartner. In another experiment, medicalstudents’ immune systems appeared toweaken before they took exams. As aresult of these studies, some researchersclaim that reducing stress can help aperson’s immune system.

The Benefits of Positive ThinkingThe case of noted journalist and com-mentator Norman Cousins changed theway many people thought about therelationship between body and mind. In1976, Cousins was diagnosed with asevere, crippling disease of the spine(ankylosing spondylitis), and there wasno known therapy that offered any realpromise for recovery. Cousins decided toconfront his gloomy future with humor—with an intense diet of movies by Laureland Hardy, the Marx Brothers, and otherfamous comedians—and by prescribingfor himself large doses of vitamin C. Aftermonths of laughter and good feelings,

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Author Norman Cousins brought public attention to the role of emotionsin the healing process by his account of how he used laughter to recover

from a debilitating spinal disease.

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his debilitating spinal conditiondisappeared. Cousins went on tolive fourteen more years andwrote a book, Anatomy of an Ill-ness as Perceived by the Patient:Reflections on Healing and Re-generation, detailing his personalpath to recovery. His story ledmany people to believe that posi-tive thinking may help the body’sability to heal.

Applications of PNI ResearchSome health care workers havebegun to consider findings fromPNI research when designing newtherapies. Biofeedback is used torelieve stress in an attempt toreduce its burdens on theimmune system. Guided imagerytechniques are being used todirect the immune systemresponses to certain areas of the

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Many researchers in psychoneuroimmunology have observed some startling findingsthat may reveal the ways that emotions and stress can change a person’s immune sys-tem:

• Early in the U.S. space program, NASA found that astronauts had reduced white bloodcell counts after returning from space. Many scientists believed that it was a result ofthe stress of reentry.

• Subjects who viewed a film of Mother Teresa ministering to the poor were found tohave increased levels of immune chemicals in their saliva.

• Researchers observed that women with breast cancer who attended support groupstended to survive longer than women who faced their illness alone.

• People who experienced the stress of being responsible for the care of another personwere found to have fewer infection-fighting cells, suffer more upper-respiratory infec-tions, and take longer to heal wounds.

Psychoneuroimmunology

body. People with chronic illnesses areoften encouraged to join supportgroups where they can share their expe-riences, unburden themselves of fear,and draw strength and positive encour-agement from others. All of these con-tribute to easing emotional strains, andpossibly to bettering chances for recov-ery. The lessons learned from PNIresearch may also help explain othermodels of healing, such as Chineseacupuncture and Native Americanshamanism.

PNI is a recent and widely debatedfield of study. Not all PNI researchersare convinced that the physical effectsof stress or trauma are significantbeyond extreme or chronic cases. It isfar too simple to say that thinking posi-tive thoughts will make us healthy andnegative thoughts will make us sick.Sudden and rapid recoveries likeCousins’ are very uncommon. PNI isintended to enhance, not replace, thephysical treatment of illnesses.

—Leonard Wisneski, M.D.

Resources:

Integral Health Foundation

4300 Crossway Court

Rockville, MD 20835

Tel: (301) 871-8384

Promotes a greater understanding of the integral

nature of the spirit, mind, and body in the healing

process through interdisciplinary cooperation in

research, education, and practice.

Further Reading:

Benson, Herbert. Timeless Healing: The Power and

Biology of Belief. New York: Simon & Schuster,

1994.

Cousins, Norman. Anatomy of an Illness as Per-

ceived by the Patient: Reflections on Healing and

Regeneration. New York: W.W. Norton, 1979.

Locke, S., and D. Colligan. The Healer Within.

New York: Dutton, 1996.

Ornstein, R., and D. Sobel. The Amazing Brain.

New York: Simon & Schuster, 1987.

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Sensory therapies useone of the five senses asthe means to adjust chem-ical or other imbalanceswithin the body that maybe the cause of physical orpsychological problems.While the name sensorytherapies generally refersto those methods thatwork with the senses ofsight, sound, or smell, thissection also includes somedisciplines that work withthe sense of taste or touch.There are also many body-mind disciplines that workwith the kinesthetic sense,or sense of body move-ment. These disciplinescan be found throughoutthe encyclopedia in thesections entitled SubtleEnergy Therapies, Mind/Body Medicine, Yoga, Mar-tial Arts, Massage, Acupunc-ture and Asian Bodywork,Movement Therapy Meth-ods, Somatic Practices,

Expressive and Creative Arts Therapies, and Body-Oriented Psychotherapies. While the idea of treating physical and psychological problems by manipulating

the senses is ancient, most of the methods described in this section were developedin the twentieth century by creative Western physicians, often working outside or onthe fringes of accepted allopathic medical practice. Through their pioneering workmany sense-organ exercises and treatments, often involving special equipment, or

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Through the five senses, sensory therapies awaken one’s innatehealing potential.

PART V: SENSORY THERAPIES

Aromatherapy • Bates Method • Behavioral Vision Therapy Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing • Flower Remedies Hydrotherapy • Light Therapy • Sounding • Tomatis Method

combined with more traditional psychotherapeutic practices, were developed.Many of these methods are prescribed as part of naturopathic cures. They havebeen effective in treating a wide variety of specific physical or emotional ailmentssuch as post-traumatic stress disorder, nearsightedness, hearing loss, chemicaladdictions, depression, anorexia, and bulimia while offering interesting and effec-tive practices to strengthen the immune system and reduce the many harmfuleffects of stress on the body and mind.

Sensory Therapy: Practices Ancient and ModernMany diverse cultures, including Native American, Indian, Chinese, and Egypt-

ian, used sensory therapies such as aromatherapy and hydrotherapy for healing thebody and mind. Living in concert with the world around them, these cultures rec-ognized the healing potential of plant essences, which they used to create pungentor sweet-smelling cosmetics, medicines, and incense. Water, one of the most basicingredients necessary for life, was used for therapeutic baths, as an elixir, and inpurifying rituals.

The ancient Greeks and Romans also made use of these natural methods of lifeenhancement, health maintenance, and healing. Hippocrates (c. 460–377 BCE), oftencalled the father of modern medicine, was known to have prescribed both hydrother-apy and sunlight (the most basic form of all light therapy) for many conditions. TheRomans had bathhouses where people went for relaxation, hygiene, and recreation,much the way health clubs are used today.

Hydrotherapy has been used fairly constantly throughout Western history. Spaswere built throughout Europe in the eighteenth century in places such as Spa, Bel-gium; Baden-Baden, Germany; and Vichy, France, where people went to “take thewaters.”

Sensory Therapies in Western Medical PracticeAt the beginning of the nineteenth century sensory therapies grew more popular,

and more uses for them developed. At that time Vincent Priessnitz (1799–1852), anAustrian peasant, intuitively used hydrotherapy to heal his broken ribs. Father Sebas-tian Kneipp (1821–1897), a German priest, used hydrotherapy for a variety of ail-ments. In France in the mid-1800s Dr. Emile Javal, an ophthalmologist, was designingeye exercises as an alternative to the destructive eye surgery practices of the day.These exercises became the basis of present-day behavioral vision therapy,

By the early part of the twentieth century sensory therapies had become anaccepted part of Western medical practice. Father Sebastian Kneipp’s methods,which came to be known as naturopathy, spread throughout Europe and Americathrough the work of Benedict Lust, a German-American cured of tuberculosis byKneipp in 1892. The sun cure, the therapeutic use of sunbathing, was used in manyhospitals and sanatoriums, including the prestigious Charing Cross Hospital in Lon-don.

Meanwhile more doctors began to experiment with these drug-free, nonsurgicalmethods, developing deeper insights into the connections between the senses and themind. For example, in the 1930s Dr. Edward Bach, a British physician, began experiment-ing with methods of imbibing plant essences to alleviate the psychological problems he

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observed as the precursors and hindrances to healing of the physical ailments pre-sented by his patients. The thirty-eight remedies and methods he discovered are thebasis of present-day flower remedies.

Pharmaceuticals Overshadow Sensory TherapiesAfter 1928, with the discovery of penicillin and other powerful antibiotics, the

Western medical establishment began to lose interest in sensory therapies. Thesenewly discovered drugs worked quickly and were thought to be more effective thanthe slower-working sensory therapies. As pharmaceutical research exploded, scien-tists manufactured a multitude of synthetic drugs that were applied to numerousphysical and psychological illnesses.

Throughout the mid-twentieth century interest in sensory therapies was kept aliveby curious and dedicated individuals such as the American physician Harry Spitler.Spitler expanded the range of light therapy by exploring the effects of various coloredlights on the emotions. In the 1950s Dr. Alfred Tomatis (1920–), a French physician, dis-covered that the ability to speak is directly related to the ability to hear and that bothabilities affect creativity, motivation, and the ability to learn. His series of exercises,known as the Tomatis method, helps people regain the abilities to listen and concen-trate.

A Revival for Sensory TherapiesIn the 1960s a confluence of forces in science and culture created a resurgence of

interest in sensory therapies, as well as other holistic health and living practices. Manypeople were becoming disillusioned with conventional medicine, which relied moreand more on pharmaceutical solutions, which often create dangerous side effects anddebilitating conditions. The social revolution of the decade brought a greater aware-ness of the value of the senses in living life fully. Many people, young and old, beganturning to more natural sources of healing.

With the approach of the twenty-first century, scientists and healers in many areascontinue to explore the ways in which we can use the senses to affect our physical andemotional functioning and enhance our experience of life. Today a wide variety ofsensory therapies are used individually or combined with other natural healingmodalities such as bodywork and massage, psychotherapy, diet, and movement prac-tices to heal specific injuries and conditions, to alleviate the detrimental effects ofstress, and to improve the quality of life.

The methods in this section share many philosophical beliefs with the other body-mind disciplines presented in this book. They all see human beings as complex organ-isms of interconnected aspects, complete with their own self-healing/self-regulatingmechanisms. Illness, whether viewed as a chemical imbalance or as a breakdown inan interconnected process involving body and mind, is believed to be continually per-petuated by a malfunction or block in the self-regulating mechanism. The goal of eachof the methods described in this section is to remove blocks in the self-regulatingmechanism so that it can bring the body and mind back into balance.

Because sensory therapies view human beings as an integral part of nature, theybelieve the means to remove these blocks, or stimulate the self-healing mechanism,can be found in natural elements and processes. What distinguishes these methods

from any other holistic healing modalities is their use of the sense organ —eyes, ears,nose, taste buds, and skin—as the primary entry point to the interconnected systemsof body, mind, and spirit.

Western Science’s Theories on Sensory TherapiesAlthough human beings have reaped the benefits of sensory therapies for cen-

turies, advances in scientific research in the latter part of the twentieth century havegiven the Western medical community new information about the connectionsbetween the senses and other systems of the body.

Today scientists have identified that the limbic system, which controls heart rate,blood pressure, breath rate, and hormone levels, is highly sensitive to odors and alsostores emotional memories. It is believed to be the system activated through aro-matherapy and the use of flower remedies. The nervous system, with its thousands ofreceptors on the surface of the skin and access to every organ of the body, is thoughtto be the primary system activated through the many external forms of hydrotherapy.Light therapy seems to achieve its effects through the endocrine system. This systemis stimulated when light- and color-sensitive photo receptors in the eyes convert sun-light into electrical impulses, which are sent along the optic nerve to the brain.

While this scientific information may be reassuring to some, it is admittedlysketchy to others, and few advocates of sensory therapies would aim to convince aprospective practitioner of a method’s efficacy based solely on current Western scien-tific knowledge. But with ever greater interest in drug-free, nonsurgical methods ofhealth maintenance and healing and ever greater development of scientific researchmethods, the time may not be distant when the many healing effects of these meth-ods will be fully understood.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

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Further Reading:

Bates, William H., M.D. The Bates Method for Better

Eyesight Without Glasses. New York: Henry Holt,

1940.

Buchman, Dian Dincin. The Complete Book of

Water Therapy. New Canaan, CT: Keats Publish-

ing, Inc., 1994.

Devi, Lila. The Essential Flower Essence Handbook.

Carlsbad, CA: Hay House, Inc., 1996.

Dewhurst-Maddock, Olivea. The Book of Sound

Therapy: Heal Yourself with Music and Voice.

New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 1993.

Kelville, Kathi, and Mindy Green. Aromatherapy: A

Complete Guide to the Healing Art. Freedom, CA:

The Crossing Press, 1997.

Kennedy, Teresa. Sensual Healing: An Elemental

Guide to Feeling Good. New York: M. Evans and

Company, Inc., 1996.

Scheffer, Mechthild. Bach Flower Therapy: Theory

and Practice. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press,

1988.

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AROMATHERAPY

A romatherapy is a branch of herbalmedicine in which aromatic plantextracts are inhaled or applied to

the skin as a means of treating illness andpromoting beneficial changes in moodand outlook. Though aromatherapy andherbal medicine use many of the sameplants, in aromatherapy the plants aredistilled into oils of exceptional potency.As much as three thousand pounds of aplant may be consumed in the produc-tion of one pound of “essential oil” suit-able for aromatherapy.

The therapeutic power of such oils isgenerally attributed to their ability toinfluence the workings of the limbic sys-tem, the “switchboard” in the brain thatcoordinates mind and body activity. Whena small amount of oil is rubbed into theskin or inhaled, it sets off a chain reactionthat leads to rapid, profound alteration inmemory, heart rate, and other bodilyprocesses. Most recipients choose oils thatpromote relaxation, but certain oils canboost energy, and others are thought tohave pharmaceutical properties.

The 1990s saw an explosion of scien-tific interest in all aspects of aromather-apy. It is, however, an ancient mode ofmedicine that can be traced back to thedawn of civilization.

A Long HistoryIn ancient Egypt, extracts of plants weremixed with animal oil to form aromaticbalms thought to be of inestimableworth in proper care of the person’swhole being, mind, body, and soul. Thebalms were rubbed into the skin andhair for medicinal as well as cosmeticpurposes and burned in religious ritualsat temples and tombs. The practice ofmummification was itself a type of aro-matherapy, since the body was pre-served and purified through thesystematic application of balms.

While the ancient Greeks and Romansdid not practice mummification, theyemployed aromatic balms much as theEgyptians had. Balms were regarded as

medicine, as luxurious items of personalcare, and as offerings in religious rituals.Renaissance paintings that depict theThree Wise Men presenting gifts of frank-incense and myrrh to the infant Christ arean example of the ancient ritual use ofaromatic balms.

Modern aromatherapy is based onthe research of a French chemist, René-Maurice Gattefosse, who recognized thehealing powers of the substances rou-tinely made into perfumes. In 1928, hepublished a paper that gave the medici-nal use of plant oils a name, “aro-matherapy,” as well as introducing a setof principles.

These principles were developed bya handful of French and English scien-tists, most notably Marguerite Mauryand Jean Valnet, who compiled data andpublished a number of books, includingValnet’s classic, The Practice of Aro-matherapy. But awareness of thebenefits of aromatherapy was confinedto European circles until the advent ofholistic medicine swept it into promi-nence in the United States.

By 1990, aromatherapy had sparked anationwide boom in the sale of incense,scented candles, and bath oils andbecame a popular adjunct of massageand stress-management programs.Today, Egyptian, ayurvedic, Chinese, andNative American practices are all beingstudied with a view toward scientificadaptation. Drug-free treatments forshingles and herpes have already beendeveloped, and there are indicationsessential oils can also be helpful in treat-ing colds and similar airborne infectiousdiseases, arthritis, and muscle disorders.

The Power of FragranceAromatherapy is based on the belief thatplants, particularly flowers and herbs,have healing properties that can be con-centrated when the plants are distilledinto fragrant oils. The aroma of the oils isby no means simply an attractive extra,like the candy coating on a bitter pill.The limbic system of the brain is highlysensitive to odors and routinely encodesthem into patterns of associations and

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Aromatherapy, a branch of herbal medicine, uses aromatic plant extracts in oils and fragrant can-dles to awaken memories that alter basic physical functions, such as heart and breath rate.

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memories that are ever present withinthe unconscious. Because the limbicsystem is also a “switchboard” control-ling heart rate, blood pressure, breath-ing, and hormone levels, aromaprovides a subtle yet effective way toinduce beneficial changes in the vitalfunctions of the organism.

When essential oils are rubbed intothe skin, the power of their fragrance isthought to be increased by their abilityto penetrate bodily tissue and makeswift entry into the bloodstream. In thecase of eucalyptus, for example, theaction is said to be anti-inflammatoryin nature. Other oils are believed tohave antiviral, antibacterial, or detoxi-fying powers.

Approximately three dozen essentialoils are now in common use amongAromatherapists. Though the oils can beadministered separately, a typical treat-ment entails a blend of oils made to suitthe physiological and psychologicalneeds of the individual. It is for this reason

that aromatherapy is often described asan art and a science. The rules governingthe mixing and application of the plantextracts have to be interpreted in a waythat is sensitive to the person’s inner andouter condition.

Using AromatherapyAromatherapy can be performed byeither a practitioner who is likely to spe-cialize in both aromatherapy and tradi-tional herbal medicine or a massagetherapist who includes aromatherapy inhis or her regimen. It is also possible toapproach aromatherapy as home care,using products bought at a holistic healthcenter or ordered from an aromatherapyinstitute. Generally speaking, beginnersare advised to consult an expert beforeembarking on aromatherapy.

Once the appropriate essential oilshave been acquired, they are eitherinhaled or applied to the skin through oneof several methods. The oil can be put ona piece of cotton that is held close to the

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nose and sniffed. Diffusers that dispersethe oil into the air are equally effective.

The manner in which the oils areapplied to the skin depends in part onthe nature of the problem being treated.Herpes lesions respond to direct appli-cation of oil, whereas relief from stresscustomarily requires soaking in bathwater containing some essential oil.When the oils are incorporated intomassage, they are always mixed with acarrier lotion such as jojoba.

An Effective TreatmentAromatherapy can bring relief fromstress and promote a sense of well-beingthat activates the organism’s capacity forself-healing. It has also been used effec-tively in the treatment of burns, insectbites, bruises, disorders of the skin rang-ing from acne to herpes, indigestion,colds, flu, and immune deficiencies.

As a caution, no aromatherapy treat-ment should ever involve more than a fewdrops of essential oil. Overdosage maycause a severe toxic reaction. A physician’sguidance is required if the oil is to beplaced on the tongue or swallowed.

Resources:

Aromatherapy Seminars

3379 S. Robertson Boulevard

Los Angeles, CA 90034

Tel: (800) 677-2368

Offers a variety of educational services in aro-

matherapy, including introductory and advanced

training programs, correspondence courses, and

videotapes.

National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy

P.O. Box 17622

Boulder, CO 80398-0622

Tel: (303) 258-3791

Provides courses in aromatherapy and a nation-

wide referral service for aromatherapists.

The Pacific Institute of Aromatherapy

P.O. Box 6842

San Rafael, CA 94903

Tel: (415) 479-9121

A research and teaching institute that offers indi-

vidual and group courses in aromatherapy.

Further Reading:

Lavabre, Marcel. Aromatherapy Workbook.

Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press, 1990.

Rose, Jeanne. The Aromatherapy Book: Applica-

tions and Inhalations. Berkeley, CA: North

Atlantic Books, 1992.

Tisserand, Robert. Aromatherapy to Heal and

Tend the Body. Santa Fe, NM: Lotus Light Press,

1988.

Valnet, Jean. The Practice of Aromatherapy.

Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 1990 (first pub-

lished 1977).

BATES METHOD

The Bates method is a system ofholistic eye care that uses mentaland physical exercises, rather than

corrective lenses, to improve chronicproblems of vision. It is named after itsfounder, the American ophthalmologistWilliam Bates (1860–1931), who chal-lenged the medical establishment byascribing poor sight to habitual misuseof eye muscles caused ultimately byemotional stress. Bates believed thedamaging habits could be unlearnedthrough application of a daily routine ofexercises designed to relieve tension inthe eye muscles and teach the eyes tofunction in a relaxed, natural way. Con-temporary vision training makes exten-sive use of these exercises.

A Controversial Treatment Bates was a prominent ophthalmologistin New York City when he began to doubtthe fundamental principles of his profes-sion. Problems of vision were generallyconsidered hereditary or part of the agingprocess and treated with prescriptionglasses, which did little to halt, let alonereverse, the weakening of vision.

After several years of research, Batespublished a controversial book, Better

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Though contemporary vision training incorporates many new techniques, it is based onBates’s approach and makes extensive use of the exercises he devised. These have alsobeen an important resource for airline pilots and athletes seeking to strengthen theireye-brain coordination.

Eyesight Without Glasses (1920), in whichhe argued that the standard treatmentwas not only based on false premises butactually damaged patients’ ability torecover. Glasses, Bates reasoned, rein-forced bad use of eye muscles, causedinitially by psychological tension, anddestined their wearers to a lifetime ofimpaired vision. The remedial exercisesrecommended by Bates proved to be ascontroversial as his attack upon pre-scription glasses and found little supportin professional circles.

Nonetheless, the Bates method didattract followers and had some notablesuccesses. One of these success storieswas the British writer Aldous Huxley. Inan essay about his experiences with thetreatment, Huxley contended that ques-tions concerning the “orthodoxy” of theBates method were misinformed. It is, heexplained, “a method of education, fun-damentally similar to the method ofeducation devised and successfully usedby all the teachers of psycho-physicalskills for the last several thousand years.”

Practitioners believe that the Batesmethod is a pioneering form of biofeed-back and stress-reduction training. Inaddition, Bates is notable as one of thefirst doctors to recognize the relation-ship between vision and emotional dis-turbance, an insight of vast significanceto fields ranging from special educationto sports to the study of art.

Reeducating the EyeAccording to Bates, “we see very largelywith the mind and only partly with theeyes.” This hypothesis led Bates toregard vision as inherently individualand variable: mood, memory, health,and circumstances play a role in whatand how a person sees.

His primary concern was the func-tioning of the six muscles controlling theshape of the eye. In his opinion, theydetermine the eye’s ability to focus and,therefore, constitute the all-importantlink between mind and vision. Accumu-lated tension in any of these small mus-cles could gradually weaken vision,producing nearsightedness, farsighted-ness, astigmatism, or a condition suchas “lazy eye.” Conversely, Bates argued,releasing the tension and encouragingthe muscles to regain their innate flexi-bility and strength could repair poorvision.

Bates’s understanding of vision isbased on the behavioral model ofhealth, also crucial to the Alexandertechnique, which credits the organismwith the ability to heal itself once“blocks” in its natural operation areremoved. To this end, he formulated aset of eye exercises, commonly referredto as the Bates method, which hebelieved could “reeducate” the musclesof the eye.

No doubt, the most surprising ofBates’s training exercises is one that turnsthe vision test chart into a memory device.By memorizing the letters and numberson the chart, trainees simultaneouslysharpen their acuity of vision and assumemastery of a source of anxiety. Most of theexercises were designed to stop the habit-ual staring Bates identified as a primesymptom of “blocked” vision. In “shifting,”the trainee learns to look “through”objects, while in “swinging,” they movetheir eyes in accordance with a rhythmicside-to-side swaying of the body.

A Flexible and Demanding TreatmentTreatment with the Bates method isavailable from optometrists who have

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specialized in vision training. Programsof therapy are adjusted to meet theindividual’s need and are likely toinclude recently developed techniquesor updated versions of the Bates exer-cises. In most cases, therapy entailsseveral months of weekly training ses-sions and faithful performance of aroutine of daily exercises at home,school, or work.

Benefits and RisksThe Bates method is credited with dra-matic improvement in the vision ofmany people required to wear correctivelenses because of a common visionproblem. By relieving a key pocket ofstress, it is also thought to enhance theindividual’s sense of well-being andsometimes can speed recovery fromother disorders.

But the Bates method, with or with-out a comprehensive vision trainingprogram, should not be considered anappropriate treatment for cataracts,glaucoma, or other diseases of the eye.Anyone with these or related problemsis advised to consult a licensed ophthal-mologist.

Resources:

College of Optometrists in Vision Development

P.O. Box 285

Chula Vista, CA 91912

Tel: (619)425-6191

Fax: (619)425-0733

A professional organization for optometrists spe-

cializing in the Bates method and other techniques

of vision training.

Further Reading:

Bates, W. The Bates Method for Better Eyesight

Without Glasses. New York: Henry Holt & Co.,

1987 (first published 1920).

Cheney, E. The Eyes Have It: A Self-Help Manual

for Better Vision. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weis-

er, Inc., 1987.

BEHAVIORAL VISION THERAPY

Behavioral vision therapy is an opto-metric specialty that uses a visualtraining regimen to improve vision

by strengthening the vital link betweenthe mind and the eye complex. In con-trast, surgery for eye-muscle problemstargets the physical structure of the eyewhile neglecting the mental aspects ofseeing and therefore may produce less-than-desirable results. Behavioraloptometrists consider environmentalfactors that affect vision as well as psy-chological and physiological factorsthat may contribute to—and resultfrom—vision difficulties. With visiontraining, significant improvements insocial, academic, and athletic skills canbe achieved.

The History of Behavioral VisionTherapyIn the mid-1800s, the French ophthal-mologist Emile Javal developed a scien-tific and nonsurgical method of visualrehabilitation known as orthoptics afterwitnessing the horrible outcomes of eyesurgery for both his father and sister.Orthoptics was designed to treatimproper eye alignment, specificallycrossed eyes (inward turn), wall eyes(outward turn), and lazy eyes (visualimpairment not correctable by glasses).Modern vision therapy, an advancedform of the orthoptic eye exercisesdeveloped by Dr. Javal, deals with amuch wider variety of visual and per-ceptual problems while also consider-ing their effects on behavior andperformance. By the twentieth centurythe practice of orthoptics had pro-gressed significantly in England andFrance.

The dawn of orthoptics in the UnitedStates occurred in 1912. This was theresult of the publication of a compre-hensive text on stereoscopic, or three-dimensional (3-D), eye exercises by Dr.David Wells, an ophthalmologist atBoston University Medical School. A

Behavioral Vision Therapy

large part of this classic text is devotedto the treatment of eye-muscle prob-lems that are harder to diagnosebecause they are not as easily recog-nized as crossed or wall eyes, whichhave a definite observable cosmeticcomponent. Wells believed that subtleeye problems were more common thanthe visibly obvious eye turns. Wells pro-posed the idea that having a singleunified vision of the world through twoeyes is an important and complex psy-chic ability, and that “its inefficiencycould result in an inability to fix one’smind on study and reading.” Wells alsostrongly felt that the clinicalsignificance of common eye problemswas largely ignored by practicing oph-thalmologists. Many modern practi-tioners of vision therapy feel that this isstill a problem among ophthalmolo-gists.

The Optometric Extension Program(OEP), postgraduate study dedicated toeducation and research in vision, wasestablished in 1928. OEP representedthe earliest organized approach toorthoptics within the optometric pro-fession, and it is still a vital force in thefield of behavioral vision care today. Aleading figure in OEP, Dr. A. M.Skeffington, broadened the orthopticapproach, giving it a much more holis-tic base. He introduced the idea thateye-muscle and focusing deficiencies,rather than developing spontaneously,may evolve as a person grows andadapts to the environment. Skeffingtonand other behavioral optometrists alsointroduced the revolutionary conceptsof reducing and controlling nearsight-edness and improving focusing abilitythrough vision training.

A Humanistic Approach to VisionModern vision therapy is based on theconcept that vision is a dynamic processmade up of numerous skills that can belearned through training. In addition,vision is a process influenced by emo-tions, intellect, posture, breathing, phys-iology, visual working habits, lighting

conditions, diet, and by our own styleof visual perception. An expanded,humanistic approach to vision furthermaintains that total visual perfor-mance cannot be adequately reducedto a single measurement such as 20/20.More traditional methods measurevisual performance by reading charts ata distance of twenty feet, assessing theability to focus on stationary imagesdirectly ahead. The rating 20/20 isequated as “perfect vision.” It has neverbeen scientifically or clinically validat-ed that 20/20 endows us with the abili-ty to see with comfort, efficiency,meaning, or while in motion. As theeducational consultant Sally Brocketthas written, “When we speak of vision,we are referring to the ability of thebrain to organize and interpret infor-mation seen so it becomes understand-able or meaningful. Even individualswith good eyesight (20/20 acuity) canhave undiagnosed vision problems thatmake it difficult to correctly compre-hend the visual message.” Althoughtesting for 20/20 is clinically valid, thismeasurement is only a partial assess-ment of an extremely complex process.According to behavioral optometrists,traditional eye-care methods—thoserepresented by the simple chart test—need to be supplemented by moredynamic approaches to testing andenhancing visual performance.

The “Eye Gym”: ExperiencingBehavioral Vision TherapyParticipants in a behavioral vision thera-py program have all aspects of their visu-al performance tested and trained in an“eye gym,” which has an almost carnival-like appearance. It consists of walkingrails, balance boards, trampolines, eye-exercise equipment, metronomes,focusing charts, special training lensesand prisms, strobe lights, and otherlight-therapy devices. This equipment isused to improve visual comfort, efficien-cy, and performance. Exercises vary indifficulty and frequently involve severaldifferent kinds of sensory information

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Optometrist Dr. Joseph Shapiro uses physical behavioral vision therapy exercises to help ayoung girl improve her vision.

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presented simultaneously to the patient.For example, an individual may stand on abalance board and attempt eye-handcoordination tasks while trying to performin time with a metronome. The exercisesare repeated and, over time, they increasein difficulty until the individual graduallyenhances neurological response related tovision and establishes good habits.

Visual biofeedback is commonlyincorporated into treatment, giving theindividual a physiological readout ofcurrent performance levels. Often peo-ple are unaware of the extent, nature, oreven presence of eye problems. Feed-back indicators show blurring, dou-bling, or vanishing of an image. Trainingtechniques are designed to isolate andhighlight symptoms of eye dysfunction,enabling the individual to better recog-nize, understand, and respond to thespecific features of his or her visionproblems. The individual is taught tosend a conscious message to the eyes torestore the clarity, singleness of vision,or presence of the image. This practice

strengthens the eye and brain connec-tion and can improve performance inmost cases. An example of an opticaldevice used for a biofeedback sessionmight be a pair of glasses with one redlens and one green lens. An individualwearing these glasses and looking at abeam of light should perceive only a sin-gle light that is a red-green mixture thatresults from the brain’s combination ofsensory input received through the redlens and the green lens. In contrast, anindividual who perceives two separatelights, one red and one green, has dou-ble vision. Alternatively, the person whoperceives only one colored light, eitherred or green, is relying primarily on oneeye to see. Now the individual has con-crete, understandable feedback thatsomething is wrong, and can start work-ing on consciously changing the incor-rect response. Through practice, theproper response may become naturallyand unconsciously incorporated intothe individual’s daily performance.Depending on the individual’s level of

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The study of developmental vision, that is, of the development of the faculty of sight,emerged in the 1950s. The Gesell Institute of Child Development in New Haven, Con-necticut, sponsored controlled studies of children and served as a training ground foroptometrists in applied research. Working on the premise that newborn children do nothave the visual abilities of adults, researchers at the Gesell Institute tested the eyesight ofinfants over a period of time in order to identify the components involved in the devel-opment of vision.

performance during a treatment session,home exercises are usually prescribed.

Conditions Helped by BehavioralVision TherapyConditions that might bring you to abehavioral optometrist include persistenteye strain, blurring or double vision,headaches, short attention span, learningproblems or reading discomfort, lazy eyeat any age, eye-muscle problems, depth-perception difficulties, or worsening eye-sight. Behavioral optometrists can offeralternative therapies if you are having eyeor vision problems and the only solutionoffered by other doctors is another pair ofglasses, or you are told that you have 20/20vision and thus there is nothing wrongwith your eyes. Behavioral optometristscite examples in which proper assessmentand treatment of vision problems havehelped children with behavior problemsparticipate productively in the classroom;improved the performance of top athletes;and given children the confidence to takepart in social activities that previouslymight have drawn attention to their visiondifficulties.

—Dr. Joseph Shapiro, Optometrist

Resources:

American Optometric Association

243 N. Lindbergh Blvd.

St. Louis, MO 63141

Tel: (314) 991-4100

Fax: (314) 991-4101

Professional society of optometrists. The associa-

tion will provide referrals to behavioral

optometrists upon request.

College of Optometrists in Vision Development

(COVD)

P.O. Box 285

Chula Vista, CA 91912

Tel: (619) 425-6191

Fax: (619) 425-0733

Organization for optometrists involved in orthop-

tics and optometric vision therapy. It publishes the

Journal of Optometric Vision Development quar-

terly.

Optometric Extension Program Foundation

1921 E. Carnegie, Suite 3L

Santa Ana, CA 92705

Tel: (714) 250-8070

Fax: (714) 250-8157

Arranges conferences and seminars as well as pub-

lishes the Journal of Behavioral Optometry

bimonthly.

Further Reading:

Beverstock, Caroline. Your Child’s Vision Is Impor-

tant. Newark, DE: The International Reading

Association, 1990.

Brockett, Sally. “Vision Therapy: A Beneficial Inter-

vention for Developmental Disabilities.”

Web site: www.autism.org/visual/htm

Cohen, Neville S., and Joseph L. Shapiro. Out of

Sight and into Vision. New York: Simon &

Schuster, 1977.

Dawkins, Hazel Richmond, et al. The Suddenly

Successful Student: A Guide to Overcoming

Learning and Behavioral Problems. Second

revised edition. Santa Ana, CA: Optometric

Extension Program, 1990.

Flax, Nathan, ed. Vision Therapy and Insurance: A

Position Statement. New York: State University

of New York/State College of Optometry, 1986.

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Keogh, Barbara, and Michelle Pelland. “Vision

Training Revisited.” Journal of Learning Dis-

abilities, Vol. 18, No. 4, April, 1985.

Marcus, Steven E., and Arthur S. Seiderman. 20/20

Is Not Enough: The New World of Vision. New

York: Knopf, 1989.

Toufexis, Anastasia. “Workouts for the Eyes.”

Time, February 13, 1989.

Wells, David Washburn. Stereoscopic Treatment of

Heterophoria and Heterotropia. New York: E. B.

Meyrowitz, 1912.

EYE MOVEMENT DESENSITI-ZATION AND REPROCESSING

Eye movement desensitization andreprocessing (EMDR) speeds recov-ery from a traumatic event by sepa-

rating upsetting memories into basicparts. The therapy typically involves sim-ple exercises such as using the eyes totrack a rapidly moving object. While dis-cussing the upsetting events, these move-ments in the body create a reaction in themind, desensitizing the brain to the dis-turbing sensory and emotional aspects ofa memory and allowing the sufferer tobegin reprocessing that trauma in thepresent. Traditional psychotherapy isthen used to help the client digest thetrauma and store it. While the mechanicsof EMDR are not fully understood, it hasgained particular respect for its applica-tion in cases of post-traumatic stress dis-order (PTSD), a common conditionamong Vietnam veterans and rape vic-tims. It can also be used to help processless acute traumas such as negative child-hood experiences, which can lead to poorself-esteem and unhappiness.

A History of EMDREMDR emerged from the experiences ofFrancine Shapiro, Ph.D. While taking awalk in 1987, Dr. Shapiro noticed that

disturbing thoughts that she was havingsometimes disappeared suddenly. Whenshe consciously brought these thoughtsback, they held none of the previous “hot”or negative weight. She later realized thatat the time of her original thoughts, hereyes had spontaneously begun a rapidback-and-forth motion. Dr. Shapiro theo-rized that the removal of the upset fromthe memory might be linked to that move-ment, and tested her theory as treatmentfor post-traumatic stress disorder. Initialsuccess in small, controlled studiesencouraged her to pursue research furtherand to found the EMDR Institute. Since1990, more than 22,000 therapists world-wide have been trained in this method.

The Theory of EMDREMDR helps to reprocess memories thatwere not properly handled by the brainwhen they initially occurred. EMDR theo-ry asserts that the brain handles “mem-ory” as a package of five distinctinformation components: the picture orimage, the thought or auditory bundle, anemotional feeling, a physical sensation,and the belief about oneself that resultsfrom the event. This information is per-ceived via the senses as what we see, hear,smell, touch, and taste. Under normal cir-cumstances, the brain metabolizes, orprocesses, these five types of informationby talking, thinking, and dreaming aboutthem. Through these activities, the brainsorts the information, storing the valuableaspects for easy retrieval and discardingsmaller, insignificant bits of data.

In traumatic situations, however, thisnatural process does not always functionproperly. A malfunction may leave theinformation in a distressing, “undigest-ed” state. In such cases, the mind locks allfive types of information together, sur-rounding the resulting lump with nega-tive emotional energy. The event thusbecomes a blockage in the mental stor-age system. Any attempt to access infor-mation from the event stirs the negativeenergy surrounding it. In severe cases,this negative energy overwhelms anddebilitates the sufferer. In these situa-tions, the normal processes of thinking,

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing

talking, and dreaming are inadequateways of handling these blockages. Just asa cut will not properly heal as long as asplinter is still in it, the body’s normalprocesses can, at best, only work arounda damaged memory bundle.

EMDR may act as a more intenseversion of rapid eye movement (REM)sleep, harnessing the body to effect achange in the mind. The mechanics ofthe EMDR and REM sleep are similar.During REM sleep, a dreamer’s eyesmove rapidly from side to side. Dr.Shapiro believes that this eye move-ment stimulates links between the twosides of the brain. Because each side ofthe brain serves a different role—the leftside is the positive, analytical side,while the right side is the less linear,more sensory-oriented side—this linkthrough REM seems to help informa-tion pass between the two sides and beprocessed. Hence, REM is one catalystfor natural memory “digestion.”

Yet normal REM sleep cannot pene-trate some particularly severe hurts. Asthe patient’s unconscious seeks toaccess the memory through REM sleep,the sleeper’s mind re-creates the painfulnegative sensations that occurred at thetime of the hurt. Once awake, the rightand left sides of the brain are no longerable to continue their information pro-cessing. The hurt remains locked in thebody and mind.

Just as a car engine must be properlywarmed up to tackle steep hills, anactivity of the body—eye movement—warms the brain to the task of unravel-ing even the most dense ball of hurt. Itis believed that the conscious rapid eyemovement powerfully ignites one sideof the brain, then the other in rapid suc-cession, until finally both sides churntogether. Once warmed like this, thesubconscious is empowered to processthe hurt without undue discomfort tothe patient. The splinter being thusremoved, normal healing begins.

Following the BatonA typical EMDR session lasts ninety min-utes. The patient is asked to think about

the disturbing event. The practitionerthen asks the patient to follow the thera-pist’s fingers or a light bar with his or hereyes. The patient continues thinking ofthe memory as the practitioner movesthe fingers or pointer rapidly from side toside. The participants then stop and dis-cuss any information or revelations thatoccurred while the patient’s eyes weremoving. For most people, the traumaticevent feels unexplainably less traumaticand more clear or more distant. The suf-ferer can finally talk with some detach-ment about the event, which enables thebeginning of the healing process.

Risks and BenefitsIn many case studies, EMDR has helped victims of PTSD and other anxiety-rid-den conditions cope with their condi-tions. The therapy is still largelyunproved, however, and does not workwith all patients. Ideally it should be per-formed in comfortable, stress-free situa-tions and does not affect all people in thesame way. Additionally, EMDR shouldbe performed only by a trained andlicensed/certified psychotherapist.While the therapy may reduce the emo-tional attachment surrounding an event,the patient is still left with factual mem-ories of the unpleasant event, which arebest processed through the therapeuticskills of a trained professional.

—Barbara Parrett, RN, M.S.

Resources:

EMDR Institute, Inc.

P.O. Box 51010

Pacific Grove, CA 93950-6010

Tel: (408)372-3900

Web site: www.emdr.com

Provides information on EMDR.

Further Reading:

Parnell, Laurel. EMDR : The Revolutionary New

Therapy for Freeing the Mind, Clearing the

Body, and Opening the Heart. New York : W. W.

Norton & Co., 1997.

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Shapiro, Francine, M.D. EMDR: Breakthrough

Therapy for Overcoming Anxiety, Stress, and

Trauma. New York: Basic Books, 1997.

———. Eye Movement Desensitization and Repro-

cessing: Basic Principles, Protocols, and Proce-

dures. Guilford, NC: Guilford Press, 1995.

FLOWER REMEDIES

Flower remedies are liquid prepara-tions made from the floweringheads of plants and trees that are

used to deal with emotional and psy-chological difficulties. These difficultiesinclude fear, lack of self-confidence,jealousy, anger, and resentment, and arebelieved by alternative health-care pro-fessionals to be one of the root causes ofphysical disorder.

Flower remedies are not chosenaccording to physical ailments butinstead are selected based on emotionaland psychological difficulties, whichinclude information on personality andbehavioral traits. Once administered, it isbelieved that flower remedies trigger amechanism within the brain that stimu-lates the body’s internal healing process-es, eventually resulting in a healthieremotional, psychological, and physicalstate. Flower remedies have been usedsuccessfully not only on humans but alsoto deal with negative emotional andbehavioral traits in animals.

Nature’s RemediesIn the early 1930s Dr. Edward Bach, ayoung British physician, discoveredthat many of his patients displayed var-ious emotional and psychologicaldifficulties prior to the onset of physi-cal disease. He also found these samedifficulties would complicate diseaseonce it manifested, thereby making itmore difficult to treat. The doctor’s priorexperience with pharmaceutical drugsand their side effects convinced him theanswer to this dilemma could be found

in nature, not in the laboratory. Bach lefthis practice and decided to research histheories. Leaving his practice toresearch his theories, he began experi-menting with various species of plants.

Thirty-Eight RemediesBelieving the greatest healing valueresides in the flowering heads of plantsand trees, the doctor began developingways to prepare and administer them.Flowers were picked at various times intheir blooming cycle and floated in abowl of freshly obtained spring water, indirect sunlight. Other flowers weregathered and prepared by boiling themin water. These preparations were thenadministered in minute doses accord-ing to the emotional and psychologicalprofile of the patient. After years ofresearch, thirty-eight flowering plants,trees, and special waters were discov-ered, preparations that were found tohave a profound positive effect in awide range of emotional and psycho-logical difficulties.

In the last few decades several com-panies and researchers have producedthese same thirty-eight flower remedypreparations under different brandnames, and have also produced otherflower remedy preparations from newlydiscovered flowering plants found inother parts of the world.

Deeply visionary, Dr. Bach wrote:“All emotional, psychological, andphysical disorder grows out of a conflictbetween our personality and our Soul,”and he believed we should regard ill-ness as a signal that we are out of har-mony within ourselves.

Over the past number of years scien-tists have begun to look at just how neg-ative thoughts and emotions affect ourhealth. Their studies show that if anemotional difficulty is not resolvedwithin a reasonable period of time, gen-erally from six months to a year, seriousinternal problems and eventually phys-ical disease can develop.

In early stages we may see the devel-opment of functional difficulties, whichinclude predisposition to colds and

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Flower remedies are made from the extract of the flowering heads of plants,picked in various points in their blooming cycles, with different types of spring

water and a small percentage of alcohol.

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other infections, sexual dysfunction,headaches, fatigue, allergies, and diges-tive problems. These problems, amongothers, are the first physical warningsigns that we are out of harmony within.And if underlying psycho-emotional andspiritual conflicts are not resolved, phys-ical disease might result. It is here thephysician is generally consulted. To this

Bach wrote: “The main reason for thefailure of modern medicine is that it isdealing with results, not causes. . . . Dis-ease will never be cured or eradicated bypresent materialistic methods for thesimple reason that disease in its origin isnot material, [but the] ultimate resultproduced in the body, the end product ofdeep and long-acting forces. . .”

Why People Use Flower Remedies

• You are very depressed when someone close to you dies.• The personality is part of you which seeks autonomy and individuality, and person-

alizes the situation by asking, “Why did life take this person from me?”• Though there is no scientific explanation for what we call the soul, for our purpose,

we may say that the soul is a part of a person that is transcendental and connectedto a higher order of reality. Being visionary, the soul understands that there is nodeath, that the basis of all living things is energy, which you cannot destroy.

• From this internal conflict, a schism develops, and this is where Dr. Edward Bachhad his most profound insights. He found that the first sign of this schism is theonset of a specific emotional or psychological difficulty. In the example of the lossof a loved one, you might feel resentment developing. Resentment toward life forhaving been unfair, for having taken someone away whom you dearly loved.

• Bach proposed that the manifestation of this resentment directly reflects the con-flict between the personality and the soul, and is the first sign that you have fallenout of harmony within yourself. If left untreated, this disassociation results in phys-ical symptoms and ailments. You might not realize that your illness is a direct resultof this disassociation.

• A flower remedy would relate to the emotional state of mind that you are in andbring about a sense of well-being. It is believed that it will also trigger a mechanismthat stimulates your internal healing system, thereby alleviating the physical symp-toms that resulted from the conflict between personality and the soul.

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Using Flower RemediesFlower remedies are easy to choose anduse. Ellon, Inc., a major internationalsupplier of these flower remedies, pro-vides a free self-help questionnaire onchoosing and applying the remedies.

Once chosen, remedies may be takenany number of ways—directly from theconcentrate bottles under the tongue,by mixing several drops of each remedyin a drink and sipping at intervals, or bymixing several drops of each remedy in aone-ounce dropper bottle with waterand consuming it over a period of time.For people with alcohol sensitivities(most flower remedy preparations con-tain some alcohol as a preservative),these remedies can also be applieddirectly from the concentrate bottle tothe temples, wrists, behind the ears, orunder the arms. This can also be aneffective way of administering flowerremedies to infants and small children.

Flower remedies are known to have aunique and personal effect on each per-son taking them. Remedies are takenuntil difficulties are resolved, when

there is a lifting of the negative emotion-al state, or a stabilizing of overreactivepersonality traits. In general, most peo-ple can resolve difficulties within one totwelve weeks, although some may takelonger. Once these difficulties areresolved, the remedies may be discon-tinued. Often, however, one can experi-ence a “peeling” effect, where one ormore emotional difficulties are resolvedand other underlying emotions emerge.In these and other instances, new reme-dies may be chosen, as needed, by con-sulting the self-help questionnaire.

The Benefits of Flower RemediesSince the mid-1930s, the thirty-eightflower preparations have been usedsuccessfully by countless physiciansand others to deal with a wide range ofdifficulties that include, but are notlimited to, fear, anxiety, uncertainty,indecisiveness, envy, jealousy, and lackof self-confidence. They’ve also beenused to deal with the stress associatedwith everyday problems, such as finan-cial difficulties, relationship problems,

Hydrotherapy

day-to-day worries, periods of transi-tion, and job-related tensions. Addition-ally, preparations of these flowers haveproven effective in dealing with stress-related hyperactivity in children, dietingand eating problems, learning difficul-ties, sleeping problems, and to help easethe trauma of divorce and other loss.

—Leslie J. Kaslof

Resources:

Ellon, Inc.

193 Middle St. Ste. 201

Portland, ME 04101

Tel: (800) 423-2256

Produces and distributes worldwide the thirty-

eight flower preparations. Carries a full line of

flower remedy product information. Also provides

an extremely useful self-help questionnaire for

choosing the thirty-eight flower remedies.

Flower Essence Society

P.O. Box 459

Nevada City, CA 95959

Tel: (916) 263-9162

Disseminates various information about flower

remedies. Sells its own line of flower essences and

imports and distributes other lines of flower reme-

dies.

Further Reading:

Bach, Edward, and F.J. Wheeler. Bach Flower

Remedies. New Canaan, CT: Keats, 1979.

Kaslof, Leslie J. The Traditional Flower Remedies

of Dr. Edward Bach: A Self-Help Guide. New

Canaan, CT: Keats, 1993.

Vlamis, Gregory. Flowers to the Rescue. New York:

Thorsons, 1986.

HYDROTHERAPY

Hydrotherapy is the treatment of injury or disease with the applica-tion of water in one of its three

forms—steam, liquid, or ice. It may beused as hot or cold applications alone,or it may be applied one after the otherin contrasting applications. Hydro-therapy exerts its effects both locallyand at sites away from its application.Its distant effects are mediated througha reflex arc that is a normal function ofthe nervous system. An example of thisreflex action would be the effect ofhydrotherapy on the liver. An applica-tion of heat over the liver will not heatthe liver itself, but through the reflexarc, there will be vasodilation of theliver as if it were heated directly.

Hydrotherapy may be used to aid inthe treatment of addiction throughdetoxification treatments or to aid inthe general mental and physical healthof a person by encouraging relaxation,increasing energy level or vitality, andstrengthening the immune and othertotal body systems.

The Ancient and Modern History ofHydrotherapyHydrotherapy has been employedthroughout the world, from earliestrecorded history to the present. The Egyp-tians, Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese,Native Americans, and numerous othercultures have used water for therapeuticpurposes. Baths, saunas, mineral soaks,flushes, irrigations, steams, and com-presses are just some of the ways waterhas been used for healing purposes. TheGreek physician Hippocrates employedhydrotherapy in the treatment of fevers,ulcers, hemorrhages, and other medicaland surgical conditions. The Roman bathsare a prime example of the social, hygien-ic, and medical uses of hydrotherapy.

Modern hydrotherapy owes much toseveral practitioners of the art. Somewere trained physicians, while otherswere lay practitioners who learnedmore by experience than training. Anineteenth-century Austrian peasant,Vincent Priessnitz (1799–1852), is saidto have treated his own broken ribs withcold water applications, and soonbegan treating others with great suc-cess. German priest Father Sebastian

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Kneipp (1821–1897) was cured of tuber-culosis after he had begun immersinghimself in cold water a few times aweek. His book My Water Cure (1890) isa classic in the field of hydrotherapy.William Winternitz (1834–1912) was aprominent physician who was the firstto demonstrate that hydrotherapy

exerts its greatest influence on the ner-vous system. John Harvey Kellogg(1852–1943) established the Battle CreekSanitorium in Michigan, where hundredsof patients were treated with hydrothera-py, diet, and exercise. Dr. Kellogg wroteRational Hydrotherapy (1900), whichremains the most comprehensive text

Even a pleasurable shower is an example of the soothing powers of water.

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In Bath, England, the same hot springs discovered by Romans in the first century C.E. are still enjoyed fortheir therapeutic value.

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ever written on the subject ofhydrotherapy. It includes more than1,100 pages of text and illustrations.

Today hydrotherapy is used as eithera primary or supplemental therapy by anumber of physicians, physical thera-pists, and psychologists to treat a widerange of conditions, including stress,AIDS, addictions, and allergies.

The Theory Behind HydrotherapyHydrotherapy recognizes the inter-relatedness of the mind and body.Although most hydrotherapy treat-ments aim to relieve a physical condi-tion, the theory supporting thetreatment is always based on theknowledge that the state of the bodyaffects the state of the mind. The chem-icals, nutrients, or toxins that affectboth the mind and body are messen-gers that communicate vital informa-tion connecting the major organs andsystems of the whole person.Hydrotherapy directly stimulates thesemessengers.

External hydrotherapy—the applica-tion of water to the outside of thebody—is divided into three types: hotwater, cold water, or contrast. Hot waterstimulates the immune system torelease white blood cells that removetoxins from the blood. It also relaxesmuscles and soothes nerves. The nervesare responsible for sending all messagesfrom the brain to other areas of thebody and, therefore, play an importantrole in our emotional and mental aswell as physical condition. Cold watercounteracts swelling and inflammationby constricting the blood vessels. Con-trasting applications of hot and coldwater stimulate the endocrine andadrenal glands, reduce congestion, andimprove organ functioning.

Water with a high content of certainminerals can provide additionalbenefits. Water high in sulfur, for exam-ple, can help ease the effects of arthritis,rheumatism, and skin diseases. Bicar-bonated spring water has been used inthe treatment of allergies.

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Hydrotherapy is a holistic approach to healing. It holds that the body-mind has its ownself-regulating and healing processes and mechanisms. By its gentle, noninvasive tech-niques, it aims to stimulate these innate healing capacities.

Internal applications of hydrothera-py may also be made. These may be assimple as drinking water to relievedehydration or as complex as the appli-cation of internal irrigations. Internalirrigations of hydrotherapy are fre-quently used to dislodge unwantedmaterial from the area being irrigated.Ear lavage is used to clean earwax fromthe external ear canal, whereas enemaor colonic irrigation is used to eliminatedry, hard fecal material from the colon.It is, therefore, possible, using internalapplication, to take advantage of thethermal, chemical, and/or mechanicalproperties of water.

Making Use of the Different Properties of WaterThere are countless forms ofhydrotherapy, including baths andsoaks, steams and saunas, irrigationsand flushes, and wraps and compress-es. The chemical properties of waterallow it to be used to dissolve andremove unwanted materials from thebody. This might be done by immersionin a tank of hot water, allowing water-soluble substances to dissolve from theskin. It may also be used in irrigationsapplied to the body. The chemicalproperties of water are also helpful indissolving and applying desirable com-pounds, such as Epsom salts, to thebody. Both internal and external appli-cations may be made using herbal teasand other infusions, such as echinaceaor goldenseal.

The thermal properties of watermake it useful for adding heat to orremoving heat from the body. It can beused to raise a low body temperature orreduce a fever. Hydrotherapy can alsoaid in relieving the heat from inflamma-tions, such as those that might occur

with a sprained ankle, or to add heat torelieve muscle spasms. In addition,water has been found to alleviate thestresses and strains of everyday life, aswell as treating emotional and mentaldisturbances by soothing the nervoussystem.

The mechanical properties of water,in the form of sprays and showers, canbe stimulating to various parts of thebody. The mechanical action of immer-sion in water can exert pressure to helprelieve swelling, provide buoyancy tocounteract the effects of gravity—eas-ing pain and improving movement, andprovide resistance for exercise. For peo-ple whose general body condition is sopoor that “on-land” exercise programsprove impossible, hydrotherapy cancreate the physical environment whereprogress can be made, thus stimulatingthe patient’s motivation—an importantemotional component of the healingprocess.

The Benefits and Contraindicationsof HydrotherapyHydrotherapy treatments strengthenthe body’s own functions and defensemechanisms. They work with the bodyand the mind, enabling them to restorebalance and let healing occur.

When applying hydrotherapy treat-ments, care must be taken with theelderly and the very young. People ofthese ages often have a diminished abil-ity to maintain their body temperatureand, therefore, can be heated or chilledtoo much. Persons with diminishedsensation or poor circulation shouldalso be treated with great care since it ispossible to burn or freeze tissue withouttheir being aware.

—Douglas C. Lewis, ND

Light Therapy

Resources:

American Association of Naturopathic Physicians

2366 Eastlake Avenue., Ste. 322

Seattle, WA 98102

Tel: (206) 323-7610

Provides referrals nationwide to health care

professionals who practice hydrotherapy.

Bastyr University Natural Health Clinic

1307 North 45th St., Ste. 200

Seattle, WA 98103

Tel: (206) 632-0354

A teaching and treatment clinic for the use of

hydrotherapy.

National College of Naturopathic Medicine

11231 Southeast Market St.

Portland, OR 97216

Tel: (503) 255-4860

Offers referrals to naturopathic doctors as well as

training in naturopathic medicine.

Further Reading:

Boyle, Wade, and Andre Saine. Lectures in Naturo-

pathic Hydrotherapy. East Palestine, OH: Buck-

eye Naturopathic Press, 1988.

Croutier, Alev Lytle. Taking the Waters. New York:

Abbeville Press, 1992.

Moor, Fred B., et al. Manual of Hydrotherapy and

Massage. Boise: Pacific Press Publishing Associ-

ation, 1964.

Ruoti, Richard, David Morris, and Andrew Cole.

Aquatic Rehabilitation. Philadelphia: Lippin-

cott, 1997.

Thrash, Agatha, and Calvin Thrash. Home Reme-

dies. Seale, AL: Thrash Publications, 1981.

LIGHT THERAPY

Light therapy is a general term fortherapies that use the entireelectromagnetic spectrum or

specific wavelengths of light to treatphysical and emotional problems.While light therapy draws upon ancientideas about the healing powers of sun-light, it is in many ways a new field stillin the process of conducting clinicalresearch and determining therapeuticapplications. There are many variationsof light therapy. A therapist may directsolid or strobing flashes of light into aclient’s eyes or onto parts of the body.Different types of light, including full-spectrum, ultraviolet, infrared, colored,and laser, are being tested for their abil-ity to treat a wide range of conditions,including depression, insomnia,fatigue, premenstrual syndrome, psori-asis, jaundice, learning difficulties, andaddictions.

The History of Light TherapyFrom ancient to modern times, sunlighthas played a central role in the cure ofdisease. The use of light in modern med-icine began in the early eighteenth andnineteenth centuries as scientists dis-covered the component frequencies ofsunlight and observed its effects on ani-mals and humans. In 1703 English physi-cist Sir Isaac Newton chronicled hispioneering experiments with sunlight inhis book Optiks. He was the first to showthat sunshine’s white light, when passedthrough a prism, divides into sevenwavelengths of the visible color spec-trum—red, orange, yellow, green, blue,indigo, and violet. In the early 1800s twoGerman physicists, John Herschel andJohann Ritter, discovered that sunlightalso contained components of the elec-tromagnetic spectrum not visible to theunaided eye—the longer, slower infraredrays and shorter, faster ultraviolet rays.In 1870, scientists proved that sunlightkills bacteria and other microorganisms.The first surgical theaters used ultravio-let lights to effectively and inexpensivelyreduce airborne microorganisms by 50percent. In 1905 Danish physician Dr.Niels R. Finsen received the Nobel Prizein medicine for establishing that visiblewavelengths of blue-violet and invisible

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The Cameron-Spitler syntonizer, circa 1935, was one of the early syntonic optometry pho-totherapy devices.

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ultraviolet, when isolated and focusedon the body, could cure tuberculosis ofthe skin and other infectious conditions,such as measles and scarlet fever. Finsenalso effectively treated smallpox by usingred light (filtered sunlight or artificiallight that excludes the heating rays ofinfrared and the burning rays of blue-violet and ultraviolet). Psychiatric appli-cations of light therapy began in the1880s, when mental hospitals in Europeand South America routinely calmed agi-tated patients with artificial blue lightand energized depressed and unrespon-sive patients with red light appliedthrough the eyes and on the body.

Throughout the opening decades ofthe twentieth century, therapeutic sun-bathing, a method known as the “suncure,” was a widely prescribed medicaltreatment for tuberculosis, cholera,viral pneumonia, bronchial asthma,gout, jaundice, and severe wounds. Atthe same time, advances in the designof electric lighting made it possible forhospitals in America and Europe to

have “heliotherapy wards” that usedartificial light for the treatment of car-diovascular and degenerative disorders.

After the development of the firstantibiotics in 1938, interest in light ther-apy and other natural healing methodswaned. However, in the 1940s HarrySpitler, a medical doctor and anoptometrist, contributed to the develop-ment of light therapy with his investiga-tion of syntonic optometry. The termsyntonic comes from a Greek wordmeaning “to bring into balance.”Spitler’s treatment used rhythmic flash-ing of colored light into the eyes toimprove visual acuity and coordinationas well as energize and relax the auto-nomic nervous system. The patient’sresponse varies with different flash ratesand colors. He found that warm colors—red, orange, and yellow—were invigorat-ing, while cool colors—green, blue, andviolet—were relaxing. Spitler’s pioneer-ing work demonstrated that light enter-ing the eyes profoundly impacts theautonomic nervous system and the

Light Therapy

endocrine system, balancing importanthormones and brain chemistry.

Current investigations into thera-peutic potentials of light were touchedoff in 1983 by psychiatrist NormanRosenthal’s study of winter depression,or seasonal affective disorder (SAD). Heand his coworkers at the National Insti-tute of Mental Health and more than200 medical colleges around the worldshowed that regular exposure to full-spectrum (artificial lighting that has allthe colors of sunlight) fluorescent lightalleviates the symptoms of SAD in 80percent of people. People with SADbegin to experience symptoms at theonset of winter, usually in September, asthe days become shorter and darker.Rosenthal’s technique is called brightlight therapy, as it uses therapeuticdoses of light more than twenty timesbrighter than typical indoor lighting.Bright light therapy has been used byNASA to adjust the daily rhythms ofspace shuttle astronauts and by mentalhealth professionals to help peoplecope with shift work, jet lag, addictions,and various psychiatric conditions.

The Effects of Light on the BodyMajor physiological processes in the brainand body are switched on and off by thepresence or absence of natural or artificiallight. Biochemical processes triggered bylight include the production of vitamin D,the inhibition of melatonin (a hormonethat affects mood), and the stimulation ofserotonin and norepinephrine (brainchemicals that influence mental alertnessand well-being). Light-sensitive cells inthe eyes called photoreceptors convertsunlight into electrochemical impulses,which are transmitted through the opticnerve to brain centers that affect visionand activate the endocrine system. Manyfunctions necessary to growth and well-being—breathing, sleeping, blood pres-sure, body temperature, appetite, moods,mental acuity, and the immune system—are governed by the endocrinesystem and hence are affected by naturallight.

There is also evidence suggestingthat proper quantities of visually per-ceived light are needed for healthyfunctioning of the cerebral cortex, thepart of the brain that controls motiva-tion, learning, and creativity; the limbicsystem, the part of the brain that storesemotional impressions of the world;and the motor cortex and the brainstem, the parts of the brain that coordi-nate body movement and the mainte-nance of life.

Types of Light TherapyThere are many different ways that lightmay be used in therapy. Goals and tech-niques will differ with each procedure.A therapist may direct the light into aperson’s eyes or on other body parts,and the light shown may be in strobingflashes or as solid light. The benefitsmay be both physical and psychologi-cal. There are several common forms oflight therapy using full-spectrum orspecific frequencies of colored light.

Neurosensory Development. For thelast twenty-five years, optometrist Dr.John Downing has researched, applied,and extended Spitler’s theories and for-mulated a form of light therapy calledneurosensory development. LikeSpitler, Downing promoted the thera-peutic use of strobing colored light. Atypical session begins with a discussionof the participant’s medical and opto-metric history to determine the pro-gram and therapy. Light is administeredwith a device that Downing invented,the photron ocular light stimulator. Ituses a combination of twelve colored-glass filters, from red to violet, placed infront of a special full-spectrum xenonlight with an adjustable strobe capableof flashing from one to sixty cycles persecond.

To determine a program of therapy,the patient is classified as either a slow orfast neurological type, and then the col-ors and flash rates on the photron areadjusted to counteract and balance theperson’s neurological tendencies. Forexample, blue, indigo, and violet, which

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tend to slow down and relax, are flashedslowly (six to twelve times a minute) intothe eyes of a fast neurological individual.Conversely, a slow neurological individ-ual is treated with rapid flashes (thirteento sixty times per minute) of red, orange,and yellow. The typical course of treat-ment entails twenty or more half-hoursessions of light therapy.

These techniques lead to an increasein the patient’s visual field and to a reduc-tion of his or her blind spot, indicatingthat more light energy is reaching thevisual cortex and other key brain struc-tures. Besides visual enhancement, thetypes of individuals who appear to behelped by neurosensory developmentare those with chronic fatigue, menstrualdifficulties, thyroid problems, insomnia,depression, and mental inefficiency.

Brief Strobic Phototherapy. Like neu-rosensory development, this method alsouses the photron. However, the treat-ment goal is different. It is used to helpthe client access his or her thoughts andfeelings and work on the emotional com-ponents of physical illness. Brief strobicphototherapy (BSP) was pioneered by Dr.Jacob Liberman, an optometrist, and Dr.Steven Vazquez, a medical psychothera-pist. In this system the psychotherapistuses strobing colored light to facilitateawareness and resolution of the client’sthoughts, feelings, and memories.

Generally the therapist chooses a colorand flash rate that is emotionally evoca-tive and uncomfortable to the client. Vari-ous colors tend to access differentpsychological content and are selectedaccording to the client’s objectives. Thisstimulation is used to facilitate a partici-pant’s awareness of unresolved, uncon-scious thoughts, feelings, and sensations.At the start of a typical session, the thera-pist uses flashes of colored light to put aperson into a trancelike state. Then theclient engages in a variety of psychologicaltechniques to help facilitate emotionalprocessing, such as talking, deep breath-ing, eye movement, awareness of physicalsensations, and recollection of dreams.The rhythmic colored lights stimulatebrain wave patterns that evoke different

states of consciousness. Clients look intothe light and can easily and rapidly seetheir unconscious material projectedbefore them. By selecting specific colorsand specific strobe rates, desired resultscan be targeted. BSP seeks to releaserepressed traumas or other memories andemotions that may be the root cause of ill-ness. It may be part of treatment for vari-ous psychological problems, includingdepression, anxiety, panic attacks, obses-sive compulsive disorder, addiction, eat-ing disorders, closed brain injuries, anddissociative identity disorder.

Bright Light Therapy. This commonform of light therapy was developed inthe 1980s to treat the condition knownas winter depression, or seasonal affec-tive disorder (SAD). More recently thistherapy has been successfully appliedto a wide variety of psychiatric condi-tions, including sleep difficulties, foodand substance addictions, jet lag,Alzheimer’s disease, and attentiondeficit disorder in children.

The treatment itself is used eitherunder professional guidance or for self-care applications for less serious stresssymptoms. The light is usually viewed athome using a portable light box designedto fit on a desk or table. The participantsits with his or her head and upper bodyfacing about three feet from the light boxand focuses his or her eyes upon a surfaceilluminated by the light, not the light itself.

The full-spectrum fluorescent lightmay be as much as twenty times strongerthan normal room light and is usually themost effective when it replicates the qual-ity of natural light just before dawn or sun-set. The intensity of the light and thescheduling and length of exposure aredetermined on a case-by-case basis. Dailyexposure in the early morning for thirtyminutes to several hours is often recom-mended, and an additional late-afternoonsession may be prescribed. Bright lighttherapy is usually confined to the fall andwinter months, when SAD patients expe-rience severe depression, lethargy, fatigue,decreased energy and activity level, anxi-ety, irritability, lowered sex drive, avoid-ance of social activities, sadness,

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Illumination from a full-spectrum light box helps alleviate the symptoms of seasonal affective disorder (SAD).

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concentration and sleep difficulties, inter-personal difficulties, carbohydrate andsweet cravings, and weight gain. Brightlight therapy is usually discontinued in thespring as the days get longer and brighter.Once a satisfactory regimen is established,it must be maintained to receive maxi-mum benefits. Bright light therapy relievesthe symptoms of SAD; it does not cure thedisorder.

Colorpuncture. This discipline uses alight pen to apply different frequencies ofvisible light on the acupoints and meridi-ans, where needles are placed in a tradi-tional acupuncture treatment. Thisprocedure was developed by Germannaturopath Peter Mandel in the early1970s. A colorpuncture therapist balancesone’s vital energy by either stimulating orsedating it with light. Different colors havedifferent effects. Warm colors, such as redand yellow, are used to add energy whilecool colors, such as green and blue, areused to subtract energy. A therapist maymonitor the status of a client’s energy flow

before and after treatments by taking hisor her pulse or by examining a kirlianphotograph, a black-and-white image inwhich the body’s radiating energyappears. Colorpuncture is often used inplace of acupuncture, especially amongchildren or adults who are frightened byneedles. It has the same applications asacupuncture, including the treatment ofrespiratory and gastrointestinal infec-tions, neurological and muscular difficul-ties, visual and learning problems, andpain. It may be used for stimulation of theimmune system and as adjunctive thera-py for those with mental disorders andaddictions.

There are many other medical appli-cations of light, including ultraviolet(UV) sterilization of human blood (pho-toluminesence) and the UV treatmentof psoriasis and infant jaundice. Thephotodynamic treatment of cancer useslight to activate cancer medications andguide them to diseased tissue. Sometypes of light therapy, such as bright

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light therapy, are becoming more popu-lar in the medical community and maybe used either alone or in combinationwith psychiatric medication. Others,such as syntonic optometry, neurosen-sory development, and brief strobicphotostimulation, are gaining accep-tance as research accumulates.

CautionsIn over two decades of experimental trials,Bright light therapy, neurosensory devel-opment, brief strobic phototherapy, andcolorpuncture have been consistentlyfound to be safe and effective when usedunder the supervision of a competent andlicensed health professional. However, anoverexposure to bright full-spectrum lightcan produce negative side effects, includ-ing eye irritation, headaches, insomnia,and agitation. These can be decreased byreducing exposure time and by sitting far-ther from the light source. Strobic coloredlight stimulation can temporarily stimu-late a “healing crisis,” a temporary exacer-bation of old emotional conflicts orphysical difficulties in the process ofreleasing old traumas.

Each individual’s reaction to lightthrough the eyes and on the body isunique. One in three thousand peoplecan experience photosensitive seizures,brought on by flashing lights such asthose found in video games, televisions,and nightclubs. Individuals with a his-tory of severe emotional difficulties orvisual pathology should not begin pho-totherapy without consulting theirlicensed health care professional.

—Dr. Brian J. Breiling

Resources:

College of Syntonic Optometry

Betsy Hancock, DO

21 East 5th St.

Bloomsburg, PA 17815

Tel: (717) 784-2131

Organization of optometrists who incorporate syn-

tonic light therapy into their work; offers a referral

service.

Health Institute of North Texas

P.O. Box 820963

North Richland Hills, TX 76182

Tel: (817) 268-7050

Fax: (817) 285-7729

e-mail: Vazquez@txcc.net

Holistic treatment center, founded by psychologist

Dr. Steven Vazquez, offering treatment and educa-

tion on brief strobic phototherapy (BSP).

Society for Light Treatment and Biological

Rhythms

10200 West 44th Avenue, # 302

Wheatridge, CO 80033-2840

Tel: (303) 424-3697

Fax: (303) 422-8894

e-mail: sltbr@resourcenter.com

Web site: www.websciences.org/sltbr

Publishes newsletter on medical research on the

use of full-spectrum and colored light.

Universal Light Technologies

P.O. Box 520

Carbondale, CO 81623

Toll-free: (800) 81 LIGHT

Fax: (303) 927-0101

Web site: www.ulight.com

Organization founded by optometrist Dr. Jacob

Liberman that offers treatment and education

with strobic colored light and other modes of light

therapy.

Winter Depression Program

Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center

722 W. 168th Street

New York, NY 10032

Tel: (212) 960-5714

Web site: www.cet.org/cet1996

Clinical program for treatment of SAD headed by

Dr. Michael Terman, pioneer bright light

researcher; also provides information and referrals

for light therapy.

Further Reading:

Breiling, Brian, ed. Light Years Ahead: The Illus-

trated Guide to Full Spectrum and Colored Light

in Mindbody Healing. Berkeley, CA: Celestial

Arts Press, 1996.

Liberman, Jacob. Light: Medicine of the Future.

Santa Fe, NM: Bear & Co, 1991.

Sounding

Mandel, Peter. Practical Compendium of Color-

puncture. Bruchal, Germany: Energetik Verlag,

1986.

Rosenthal, Norman. Winter Blues: Seasonal Affec-

tive Disorder: What It Is and How to Overcome

It. New York, NY: Guilford, 1993.

SOUNDING

Sounding, originally known as ton-ing, is a discipline that developedfrom the belief that being heard is

one of the greatest needs of all people.No matter what our age, it is importantthat we are heard. Often we do not havethe right words that allow others tounderstand exactly what we mean.Sounding strives to improve how peo-ple use their own voice and listeningabilities in order to help them releasemany things that are not spoken andkeep us from feeling as if we are in realcommunication with the world.

Discovering the Power of the VoiceSounding was developed by DonCampbell as a result of nearly fifteenyears of studying voice. Focused onhow sound and music affect learningand health, he created a series of exer-cises meant to improve how peoplecommunicate with themselves and theworld around them. In 1988, he found-ed the Institute for Music, Health, andEducation in Boulder, Colorado, andserved as the Executive Director until1995. Campbell has written severalbooks and produced cassette tapes thatdescribe his theories and outline a pro-gram of sounding exercises. He hastraveled to forty countries teachingmusicians, teachers, physicians, thera-pists, and business trainers the basicprinciples and exercises of sounding.Sounding is now being used in hospi-tals, schools, and educational centersthroughout the world to release stress.

What is Sounding?According to Campbell, the voice is thefirst real tool we ever have to bringattention to ourselves, tell the world weneed something, or even show howhappy we are. The first sounds we makeas infants are “coos” and “woos.” Thereare hums and giggles, slides and wildcurves that our voice projects to let ourparents know that we are experiencingpain, pleasure, or even self-discovery. Alot of sounds that little children makeare actually pleasurable sounds,although that squeak and wreak maydrive others in the room crazy. Once weget to school, we are told to sit down, bequiet, and earn our education. To sitdown and not be able to express ourthoughts freely with the safety of beingunderstood and heard is inhibiting toour minds, bodies, and emotions.

Campbell believes that one of thegreat purposes of education is that welearn to express our thoughts. Some-times our thoughts come out in creativeart forms like music, dance, and paint-ing. Other times our expression comesin writing, and not speech. But it is ourspeech that allows the world communi-ty and our social peers to immediatelyknow what we are thinking.

Yet, says Campbell, we are taughtthat we do not want the world to knoweverything we are thinking. And so weput on a mask, a persona, or a personal-ity that keeps our inner thoughts fromgoing to the outside world. Yet oftenwhen we do not learn to express our-selves and sound our minds and bodies,by the time we are finished with college,we spend a life in tension, repression,and actually harm our body by thestress of not releasing our sounds andour inner thoughts.

Learning to speak our mind, tobecome aware of our body, and to let ouremotions tell the truth is a lifelong educa-tion. Learning to speak involves learningto listen. Listening is not just hearing. It isthe ability to focus on outer informationand attend and reach out into the world.By improving our own listening to thepoint that we genuinely realize that other

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One of Don Campbell’s Sound Therapy Exercises

Let’s begin with a simple exercise. Put your hand to your cheek and begin to hum. HMM-MMMMMMMMMMMM. Now, that does not seem to be a great earth-shaking event.But, if you close your eyes and put both hands on your cheeks and repeat the same humfor a long breath, you will realize that both your cheeks are vibrating. If you bring onehand to the center of your chest and another hand to the top of your head, you are goingto feel different vibrations.

Each vowel has altogether different places where it massages the body. Toning, orsounding, is literally the only way you can massage your body from the inside out.

Begin to experiment with different vowel sounds. The AH is very relaxing and may makeyou groggy or sleepy. The EH is charging and brings your attention to center. The EE isvery sharp and works almost like sonic caffeine upon the body. The HMM is a sound thatallows you to feel your body very effectively. And the OUU is a soothing, cool sound. Pro-longing these sounds for five to ten minutes with your eyes closed and sitting downbrings your body into alignment. This is not so metaphysical. It is actually quite physio-logical. Your brain waves balance left and right, your skin temperature increases, yourmuscles relax, your breath increases, and your heartbeat stabilizes. It is a very healthyoasis in the middle of a busy day.

people may not have the right words orthe right timing to best communicatewith us, we develop a little more patience.

Sounding: A Complementary TherapySounding is a way in which you can bringabout changes in your vocal production,self-expression, and listening abilities byspending just five to eight minutes releas-ing sounds from your body. It is importantto remember that just a gentle hum whiledriving the car, or even while reading andstudying, is used to provide an enormousrelease of energy. Toning, which actuallymeans elongating vowel sounds with arelaxed chin and jaw, relaxes the wholebody and mind. In six weeks of hummingor toning, Campbell believes that a per-son can awaken to a new world of innermassage and vibration.

As a clinician, Campbell has workedwith thousands of people to releasetheir voice by toning. As Campbellstates: “The left brain may think this isoverly simple and perhaps trivial. Butthe rest of the brain and the body enjoysthe vibration and expression.”

Sounding is used as a complemen-tary therapy to a variety of differentphysical and emotional therapies.Because the exercises can be fitted tothe participant’s schedule of treatment,sounding is often used as a warm-upexercise in schools, clinics, and hospi-tals for other activities or therapies.

Everyone Can Benefit from SoundingSounding practitioners believe that one ofthe strengths of this therapy is that every-one can use it with just a relaxed jaw.Whether you are a nurse, doctor, therapist,or teacher, going back to our primal, nat-ural sound can tap elegant, natural path-ways to enlighten our mind and body.

—From an interview with Don Campbell

Resources:

Mozart Effect Center

P.O. Box 4179

Boulder, CO 80306

Tel: (303) 440-8046

Web site: www.mozarteffect.com

Tomatis Method

Provides information on Sounding, including the

cassette sets Heal Yourself with Your Own Voice

(Sounds True, 1991) and The Power of Music (5

tapes, Nightingale Conant, 1995).

Further Reading:

Campbell, Don G. Introduction to the Musical

Brain. St. Louis, MO: MMB Music, Inc., 1983.

———. The Roar of Silence. Wheaton, IL: Quest

Books, 1989.

———. 100 Ways to Improve Teaching Using Your

Voice and Music. Tucson: Zephyr Press, 1992.

———. The Mozart EffectTM. New York: Avon

Books, 1997.

Campbell, Don G., and Chris Brewer. Rhythms of

Learning. Tucson: Zephyr Press, 1991.

TOMATIS METHOD

The Tomatis method is a form ofsound therapy discovered by Dr.Alfred Tomatis in the early 1950s.

The Tomatis method is not a therapy forindividuals who are severely hearing-impaired; instead, it is meant for indi-viduals who have lost the ability tolisten clearly to the world around them.The therapy works to overcome varioushealth problems that can affect an indi-vidual’s ability to listen and communi-cate with others, such as childhood earinfections, stress, accidents or traumas,or major lifestyle disruptions. Consid-ered listening training, Tomatis therapyis accomplished with the aid of an elec-tronic ear, which is a specialized devicethat trains the ear to block out disorderand static. The Tomatis method is alsoused to improve vocal ability, heightencreativity and concentration, improvereading levels, and lessen stress in both children and adults.

The Development of the TomatisMethodAlfred Tomatis was born in 1920 in Nice,France. He studied to be a doctor of med-icine specializing in troubles of the earand language. During his early twenties,he worked for the French Ministries ofLabour and War and the French Air Force.As one of his duties, he investigated hear-ing loss among factory workers con-structing aircraft. At the same time, hetreated a European opera singer who hadlost the ability to sing in tune. WhenTomatis compared the test results forboth the laborers and the singer, hefound the same kind of hearing loss.From those results, he realized that theear and voice are connected. “The voicecan produce only what the ear can hear,”Tomatis said.

From his experiments, Tomatisdeveloped a device called the electronicear, which improves listening, learning,and language by reeducating the ear.The electronic ear exercises the musclesof the middle ear. Special headphonesmake it possible to sense vibrationsthrough bones and increase the ear’sfrequency ranges to sound.

Tomatis then developed a new disci-pline he called audio-psycho-phonology,or APP. It is a science that acknowledgesthe connection between ear, voice, andpsychology. It deals with the functional,social, and psychological factors thatimpact listening, communication, lan-guage, motor control, learning, andhealth.

Tomatis has published fourteenbooks and more than fifty articles thatdocument his research and the neuro-physiology and psychology of listening.Three of his books have been translatedinto English: The Conscious Ear, The Earand Language, and Education andDyslexia.

The Philosophy of the TomatisMethodThe Tomatis method makes a crucialdistinction between listening and hear-ing. Listening is defined as the active

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Paul Madaule, director of the Listening Centre in Toronto, uses the Tomatis methodto help a client adjust his posture to improve listening and speaking abilities.

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ability, intention, and desire to focus onsounds we want to analyze and to rejectthe ones we do not want. Hearing, onthe other hand, is simply the passivereception of sound. Listening is a skillthat can be both lost and recovered. Ourability and desire to listen can be poorlydeveloped, diminished, or even haltedat any stage of our lives. If a person has

difficulty listening to the world aroundhim or her, this dysfunction could resultfrom a health problem like childhoodear infections, accident, trauma, amajor lifestyle disruption, or stress.With the help of the electronic ear, theability (or disability) to listen is some-thing that can be identified, improved,and/or corrected.

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Tomatis in Practice

One of Tomatis’s experiments dealt with children who had learning disabilities. Duringthese tests, he recreated for these children the sound of a mother’s voice to her unbornchild. One autistic child who hadn’t spoken since he was four began to babble like a ten-month-old infant. Tomatis realized how important his method was.

By training the ear and the mind tolisten, the Tomatis method is expectedto improve one’s motivation to commu-nicate and learn.

Experiencing the Tomatis MethodThe program begins with an initialassessment. That is followed by a con-sultation to review the results and therecommendation of a specific program.Once the listening training begins, theindividual listens for two hours eachday. A typical program includes inten-sive sessions (one session per day forfifteen days, eight days, and eight dayswith breaks of three to six weeks sepa-rating the intensives). Longer programsare recommended when severe or long-standing problems exist.

The Tomatis method is providedover an intense but relatively short timespan. Sounds are presented throughspecial headsets with bone and air con-duction. First, the listener does passivesessions of hearing sounds modified bythe electronic ear. The types of soundsused in this phase may include Mozart,Gregorian chant, and the filtered voiceof the patient’s mother. As soon as thefoundation and desire for language andlearning appear, active sessions ofrepeating sounds (humming, words,phrases, and sentences) and readingaloud begin. A microphone connectedto the electronic ear allows the patientto listen to his or her own voice. Whilelistening, children and adults areencouraged to draw or paint, work puz-zles, play games, and relax.

Each listener receives a reassessmentand consultation at the start and end ofeach intensive. These monitor changesand allow for the program to be adjusted

based on the listener’s progress. Parentsreport on the changes they observe intheir children. Adults provide reports onchanges they observe in their own voices,listening, stress levels, creativity, atten-tion, organization, spatial awareness,posture, ability to tune out distractions,desire to express themselves, musicalability, and reading ability. Other struc-tured and unstructured behavioralobservations during the program pro-vide feedback, as do the reports of anyother professionals working with theindividual, such as speech pathologists,psychologists, teachers, physicians, andoccupational therapists.

The Benefits of the Tomatis MethodThe Tomatis method can be helpful for people of all ages and with many typesof problems, including those involvinglearning, language, social interaction,attention deficit, voice, speech, motorcontrol, dyslexia, balance, posture,rhythm, and low motivation. Tomatisfound that these types of disorders arealmost always affected by sound stimu-lation.

—Dr. Billie Thompson

Resources:

Sound Listening and Learning Center (Tomatis

Center)

2701 E. Camelback Rd., Suite 205

Phoenix, AZ 85016

Tel: (602) 381-0086

Fax: (602) 957-6741

e-mail: drbthmpsn@aol.com

Provides information on Tomatis training and

practitioners.

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Sound Listening and Learning Center

200 E. Del Mar, Suite 208

Pasadena, CA 91105

Tel: (626) 405-2386

Fax: (626) 405-2387

Refers practitioners and disseminates information

regarding the Tomatis method.

Further Reading:

Tomatis, A. A. The Conscious Ear. Rhinebeck: Sta-

tion Hill Press, 1991.

———. The Ear and Language. Norval, Ontario:

Moulin Publishing, 1996.

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PART VI: SUBTLE ENERGY

PRACTICES

Do-In • Feng Shui • Magnet Therapy • Polarity Therapy • Qigong • Reiki •SHEN® • Therapeutic Touch

Subtle energy therapiesare bodywork methods thatshare a belief that our phys-ical bodies are surroundedby and imbued with anenergetic essence that isinvisible to the naked eye.Nevertheless, the state ofthis essence is thought to bethe primary cause of healthand disease. Practitioners ofsubtle energy therapies usea variety of techniques toperceive blocks in the flowof this energy and work toalleviate them.

Subtle energy therapiesare part of a larger group ofpractices that have come tobe known collectively asbodywork, a term describ-ing a wide variety of meth-ods that use touch toimprove awareness of feel-ings and sensations in thebody, improve physicalfunctioning, relieve pain,and encourage relaxation.There are many disciplinesin this book that may be included in the category Bodywork. They can be found in thesections entitled Massage, Skeletal Manipulation Methods, Acupuncture and AsianBodywork, Movement Therapy Methods, and Body-Oriented Psychotherapies.

In addition to the energetic bodywork practices traditionally associated with thetitle “subtle energy therapy,” this section also includes non-bodywork practices suchas feng shui and magnet therapy. Feng shui is based on observation of subtle energy

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in one’s environment. Magnet therapy focuses on electromagnetic energy surround-ing and infusing the body and works with this energy in much the same way as subtleenergy practices work with subtle energy.

Subtle Energy Is Known by Many NamesThe concept of an energetic life force has a long and honored tradition throughout

the world. It is the basis of ayurvedic, Asian, Western esoteric, and many modern ther-apeutic health care practices.

The energetic life force has been known by many different names around the worldand throughout time. The Sanskrit word prana means “breath,” and refers to both thematerial air taken into the lungs and the metaphorical breath or energy of life. In thisway prana is similar to the Judeo-Christian concept of “breath” as the essence of lifedescribed in the Hebrew Bible. God breathes life into Adam, thereby changing himfrom inert clay into the first living man.

Chi or qi is the Chinese word used to describe the subtle energy permeating thebody. In the Chinese model chi moves through the body in a series of invisible chan-nels known as meridians. The meridians touch every organ of the body, regulating theflow of chi. Ki is the Japanese name for chi.

The energetic life force has also been known by many names in Western scientifichealth models. The Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460–377 BCE), known as the father oforthodox or allopathic medicine, recognized an invisible life force, which he described asthe body’s own internal healing and balancing mechanism. He believed that the properrole of the physician is to do only what is necessary to aid this invisible healing energy.

From the first through the fourth century CE Gnostic Christian sects in Greece andthe Roman Empire practiced religious healing rituals based on the belief that thedivine spirit of Christ existed literally in each person. Variations of these practices,relying on touch methods of healing, survive to this day and have been incorporatedinto contemporary subtle energy therapies such as reiki and therapeutic touch.

Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843), a German physician working in the latter part ofthe eighteenth century, developed the health care modality called homeopathy basedon his belief in a dynamis, or vital force. Like Hippocrates, Hahnemann believed thatthis invisible energy was the primary healing and life-giving agent of the body.

Another German physician, Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957), working in the earlynineteenth century in Europe and the United States, combined elements of Sig-mund Freud’s groundbreaking psychological theory with his own research into thenature of neuroses and other diseases to create medical orgonomy. Reich believedthat the entire universe was pulsating with an invisible life energy, which he calledorgone, that was to some extent the cause of all health or disease. Contemporary sub-tle energy therapies such as SHEN® and polarity combine various cultural and histor-ical beliefs about the energetic life force with Western psychological and physicalmodalities to improve and maintain the physical, psychological, and spiritual dimen-sions of life.

How Practitioners Locate and Alleviate BlockagesThe techniques developed to encourage the balance and flow of subtle energy

throughout the body are as numerous and creative as the human imagination. They

include physical exercises and breathing practices such as those found in yoga andt’ai chi, meditation methods, herbal remedies such as those used in ayurvedic andtraditional Chinese medicine and homeopathy, and massage techniques such asthose used in acupressure and shiatsu. Most of the specific subtle energy therapiesincluded in this section use techniques similar to forms of massage or bodyworkexcept that they generally rely less on physical manipulation and more on very lighttouch, which is used to perceive and reorganize the body’s internal and external ener-gy fields. Some methods such as qigong or do-in use many methods of manipulatingsubtle energy, including self-massage, massage by others, dietary and herbal prac-tices, and movement exercises. Magnet therapy, a Western approach to manipulatingelectromagnetic energy, considered by some to be the physical explanation of subtleenergy, doesn’t use touch at all, but relies on the force of the positive and negativepulls of strategically placed magnets. Feng shui, the ancient Chinese method of envi-ronmental and spatial design, harmonizes the flow of subtle energy within a personwith the flow of that energy in the environment by carefully attending to the variousshapes and materials in a landscape, house, or room.

Subtle Energy and Western Science Advanced scientific research on the effects of subtle energy is taking place at the Men-

ninger Foundation. Researchers there have observed and witnessed seemingly miracu-lous feats attributed to subtle energy but have yet to prove the existence of subtle energywithin the known physical field as Western science understands it. The Institute ofNoetic Sciences also studies subtle energy and is working toward explaining it inWestern scientific terms. Advanced research by many physicists suggests similari-ties between Western scientific wave/particle and energy theories of the nature ofmatter and the ancient subtle energy theories. Therefore, subtle energy therapiesmay require a leap of faith for some, but for others they may represent the cuttingedge of body-mind-spirit healing today.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

117

Resources:

Institute of Noetic Science (IONS)

P.O. Box 909

Sausalito, CA 94966

Tel: (415) 331-5650

Organization that studies the mind, consciousness,

and human potential. IONS also organizes lectures

and conferences, publishes books and journals,

and offers research grants.

Menninger Foundation

PO Box 829

Topeka, KS 66601-0829

Tel: (913) 273-7500

Training and research center for mental health

professionals. The foundation studies conventional

and unconventional methods of treating mental ill-

nesses.

Further Reading:

Manning, Clark A., and Louis J. Vanrenen, eds.

Bioenergetic Medicines East and West: Acupunc-

ture and Homeopathy. Berkeley, CA: North

Atlantic Books, 1988.

Claire, Thomas. Bodywork: What Type of Massage

to Get and How to Make the Most of It. New

York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1995.

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DO-IN

Do-in is the Japanese name for anancient exercise system thatbrings the mind and body into

concert with the inherent, naturalrhythms of human life. This self-helpprogram, which includes self-acupres-sure, massage, breathing techniques,and physical exercise, enhances theflow of vital life energy in the body. Do-in, however, is more than just relearn-ing ancient lessons. It is the art ofunlearning the artificial habits that weare taught in modern life and a returnto an earlier, more instinctual life.

The Return to Ancient HabitsThe first mention of do-in appears inthe most famous medical treatise ofancient China, The Yellow Emperor’sClassic, or Nei Ching. This third-centu-ry BCE book alludes to a legend inwhich men and women lived as gods,enjoying a healthy, long life withincredible physical, mental, and spiri-tual powers. According to the medicalsage Chi Po, the people of this timelived in a balance typified by the twocomplementary energies of life, yinand yang. Through mental disciplineand careful attention to diet and otherbodily needs, these people were able tolive in harmony with nature and thusattain health and longevity.

As men and women moved into civ-ilized communities, these natural waysof eating and living were forgotten. Thespecial powers that do-in exercises(which resemble yoga postures, breath-ing, and meditative practices) werebelieved to have brought—extra-longlife and the ability to raise the dead,walk on water, foresee the future, com-municate telepathically, and controlthe weather, among others—were lostas well.

According to do-in lore, Taoist sagesin the mountains of India, China, Korea,and Japan preserved the ancient forgot-ten movements and practices. Thesesages, or sen-nin, developed systematic

teachings and exercise routines to helpregain, develop, and maintain goodphysical health and sharp, quickminds. These regimens, known as do-in in Japan and tao-yin in China, werethen written or told to others. Newforms developed in response to thechanging needs of the people. Chikung and t’ai chi ch’üan, which sharemany similarities to the original do-inroutines, can be viewed as later formsof do-in. Many other Asian disciplines,including yoga, karate, judo, aikido,and kung fu, also make use of basictheories of do-in.

Michio Kushi, a leading pioneer ofthe American natural foods move-ments, first introduced do-in to theUnited States. As part of “Macrobi-otics,” Dr. Kushi’s system for practicinga more natural and balanced lifestyle,do-in exercises are used to comple-ment a natural diet of grains, beans,vegetables, and other natural foods.

The Theory of Do-InSeveral years ago, researchers filmedthe movements of sleepers at night.Afterward, when the tapes were spedup, the tossings and turnings of sleep-ers in fact resembled a carefully chore-ographed dance. Practitioners of do-indescribe this “dance” as an instinctualversion of do-in, carried out by thesubconscious mind during sleep.

The movement of humankindtoward civilization was a movementaway from a more natural life. As peo-ple were forced to live according to a“civilized” schedule and ignore theirbody’s urges to eat, sleep, and exerciseat will, the visceral, instinctual natureof people was suppressed and weak-ened. Natural movements were sup-pressed and forgotten. Still,practitioners of do-in believe that theyremain in all of us. Thus, do-in move-ments do not need to be taught somuch as released.

Experiencing Do-InDo-in comprises a regimen of manydifferent exercises. Do-in practices

119

Feng Shui

include self-massage and self-acupres-sure techniques; stretching and twist-ing movements; breathing exercises;meditation and visualization tech-niques; dancelike movements and rou-tines to ease specific ailments; the useof special sounds; and healing with thepalms.

These practices can be done at anytime of the day. Certain exercises aresuggested for morning or evening prac-tice. Loose, cotton clothing is preferred.It is best to practice in a well-ventilatedand well-lit room. When possible, prac-tice outdoors is recommended.

Benefits of Do-InIn do-in and other Eastern healing arts,the body is viewed as having antenna. Itpicks up energy and vibration from itssurroundings. Do-in helps “tune” theseantenna. By practicing the varioustechniques of do-in, the body is able topick up, circulate, and accumulatemore energy from the environment.Once collected, this subtle energy flowsthroughout the body, rejuvenating andenlivening the organs, tissues, cells,and systems. Thus, do-in is doublybeneficial. Even as the body becomesmore healthy through this newly col-lected energy, a healthier body is betterequipped to perform do-in.

Do-in movements mimic the body’sown rhythms such that all people willrecognize them. Still, instruction isencouraged to achieve proper tech-nique and emphasis.

—John Kozinski

Resources:

John Kozinski Seminars

P.O. Box 526

Becket, MA 01223

Tel: (413) 623-5925

e-mail: kozinski@berkshire.net

Provides information about “Energy Healing,” a

seminar that features do-in.

Kushi Institute

P.O. Box 7

Becket, Massachusetts 01223

Tel: (413) 623-5925

Do-in forms are an integral part of seminars at

this macrobiotics center. The Kushi Institute can

also help locate do-in courses at other macrobi-

otics centers throughout the United States and

Canada.

Further Reading:

Hua Ching, Ni. Attune Your Body with Dao-In.

Santa Monica: SevenStar Communications,

1994.

Kushi, Michio. The Book of Do-In. Tokyo: Japan

Publications, 1986.

——. Forgotten Worlds. Becket, MA: One Peaceful

World Press, 1992.

FENG SHUI

Feng shui is an ancient Chinesephilosophy and spiritual practiceof arranging environments, based

on the idea that all living things in the

The Japanese Sen-Nin

For the sen-nin, do-in involved eight to ten hours daily of rigorous exercise under theguidance of an experienced teacher. In order to follow this extreme lifestyle, the sen-ninlived in the mountain regions, and followed a special diet consisting of wild plants, suchas grains, seeds, fruits and bark. Later, aspects of the practice were incorporated intoChinese t’ai chi ch’üan, as well as acupuncture and acupressure.

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universe are affected by the forces ofnature in their environments. Feng shuipractitioners believe that by properlydesigning certain environments, theycan direct the energy in all living things,known as chi, in a way that promotesharmony, prosperity, and good health.

The History of Feng ShuiThe practice of feng shui began inChina more than 3,000 years ago. It wasfirst used to locate grave sites thatwould bring good luck for the spirit ofthe deceased and descendants whobelieved that their ancestors’ spiritscontinued to affect them. Then farmersused it to find the best locations toplant crops and build homes. Theystudied the land to observe how theforces of nature, particularly those ofwind and water, interacted. By observ-ing the natural properties of the landand how it was shaped by the forces ofnature, they tried to discern how the chiwas flowing in that area and how theycould interact with it to achieve favor-able results for their crops. Later, vil-lages, towns, and cities were built usingthese principles. Europeans first learnedabout feng shui practices in the nine-teenth century through British mis-sionaries’ accounts of Chinese societyand beliefs.

In early Chinese societies, feng shuiwas practiced by experts in astrology,numerology, and supernatural forces.These respected individuals came to beknown as “geomancers.” When a personwanted to build a home, farm, road,temple, or find a grave site, a geo-mancer was consulted for his under-standing of feng shui. He would makeimportant decisions about the properlocation and design to ensure the mostbeneficial flow of chi.

The social importance of feng shuipersisted in China until the late 1960s,when China began its Cultural Revolu-tion, which abolished many elements oftraditional culture, including feng shui.Although it has remained popular inHong Kong, its practice in China is onlyrecently being restored. However, many

people in China have been hesitant toaccept its principles and practices. Thesuppression of feng shui in China pre-vented it from being integrated with contemporary beliefs and needs, mak-ing it appear archaic and superstitious.However, as a growing number ofdesigners and architects in Asia and inthe United States discover these tradi-tional practices, the popularity of fengshui is being renewed and spreadworldwide.

Principles of Feng ShuiAccording to traditional Chinese philos-ophy, the earth emanates an energycalled chi, which if weakened or inter-fered with could be devastating to a per-son or community. According to thisphilosophy, chi moves through everyobject, creature, and space like the flowof blood through the body or a riverthrough a landscape. Feng shui is usedto ensure that buildings are placed andinterior environments are designed in away that does not aggravate or disruptthis flow of energy.

This view of the relationshipbetween human beings, vital life energy,and their environments is based pri-marily on two Chinese concepts: theTao and yin and yang. The Tao, whichmay be translated as “the path” or “theway,” refers to the ever constant pat-terns of change in the basic elements ofnature, of which human beings are anintrinsic part. This concept is the core ofTaoism, a religion characterized by itsreverence for nature. According to Tao-ism, human beings should seek toobserve patterns of nature, such as thechanging seasons or transitionsbetween night and day, and put theirlives in a harmonious relationship withthese patterns. Resisting the naturalcourse of the Tao will only causedifficulties and misfortune.

The movement of the Tao is imagedas a constant dance between yin andyang, the two basic complementaryenergies in nature. Yin energy is charac-terized by its dark, cool, caring, andreceptive properties. Taoists observe

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yin energy in water; soft, flowing fabricssuch as silk; and cool colors such asblues and purples. Yang energy is char-acterized by its light, warm, straight,and active qualities. Wind, wood,straight objects such as knives orswords, and vibrant saturated colorssuch as reds and yellows exhibit higherdegrees of yang energy.

According to the principles of fengshui, a healthy environment willacknowledge the Tao by a harmonious

balance of yin and yang energy andunobstructed pathways for the chi toflow between them. The building will besituated in the landscape with respectto the flow of wind and water. Interiorswill be created by the careful selectionand placement of walls, doorways, andwindows in order to respect the flow ofchi and the balance of yin and yang inthe building materials. Finally, the col-ors and materials of the objects in aroom will also be selected with respect

The ba-gua in feng shui.

W

N

E

S

Helpful PeopleTravelFatherHeadGray

CareerFoundation

WaterEar

Black

GEN

KnowledgeCulture

SpiritualityHandBlue

HealthFamilyFriends

WoodFoot

Green

JEN

CHYAN

KAN

HSUN

WealthExpansion

HipPurpleFame

RankFireEyeRed

LIMarriage

RelationshipMotherOrgans

Pink

KUEN

DWEI

FutureCreativityChildren

MetalMouthWhite

The Ba-Gua in Feng Shui

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for the balance, harmony, and flow ofthe forces of nature.

The Ba-Gua and Feng Shui CuresTo design a home or office properlyaccording to the principles of feng shui,the design, materials, and function ofevery area should be adjusted to matchthe occupants’ needs with the ba-gua.The ba-gua is an eight-sided “compass”that matches a specific color andhuman need or desire with each of theeight directions according to principlesderived from ancient Chinese astrolo-gy, geometry, and mathematics. Theba-gua is used to identify areas wherethe flow of chi or the balance of yin andyang creates favorable or unfavorableconditions. Yang is most concentratedin the south, and yin is most concen-trated in the north. The eight directionsof the ba-gua and the associated colorsand human needs are:

South (Li ): fame, redSoutheast (Hsun): wealth, purpleEast ( Jen): family, greenNortheast (Gen): knowledge, blueNorth (Kan): career, blackNorthwest (Chyan): helpful people/trav-

el, grayWest (Dwei): children/future/creativity,

whiteSouthwest (Kuen): marriage/relation-

ship, pink

However, for spaces that do not easilyalign with the ba-gua, feng shui details aset of “cures” to remedy disturbances tothe flow of chi. There are eight basic cures:

• Light—In addition to electric lights,this category consists of objectscapable of light reflection and refrac-tion, including mirrors, leaded glass,and crystals. Mirrors are frequentlyused in rooms designed according tofeng shui. They may be aimed todeflect the flow of chi away from anarea or used to enhance chi byreflecting a pleasing image.

• Sound— Sound is thought to set staticchi in motion. A room is filled withsound to radiate the chi throughoutthe space. Sound may be produced

by wind chimes, bells, or recordedmusic. Wind chimes are often usedby feng shui to draw good chi fromoutside into a home.

• Living items—These include plants,trees or flowers (real or realistic),aquariums, or fishbowls. Plants areused to generate chi. Fish symbolizemoney and fishbowls are often usedin homes and businesses settings tobring wealth.

• Moving objects—Moving objects areused to stimulate chi. Motion may beproduced by mobiles, fountains,windmills, whirligigs, or windsocks.Objects that are naturally powered,such as these, are preferred.

• Heavy objects—Heavy objects havethe opposite effect from movingobjects. They are used to introducestillness in areas where chi moves tooquickly. These may be large stones,heavy furniture, or statues.

• Electrically powered objects—Theelectricity that powers televisions,computers, stereos, or air condition-ers affects the flow of chi. Since theenergies may conflict, a spacedesigned according to feng shui willproportion the use of electricity tobalance the two energies. Whenproperly distributed, electricity mayalso stimulate chi.

• Straight lines—These are usuallybamboo flutes but may also includeswords, scrolls, and fans. The straightlines in these objects are used todirect chi to a desired location. Flutesare popular cures because they maybe arranged to resemble the octago-nal shape of the ba-gua.

• Colors—Colors are used for theirsymbolic value within the ba-gua.When designing a room, a personmay emphasize the colors that corre-spond to a desired direction.

Practicing Feng ShuiFeng shui may be used to develop theproper placement of a building in alandscape or to design the interior andexterior walls, doors, and windows of abuilding. It is also often used to design

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123

According to feng shui, it is very important that furniture and objects are properlyplaced in each room. There are specific guidelines for essential parts of a home, includ-ing the entrance, the bed, and the kitchen.

• Entrance—Designing a house with feng shui requires careful consideration of theentrance, since it is where chi enters the building. Traditionally, homes designedwith feng shui will have southern entrances, since that is the direction in which themost favorable energy is thought to flow. One should be careful that the chi is nothindered by an obstacle blocking the front door, such as a tree or another building.

• Bed—One of the most significant placements in a home designed with feng shui isthe location of a bed. The location of one’s bed is thought to affect one’s health andmarriage. A properly positioned bed will give a person “command” of the bedroomdoor. A person is never to have his or her back to the entrance. When a person is inbed, he or she should face the doorway, but should not be in direct line of it. The ba-gua is often used to help determine the proper location of a bed.

• Kitchen—Homes designed with feng shui often have kitchens in the southern oreastern side of the house, since these directions represent fire and wood on the ba-gua. Small spaces and sharp corners should be avoided since they inhibit the flow ofchi. A proper kitchen will be designed to allow the chef to see the kitchen’s entranceand be prepared when a person arrives.

individual rooms in a way that willbenefit the people who use them. Theba-gua is used to identify the directionthat represents a principle, such asknowledge or fame, that a person wantsto change. Then, feng shui cures areused to stimulate the flow of chi in thatarea. For example, a person who wantsto design a room to benefit his or herfamily will see that “family” is located inthe east on the ba-gua. He or she willsee if any barriers are cutting off theflow of chi to the east in the room. Theba-gua associates the color green withthe family, so the room will be designedwith green objects. A plant may beplaced next to the east wall to furtherstimulate the chi.

A person may be able to use fengshui without hiring a consultant. Thereare a number of how-to books on fengshui that offer some basic lessons. How-ever, a person who wants to employmore complex aspects of feng shui mayconsult an expert. When people consultfeng shui experts to design their homes,they may be asked about their lives andwhat they would like to enhance orchange. The practitioner and client will

go through each of the client’s roomsand discuss positioning of importantobjects in the room such as the bed,desk, couch, artworks, plants, and col-ors to create the best possible environ-ment to enhance or change the desiredaspect.

BenefitsAlthough feng shui can be used simplyto bring beauty and serenity to an envi-ronment, it is also used to bring benefitsto many aspects of a person’s life. A per-son who wants to improve his or herfortune in business, relationships, orfamily may use feng shui to be sure thatchi is flowing properly in the corre-sponding directions of his or her homeor business environment.

Today, feng shui is used in both per-sonal and professional settings. Severalcompanies in the United States and Asiause feng shui to design office spaces,hoping to increase their fortune in busi-ness. Service industries, like restaurantsand hotels, have used feng shui to makeclients feel more comfortable and will-ing to spend more money. As its popu-larity grows, feng shui is changing the

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way that many people view the relation-ship between a person and his or hersurroundings.

—Marilyn Saltzman

Resources:

Yun Lin Temple

2959 Russell Street

Berkeley, CA 94705

Tel: (510) 841-2347

This organization offers courses in feng shui

throughout the United States.

Further Reading:

Rossbach, Sarah. Feng Shui, the Chinese Art of

Placement. London: Century Hutchenson, 1987.

——. Living Color—Master Lin Yun’s Guide to Feng

Shui. New York: Kodansha International, 1994.

Skinner, Stephen. The Living Earth Manual of

Feng Shui. London: Arkana, 1989.

Spear, William. Feng Shui Made Easy. San Francis-

co: Harper San Francisco, 1995.

MAGNET THERAPY

Magnet therapy, which is also calledmagnetotherapy, refers to thepractice of applying a magnetic

field to the body for the treatment of phys-ical and emotional disorders. It can relievediscomfort, pain, or swelling, and it hasbeen used to treat both acute injuries,such as cuts and burns, and many chronicconditions, most notably arthritis. Someexperts say that magnet therapy is usefulin treating depression and such mentaldisorders as hallucinations and delusions.Experts are not clear about why magnettherapy works, but most agree that it hasbeen used effectively to treat diseases andailments such as arthritis, sprains, torn lig-aments, headaches, certain types of

insomnia, and environmental stress. Plac-ing the magnets directly over the area ofpain can help diminish the pain fromthese afflictions.

The Development of Magnetic TherapySeveral books have been published overthe last few decades, in which theauthors make reference to magnet ther-apy being used in times prior even to thedevelopment of acupuncture. If true,this would make the use of magnets forhealing purposes one of the very oldestof all therapies. Some advocates of mag-net therapy believe that magnets havebeen used to treat pain as far back as theancient Egyptians, Hebrews, Arabs,Indians, and Chinese. There are evenreports of a natural magnetic materialcalled lodestone being ground up andused as a potion as far back as 100,000years ago. Whether these modern-dayhistorical accounts of ancient magnettherapy are true or not, it does notdiminish the fact that, at the presenttime, the use of magnets for therapeuticpurposes is enjoying a renewed interestand an increase in popularity.

The Philosophy of Magnet TherapyThere are many theories about themechanism of magnet therapy, but noone knows for certain how it works.Some theorists speculate that the localapplication of magnetic fields increasesblood flow through the capillaries,which brings more oxygen and nutri-ents to the tissues. Others have suggest-ed that the magnetic fields alter nervefunction, muting the transmission ofpain impulses from an area of the bodythat hurts. Some practitioners insistthat the biomagnetic north pole, or neg-ative pole of the magnet, somehowchanges the acid-base balance of cer-tain fluids in the tissues, making thearea under the north pole magnetsmore alkaline. One expert theorizes thatthe “vector potential” and “curl” of themagnetic field may have importanteffects on enzyme function.

Magnets have both a negative, ornorth, and a positive, or south, pole.

Magnet Therapy

There are two different ways of namingthe poles of the magnet. For purposes ofwhat some people call biomagnetic ther-apy, the poles should be named as fol-lows: the north pole of a magnet is theone that will attract the arrowhead; thesouth pole repels the arrowhead or point-er of a compass. Many magnetothera-pists believe that the negative pole has acalming effect on the body, whereas thepositive pole causes stress. Being exposedto the positive pole for too long can havea deleterious effect upon an individual.Proponents of so-called unipolar mag-netic therapy believe that it is primarilythe biomagnetic north pole, or negativepole, that should be oriented to face thebody, so that the south pole always facesaway from the body. Other magnet thera-pists think that bipolar therapy, whichexposes the body to both north and southmagnetic poles, arranged in some sort ofspatial pattern, helps to heal the bodybetter than unipolar magnet therapy.

Magnet Therapy in PracticeThe magnetic field can be produced bypermanent magnets, or electromagnetsutilizing pulsed or alternating electricalcurrents going through a coil of wire. Thepermanent magnet-type devices come ina large variety of shapes and sizes. Theycan be as simple as a single, large, flatmagnet, or as complex as a custom-fitted,contoured, cloth-covered pouch contain-ing many small, flat, circular, or rectangu-lar magnets. A common method ofmagnetotherapy is simply placing mag-nets over, near, under, or on an area of thebody that hurts. In most types of magnet-ic products, many small, flat, circular orrectangular magnets are placed so that allthe magnets are oriented with the northpole facing toward the body and the southpole facing away from the body. (Thenorth pole is the one that will attract thearrowhead of the compass.)

These devices produce a magneticfield of several dozen to several hundredgauss at the surface of the body wherethey are applied. A gauss is a unit ofmagnetic flux density or magnetic fieldstrength. For comparison purposes, the

magnetic field of the Earth that causes acompass arrow to point north is abouthalf a gauss. In contrast, the magnetsused in most permanent magnet devicesare usually about 700 gauss or more.

Depending on the condition of theindividual, the magnets may be appliedseveral times a day or for days or weeksat a time. Some people may prefer tosleep on a magnetic bed or mattresspad. For others, magnet therapy mayinvolve hours of treatment at a magnet-ic therapist’s office usually usingpulsed-magnetic fields.

Benefits of Magnetic Field TherapyMost people who have tried magnettherapy have experienced positiveresults from it, though they agree thatmore research is needed to understandhow magnet therapy works. There havebeen tens of thousands of anecdotalreports that either bipolar or unipolarmagnet therapy has relieved the pain ordiscomfort of such conditions as arthri-tis, fibromyalgia, rheumatism, gout,back pain, shoulder pain, carpal tunnelsyndrome, bed sores, ulcers, diabeticneuropathy, trigeminal neuralgia, andtoothaches. In addition, there are thou-sands of reports of magnetic field thera-py being used for acute injuries such assprains, strains, torn ligaments, and softtissue injuries, such as a smashedthumb, pinched finger, insect bite,burn, scrape, cut, or bruise.

One of the benefits of magnet thera-py is that foreign substances are notintroduced into the body. In the longrun, this form of therapy might provesafer than over-the-counter medica-tions and other treatments.

—Dr. John Zimmerman

Resources:

Bio-Electro-Magnetics Institute (BEMI)

Dr. John Zimmerman, President

2490 West Moana Lane

Reno, NV 89509-7801

Tel: (702) 827-9099 (best time to call is 8:00-10:00125

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126

AM Pacific time)

Offers resources and information on magnet

therapy.

North American Academy of Magnetic Therapy

Cindy Kornspan, National Secretary

28240 Agoura Rd, Suite 202

Agoura, California 91301

Tel: (818) 991-5277 or (800) 457-1853

Professional organization for practitioners of mag-

net therapy.

Further Reading:

Becker, Robert O., and Andrew A. Marino. Electro-

magnetism and Life. Albany: State University of

New York Press, 1982.

Becker, Robert O., and Gary Seldon. The Body

Electric: Electromagnetism and the Foundation

of Life. New York: William Morrow & Company,

1985.

Burke, Abott George. Magnetic Therapy. Okla-

homa City, OK: Saint George Press, 1980.

Hanneman, Holger. Magnet Therapy. New York:

Sterling Publishing Company, 1983.

Philpott, William H. Biomagnetic Handbook.

Choctaw, OK: Enviro-Tech Publisher, 1990.

Washnis, George J., and Richard Z. Hirack. Discov-

ery of Magnetic Health. Rockville, MD: Nova

Publishing Co., 1993.

POLARITY THERAPY

Polarity therapy is a holistic methodof healing that acts upon the fieldof bipolar energy surrounding and

animating the body. It assumes that ill-ness is caused by an imbalance or blockin the field, and through touch, diet,exercise, and counseling attempts torealign balance and recharge the over-all level of energy. While the principles

of polarity therapy were formulated inthe twentieth century, they incorporatethe teachings of several ancient tradi-tions of medicine, particularly theayurvedic tradition of India. Propo-nents of polarity therapy view it as ameans of alleviating chronic physicalproblems, forming healthy habits ineveryday life, and enhancing othermodes of medical treatment.

The History of Polarity TherapyPolarity therapy was developed by Ran-dolph Stone (1890–1981), an Americanwho was initially trained as a chiro-practor and later as an osteopathicphysician and naturopath. During the1920s Stone realized that modern West-ern medicine could not explain thehealth benefits resulting from chiro-practic techniques of applying directmanual pressure to parts of the body.With chiropractic techniques as a basis,he embarked on a global study of med-icine that entailed voluminous readingand campaigns of travel to observehealers at work preparing medicationsand treating patients. Attempts to gath-er knowledge into universal systemswere common in the twenties.

The Swiss psychoanalyst C. G. Jungwas integrating the world’s symbols intoa system of psychology, and Stoneendeavored to make a comparablegrand synthesis of healing traditions.He studied ayurvedic medicine in India,acupuncture, acupressure, and herbalmedicine in China, and the modes ofhealing used in the West prior to the sci-entific revolution. By the 1940s he wasconvinced that medicine did have acentral universal principle, the conceptof a bipolar life force, and could beunified into one coherent system of pre-cepts and techniques.

The final work of defining the systemwas carried out in Stone’s private prac-tice in Chicago and in a writing projectthat he started in 1948 and completed in1970. Even staunch advocates of polari-ty therapy acknowledge that HealthBuilding and Polarity Therapy, Stone’s

Polarity Therapy

major treatises, are difficult reading andhave numerous inconsistencies andambiguities. This has left his teachingsopen to wide interpretation, whichresults in polarity therapists varying intheir approach to treatment.

Nonetheless, Stone is recognized asan important pioneer in holistic medi-cine. His principles and techniqueshave been a catalyst for research intonon-Western medicine as well as aneffective therapy in their own right.polarity therapy is now availablethroughout the United States and isoffered by polarity practitionersrequired to meet standards for practiceestablished by the American PolarityTherapy Association in 1987.

The Theory of Polarity TherapyStone believed the body is animated bya three-dimensional field of pulsatingenergy called chi in Chinese traditionand prana in ayurvedic medicine. Whenthe energy flows outward, it is consid-ered positive and when it contractsbackward, it is considered negative.There is no moral connotation to thedistinction, but Stone followedayurvedic teaching that maintains thatcomplex, dynamic interplay of the posi-tive and negative currents determinethe particular character of every portionof the human organism. Further, heheld that the polarized energy pervadesthe cosmos, pulsating in patterns thatcan be correlated with the patterns itassumes in the human body. Like theayurvedic masters, Stone approachedthe human being as a microcosm of thelarger macrocosm, the universe. “Aswithin, so without,” was one of hisfavorite sayings.

Polarity therapy focuses upon theconnection between the energy struc-tures of the five elements distinguishedin ayurvedic tradition: ether, air, fire,water, and earth, and five of the energycenters in the body known as chakras inEastern thought. Each element-chakraunit is associated with a quality of ener-gy, an organ of the body, and a bodily

function. The entire element-chakraseries is found acting together in everyhuman being, usually in a way that fea-tures some imbalance.

The imbalance is regarded as the keyto unlocking the mysteries of individualpersonality and health. If, for example,the air-chakra correspondence is domi-nant, mental activity is presumed to bethe person’s great strength and potentialweakness. She or he will have unusualintellectual powers that pose no problemso long as efforts to redress the imbalanceare made. Otherwise, the excess air ener-gy will disrupt the flow of energy andcause an illness to occur in the upperchest and lungs, where the air-chakra islocated.

Microcosmic energy movement isthe main diagnostic and therapeutictool of polarity therapy. Through obser-vation and touch, the practitionerassesses the functioning of the element-chakra system, then proceeds to correctany dangerous disequilibrium. Manualpressure is applied on or around thechakras in order to balance the energyflow, and often a regimen of correctiveexercises and diet is prescribed.Because the person’s entire being, mindand body, is at stake, Stone believedpolarity therapy should also addresstroublesome personality traits.

Experiencing Polarity TherapyA polarity therapy session lasts an hourto an hour and a half. It generally beginswith a discussion of the patient’s healthhistory, lifestyle, and therapy goals. Dur-ing the course of the interview, the prac-titioner pays close attention to vocalchanges, gestures, and aspects of pos-ture indicative of the patient’s element-chakra system. The assessmentcontinues after the patient, still fullydressed, lies on a treatment table andbodywork starts. The practitioner istrained to use her or his hands as a typeof magnetic transmitter of energy.

In the opening phase of the body-work, the hands cradle the patient’shead, then move to other sites in the

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Polarity Practitioners

The standards of practice established by the American Polarity Therapy Associationrequire training of a polarity practitioner in over 615 hours of study in bodywork, exer-cise, nutrition, anatomy, communication skills, professional ethics, and energy evalua-tion. Practitioners are registered at two levels: associate polarity practitioner (APP) andregistered polarity practitioner (RPP). The American Polarity Therapy Association pub-lishes a directory of registered polarity practitioners and trainers .

Choosing a polarity practitioner should be based on your personal needs and practi-tioner qualification. The polarity practitioner you choose should be nationally regis-tered with APTA. Registered polarity practitioners are required to meet basic standardsafter which their training may vary, based on school emphasis, postgraduate training,and additional degrees/specialties in other fields. Many polarity practitioners are qual-ified in other disciplines such as medicine; chiropractic, osteopathic, and naturopathicpractice; nursing; massage; psychology; and social work. Many polarity practitionerswork for one hour and charge between $50 and $100 per session. Practitioners withadditional training and degrees may work differently and charge more based on theirexpertise.

body, all the while picking up variousqualities of pulsation. After contact, adiagnosis is made and the practitioneruses more touching to harmonize thepositive and negative charges of energythroughout the body.

A polarity therapy practitioneralways employs both hands for treat-ment and draws upon a repertory ofmore than twenty movements thatinclude gentle to vigorous holding,vibrating, and rocking motions. A ses-sion may include stretch releases of theneck and spine, cranial balancing, workon reflex points in the ears, hands, andfeet, connective tissue strokes, andstrokes that connect the chakras. Dur-ing these movements the type of touchmay vary from light and balancing tostimulating to deep and dispersing. Notwo sessions are ever alike becauseongoing energy assessment of thepatient determines the sequence ofmovements and type of touch.

As the bodywork proceeds, thepatient may become deeply relaxed, seedreamlike images, or feel a release ofemotion and the need to talk about pasttraumas and current problems. Theconclusion of the session depends on

the practitioner’s view of Stone’s teach-ings. Some focus primarily upon thebodywork, while others emphasize theimportance of supporting the bodyworkwith diet, exercise, and psychologicalcounseling.

The diet prescribed is usually vegetar-ian and may include a preliminary regi-men to detoxify and cleanse the body. Theexercises, based on yoga routines, involvesquats, stretches, rhythmic movements,deep breathing, and utterance of thesound “Ha!” Like the other componentsin polarity therapy, the counseling isdesigned to promote freedom and bal-ance in the patient’s energy field.

The Benefits of Polarity TherapyPolarity therapy acts as a tonic thatbrings relief from specific problems suchas digestion problems and produces anoverall sense of well-being, increasedenergy, and serenity in the patient.Though it should not be regarded as asubstitute for medical diagnosis andtherapy, it can accelerate the effects ofconventional treatments for major ill-nesses and promote recovery fromsurgery. As a holistic system of healthcare, polarity therapy can also provide

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guidelines for regulating everyday habitsso as to strengthen the body’s resistanceand achieve inner harmony with one’ssense of self and one’s feelings.

—John Beaulieu, ND, Ph.D.

Resources:

American Polarity Association

2888 Bluff Street, Suite 149

Boulder, CO 80301

Tel: (303) 545-2080

Fax: (303) 545-2161

Sets standards for certification in polarity therapy,

maintains a list of certified polarity therapy practi-

tioners, and provides information about the

theory and practice of polarity therapy.

Further Reading:

Beaulieu, John. Polarity Therapy Workbook. New

York: BioSonic Enterprises, 1994.

Stills, Franklyn. The Polarity Process: Energy as a

Healing Art. Dorset, England: Element Books,

1990.

Stone, Randolph. Health Building: The Conscious

Art of Living Well. Sebastopol, CA: CRCS Publi-

cations, 1987.

——. Polarity Therapy. 2 vols. Sebastopol, CA:

CRCS Publications, 1987.

QIGONG

Q igong is the most popular methodof disease prevention in China. Itmeans, literally, “energy cultiva-

tion,” and is an ancient system of exercise,breathing techniques, self-massage, andmeditation designed to purify, gather, andcirculate life energy, called qi. Many stud-ies in China and the United States haveshown that practicing qigong improves

health, increases vitality, and can reducepain, anxiety, and depression. Qigongemphasizes strengthening the immunesystem and treating problems when theyare subclinical—that is, before they pro-duce obvious symptoms. However, qigongis also a method of disease treatment. Ithas been found effective for disorderssuch as hypertension, headaches, bron-chitis, asthma, ulscers, arthritis, chronicpain, and some forms of cancer. Thepatient learns self-healing skills and howto take greater charge of his or her ownhealth. Instead of shifting all responsibilityinto the hands of a physician, the qigongpatient cooperates in the healing process.

Chinese Energy MedicineThe Chinese word qi, pronounced“chee,” means “vital breath” or “lifeenergy.” According to Chinese medi-cine, health is the result of an abun-dance of clear flowing qi. Disease iscaused when the body’s reserves of qiare depleted through physical, emo-tional, or environmental stress or whenthe qi is stuck and unable to flow. Stag-nant qi, like stagnant water, is a breed-ing ground for disease. When qi flow isblocked, some areas of the body havetoo much energy or a yang condition,creating tension, congestion, andinflammation. Other areas have too lit-tle energy or a yin condition, creatingweakness and conditions such as poordigestion and anemia. When the qi iscompletely gone, the body is dead.

The History of QigongQigong began many thousands of yearsago with healing dances of ancient Chi-nese shamans. For instance, in the thirdmillennium BCE, a bear-masked shamanwould lead a dance to cleanse a villagebefore the New Year. This developed intothe philosophy that movement and exer-cise could also cleanse and refresh thebody. According the Chinese doctor HuaTuo (110–207 CE), “A door hinge won’t rustas long as it is used.” Similarly, physicalmovement stimulates internal movementof the healing energy called qi.

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The practice of controlling qithrough movement and exercise wasoriginally called dao-yin, which means“leading and guiding the qi.” In 1973,archaeologists discovered the first writ-ten record of these exercises in a textcalled Dao-yin Tu, “Dao-yin Illustrated,”in a tomb near the city of Changsha. TheDao-yin Tu, dated approximately 168BCE, shows forty-four seated and stand-ing figures in various qigong postures.

There are short captions under severalof the figures indicating the disease thatthe particular posture or exercise wasdesigned to treat. The figures are fromall walks of life—rich and poor, farmerand bureaucrat, man and woman,young and old.

By the second century CE, qigongwas a popular healing therapy practicedby a very broad segment of Chinesesociety. Later centuries produced a

Madame Gao Fu of Beijing, seventy-six-year-old master of Chen-style taijiquan (t’ai chi ch’uän), one of China’s most popular qigong systems, noted for

its fluidity and dynamic, coiling movements.

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A Western doctor applies medical qigong.

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wealth of practical and philosophicalliterature on qigong. Most early texts arefound in the Taoist Canon, the 1,120-volume collection of Taoist religiousworks. Taoists had a great interest inqigong because it includes meditationtechniques that cultivate tranquil self-awareness and a feeling of harmonywith nature and the cosmos. Most mod-ern qigong texts are written by doctorsrather than Taoists. In this century, thepractice of qigong was not encouragedby the Communist regime in China untilthe late 1980s, when it was adopted as asanctioned method of disease preven-tion. Throughout the 1990s qigong hasexperienced a huge resurgence in popu-larity, with over 90 million practitionersin China and several thousand in theUnited States.

Applications and Styles of QigongQigong has three principal applications.Medical qigong is qigong for improvinghealth. This is further divided into self-

healing qigong, made up of exercises andmeditations, and a method of healingpatients called external qi healing. Anexternal qi healer attempts to transmithealing energy by holding his or herhands either a few inches above or lightlyon a diseased area. This method is similarto therapeutic touch, practiced by manynurses in the West. Spiritual qigong, thesecond major application of qigong, usesmeditative practices, such as abdominalrespiration and mental quiet, to developa serene and hardy spirit, immune tostress and worry. Martial arts qigong, thethird application, emphasizes dynamicqigong exercises that improve balance,coordination, strength, and stamina andthat make the body more resistant toinjury. Martial arts qigong can improveperformance in any sport, increasingpower in a tennis serve, a swimmer’sstroke, or a boxer’s punch.

There are thousands of qigong styles.Some are named after legendary oractual founders; others are named after

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Distributors of Qigong Books, Videos, and Audiocassettes

Dragon Door Publications. (800) 247-6553, (612) 645-0517.

Redwing Book Company. (800) 873-3946, (617) 738-4664.

Sounds True. (800) 333-9185, (303) 449-6229.

Wayfarer Publications. (213) 665-7773.

animals that the exercises imitate (e.g.,crane style, five animal frolics, turtlebreathing); some describe healthbenefits (inner nourishing, tendonstrengthening, relaxation qigong,improving vision); and many are iden-tified by philosophical principles: wis-dom (zhi-neng) qigong, primordial(hun yuan) qigong, inner elixir qigong,etc. Most qigong exercises are gentle,fluid, and graceful. Some styles, such astaiji quan (t’ai chi ch’üan), look likedance, consisting of many postureslinked one to the next, like a flowingstream. In the past, many styles weretaught to only a small, select number ofstudents or to family members. Today,several qigong schools have millions offollowers each, with branches in majorChinese cities. Students generally selectone or two qigong styles according totheir interests, health needs, andteacher availability.

The Qigong PostureThe foundation of all qigong practices iscorrect posture. Practicing the qigongposture is, of itself, good qigong. Standwith the feet parallel, shoulder widthapart. Your knees should be slightlybent. Feel the weight of your body drop-ping down through the feet and into theground. You are like a tree with deeproots. The abdomen is relaxed ratherthan unnaturally held in. The chest isalso open and relaxed, neitherdepressed nor distended. The back isstraight. Imagine that your tailbone isbeing pulled slightly down and yourhead lifted up, as though held like apuppet on a string. The entire spine

feels stretched open. Your shoulders arerelaxed rather than lifted in an “uptight”posture. The shoulders drop straightdown, neither pulled back nor slouchedforward. The fingers are gently extend-ed, as if water were streaming out thefingertips. The mouth is lightly closed.Your eyes are open, gazing softly intothe distance. The whole body is asrelaxed as possible. If you need only fiveounces of strength to stand, do not usesix! The extra ounce is unnecessaryeffort and stress.

While holding this stance for a com-fortable length of time—generally aboutfive to ten minutes—observe yourbreath. The most natural and healthiestway of breathing is to allow the abdomento gently expand as you inhale andretract as you exhale. Think to yourself,“My breath is slow, long, deep, smooth,and even.” Let the breath move at its ownpace. Do not pull the breath in; do notpush it out. Let nature’s wisdom workwithout interference. As you continuestanding, notice how the fingers begin totingle from improved circulation. Youmay also feel a pleasant sensation ofwarmth, stability, and inner strength.These are signs that the qi is both gather-ing and circulating.

The Qigong PrescriptionIt is recommended that qigong be prac-ticed daily before breakfast. The morn-ing is called the “springtime of the day,”the best time to plant seeds of newgrowth. The guiding principles inqigong are practice, patience, and mod-eration. Qigong is a lifetime discipline.It is possible to reap benefits after only a

Reiki

few lessons or to continue gathering qifor a lifetime. Practice, but not toexcess. If there is pain, there is no gain,because pain inhibits learning and per-sonal growth. Qigong students shouldnot seek quick results but rather slow,steady progress. The body is an energygarden that must be tended and nur-tured daily. According to the ancientChinese philosopher Mencius, you can-not make wheat grow more quickly bypulling on the stalks!

—Kenneth S. Cohen, M.A.

Resources:

American Foundation of Traditional Chinese

Medicine

505 Beach St.

San Francisco, CA 94133

Tel: (415) 776-0502

Publishes a quarterly newsletter titled Gateways;

offers a referral service and international listing of

classes, and sponsors continuing education pro-

grams.

The Qigong Institute

561 Berkley Ave.

Menlo Park, CA 94025

Promotes education, research, and clinical work.

Offers lectures and demonstrations and sponsors a

qigong science program.

The Qigong Research and Practice Center

P.O. Box 1727

Nederland, CO 80466

Tel: (303) 258-0971

Offers training classes and conducts research into

the efficacy of qigong.

Further Reading:

Cohen, Kenneth S. The Way of Qigong. New York:

Ballantine Books, 1997.

Eisenberg, David, M.D. Encounters with Qi. New

York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1985.

Jiao Guorui. Qigong Essentials for Health Promo-

tion. Beijing: China Reconstructs Press, 1988.

Wang, Simon, M.D., Ph.D., and Julius L. Liu, M.D.

Qi Gong for Health and Longevity. Tustin, CA:

The East Health Development Group, 1994.

Qi: The Journal of Traditional Eastern Health &

Fitness. Anaheim Hills, CA: Insight Publishing.

800-787-2600. (Lists many qigong schools).

REIKI

Reiki is a mode of healing, based onancient Buddhist teachings, thatuses hands-on touch to strengthen

energy on the physical, intellectual,emotional, and spiritual planes. Reiki(pronounced “ray-key”) combines twoJapanese words, rei referring to the vitalforce that pervades the entire cosmos,and ki, referring to the life force that ani-mates every individual being. In reikitreatment, universal and individualenergy are aligned and balancedthrough the application of gentlehands-on touch to energy pathways ofthe body. Since no medication is everprescribed, reiki is widely regarded asone of the most natural of all holisticsystems of healing. Advocates of reikicredit it with benefits ranging fromreduction of stress to quantum healing,including recovery from acute, chronicconditions. It is often used as an adjunctto medical treatment in order to gainrelief from the trauma of illness and toaccelerate healing.

The Rediscovery of ReikiUntil recently reiki has been taught as anoral tradition, making it difficult to beprecise about either the early develop-ment of reiki or many of its tenets. It maybe the world’s oldest system of healing,with origins that reach back to the dawnof civilization. There is agreement thatafter antiquity, knowledge of the originalsystem was lost until it was rediscoveredin the second half of the nineteenth cen-tury by a Japanese man, Mikao Usui.

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Mikao Usui transcends the cate-gories Buddhist, Christian, scholar oftheology, teacher, holy man, and charis-matic healer. Oral tradition holds thatthe path that led him to reiki started at aChristian seminary in Kyoto, sometimearound 1850, when a student askedUsui why he was willing to explainChrist’s spiritual teachings but said

nothing about his miraculous powers ofhealing. Though simple, the questionraised fundamental problems about therelationship of body, mind, and spirit inWestern and Eastern religion. To resolvethe question, Usui resigned his post inKyoto and embarked on a quest thattook him to the graduate school of theUniversity of Chicago and eventually

Elaine Abrams uses a gentle touch to align and balance subtle energy within a person.

Reiki

back to Kyoto to a Zen Buddhist mon-astery. By this time his research was con-centrated on the earliest records ofHindu and Buddhist belief, and at themonastery he came upon ancient sutras(Buddhist teachings written in Sanskrit)that gave him an insight into the princi-ples he had been pursuing.

A deeply spiritual man, Usui knewthat his understanding of the sutraswould be incomplete so long as itremained on the intellectual level. Afterstudying the texts, he ascended thesacred mountain Kuriyama and fastedand meditated for twenty-one days. Veryearly on the morning of the twenty-firstday, he had a vision in which a brilliantlight struck him between the eyes,exploded into tiny colored bubbles, thengave way to a number of gleaming San-skrit characters. Usui believed that thisvision initiated him into the ancient sys-tem of reiki and empowered him torevive its methods of healing. Uponreturn to Kyoto, he brought about curesthat were considered miraculous. Hetraveled throughout Japan and attracteda devoted following.

Shortly before Usui’s death he passedthe reiki teachings to Chijuro Hayashi,who founded the first reiki clinic. One ofthe patients cured in Hayashi’s clinicduring the 1930s was Hawayo Takata, aJapanese-American woman. She studiedreiki with Hayashi, became his successorin 1941, and in the 1970s traveledthroughout North America, offering reikitreatment and the combination of train-ing and initiation needed to become areiki practitioner. Takata is responsiblefor transforming reiki into an interna-tionally known mode of healing with anetwork of professional organizations.Many advanced reiki practitioners arenow qualified to provide treatment. Inaddition, a number of massage thera-pists, nurses, and other health care pro-fessionals incorporate aspects of reikiinto their repertory of techniques. Todaymany reiki master-instructors arequalified to provide instruction in theUsui system of natural healing as well asoffer treatment.

The Philosophy and Methods of ReikiReiki is based on a belief that the indi-vidual is animated by a vital energyemanating from the life force of the uni-verse and falls ill if the flow of energy isweakened. Further, it is believed thateveryone is born with the ability toaccess this universal energy. Openingpathways of healing using universalenergy is reiki’s central objective. Tolearn the procedures for self-treatmentand treating others using the Usui sys-tem, a would-be practitioner must her-self or himself receive an “attunement,”in order to become attuned to the ener-gy-transfer system. This attunementcan be given only by an experiencedreiki master instructor in a ceremony ofinitiation. Though no religious dogma isinvolved in reiki, Usui’s teachingsrequire that it be administered in asacred manner. Sanskrit symbols fromUsui’s vision on Mount Kuriyama serveas the formulaic key to knowledge.Hands-on touch is the key componentin the opening of an individual’s energytransfer ability.

Reiki’s attunements/initiations andsymbols may confound rational expla-nation, but practitioners and mastersare content simply to trust in theirbeneficial workings. Most practitionersand masters emphasize that hands-ontouch of energy pathways in the bodyhas been a means of therapy usedaround the world for millennia. Theydeliver reiki through hand patterns andpositions that relate to the majororgans and systems of the body, assist-ing the flow of energy through thesesystems. It follows that if reiki normal-izes the flow of energy to the entire sys-tem, it would generate profoundphysical and emotional benefits,improving the entire organism’s resis-tance to stress and disease.

Experiencing ReikiWhile reiki treatment may vary, basedon the practitioner’s level of experienceand the recipient’s needs, it generallytakes the form of a bodywork sessionthat lasts from an hour to an hour and a

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Reiki Training

Reiki instruction has three degrees or levels. In first degree, or level I, training, the par-ticipant receives attunement from a reiki master. He or she also learns techniques foradministering self-care. In second degree, or level II, training, the participant receivesfurther attunements of energy from a reiki master. He or she also embarks on study ofthe ancient symbols and sounds Dr. Usui recovered from the sutras, learning to applythem to the healing process. Third degree, or level III, provides the participant with yetanother attunement and final study of the ancient symbols and sounds used in reiki.Practitoners with third degree training are called reiki masters, and are the only onesable to offer level I and II instruction.

half. During the bodywork the recipientremains fully clothed and lies on a mas-sage table, first in a supine, then in aprone position. Sometimes ambientsound of a relaxing type, music orrecordings of pleasant sounds in a nat-ural environment such as a stream ofwater, is provided. The recipient mayexpress preferences for such things.

Reiki bodywork should not be con-fused with massage. The hands-ontouch is gentle and aims not to manipu-late tissue, but rather to transmit uni-versal life force to the recipient. Thepractitioner uses both hands, palmsdown, fingers held together, and pro-ceeds in a pattern over the recipient’sbody. After the front surface has beentreated, the client turns and treatmentcontinues on the back. Each positioningof the hands is maintained for three tofive minutes without any movement ofthe fingers or change in the initial gen-tle touch. Practitioners may use twentyor more hand positions in any singlesession.

Experience of reiki bodywork differsfrom person to person; each client’sperception of how the energy transferfeels will vary. A slight warmth or tin-gling coming from the hands of thepractitioner may be felt, or his or herhands may feel cool. In some instancesrecipients doze or go into a thresholdcondition between sleep and full con-sciousness. Most find reiki relaxing andrefreshing. The full effects of treatment

may be experienced immediately ornot until several days after a session.

It is recommended that first-timerecipients receive three or four treat-ments as close together as the recipientcan manage in order to deepen theprocess of healing. The number andtiming of subsequent treatmentsdepends on the nature of the recipient’scondition.

Hands-on bodywork has becomestandard in reiki practice, but touch isnot necessary to the healing process.According to Usui, the channeling of theuniversal life force can be achievedthrough mental and manual focus thatis effective even over long distances,which is learned as an advanced tech-nique. After attunement/initiation, it issuggested that reiki be used as a modeof self-care as well as care for others.

The Benefits of ReikiPractitioners believe reiki gives recipi-ents a sense of trust and overall well-being. It is particularly beneficial in thetreatment of stress and stress-relatedillnesses. Reiki is also considered help-ful in debilitating disease because itsupplies energy and strengthens theimmune system. While reiki is not a reli-gious system, it often becomes a potentstimulus to self-healing and spiritualgrowth.

—Elaine J. Abrams, Reiki Master-Instructor

SHEN®

Resources:

The Reiki Alliance

PO Box 41

Cataldo, ID 83810

Tel: (208) 682-3535

Fax: (208) 682-4848

A professional organization comprised of creden-

tialed usui system reiki masters.

The Reiki Alliance Europe

Honthorststraat 40 II 1071 DG

Amsterdam, Netherlands

Tel: (20) 6719276

Fax: (20) 6711736

The European headquarters of the Reiki Alliance.

Further Reading:

Brown, Fran. Living Reiki: Takata’s Teachings.

Mendicino, CA: LifeRhythm, 1992.

Haberly, Helen J. Reiki: Hawayo Takata’s Story.

Salem, OR: Blue Mountain Publications, 1990.

Sharamon, Shalila, and Baginski, Bodo. Reiki:

Universal Life Energy. Transl. Baker, Christo-

pher, and Harrison, Judith. Mendocino, CA: Life

Rhythm, 1988.

SHEN®

SHEN®, which stands for specifichuman energy nexus, is a relativelyrecent approach to body-mind health

and wellness that is concerned with how thebody deals with repressed emotion. SHENtechniques release trapped emotional trau-ma from specific areas by focusing energy on the biofield that surrounds andpermeates the human body. The releaseand resolution of these emotions are meantto reestablish normal functioning of theaffected organs and balance emotional andphysical forces in the body.

How SHEN® DevelopedSHEN’s basic concepts were developedby scientist Richard R. Pavek after heretired from a career in business inorder to start a new career as an alterna-tive medical and health practitioner. In1977 he began formulating his originalconcepts about emotions and theireffects on the body and the mind fromobservations made during his ownexperimentation with the hands-onhealing techniques he was developing.

It was apparent to him that emotionswere far more significant in determin-ing our health than was then presentedin the medical and psychological text-books. While the textbooks were teach-ing that emotions occurred in the brainand were unimportant by-products ofmental activity, he, along with manyother scientists, physicians, and psy-chologists, believed that emotions werefar more complex and often played adominant role in our lives. Pavek theo-rized that when we have an emotion, wefeel it in our bodies, our bodies react toit, and our minds cannot easily make itgo away. It seemed to him that sinceemotions were not readily controlled bythe brain, they were not directly pro-duced by the brain. It followed thatemotional empowerment is as impor-tant to how we live our lives as intellec-tual development.

As he began to determine the effectsemotions had on the body, Paveknoticed a relationship between the loca-tions of painful emotions and the phys-ical disorders with which they wereassociated. For example, he realizedthat anger and fear, emotions that areassociated with eating disorders, areexperienced in the same region of thebody that contains the digestive organs.This relationship of the emotions beingfelt in the body where related disordersoccur is the same for long-term griefand heart disorders, and for shame,guilt, and the dysfunctions they pro-duce. He conceived that the organs inthat region of our bodies must beadversely affected by those emotions

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SHEN Physics

SHEN’s singular techniques are unusually effective because they are based on conven-tional physics rather than on the metaphysical principles used in the past. Through aseries of careful experiments, Dr. Pavek has been able to show that the biofield is regu-lated by the same patterns of arrangement that oversee all other moving fields in nature;electricity, magnetism, oceanic currents, and weather currents. SHEN practitionerslearn to apply the qi between their hands to the recipient according to these patterns inways that produce the greatest effect.

because they are experienced there.Somehow, emotions were controllingthe body.

The last part of the puzzle fell intoplace when he noticed that if we feltpainful emotions, such as fear, grief,and shame, our bodies would clencharound the locations where they arefelt. Subsequently, the emotion wouldbe trapped inside that location. He rea-soned that the physical tension thattrapped the emotion would interferewith normal flow of blood and othernutrients and prevent the physicalorgans in the region from functioningnormally. With these principles estab-lished, Pavek began developing theSHEN techniques now being used torelease trapped emotional trauma with-in the recipient’s body. He demonstrat-ed that release and resolution of theseemotions does reestablish normal func-tioning of the organs.

How SHEN®

WorksSHEN is a unique hands-on process thatdoes not use physical pressure ormanipulation. Instead, it uses thebiofield that surrounds and permeatesthe human body. This field was firstidentified in ancient times and has been inuse in healing ever since. In some forms ofbiofield treatment the qi (pronouncedchee; it is the Chinese name for the energythat makes up the biofield) from the prac-titioner’s hands is applied to the body,either in direct contact with the skin orthrough clothing. In other forms thehands are placed close to, but not touch-ing, the body. SHEN practitioners use

both forms, but most of the time theirhands are in contact with the bodythrough regular clothing.

Typical Session of SHEN®

During the SHEN session the recipientreclines fully clothed on a hammock-likeframe or a table similar to a massagetable, but with twice as much padding.The recipient is encouraged to relax whilethe practitioner places his or her hands ina rationally planned sequence of severalpositions around the regions in the bodywhere, according to Pavek’s theories, wemainly experience or feel the individualemotions. These are the heart, the upperabdomen, the lower abdomen, and thegroin. The recipient often feels tingles orwarmth as the qi between the practition-er’s hands flows through his or her body.Often the client drifts into a light sleepstate, similar to what one experiencesjust before falling fully asleep or justbefore becoming fully awake.

While in this state, emotionallycharged, dreamlike images often emerge.Sometimes memories of forgotten,painful emotional events from earlier por-tions of one’s life come to the surface andare relived. Whenever emotions come tothe surface in a SHEN session they areexperienced in a different way than weusually experience them. Instead of beingdriven to physically respond to, or act outthe effects of the emotion, the personstrongly feels the emotion in one of theemotion regions. This occurs in a way theperson can handle and absorb. Very oftenthese feelings are understood andresolved when they are recalled in a SHEN

Therapeutic Touch

session. Recall of previous emotionalstates and the resolution of troubling emo-tions are the hallmarks of the SHEN ses-sion; emotional empowerment is its intent.

There are certified SHEN practitionersand interns throughout the United States,Canada, and many European countries.More are being trained in a comprehen-sive professional training program that iscurrently available in several countries.

Benefits of SHEN®

SHEN is greatly beneficial with all phys-ical conditions where unpleasant orpainful emotions are major factors.These include conditions that haveoften been slow to respond to conven-tional medical or psychological treat-ment methods. Among these areanorexia, bulimia, compulsive behav-iors, disturbed childhood sleep patterns,emotional depression, emotionallyupset digestion, migraines, panicattacks, severe premenstrual and men-strual distress, all types of post-traumat-ic stress disorders, and recurrentnightmares.

Besides being instrumental in caus-ing physio-emotional disorders, ouremotions often interfere with ourthoughts and we find ourselves unableto think clearly, often ending up at crosspurposes with our best and most desiredinterests. SHEN has proven to be a safeand reliable process that is extremelybeneficial in resolving unpleasant anddetrimental emotional states thatundermine rational thinking and nor-mal psychological development. Byclearing out the old, crippling, and inju-rious emotional energy, SHEN paves theway for emotional empowerment.

SHEN is very helpful in dealing withgrief, feelings of humiliation, and withresolving troublesome dreams. In addi-tion, it has been extremely beneficial inpromoting and accelerating recoveryfrom alcohol and drug addictions andfrom childhood and adult physical, sex-ual and/or emotional abuse. It is oftenvery successful where more convention-al methods and approaches have failedto foster psychological and behavioral

change, or real emotional empower-ment and true personal growth.

—Richard Pavek

Resources:

The SHEN Therapy Institute

20 YFH Gate 6 Road

Sausalito, CA 94965

Tel: (415) 332-2593

Fax: (415) 331-2455

Provides information about research and develop-

ment, and training in the United States and Canada.

The International SHEN Therapy Association

3213 West Wheeler, No. 202

Seattle, WA 98199

Tel: (206) 298-9468

Fax: (206) 283-1256

A not-for-profit corporation founded in 1990 with

the goal of expanding and promoting SHEN

throughout the world. ISTA is charged with the

responsibility of maintaining and administering

uniform worldwide standards for Certified SHEN

Practitioners, for maintaining an internship train-

ing program, and for examining and granting

certification to interns.

SHEN Therapy Centre

26 Inverleith Row

Edinburgh, EH3 5QH

Tel/fax: 0131-551-5091

Scotland

Information about practitioners and training in

the United Kingdom.

SHEN Therapy Centre

73 Claremont Park, Circular Rd.

Galway, Ireland

Tel: 91-525-941

Fax: 91-529-807

Provides information about practitioners and

training in Ireland.

THERAPEUTIC TOUCH

T herapeutic touch is an approach tohealing that assesses and balancesthe energy field that surrounds and

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penetrates the body with the goal of sup-porting an individual’s own potential forself-healing. Therapeutic touch, or TT, asit is affectionately known to practitionersand devotees, is a contemporary inter-pretation of a number of very ancienthealing practices, one of which is the lay-ing on of hands.

Finding the Common DenominatorTT was developed in the 1970s by anurse healer and research scientist atNew York University, Dolores Krieger,Ph.D., RN, in collaboration with a clair-voyant, Dora Kunz. They were interestedin studying various healers to see if therewere any underlying principles thatmight form a common basis for healing.They also wanted to know if there wereany basic principles that might betaught to other people for use in healing.They did indeed find certain fundamen-tal principles at work in healing, andtherapeutic touch developed from theirresearch. Dr. Krieger maintains thathealing is a natural human potentialthat can be learned by virtually anyone.

Clearing Areas of ImbalancesThe practice of TT is based on theassumption that the human being rep-resents an open energy system, and thatthis system is bilaterally symmetrical.The practitioner feels for areas of imbal-ance in the receiver’s field, such as areasof temperature difference (hot or cold),pressure, tingling, or other sensations.These sensations are cues that an area isout of balance. Once the practitionerhas gained a snapshot “feel” for theclient’s energy field, he or she thenworks to rebalance the field.

The therapeutic touch practitionerclears areas of imbalance by gentlybrushing away any places of congestion,in a movement known as “unruffling.”The movement looks almost as thoughthe practitioner is using his or her handsto iron out wrinkles in the space aroundthe receiver’s body. The practitionerthen transfers energy to any areas in thereceiver’s field that may feel as thoughthey lack energy. The practitioner does

this by holding his or her hands a fewinches from the receiver’s body, andsending energy through the palms to thereceiver until the receiver’s energy fieldfeels as though it has “filled up.”

While some people may think thattherapeutic touch sounds a little likehocus-pocus, this practice has, in fact,been the subject of intense scientificscrutiny. One of Dr. Krieger’s mostimportant contributions to the field ofhealing has been her commitment tosubjecting TT to academic research.Therapeutic touch has been the subjectof no less than 27 doctoral studies, 15postdoctoral studies, and innumerableMaster’s theses—plus 2 National Insti-tutes of Health (NIH) grants and 83 arti-cles in 5 countries. TT is taught at morethan eighty colleges in the United Statesand in seventy foreign countries.

Therapeutic touch is practiced by alarge and devoted following, many ofwhom are nurse healers. As the practicegrows, however, many other health pro-fessionals and laypersons are discover-ing the many benefits of TT. It is onebodywork practice that is very easy forlaypersons to learn to use with family members and friends. In fact, thefoundational techniques can be learnedin a one-day workshop. Even childrencan be taught to do TT.

CenteringA typical TT treatment lasts about twentyto thirty minutes. The receiver remainsdressed in street clothes, generally seatedon a stool or straight-backed chair, facingsideways, so that the back is exposed fortreatment. If this position is uncomfort-able, or unsuitable because an individualhas difficulty sitting, treatment can beperformed with the receiver lying on acomfortable padded surface.

The TT practitioner begins treat-ment by quietly centering, or focusinghis or her thoughts, while requestingthat the receiver do the same. Centeringcalms the mind, and enables both prac-titioner and receiver to access deepinner resources that are powerful forcesin healing. While centered and attuned

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Therapeutic Touch

to the receiver, the practitioner assessesthe receiver’s field. The practitionerdoes this by gently, rhythmically, andrapidly passing his or her hands, palmsfacing the receiver, about four to sixinches over the receiver’s body. Thepractitioner then proceeds to clearareas of imbalance and transfer energyas needed to the receiver’s field.

A Safe PracticeStudies have shown that TT is effective atinducing relaxation, diminishing pain,alleviating anxiety, and acceleratinghealing. Receivers report various sensa-tions during treatment, such as tingling,heat, and other effects. They often saythey feel both relaxed and energized.Therapeutic touch is especially recom-mended for acute conditions, such asinfections, wounds, and sprains.

Because therapeutic touch is gentle,and the practitioner often does not eventouch the body, there are very few situa-tions where it cannot be used. Treat-ments should be shorter and gentler forinfants, the elderly, women who arepregnant, seriously ill people, and indi-viduals with head injuries.

—Thomas Claire

Resources:

Nurse Healers–Professional Associates, Inc.

P.O. Box 444

Allison Park, PA 15101-0444

Nurse Healers-Professional Associates is the orga-

nization to which Dr. Krieger gave all her original

TT materials. They can help you find more infor-

mation on therapeutic touch.

Pumpkin Hollow Foundation

RR#1, Box 135

Craryville, NY 12521

Tel: (518) 325-3583, or (518) 325-7105

Offers the only year-round setting where a full pro-

gram of TT classes from beginning to advanced is

offered.

The Therapeutic Touch Network (Ontario)

P.O. Box 85551

875 Eglinton Avenue West

Toronto, ON M6C 4A8

Canada

Tel: (416) 65 TOUCH

Provides information about Canadian programs

and practitioners.

Further Reading:

Claire, Thomas, M.S., LMT. Bodywork: What Type

of Massage to Get—and How to Make the Most

of It. New York: William Morrow, 1995.

Krieger, Dolores, Ph.D., RN. Accepting Your Power

to Heal: The Personal Practice of Therapeutic

Touch. Santa Fe, NM: Bear & Co., 1993.

——. The Therapeutic Touch: How to Use Your

Hands to Help or to Heal. New York: Prentice-

Hall, 1979.

Macrae, Janet, Ph.D., RN. Therapeutic Touch: A

Practical Guide. New York: Knopf, 1987.

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Bowen Technique • Connective Tissue TherapySM • CORE Structural Inte-grative Therapy • Infant Massage • Muscular Therapy • Myofascial Release• Myofascial Trigger Point Therapy • Reflexology • Rolfing® • Rosen Method• St. John Method of Neuromuscular Therapy • Swedish Massage

PART VII: MASSAGE

Massage is one of theoldest methods of healingthe body, mind, and spirit.The instinct to console oneanother through touch isperhaps as old as humani-ty itself. According to theseminal study HealingMassage Techniques: Holis-tic, Classic, and EmergingMethods (1988), the firstcave dwellers probablyrubbed their bruises andaches by instinct, the sameway many other animalstouch and groom eachother. Humans recognizedthe therapeutic power oftouch very early on byobserving its physical andpsychological benefits.Many different massagetechniques have grownout of that instinct—known today under the

broad umbrella called mas-sage therapy.

How Massage Therapy DevelopedThe use of massage as a therapeutic tool has been documented throughout histo-

ry. In the Americas, massage and joint manipulation was used by the Maya, Inca, andother native peoples. Traditional African and Eastern cultures used sharp stones toscratch the skin’s surface in a healing practice similar to Chinese acupuncture. Indige-nous peoples of the South Pacific have their own forms of massage as well.

Massage is one of the most widely available body-mind therapies.

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Although touch has been used as a method of folk healing in many cultures, thedevelopment of formal therapeutic massage is strongly rooted in China. Evidence forthis can be found in The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine, which, accord-ing to legend, was written by the Yellow Emperor Huang-ti, who died in 2598 BCE. Twodescriptive names were used in China for massage: anmo, meaning press-rub, andtui-na, meaning push-pull. According to Fundamentals of Therapeutic Massage bySandy Fritz (1995), these methods involved kneading and rubbing down the entirebody with the hands and using a gentle pressure and traction on all the joints. Acu-pressure, the ancient practice of applying hand and finger pressure to specific pointson the body, developed out of Chinese acupuncture—the practice of stimulating cer-tain points along the body by inserting tiny needles.

Chinese massage techniques spread along trade routes to Japan and other Asiancountries, including India, where they have enjoyed respect for their therapeutic valueto this day. There is evidence in medical literature that massage was used as a respect-ed element in ancient Egyptian and Persian medical practices. The “laying on of hands”and “anointing with oils” has been recorded in the writings of the early Hebrews andChristians; in fact, there is reference to these practices in Isaiah of the Bible.

Massage was considered an integral part of ayurvedic medicine in ancient India.Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) was one of those responsible for bringing massageto the West. When conquering India, his troops were ravaged by fatal snake bites. TheIndian physicians had developed advanced surgical techniques to treat these snakebites, so Alexander replaced all of his Greek physicians with Indian physicians, andmassage was incorporated into Greek medicine. Tschanpua—eventually known asshampooing—was a technique initially employed by Alexander’s officers; it surviveduntil the 1800s. Last used by the British Colonial Army, it was incorporated as a part ofa greater health regimen that also involved bathing and the use of scented oils.

The ancient Greeks built great bathhouses, called thurmae, where exercise, mas-sage, baths, and scholastic studies were available, much like modern-day health spas.Citizens visited the thurmae daily as a part of the “duty of health.” Socrates, Plato, andAristotle were all teachers at thurmae and also received massage there. The Greeksemployed massage especially in conjunction with athletics; for example, an athletewould be massaged before taking part in the Olympic Games.

Hippocrates, often referred to as the father of modern medicine, lived in ancientGreece from 460 to 377 BCE. He learned massage and gymnastics and developed hisown method of medicine. He wrote prescriptions for massage and exercise. Many ofhis techniques have survived to this day.

The Romans learned massage from the Greeks. Massage and baths were usedextensively throughout the Roman Empire (27 BCE–476 CE), which covered most ofEurope. Cicero wrote about receiving massage and attributed his health to it. EvenJulius Caesar (100–44 BCE) had himself “pinched all over” daily for relief of nerve painand to treat epilepsy, a severe nervous disorder.

After the fall of Rome and the barbarian invasions, the rise of monasticism helped topreserve written accounts of the use of massage in the West. The monks were bothscribes and physicians. Although they were not medically trained as Roman physicianswere, they carried on the practice of massage, exercise, and anointing with oils as a

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part of folk medicine. Eventually the monks abandoned the practice of medicine aswell as massage, and as a result massage faded in Europe.

During the Middle Ages, invasions and wars caused great political and socialchaos in Europe. Communication among countries was lost. This contributed tothe decline of medicine, massage, and medical advancements. At this time, super-natural occurrences were often associated with massage, and it has been reportedin some sources that many healers were persecuted by the church for having evilpowers.

Change occurred once again after the Black Plague, which destroyed large popula-tions in Europe. A time period known as the Renaissance (fourteenth to sixteenth cen-turies CE) followed. Travel increased and communications were restored. Peoplestarted learning about Arabic and Persian culture, where the Greco-Roman traditionsof massage had thrived.

In the late fourteenth century, massage was first used in postsurgical recovery, andwas even considered a noninvasive type of surgery. Formal two-year medical trainingprograms were established at universities all across Europe, similar to the old Romanschools. A well-known French physician, Ambroise Paré (1517–1590), began usingmassage for postsurgical healing of wounds and joint stiffness. His ideas helped tomake massage better accepted by the medical community of the West and werepassed on to other European physicians.

Massage was finally popularized in the West by the work of a Swede named PerHenrik Ling (1776–1839). A fencing master and gymnastics instructor, Ling is creditedwith the development of Swedish massage. After curing himself of rheumatism in hisarm by the use of massage techniques, he began a study of the art and developed asystem that included massage and exercise. He based his system on the new scienceof physiology.

Because of his continual study and dedication, Ling’s method eventually becameaccepted and known as “the Ling system” or the “Swedish movement treatment.” In1813 he established the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute, the first college to havemassage a part of the curriculum. It was popular internationally. Even the czar of Rus-sia sent someone to study at the school. Through the writings and practice of Ling’sstudents, his system became well known throughout Europe. Many new forms ofmassage are based on this standard form.

From 1813 to 1918 massage became quite popular as a medical treatment. Manyspas were built all over Europe for the rheumatoid “cure.” In the mid-1800s two Ver-mont physicians, Charles Faytte Taylor and George Henry Taylor brought massage tothe United States from Europe. However, after World War I the popularity of massagein orthodox Western medicine declined once again with the rise in pharmaceuticaldrugs and new medical technologies.

This decline lasted through World War II, and massage did not appear again inmedical literature until the late 1970s. After the reopening of China to the West dur-ing President Richard Nixon’s administration, American physicians traveled there tolearn acupuncture and returned with the basics of acupressure and other Chinesemassage. Massage began to reappear in American popular culture in the 1960s afterPresident John Kennedy began to emphasize physical fitness as important to pre-ventative medicine.

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Massage was a part of the new age movement that began with the hippies in theUnited States, but it was not really taken seriously by the medical community untilthe 1980s, when studies were published describing the benefits of Eastern tech-niques for certain conditions. It gained popularity as a method of managing pain.On-site massage at the workplace became popular for work-related pain and stressmanagement.

Sports massage has also flourished with the popularity of athletics. Practitionersin the twentieth century began to innovate the practice of massage by combiningtechniques and adding their own insights. This synthesis of old and new methodscontributed to the resurgence of therapeutic massage in the United States andthroughout the world.

Basic Systems of MassageToday there have grown several systems, or modalities, of massage. They can be

divided into three different approaches:

• Mechanical approaches attempt to change the quality of muscles, tendons, andligaments or blood and lymph flow by the direct application of force. ConnectiveTissue TherapyTM, myofascial release, Rolfing, and manual lymph drainage aresome of the popular forms that fall in this category.

• Movement approaches focus on passively repatterning habits of moving the bodyfor greater ease and relief. Neuromuscular facilitation and trigger-point myother-apy are good examples.

• Energetic approaches deal with influencing reflexes in the nervous system andbalancing energy in the body. Shiatsu and many Eastern forms of massage, as wellas polarity, therapeutic touch, reiki, and Zero Balancing® deal with this approach.Because these methods use substantially different techniques from the first twoapproaches, they are dealt with in separate sections of this encyclopedia.

Many modalities, including medical and sports massage, may integrate all threeapproaches.

Massage aims to bring the participant’s body, mind, and spirit into balance byencouraging the body’s own healing potential. The body has the amazing ability tobring itself back to equilibrium through many built-in balancing mechanisms. Forexample, when a harmful microorganism enters the body, one’s temperature rises tokill the germ and then eventually returns to normal temperature (98.6° F). Using amechanical or movement approach, massage therapists determine where imbalancesmay lie in the structure of the body (perhaps very tight muscles) and support thebody’s return to a more balanced state (i.e., encouraging the nervous system and mus-culature to let go of excess tension in overcontracted muscles). This is done by manip-ulating the soft tissues of the body—mainly muscles, tendons, and ligaments.

Because the body and its systems are quite complex, a certain level of understand-ing of energy-flow patterns, knowledge of anatomy and physiology, and competenceis required in order to give an effective massage. Thus, many states in the UnitedStates require massage therapists to be licensed professionals who have a certainnumber of hours of specialized training in a certified school and abide by certain rulesand ethical guidelines. This ensures the public a safe, quality service and is similar to

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other professions in the field of health science such as physical therapists, doctors,and chiropractors, who must also be licensed.

The requirements for licensure vary from state to state in the United States. Somestates do not require a license at all; most states require between 500 and 1,000 hoursof training in anatomy and physiology as well as massage technique. Ontario, Cana-da, requires very extensive training of 2,200 hours, while British Columbia has a 3,000-hour curriculum, and massage has become a more recognized profession there, moreintegrated into the medical community. Recently in the United States, standards fornational certification have been established to require at least 500 hours of trainingand the successful completion of a national exam.

Licensure has also helped to distinguish massage therapy from the business ofprostitution, which sometimes shrouds itself under the veil of “massage.” Therapeu-tic massage is a nonsexual health practice.

The Power of TouchMassage is usually done with the hands, but elbows, forearms, knees, or feet may

be used. The client may be clothed, as is the custom with Japanese shiatsu, which isdone on the floor or a mat with the practitioner kneeling alongside the client andcrawling along different parts of the body to administer pressure. Touch may also beadministered directly to the skin and underlying muscles of unclothed clients as withSwedish massage. Usually in these cases the client lies on a massage table and isdraped with sheets and/or towels so that only the part of the body being worked on isexposed, and most often a cream, oil, or some form of lubricant is used on the skin.

A typical treatment session lasts about one hour. If one is going for medical mas-sage for a specific injury, it may last only thirty to forty minutes. Thai massage ses-sions, which involve many elaborate stretches that the practitioner does for theparticipant, may last for two hours.

Benefits and RisksThere are many benefits to massage therapy. Above all, it is used to relieve pain.

Psychologically, touch gives a message of caring, compassion, and support to a par-ticipant and can thereby help reduce stress and aid healing. Mechanically, it canalleviate muscle spasm and help increase flexibility. Physiologically, circulation ofblood and lymph is increased, which helps deliver nutrients to all the cells of thebody and also helps to remove the waste products of cells. Studies with AIDSpatients have shown that massage therapy can help activate the immune system.Touch can have a soothing or stimulating effect on the nervous system. Further-more, it heightens awareness of the body and its sensations, which supports theconnection of body, mind, and spirit. Scientific research is currently being done atthe Touch Research Institute in Florida to further investigate the effects of touch andtherapeutic massage.

Despite all of these healing effects, there are times when massage therapy is notappropriate. Massage should not be administered if either the client or the practi-tioner is under the influence of certain types of drugs, such as cortisone treatments ormind-altering drugs. It should also be avoided if the client or the practitioner has afever or a communicable disease such as the measles or influenza.

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Cancer is another major contraindication for massage. Many forms of massagetherapy, especially Swedish, involve moving lymph fluid, which may cause the cancerto spread. If the participant has been diagnosed with any form of inflammation of theblood vessels (especially phlebitis) or with having a blood clot, massage should not bedone for fear of moving the blood clot where it may damage the heart or cause astroke. Massage should be avoided locally if the participant has varicose veins, bruis-es, or open wounds. Liver problems and other inflammations of internal organsshould be investigated with the client’s doctor before massage is administered.

—Katie Scoville , with information from an interviewwith Richard van Why, publisher of The Bodywork Knowledgebase.

Resources:

American Massage Therapy Association (AMTA)

820 Davis St., Suite 100

Evanston, IL 60201

Tel: (847) 864-0123

Fax: (847) 864-1178

Web site: www.amtamassage.org

An organization that provides information and

resources on massage therapy. Publishes the Mas-

sage Therapy Journal.

The American Oriental Bodywork Therapy

Association (AOBTA)

Glendale Executive Campus, Ste. 510

1000 White Horse Rd.

Vorhees, NJ 08043

Tel: (609) 782-1616

Fax: (516) 364-5559

Web site: www.healthy.net/pan/pa/bodywork

The AOBTA is a national organization of body-

workers in eleven different styles. They certify prac-

titioners, teachers, and schools throughout the

United States. The organization enforces mini-

mum entry-level standards (500 hours) for all

types of Oriental bodyworkers. Currently repre-

sents about 1,200 members.

College of Massage Therapists of Ontario

1867 Yonge Street, Ste. 810

Toronto, ON M451Y5

Canada

Organization that promotes the therapeutic use of

massage in Canada.

National Certification Board for Therapeutic

Massage and Bodywork

8201 Greensboro Dr.

Suite 300

MacLean, VA 22102

Tel: (800) 296-0664

Fax: (703) 610-9015

Web site: www.ncbtmb.com

Establishes and implements certification stan-

dards for massage therapists.

Further Reading:

Fritz, Sandy. Mosby’s Fundamentals of Therapeu-

tic Massage. St. Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book,

Inc., 1995.

Lidell, Lucinda. The Book of Massage. New York:

Fireside, 1984.

Tappan, F. M. Healing Massage Techniques: Holis-

tic, Classic, and Emerging Methods. Norwalk,

CT: Appleton & Lange, 1988.

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BOWEN TECHNIQUE

Bowen technique or Bowtech© is asystem of muscle and connectivetissue movements used to stimu-

late energy flow and restore the body’sself-healing resources. A Bowtech spe-cialist uses a series of gently rollingmovements to manipulate a client’s con-nective tissue, including muscles, ten-dons, and ligaments. With the goal ofstimulating, balancing, and realigningthe body’s energy flows, the Bowen tech-nique is used by many health care pro-fessionals as an adjunct to their work;however, it is increasingly used as astand-alone therapy, with many Bowenpractitioners maintaining their ownclinics.

The Bowen technique was developedin Australia by Thomas A. Bowen(1903–1982). He began his professionaltraining with a year of medical school,followed by service in the Australianarmy during World War II. After the war,while working in an industrial plant, hegained a reputation for being able tohelp his coworkers with their aches andpains. Because he was able to help somany people, he decided to open a clin-ic using his method of muscle manipula-tion. By 1975 he was seeing 13,000patients per year. After his death,Bowen’s work was continued by his col-leagues Oswald and Elaine Rentsch. TheRentsches had previously documentedBowen’s technique and since his deaththey have introduced it throughout Aus-tralia, North America, and Europe. Morethan 6,000 people worldwide have beentrained to practice or administer theBowen technique.

The Bowtech therapist uses two orfour fingers to gently roll muscles fromside to side. Known as the Golgi tendonreflex, this movement triggers musclesto relax. This movement appears toaffect the body’s autonomic nervous sys-tem and creates balance on a cellularlevel. Some believe that Bowtech sets upvibrational patterns that correspond toparticular areas of the body. The body

then attempts to alter its usual vibra-tions to match those ideal vibrationalpatterns and in so doing, brings itselfinto harmony.

A typical treatment lasts betweentwenty and forty minutes. It is usuallydone on a massage table or bed, where aclient will lie comfortably and fullyclothed on his or her back or abdomen.The therapist relaxes a muscle, tendon,or ligament by gently rolling it back andforth with his or her fingers. Each ses-sion includes a series of waiting periodswhen the therapist will pause to allowthe recipient’s body to integrate thechanges to the area being treated. Gen-erally an increase in blood supply andlymphatic drainage results in the releaseof tension and reduced muscle spasms.Unlike traditional Swedish massage, thetechnique is gentle and contacts onlymuscles on the surface of the body, withno deep rubbing.

The Bowen technique may be per-formed on anyone, from newborn infantsto seniors. It may be incorporated into thetreatment of the disabled or patients withchronic illnesses, including multiple

Thomas A. Bowen, founder of the Bowen technique.

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sclerosis, cerebral palsy, muscular dys-trophy, acute and chronic fatigue, andstress disorders. It has also been used tospeed rehabilitation of sports injuriesand accidents, regardless of how old orrecent the injuries may be.

—Oswald Rentsch

Resources:

Bowtech©

P.O. Box 733

Hamilton, Victoria 3300

Australia

Tel: 011 61 3 55 723000

e-mail: bowtech©h140.aone.net.au

Promotes the study and use of the Bowen technique.

Oswald Rentsch performing respiratory procedures on a small child. The gentlemoves relax the diaphragm, easing gastrointestinal tract and breathing dysfunction.

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CONNECTIVE TISSUE THERAPYSM

C onnective Tissue TherapySM is aform of bodywork, sometimescalled binde or bindegewebsmas-

sage, that stimulates the tissue betweenskin and muscle in order to relieve painand promote mental, emotional, andphysical well-being. Developed by aGerman physiotherapist, ElizabethDicke, it posits a powerful associationbetween particular areas of connectivetissue and specific paths of the nervoussystem and internal organs. FollowingDicke’s teachings, Connective TissueTherapy plots treatment so as to acti-vate relays between areas of tissue anddifferent parts of the body. ConnectiveTissue Therapy can help restore balanceto the neuromuscular and organ sys-tems after illness and has a relaxingeffect beneficial to self-healing andhealth maintenance.

Discovering BindegewebsmassageDicke discovered the basic principle ofConnective Tissue Therapy in 1929,when she was incapacitated by toxemiaof the right leg so severe that doctorsrecommended amputation. Whiletouching an area of her lower back, shecame across abnormally thick, tenselayers of tissue and realized she felt sen-sations of warmth and tingling in herinfected leg whenever she stroked thearea of abnormal tissue in a pullingmanner. Though recovery requiredthree months and the help of a physio-therapist who followed Dicke’s specificinstructions, the transmission of energy

from the lower back became the meansby which Dicke saved her leg.

After she resumed activity as a phys-iotherapist, Dicke began to explore theramifications of her discovery. Shenoticed, for example, correspondencesbetween malfunction in various organsand changes in tension on specific areasof the body’s surface, named “Headzones” after Henry Head, the nine-teenth-century English neurologist whofirst studied them. According to Head,the nerves, organs, and their correlated“Head zones” of skin are rooted in thesame segment of the spinal cord. Dickebuilt on Head’s work, using the “zones”as a guide for locating pathways of con-nective tissue that could be manipulat-ed to improve organ function.

By 1938 Dicke had formulated thesystem of bodywork she calledbindegewebsmassage, literally connec-tive tissue massage, and started tosearch out ways to introduce it to themedical community and the generalpublic. She collaborated with a numberof scientists in publishing the materialin article and book form and becameactive as a teacher.

The Theory of Connective TissueTherapySM

Connective Tissue Therapy concentratesupon the subcutaneous sheaths of tissue,known as fascia, that are found through-out the body surrounding, supporting,and connecting the nerves, blood vessels,muscles, and organs. While distinct frommuscles, fascia is an important determi-nant of strength and range of motion andin a healthy person is usually robust and

The Popularity of Connective Tissue TherapyTM

The Elizabeth Dicke Society was founded in 1954 to preserve and expand her legacy.Bindegewebsmassage is a widely accepted physical therapy in Germany and in manycountries it is regarded as a medical treatment for organ and circulatory disease. In theUnited States Connective Tissue Therapy remains less well known than many other typesof bodywork, but it is taught at various massage schools, and the technique is part of therepertory of many massage therapists.

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Connective Tissue TherapySM being given to a swimmer.

flexible. Conversely, tension in the fascia,evident in a thickening of tissue and lossof ease in movement, is a sign of dys-function caused by disease or by animbalance likely to cause disease if it isnot corrected.

Through massage, Connective TissueTherapy attempts to restore supplenessand vitality to fascia that has tightenedand become numbed or painful. It is pos-tulated that the massage is effectivebecause it activates the parasympatheticnervous system, which controls relaxationas well as pain relief and healing in thevital organs and all other parts of the body.

Experiencing Connective Tissue TherapySM

Length and frequency of sessions inConnective Tissue Therapy vary accord-ing to the needs of the receiver. Sincethe benefits increase with each addi-tional session, a series of ten to twentysessions may be recommended for areceiver with a severe problem or oneinterested in learning about the body’spotential for health. During treatment,

done without oils or lotions, the receiv-er sits on a chair or lies flat. The treat-ment starts at the pelvic area, thenproceeds over the body, using a tech-nique in which the therapist hooks hisor her fingers into the skin and upperlayer of fascia while performing apulling stroke. The strokes cause tem-porary marks on the skin and sensa-tions ranging from dull to sharp. As thetreatment continues the receiver mayexperience a desire to sleep, excessiveperspiration, deepened breathing, or adrop in body temperature. Benefitsfrom the session may last for monthsfollowing a series of treatments.

The Benefits of Connective TissueTherapySM

Connective Tissue Therapy brings abouta relaxation of the fascia that is particu-larly helpful in restoring function andrange of motion and in stimulating boneand muscle repair of damage sufferedfrom injuries, arthritis, and other degen-erative disorders. It has a tonic effect

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upon the circulatory and nervous sys-tems that can aid the elimination of tox-ins; the healing of wounds in a way thatprevents the formation of scar tissue;promote recovery from kidney and otherorgan malfunction; and lessen stress andanxiety. It can also be an effectiveadjunct to other forms of treatment.

—Jackie Hand

Resources:

Theresa Lamb (CTTSM)

2140 Lower Smith Gap Rd.

Kunkletown, PA 18058

Tel: (610) 826-5957

Provides training in CTTSM.

Wholistic Pathway

152 North Wellwood Avenue, Suite 5

Lindenurst, NY 11757

Tel: (516) 226-3898

Offers training in bindegewebsmassage.

Further Reading:

Dicke, Elizabeth, et al. A Manual of Reflexive Ther-

apy of the Connective Tissue (Connective Tissue

Massage) ‘Bindegewebsmassage’. Scarsdale, NY:

Sidney S. Simon, 1978.

Ebner, Maria. Connective Tissue Massage: Theory

and Therapeutic Application. Huntington, NY:

Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co., 1980.

Tappan, Frances. Healing Massage Techniques:

Holistic, Classic, and Emerging Techniques. Nor-

walk, CT: Appleton & Lang, 1988.

CORE STRUCTURAL

INTEGRATIVE THERAPY

CORE structural integrative therapyis a system of bodywork that seeksto improve the structure and func-

tion of the musculoskeletal system andconnective tissues of the human body.

CORE practitioners utilize client-assist-ed movement while applying massagetechniques, which brings heightenedawareness of the body and allows theclient to participate in releasing tensionand pain. This system was originated byGeorge P. Kousaleos, founder of theCORE Institute School of Massage Ther-apy and Structural Bodywork.

A typical session of CORE structuralintegrative therapy includes an analysisof the client’s structural alignment andmovement patterns, the application offull-body or regional bodywork tech-niques that stretch and tone the body’smyofascial network, and instruction ofcorrective and postural exercises. COREbodywork techniques vary from moder-ate to deep pressure, and sessions canbe organized for specific ailments or for general benefit.

CORE structural integrative therapy usually involves ten sessions of body-work, but also includes introductoryand maintenance sessions that supporta lifelong system of improved alignmentand optimal performance. The COREsystem includes CORE myofascial ther-apy, a full-body session that introducesthe client to the concepts and benefitsof structural alignment; CORE extrinsictherapy, a three-session series thataligns the superficial musculature,which allows for greater freedom ofmovement; CORE intrinsic therapy, afour-session series that aligns the deep-est musculature, which supports thepelvis, spine, and cranium; and COREintegration therapy, the final three-session series, which provides integrat-ed movement patterns throughout thebody.

A person will experience the physicalbenefits of CORE structural integrativetherapy immediately. Clients may feel alighter, longer, and looser relationshipof muscles and joints. Some people whoreceive CORE therapy often perceivethat they are using less energy to pro-duce all physical activities, and thatthey sleep and rest at a deeper level.Some clients will also experience arelease of emotional memories and

Infant Massage

trauma, often resulting in a greatersense of self-reliance.

While CORE structural integrativetherapy can be beneficial for every agegroup and activity level, the positiveaspects are greater for those who areactively engaged in rigorous physical ormental endeavors. Many clients reportimmediate improvement in their physi-cal and psychological stress levels,resulting in a higher state of clarity andfocus. From 1994 to 1996 CORE practi-tioners have worked with BritishOlympic athletes who were in trainingfor the 1996 Atlanta Olympics. It is esti-mated that more than 300 Olympic ath-letes and coaches have received COREtechniques.

—George Kousaleos and Gary Genna

Resources:

The CORE Institute

223 West Carolina Street

Tallahassee, FL 32308

Tel: (904) 222-8673

Fax: (904) 561-6160

Offers training for CORE practitioners. All CORE

practitioners have been trained though the faculty

of the CORE Institute and are nationally certified

in therapeutic massage and bodywork. Training in

CORE structural integrative therapy is offered

throughout North America.

INFANT MASSAGE

I nfant massage is an ancient traditionin many cultures throughout theworld. Since the 1970s this art has

been enjoying a renaissance in the West.Traditional infant massage strokes, likethose practiced in India, are used in theUnited States as a way for parents andother caregivers to communicate theirlove, caring, and respect for their babiesand children. Studies seem to indicatethat the positive effects of practicing

infant massage are just as profound onthe parent’s physical, mental, and emo-tional well-being as they are on thechild’s.

The History of Infant MassageVimala McClure was one of the firstindividuals to bring the practice ofmassaging babies to the United States.While living in India in the early seven-ties, McClure observed the beneficialeffects of daily massage on infants. Shereturned to the United States and puttogether a curriculum for parent-infantclasses. McClure wrote a book on thesubject, Infant Massage: A Handbookfor Loving Parents, developed aninstructor training program, and in1981 founded the International Associ-ation for Infant Massage (IAIM). Thepurpose of IAIM is to integrate the art ofinfant massage into the parenting tradi-tions of Western cultures. IAIM offerscourses for parents and other care-givers and, according to its missionstatement, works to “promote nurtur-ing touch and communication throughtraining, education, and research sothat parents, caregivers, and childrenare loved, valued, and respectedthroughout the world community.”There are presently more than 1,500active certified infant massage instruc-tors (CIMI) throughout the world.

How Infant Massage WorksInfant massage includes the critical ele-ments of bonding: eye-to-eye and skin-to-skin contact, smiling, soothingsounds, cuddling, and sound and smellreciprocity. “Touch communication”provides a common language for par-ent/child communication. Babies com-municate through many types of nonverbal cues such as rubbing theireyes when tired, sucking their handswhen hungry, smiling when happy, cry-ing when hungry, wet, or in need ofattention. By learning to read the non-verbal cues that babies use to express afull range of emotions in response to themassage, caregivers develop a tangible

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Vimala McClure brought infant massage techniques from India to the United States.

sense of their own powers to helpsoothe, comfort, and nurture theirbabies.

Renowned British anthropologistAshley Montague points out in his bookTouching that all mammals excepthuman beings lick their young. This lick-ing process serves to stimulate the phys-iological systems and aids in thebonding process. Montague postulatesthat the massage tradition, found inmost countries of the world, is thehuman equivalent of mammals lickingtheir young for health and well-being.

Clinical evidence shows that loving,touching, and nurturing contactbetween caregiver and infant has a pos-itive impact on subsequent physical,mental, and emotional development ofthe child. Many studies suggest thebenefits of positive, interactive contactas an integral part of early life. They alsosuggest that a lack of early interactivetouch can have a negative impact on achild’s development.

Research on the Positive Effects ofInfant MassageResearch conducted over the years inregard to human touch has indicatedthat it is particularly beneficial for vul-nerable babies. One landmark study byF. A. Scafidi shows that prematurebabies who were massaged daily devel-oped more rapidly both physically, withgreater weight gain, and neurologically.In 1987 researcher K. J. Ottenbackeranalyzed nineteen separate infant stim-ulation studies and found that 72 per-cent of the infants receiving some formof tactile stimulation were positivelyaffected. Most of the investigators of thenineteen separate studies reportedgreater weight gain and better out-comes on developmental assessmentscompared to those infants who did notreceive as much stimulation.

Studies conducted at the TouchResearch Institute (TRI) at the Universityof Miami Medical Center since its incep-tion in 1992 affirm the effectiveness of

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Infant massage uses touch communication to develop the bond between parent and child.

the techniques outlined in VimalaMcClure’s book. TRI studies have shownthat massage improves cardiac and res-piratory output, promotes longer anddeeper sleeping patterns, and developsimmunological factors. In one TRI studyconducted by researcher Tiffany Field,babies of depressed adolescent motherswere massaged by their mothers. Thesebabies fell asleep faster and becamemore vocal, mother-baby interactionsimproved, and the mothers perceivedthat the babies were easier to soothe.Field has also identified other positiveeffects that providing massage can haveon the caregiver, including improvedmood and a reduction in anxiety. Inaddition, their stress levels decreasedand they reported improved self-esteem.

Infant Massage ClassesCertified infant massage instructors(CIMI) conduct parent education classesin a variety of settings, usually in small

groups to facilitate communication andsupport among the caregivers in thegroup. Instructors teach a series of class-es over a four- to five-week period. It usu-ally takes about a month for a healthybaby to learn to accept a full-body mas-sage.

Parents are encouraged to massagetheir baby on a regular basis, every dayif possible. Since the premise of thework is that parents are teachers ofrelaxation, parents are also encouragedto set up relaxed environments forthemselves, so that they can pass onthis sense of relaxation to their babies.Infant massage’s precepts also encour-age self-care for parents as a means ofcaring for one’s child.

Practicing Infant MassageAn important tenet of the massage islearning to show respect for the baby. It isvery important that caregivers learn touse tactile, auditory, and visual cues toask the baby’s permission to massage.

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IAIM trains and certifies individuals to teach parents and caregivers to massage theirbabies. Many CIMIs are branching out to work with special-needs populations, such asphysically challenged infants, infants who are drug-exposed or HIV-positive, medicallyfragile infants, as well as teen moms, incarcerated moms, homeless families, andwomen recovering from drug and alcohol addiction.

This can be done by rubbing small cir-cles around the hairline, holding theirbaby’s hands together, or placing thebaby’s hands on his or her chest andthen waiting for a response from thebaby. Learning to understand andrespect the baby’s answer, which is givenwith the same kinds of nonverbal cues,is part of learning to communicatethrough appropriate touch. By askingpermission in this way, parents alsoteach their children to discern touchthat is loving and appropriate. Askingpermission is also a way of demonstrat-ing respect for the baby. By giving thebaby respect, the caregiver helps thebaby develop self-respect.

Babies are massaged without clothes,using edible oils that are absorbed bythe skin, such as sunflower or almondoil, so that the baby will not be harmed ifhe or she swallows any oil. A massagelasts as long as the baby gives permis-sion and the caregiver is available. Thiscan be as short as two minutes or as longas an hour. Most massages are twenty totwenty-five minutes long.

Massaging a baby is a tactile expres-sion of love and security. Experienceand clinical research show that babiesenjoy and benefit from firm, confidenttouch as opposed to light, featherytouch. Babies typically move, kick, andtalk throughout the massage. They arenot quiet recipients like adults. Parentsare encouraged to actively listen to theirbabies’ responses to the touch of themassage. This type of interaction teach-es parents to talk with their hands andlisten with their hearts.

Massage is a dance between the par-ent and baby. The techniques taught in

classes or learned from a book or videoare the basic choreography. Once a par-ent is comfortable with the massage,improvisation begins. Parents use thesame strokes that generations of par-ents all over the world have used, yeteach parent and child develop a “duet”that is their own unique expression oflove.

The Benefits of Infant MassageThe practice of infant massageenhances the parent-baby bond, help-ing create loving and respectful relation-ships among family members. Themassage time offers parents an opportu-nity to explore and develop theirresponses to the baby’s sounds, move-ments, and facial expressions. Babiesare taught that they are aware humanbeings who deserve respect, tenderness,warmth, and above all, a listening heart.This type of interaction serves as amodel for the child as he or she growsand for the parent as well, encouragingthem to develop respectful, loving rela-tionships with an ever-widening circleof people.

—Mindy Zlotnick

Resources:

IAIM (International Association of Infant Massage)

1720 Willow Creek Circle Suite #516

Eugene, OR 97402

Toll-free: (800) 248-5432

Fax: (541) 485-7372

e-mail: iaimus@aol.com

Organization that trains and certifies instructors.

Muscular Therapy

Further Reading:

Books:

Kennel, J., and M. Klaus. Parent-Infant Bonding,

2nd edition. St. Louis: CV Mosby, 1982.

McClure, Vimala. Infant Massage: A Handbook for

Loving Parents. New York: Bantam Books, 1989.

Montague, Ashley. Touching. New York: Harper

and Row, 1978.

Journals:

Field, Tiffany. “The Benefits of Infant Massage on

Growth and Development.” Pediatric Basics,

Volume 71, 1996.

Ottenbacher, K. J., et al. “The Effectiveness of Tac-

tile Stimulation as an Early Intervention: A

Quantitative Evaluation.” Journal of Develop-

mental Behavioral Pediatrics, 8: 68–76, 1987.

Scafidi, F. A., T. Field, and S. M. Schanberg, et al.

“Effects of Kinesthetic Stimulation on the Clini-

cal Course and the Sleep/Wake Behaviors of

Pre-term Neonates.” Infant Behavior and

Development, 1986: 9:91–105.

Scafidi, F .A., et al. “Massage Stimulates Growth in

Preterm Infants, a Replication.” Infant Behavior

and Development, 1990 13:167–68.

MUSCULAR THERAPY

Muscular therapy, also referred to asthe Benjamin system of musculartherapy, consists of a series of

techniques and exercises designed to pro-mote physical health and reduce musculartension and stress caused by physicalinjury. It is also an educational process inwhich the client learns to understand thecause of his or her physical symptoms andwhat needs to be done to alleviate them.

Muscular therapy was developed by Dr.Ben Benjamin from a synthesis of severalapproaches to working with the body. Dr.Benjamin’s interest in the field began in1958, when he sustained a serious injury.

After several frustrating failed attempts toobtain relief, his injury was successfullytreated by Alfred Kagan, a well-knownFrench practitioner who had developedoriginal techniques for the treatment ofmuscular tension and injury. During thecourse of his treatment, Dr. Benjaminbecame interested in Kagan’s method andstudied with him after his recovery. Heobserved and analyzed Kagan’s complextechnique. From his observation Dr. Ben-jamin created a series of more than 700discrete muscular manipulations.

Following his work with Kagan, Dr.Benjamin spent several years studying theorigins of physical tension and learningways that people could care for them-selves without requiring continual treat-ment from a physician or therapist. Hebecame particularly interested in the workof Dr. Wilhelm Reich, F. M. Alexander, andDr. James Cyriax and sought ways of incor-porating some of their ideas into hisapproach to tension reduction. In Reich’swork, Benjamin learned of the emotionalcomponent of muscular tension. Dr. Ben-jamin realized that this understanding ofthe physical manifestation of emotionaldistress could help the practitioner distin-guish between emotional distress in thebody and mechanical or injury-relatedtension. In his study of the Alexander tech-nique, Dr. Benjamin discovered a methodfor establishing proper movement habits.He felt that by using these techniques,practitioners could learn to use their bod-ies more effectively and avoid movementhabits that cause pain, tension, and injury.The third influence was the injury evalua-tion and deep friction treatment devel-oped by Dr. Cyriax.

These three approaches combinedwith Benjamin’s original treatment tech-niques provide a comprehensive under-standing of the nature and treatment ofphysical tension. They enable the practi-tioner to determine if an injury has beencaused primarily by overuse, an align-ment problem, or by emotional stress.Using these techniques, Benjamin wasable to distinguish between a seriousinjury, which requires a physician’sattention, and one that is relatively minor

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and could be safely handled with muscu-lar therapy techniques. Benjamin’s tech-niques are not designed to treat musculartension caused by emotional stress.

A therapist works with the client byperforming deep massage, including avariety of area-specific strokes, pressure,and rhythms to reduce chronic tensionand pain. In a typical session, therapistsmay educate clients about the causesand effects of tension. Clients learntechniques designed to prevent thebuildup of new tension. These mayinclude basic exercises for warming up,stretching, and building strength.

—Ben Benjamin, Ph.D., and Mary Ann di Roberts

Resources:

Muscular Therapy Institute

122 Rindge Avenue

Cambridge, MA 02140

Tel: (617) 576-1300

The Muscular Therapy Institute offers a two-year

training program in massage therapy that empha-

sizes physical technique, clear professional bound-

aries, and good communication skills.

Further Reading:

Benjamin, Ben E. Are You Tense? The Benjamin

System of Muscular Therapy. New York: Pan-

theon, 1978.

———. Exercise Without Injury. New York: Summit

Books, 1979.

———.Listen to Your Pain: The Active Person’s Guide

to Understanding, Identifying and Treating Pain

and Injury. New York: Viking/Penguin, 1984.

MYOFASCIAL RELEASE

Myofascial release is a gentle,hands-on form of therapy thatinvolves applying an extremely

mild and gentle form of pressure to thebody in order to relieve tension in thesoft connective tissue called fascia.Myofascial release is the release of theconnective tissue, or fascia. The thera-pist applies a stretching technique tothe body that exerts a small amount ofpressure to the fascia. Myofascialrelease experts have shown that fasciawill soften and begin to release tensionwhen the pressure is sustained overtime. It is used to relieve chronic pain,especially in areas such as the neck, jaw,and back. With the release of physicalpain, patients report that there is often arelease of emotions that were formerlyburied deep in the subconscious. Myo-fascial release uncovers “secrets” storedin the body.

How Myofascial Release DevelopedMyofascial release was developed byJohn F. Barnes, PT. Barnes graduatedfrom the University of Pennsylvania in1960 with a degree in physical therapy.He started his own practice in 1966.

Barnes’s first experience with whatwe now know as myofascial releasebegan when he was seventeen. He acci-dentally injured his back while liftingweights. He initially ignored the pain ofthis injury but eventually, in his ownwork as a therapist, came to the realiza-tion that he was in worse shape thanmost of his patients. The pain grew sobad that, from age twenty-five to thirty,he could not sit for more than two tothree minutes at a time. Finally, Barneswent to see a neurologist and an ortho-pedist, who diagnosed him with acrushed disc. They removed the disc,which took the intensity out of his painand allowed him to function. However,he still had problems with his back, andthrough his frustration in trying to helphimself before and after his surgery, hedeveloped techniques that relieved thesymptoms. This injury also gave Barnesan understanding of what it is really liketo be “trapped” in pain.

Barnes began trying these tech-niques on his patients. Despite the facthe did not know why these techniques

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worked, he noticed that patients wereresponding consistently. While attend-ing a course about the connective tissuesystem, he realized that his therapy dealtdirectly with the body’s fascia. The softtissue mobilization techniques helearned at this course were basically anold form of myofascial release. He usedthese techniques to control his ownpain, but because of the difficulty mov-ing, he tended to hold each position foran extended period. This extended timefactor turned out to be what was soimportant in releasing the total myofas-cial complex. Older forms of myofascialrelease were too superficial to give com-plete release.

The Theory of Myofascial ReleaseFascia extends from the head of thebody to the feet. In a normal, healthystate, the fascia is relaxed and wavy inconfiguration. It has the ability tostretch and move without restriction.When we experience physical trauma,such as inflammation, a fall, whiplash,surgery, or even just habitual poor pos-ture over time, the fascia loses its flexi-bility. It becomes tight, restricted, and asource of tension to the rest of the body.The changes these traumas cause in thefascial system influence the skeletalframework for our posture, and the fas-cia can exert excessive pressure, pro-ducing pain, headaches, or restrictedmotion.

Because fascia permeates all regionsof the body and is all interconnected,when it scars and hardens in one areafollowing a trauma, it can put tensionon adjacent pain-sensitive structures aswell as on structures in far-away areas.Thus a restriction in one region cantheoretically put a “drag” on the fasciain any other direction. Because all mus-cle is enveloped by and ingrained withfascia, myofascial release is the termthat has been given to the techniquesthat are used to relieve soft tissue fromthe abnormal grip of tight fascia.

Fascia is made up of a fibrous, soft,gel-like substance, which can be soft-ened when released. Myofascial release

allows therapists to become sculptorswith their fingers, hands, and elbows.By steadily releasing the fascia, they canremold the body back into a morehealthful, functional, and comfortableposition. This is because the pressurestretches the connective tissue, andremoves the tightness that causes thepain.

Experiencing Myofascial ReleaseA myofascial release session usuallylasts thirty to ninety minutes. The clientundresses down to his or her underwearand lies on a massage table. Unlike mas-sage, no oil is used. The therapist useshis or her fingers, palms, elbows, andforearms to warm and stretch the fascia.The pressure is gentle but firm and isused for at least 90 to 120 seconds witheach therapeutic stroke. When an indi-vidual first begins this form of treat-ment, therapists recommend thepatient have several sessions a week. Ashis or her condition gradually progress-es, the patient begins to need less treat-ment.

The Benefits of Myofascial ReleaseBarnes has seen consistent, positiveresults using myofascial release to treatacute pain, chronic pain, fibromyalgia,headaches, scoliosis, chronic fatiguesyndrome, birth injuries, cerebral palsy,geriatric problems, pediatric problems,and movement dysfunction.

Myofascial release experts say thatthis form of therapy works especiallywell for individuals seeking long-termrelief for chronic pain and immobilitythat are caused by extreme tightness ofthe muscles. Common areas of treat-ment in the body include the neck, jaw,and back. Myofascial release can alsoreduce muscle tension and treat recur-ring injuries and other stress-relatedproblems.

—Tara Welch for Myofascial ReleaseTreatment Centers and Seminars

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Resources:

MFR Treatment Centers and Seminars

Routes 30 and 252

10 South Leopard Road, Suite 1

Paoli, PA 19301

Tel: (610) 644-0136 or (800) FASCIAL

Web site: www.vll.com/mfr

Provides information on MFR, organizes seminars

and training programs, offers treatment programs,

and refers patients to qualified practitioners.

Further Reading:

John F. Barnes, PT. Myofascial Release: The Search

for Excellence, a Comprehensive Evaluatory and

Treatment Approach. Paoli, PA: Rehabilitation

Services Inc. T/A, Myofascial Release Seminars,

1990.

MYOFASCIAL TRIGGER POINTTHERAPY

Myofascial trigger point therapy(MTPT) is a physical, therapeu-tic discipline for treating

myofascial, or muscular and connectivetissue pain in muscles and joints byfocusing on trigger points, which aredefined as sensitive areas in the musclethat are very tender to the touch. MTPTtherapists apply pressure, among othertechniques, to trigger points in order torelease these areas of constriction andpain. It is intended to provide the clientwith a greater awareness of his or herbody, and to release stress and tension.

The History of MTPTWhile many people contributed to thedevelopment and spread of MTPT, theperson most responsible for its birth wasDr. Janet Travell. Born in New York City in1901, Dr. Travell began practicing medi-cine in 1926. Her concentration was in theareas of internal medicine, cardiovascular

disease, neurology, pharmacology, andmusculoskeletal pain. In 1961 she wasappointed physician to the president ofthe United States, serving both presidentsJohn F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson.Her major interest over the last forty yearswas the mechanism and management ofchronic pain syndromes, especially thoserelated to myofascial trigger points.

She initially reported on the phe-nomenon of trigger points in 1942,determining that these points of tender-ness could limit a person’s range ofmotion and produce pain in other partsof the body. She also noted that sus-tained pressure applied directly to trig-ger points could be an efficienttreatment technique. Over the nextforty-seven years, Dr. Travell continuedher research and mapped out the loca-tions of common trigger points, theirpain patterns, and methods of treatingthem.

She coauthored the textbookMyofascial Pain and Dysfunction: TheTrigger Point Manual with DavidSimons, M.D. It is considered the mostcomprehensive work available on thesubject of myofascial pain. Dr. Travelldied in 1997.

In 1979, Bonnie Prudden foundedthe Bonnie Prudden School for PhysicalFitness and Myotherapy, based on thetrigger point principles described by Dr.Travell. The school teaches the treat-ment of muscle pain through pressureapplied to trigger points.

Defining Myofascial Trigger PointTherapyMTPT is a noninvasive therapeutic pro-gram for the relief and control of myofas-cial pain and dysfunction. The goal oftreatment is the client’s recovery to a nor-mal or as near normal function as possi-ble with either complete recovery from orsignificant reduction in pain.

This is achieved through a system-atized approach, which consists ofischemic compression (direct pressure)applied to trigger points, spray and stretch

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Using elbows, knuckles, or fingers, Lori Drummond, master certified Bonnie Prudden myother-apist, releases a trigger point that causes pain in the lower back.

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technique (spraying a vapocoolant alongthe muscle while simultaneously stretch-ing it), passive stretch, and a specificallydesigned stretch and corrective exerciseprogram. The exercise program requiresthe client to be very aware of his or herbody to avoid future pain.

Factors that aggravate trigger pointsmust be eliminated or modified toachieve lasting results. For example, if aclient is having neck and shoulder pain,and his or her job involves working at acomputer, the therapist will make sug-gestions for ways of doing the activitywith less stress on the muscles. Clients’posture, sleep positions, daily activities,and nutrition may also be addressed.

Success of therapy is measured by thelevel of pain reduction experienced bythe client and increased range ofmotion, strength, endurance, and othermeasures of improved function.

MTPT is part of an interdisciplinaryapproach to myofascial pain and dys-function. Although myofascial triggerpoint therapists are knowledgeable inthe areas of myofascial pain and dys-function, they are not diagnosticians.They must, therefore, rely on medicalclearance (prescription) and support bya licensed doctor of medicine, chiro-practic, osteopathy, or dentist beforebeginning a treatment plan. This pro-tects the client from delayed diagnosis,delayed treatment, or treatment thatmight conflict with some other aspect ofthe healing process.

Description of a MTPT SessionAn MTPT session is usually an hour inlength. At the initial visit a completemedical history is taken. Muscles arepalpated or touched to determine theexact locations of trigger points. Rangeof motion, or how far the client canmove a particular limb or joint, is alsonoted.

As patients are palpated for triggerpoints, they are also treated. Treatmentconsists of the application of sustaineddirect pressure to the trigger point and/orthe use of spray and stretch technique.

The muscle is then passively stretched.Moist heat may be applied to the muscleto further induce relaxation. The patientis given exercises, usually in the form ofstretching, in order to maintain theeffects of therapy and retrain the muscleto function at its normal resting length.Perpetuating factors may also be dis-cussed at this time, such as eliminatingor modifying certain activities that mayaggravate the muscles, alternate sleep-ing positions, correct posture, etc.Progress is checked by monitoring theclient’s pain levels and periodic evalua-tions of range of motion.

The Benefits and RisksThe benefits of MTPT are as follows: thedecrease or elimination of pain;increased movement and flexibility;increased energy and activity level.Common problems that are helped bytherapy are lower back, neck, shoulder,face, arm, hand, knee, leg, and foot pain;temporal mandibular joint disorder(TMJD); sciatica; carpal tunnel syn-drome; whiplash; fibromyalgia; tenniselbow; plantar fascitis; and headaches.

People with any of the followingconditions should not engage inmyofascial trigger point therapy: sys-temic or localized infection; acute cicu-latory condition; aneurysm; obstructiveedema; acute healing fracture;advanced diabetes; and hypersensitivi-ty of the skin.

—Elliot Shratter

Resources:

Academy of Myofascial Trigger Point Therapy

Richard Finn, Director

1312 East Carson St.

Pittsburgh, PA 15203

Tel: (412) 481-2553

Offers training in myofascial trigger point therapy

leading to national certification.

National Association of Myofascial Trigger Point

Therapists

Web site: www.frontiernet/painrel/index.shtml

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Further Reading:

Travell, Janet, and David Simons. Myofascial Pain

and Dysfunction: The Trigger Point Manual. Vol-

umes I and II. New York: William & Wilkins Co.,

1992.

REFLEXOLOGY

Reflexology is both an ancient and modern “hands-on” therapeutictechnique that activates and facili-

tates the natural healing powers of thebody. This is accomplished by applyingnoninvasive, penetrating pressure tospecific reflex points and areas on thefeet, hands, and ears. In most instancesthis pressure work is focused on the feetbecause of the accessibility and largersize of the reflex points, the sensitivity ofthe feet, and their physical and ener-getic connection with the earth.Reflexology has been found to be mosteffective in stimulating and balancingthe energy flow to specific organs,glands, and other physiological systemsof the body that correspond to these reflex points, so that the body canutilize this energy to begin healing, or tomaintain optimal function.

History of ReflexologyReflexology was practiced in manyancient cultures, including Asian, Chi-nese, Egyptian, Greek, Japanese, andNative North American. The rediscoveryand promotion of this technique in theWest is attributed largely to Eunice Ing-ham, an American masseuse, who for-mulated her own unique “pressuretechnique” for the feet after many yearsof working with patients with variouscomplaints and illnesses. She synthe-sized different popular theories with herown personal explorations and experi-ences to create what is recognized asmodern reflexology.

Basic Principles of ReflexologyReflexology works through the nervous system, the circulatory system, andthrough correspondences of subtle ener-gy currents. As in Fitsgerald’s principlesof zone therapy, the body is divided intoten vertical zones that run the entirelength of the body from head to foot. Theten zones on the feet (five on each foot)contain the reflex points that are workedin a session. The theory is that the wholebody is superimposed upon a zone gridon the feet (also hands and ears). Thera-peutically working a reflex point on thefoot will result in the stimulation of allthe body parts relating to that zone. Inthis way a practitioner can releaseblocked energy in any part of the body byapplying systematic pressure to the cor-responding reflex point on the feet.

Like acupuncture, reflexology is still not completely understood. The feet areextremely sensitive, with more than7,200 nerves, and no doubt the stimula-tion of these nerve endings partiallyaccounts for the beneficial results. How-ever, there are also less easily discernibleenergy currents and relationships in thebody that also contribute to the healingpower of this technique. In addition, theskill of the practitioner, enhanced by his or her personal sensitivity, aware-ness, empathy, intention, and integrity,contributes to the effectiveness ofreflexology.

Reflexology in PracticeHow a client experiences a sessiondepends upon the style or method ofreflexology being employed as well asthe quality of resonance between thepractitioner and client. Dependingupon the style of the practitioner, someclients may share thoughts and feelings,what is referred to as “verbally unwind-ing,” as the practitioner applies pressureto the reflex points. Others may main-tain an interior focus, as in a meditativestate, while others may relax into adeep, restful sleep. It is important forthe client to be in communication withthe practitioner with regard to the

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A reflexologist treats all parts of the body by massaging the feet.

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degree of pressure being applied, whichcould be described as a “good hurt,” butwhich still allows the client to feelrelaxed. Many people express feelingsand sensations of tingling, warmth,expansiveness, electrical currents,pleasant numbness in certain areas,and overall euphoria. The effects ofreflexology are cumulative, producingsubtle, long-term results, although dra-matic and immediate results are alsoquite common.

Benefits and RisksAs with any type of therapeutic body-work, personal health habits, geneticfactors, emotional and mental atti-tudes, and amount of physical activityall play a part in one’s personal health.Reflexology is not recommended forthose suffering from the following con-ditions: hemorrhaging; intense pain ofan unknown origin; any break in theskin; severe swelling characterized byred-hot pain with loss of motion; conta-gious or infectious disease of the foot

(such as ulcerations); burns; chronicinflammations; neoplasms/tumors;varicose veins; severe sprain of theankle or foot; severe bruises; hema-tomas; and in some instances, recentsurgery. When the foot is too painful towork, the corresponding points on thehand can be worked instead.

Reflexology reduces and alleviatesthe debilitating effects of stress, theprime cause of many ailments. It pro-vides a natural way of promoting bal-ance within and between all thesystems of the body by affecting all theorgans, glands, and body parts. Addedbenefits include a deep feeling ofgroundedness. It also assists indetoxification by breaking up crystallizeddeposits of uric acid that lodge in the feet.It contributes to relief from nervous disor-ders, intestinal disorders, poor circulation,digestive problems, glandular disorders,headaches, fatigue, post-menstrual syn-drome, back spasms, infertility disor-ders, sinusitis, eye problems, emotionalshock and grief, and a great variety of

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Reflexology has been found to be most effective in stimulating and balancing energy flowto specific organs, glands, and other physiological systems of the body that correspond tothese reflex points, so that the body can utilize this energy to begin healing, or to main-tain optimal function. Clients are fully clothed during sessions with only their feetexposed, and are usually most comfortable reclining on a padded bodywork table or bed.The practitioner applies pressure to the feet in a systematic fashion to induce deep relax-ation (one of the hallmarks of reflexology), which facilitates the flow of energy.

sports injuries. In extreme chronic con-ditions, it is best used in conjunctionwith other therapies and under thesupervision or awareness of a medicaldoctor.

—Laura Norman

Resources:

American Reflexology Certification Board (ARCB)

P.O. Box 620607

Littleton, CO 80162

Tel: (303) 933-6921

Web site: www.ns.net/quantum/arcb

Offers information regarding certification require-

ments and testing, and provides certification for

qualified practitioners.

Laura Norman & Associates

Reflexology Center

41 Park Avenue, Suite 8A

New York, NY 10016

Tel: (212) 532-4404

Offers services and certification training in

reflexology.

Reflexology Association of America

4012 S. Rainbow Blvd.

Las Vegas, NV 89103-2059

Provides information about educational programs

and recommends certified practitioners.

Further Reading:

Grinberg, Avi. Holistic Reflexology. London: Thor-

sons Publishing, 1989.

Ingham, Eunice. The Original Works of Eunice P.

Ingham: Stories the Feet Can Tell Through

Reflexology: Stories the Feet Have Told Through

Reflexology. With revisions by Dwight C. Byars.

St. Petersburg, FL: Ingham Publishing, Inc.,

1984.

Kunz, Kevin, and Barbara Kunz. The Practitioner’s

Guide to Reflexology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985.

——. Hand Reflexology Workbook. Englewood

Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985.

Norman, Laura. Feet First: A Guide to Foot

Reflexology. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988.

ROLFING®

Rolfing® is an original methodology ofstructural integration of the body throughthe use of fascial (also known as connec-tive tissue) massage. Structural integrationis a holistic approach that seeks to align aperson’s body in order to improve physio-logical and psychological functioning. Itstarts with the body’s relationship to gravi-ty; in fact, one of its primary objectives is toreeducate the body to move moreefficiently and without tension and pain.

The Development of Rolfing®

Rolfing was developed by Dr. Ida P. Rolf,an American biochemist who studiedthe flexibility of proteins in connective

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Dr. Ida P. Rolf, developer of Rolfing, a seminal method of connective tissue massage.

tissue in the 1930s and 1940s. Dr. Rolfwas a young research biochemist at theRockefeller Institute in New York Citystudying connective tissue (a network oftissue beneath the skin that links other tis-sues and forms ligaments, tendons, andaponeuroses), particularly its plasticity, orcapacity for being molded or altered.

Along with other researchers, Dr. Rolf dis-covered that connective tissue is the organof structure of the human body and that itsshape, elasticity, even its length, can bealtered with the application of appropriatepressure. She spent the next fifty or soyears traveling widely—studying andeventually teaching a systematic way to go

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Rolfing Functions on Three Levels:

• Releasing the outer or superficial layer, relieving the body of accumulated stresses and strains (sessions 1–3);

• Freeing the body of its deeper core issues from which shortness, rotations, and imbal-ances emanate. This can be done successfully only if the way has been paved by the first level of sessions (sessions 4–7);

• Integrating the body in gravity and assisting clients to use and enhance the changes that have occurred in Rolfing in their lives (sessions 8–10).

Rolfing®

about organizing human structure. Shecalled her method structural integration,and eventually, in the late 1960s, it becamemore widely known as Rolfing.

Basic Principles of Rolfing®

Rolfing is based on the following threeideas: First, the human body is affected bygravity, and when the body’s major seg-ments (head, shoulders, chest, pelvis,legs) are properly aligned, gravity works touplift the body rather than pull it down.

Second, connective tissue, or themyofascial network of the body—a con-tinuous bandage that ensheathes thewhole body and all parts of the body,even individual muscle fibers—can bemolded and changed.

Third, the key to aligning the body ingravity is systematically releasing theconnective tissue network. This willallow the muscles to return to a bal-anced relationship with each other. Itwill also free the body of many chronictensions and aches.

“When the body gets working appro-priately,” Ida Rolf said, “the force ofgravity can flow through. Rolfers make alife study of relating bodies and theirfields to the earth and its gravity field,and we organize the body so that thegravity field can reinforce the body’senergy field. This is our primary con-cept.”

When a body is properly aligned itcan release the physical tensions andholding patterns resulting from years ofcompensation resulting in impairedbalance and movement. It can also

release the emotional stress thataccompanies the physical symptoms.

After many years of searching, Dr.Rolf discovered that Rolfing works bestin a ten-session format. The ten sessionsare designed to slowly and methodicallyget the body—probably stuck frommany years of poor compensation fromaccidents and injuries and from poorpostural habits, along with a multitudeof other possibilities—to lengthen,widen, deepen, or just let go.

Rolfing® in PracticeThe first session of Rolfing begins after athorough interview and structural analy-sis, usually using Polaroid pictures. Rolfersattempt to identify the main structuralissue in a person’s body, or the reason aperson remains stuck and unable to findthe ease or support he or she needs.

For example, in a person who hasbeen slumping with the head forwardfor a number of years, the tissue of theupper chest has been responding by get-ting shorter; the muscles of the upperback (now assigned the task of holdingthe head on) have become more rigid.The person is unable to voluntarily gethis or her head back over the shoulderswhere it belongs. The pelvis will verylikely be tipped forward, unable to pro-vide support for the shoulders and head.In turn the pelvis is probably not gettingthe support it needs from having the legsand feet under it. Rolfing examines therelationships between body parts—leftand right, back and front, lower andupper, core and limb.

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During Rolfing sessions the clienteither lies on a low table, or occasional-ly, sits or stands. The Rolfer begins torelease tension from the outer layers ofthe tissue with the application of pres-sure, using the fingers and hands as pri-mary tools. The first session begins onthe torso to release the outer wrapping(superficial fascia) and free up thebreath. The work is done slowly andwith the cooperation of the client, usu-ally through specific feedback to helpthe Rolfer relax the fascial tissue. Thereis some pressure—the proper applica-tion of pressure is what makes the tissuerelease and change.

Although some clients find thedegree of pressure painful, most clientsfind it acceptable, at times even plea-surable. Rolfers ask their clients to guidethem and to participate in their processof harmonizing body parts. At varioustimes, the client may be asked to standand move about so that the results ofthe work can be felt and assessed byboth the client and the Rolfer.

Sessions are cumulative and workprogressively deeper into the body’sstructural issues. An important goal ofRolfing is not just to get the body tochange, but to get the whole system toincorporate and use that change.Rolfing sessions generally last an hourand are usually spaced about a weekapart

Benefits and Risks of Rolfing®

The primary objective of Rolfing is therelease of the body’s chronic and limit-ing holding patterns. After Rolfing ses-sions, people have reported freermovement and breathing, increasedflexibility, release of chronic musculartension and pain, psychological growth,and most important, continuous andprogressive change.

Not everybody is an ideal candidatefor Rolfing. Rolfing is designed to get atthe underlying roots of chronic bodyissues or for people who want to feel andunderstand their bodies. In general,Rolfing deals with chronic rather than

acute problems. People seeking imme-diate pain relief would be better servedby a wide range of body therapies thatwould better address these issues.

—Allan Davidson

Resources:

The Rolf Institute

205 Canyon Blvd.

Boulder, CO 80302

Tel: (800) 530-8875 or (303) 449-5903

Web site: www.rolfinst.com

Founded in 1971, the institute trains Rolfers and

Rolfing movement integration teachers, conducts

research, and provides information to the public.

Further Reading:

Anson, Briah. Rolfing: Stories of Personal Empow-

erment. Kansas City, MO: Heartland Personal

Growth Press, 1991.

Fahey, Brian. The Power of Balance: A Rolfing View

of Health. Portland, OR: Metamorphous Press,

1989.

Feitus, Rosemary, ed. Ida Rolf Talks About Rolfing

and Physical Reality. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts

Press, 1990.

Rolf, Ida. Rolfing: Reestablishing the Natural Align-

ment. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press, 1989.

Schultz, R. Louis, and Rosemary Feitus. The End-

less Web. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books,

1997.

ROSEN METHOD

The Rosen method is a form of thera-peutic bodywork that uses gentletouch and supportive words to

bring about a release of muscular andbreathing constrictions, called “hold-ings,” that limit our physical, emotional,

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and spiritual well-being. Developed byMarion Rosen, this method enables themind and body to work together foroptimal healing and growth, by facilitat-ing awareness and integration ofrepressed emotional experiences thatunderlie and sustain physical holdings.The Rosen method is often used as anadjunct to psychotherapy and to physi-cal therapy, for it is considered a preven-tative practice that enables people toalter their predispositions to psycholog-ical and physical illness.

Two DiscoveriesMarion Rosen trained in Munich in the1930s with Lucy Heyer, herself a studentof Elsa Gindler, the “grandmother” oftoday’s breathing and relaxation tech-niques. Rosen apprenticed with Heyer’sgroup of therapists, giving breathworkinstruction and massage to the psycho-analytic patients of Carl Jung. Rosenstudied physical therapy further inStockholm and at the Mayo Clinic in theUnited States. She became a physicaltherapist and has conducted a privatepractice in Oakland, California, since1950. During this time she developedthe Rosen method of bodywork and theRosen method of movement.

Over several years, Rosen made twointriguing discoveries. The first was thatsome of her clients would improve, onlyto relapse, while other clients main-tained their improvements. Rosen won-dered: The body likes to feel well, but ifthe body feels better after treatments,why do the same problems recur?

Her second discovery was that whenshe worked with some clients, theybegan to tell her deeply emotionalthings that they had never before told toanyone. Why, Rosen wondered, werethey telling me these things? Sheobserved that those clients who talkedwith such openness were the clientswho made lasting changes. The intrigu-ing question became: What is the linkbetween a client’s spontaneous verbal-izations and his or her physical healing?Perhaps, thought Rosen, there is some-

thing behind recurring dysfunction andchronic pain that is revealing itself viathese spontaneous verbalizations.

Following this line of inquiry, Rosenthus discovered a route to lasting physi-cal improvements that involves touch-ing the body in such a way that themind, via memories, images, and emo-tions, becomes an active participant inthe body’s healing.

The Importance of Self-AwarenessCurrent memory research supports thatthe sensory modalities (visual, emotion-al, kinesthetic, verbal, etc.) store infor-mation in different parts of the brain,forming interactive networks throughoutthe brain. Rosen believes that memoriescan be accessed by the restimulation ofany of these senses. Rosen’s touch stimu-lates the kinesthetic area to releasememories, emotions, and associatedimages, also known as body-memory.

Body-memory includes emotionalstates because emotions are patterns ofbrief physiological responses whosefunction may be to move us to act. Everyemotion has its own biological signature;for example, fear makes our sensory cir-cuits more sensitive and activates ourautonomic nervous system. Each emo-tional state has its own repertoire of phys-ical reactions, thoughts, and memories.

We are mentally and physicallyequipped to suppress and override ouremotions and their programs of action.This is called inhibition and takes placein the prefrontal cortex of our brain. Thephysical equivalent of this is musculartightening.

Rosen method practitioners believethat from infancy on, when events giverise to feelings that are overwhelming,threatening, or unacceptable, we inhibitthem neurologically and physiologically.These responses, becoming automatic,may assume a life of their own over time.We forget, or we have never consciouslyknown, their original purposes andmeanings, yet they live on in our bodiesas muscular holding and affect our cur-rent physical and emotional well-being.

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We usually are not aware that we arerestricting our muscles and our breathuntil these holdings create dysfunctionand pain. When the body and the breathare chronically held, all of our emotions,whether they be happy or sad, are dimin-ished, leaving us with the experience ofinner deadness or emptiness.

When a Rosen method practitionerattends to these muscular holdings, he orshe believes that he or she is contacting

the body’s “barriers to self-awareness.” Asthe practitioner’s touch and verbalencouragement elicit memories from thebody, information that had been uncon-scious moves into conscious awareness.This is of great importance, for now thetraumatic memories—events, emotions—can be acknowledged and accepted.

Rosen method practitioners believethat as participants discover clues to theorigin and meaning of their holdings,

Marion Rosen developed the gentle techniques of the Rosen method while work-ing with the patients of the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung.

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and as they experience their sup-pressed emotions, they come to agreater acceptance and appreciation ofwho they actually are. In finding thesecomponents of themselves that wereforgotten, or never known, they gain alarger view of themselves in which livinglife more fully becomes possible.

Perhaps the greatest benefit of theRosen method is its ability to bring peo-ple to the point of choosing different

ways of expressing themselves and ofbeing in the world: different ways ofinteracting, moving, looking, and feel-ing. The Rosen practitioner intends to bea midwife in the client’s process of self-discovery. Rosen quotes Jesus from theBook of Thomas: “If you bring forth whatis within you, what you bring forth willsave you. If you do not bring forth whatis in you, what you do not bring forthwill destroy you.”

The Rosen method of movement involves movement therapy style exercises that canbe used in conjunction with the Rosen method of bodywork.

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The Power of TouchA Rosen session is one hour. The partici-pant lies on a massage table, removingas much outer clothing as he or she iscomfortable with, always keeping onundergarments or wearing a swimsuit.Sessions are conducted with the clientlying both face-up and face-down, sothat the entire body can be contacted.No oils are used.

Practitioners, with gentle, noninva-sive touch and supportive, encouragingwords, direct the client’s awareness toshifts in muscle tension and breathingpatterns. The Rosen touch is an open,soft, listening hand, but with the qualityof curiosity. A Rosen method practition-er asks through touch, “How is this per-son, really?” The practitioner’s hands donot attempt to fix or change the client’sbody, for the intent is that the clientexperience what his or her body feelslike, and what it is doing, in thismoment. Through an open hand, theRosen practitioner attempts to commu-nicate acceptance, appreciation, andengagement. In this environment ofsafety and support, the participant’sbody seems to relax and open to healingitself.

A Rosen method practitioner focuseson a muscular tightness until it relaxes.It is a basic premise of the Rosenmethod that these shifts in the quality ofthe breath indicate and mirror changesin the quality of the client’s emotionsand associated images, memories, andthoughts. The Rosen method aims toincrease the client’s awareness of theseshifts by asking, “What just happened?”“Can you say more about that?” or bysimply saying, “Yes.” Rosen methodpractitioners do not reinforce thoughtsand emotions that are not echoed in thebody and the breath. Marion Rosen callsthis “one’s body supporting the truth ofone’s words.”

Benefits and RisksRosen method practitioners believe thatthe Rosen method’s greatest contribu-tion to health is preventative: enabling

people to recognize tendencies or pre-dispositions toward illness and then toreverse those tendencies. It can providerelief from symptoms caused by stress,injury, and fatigue. It has been shown tobe an effective adjunct to psychothera-py, shortening the treatment process.People who are at appropriate stages ofrecovery from trauma, physical and sex-ual abuse, eating disorders, and addic-tions may benefit from adding theRosen method to their treatment pro-grams.

The Rosen method is not recom-mended for individuals suffering fromsevere emotional disturbance or acutephysical pain.

—Ivy Green

THE ST. JOHN METHOD OF

NEUROMUSCULAR THERAPY

The St. John method of neuromuscu-lar therapy combines bodywork andphysical rehabilitation techniques

to alleviate chronic pain related to stressor injury. Although recently developed,it rests on the assumption, formulatedin a number of much earlier holistictherapies, that pain can be traced to ablock or distortion in the flow of mes-sages from the nervous system to therest of the body’s structures.

What distinguishes the St. Johnmethod from such forerunners as chiro-practic is its hybrid approach to treat-ment. Through massage as well asanalysis of a client’s posture and gait, itseeks to free the transmission of nerveimpulses and restore harmony to theentire organism.

Relieving PainPaul St. John, the founder of the St. Johnmethod, began to study the phenome-non of pain in 1974 after a devastating

The St. John Method of Neuromuscular Therapy

automobile accident. Noticing that firmpressure on his neck and shouldersbrought temporary relief from the con-stant aches caused by his injuries, heundertook research that started withmassage and led to the disciplines ofchiropractic and neurology.

By 1978, St. John had cured himselfand put together a method of bodyworkaimed specifically at the problem ofpersistent pain arising from traumarather than disease. Convinced of itsefficacy, he set up a clinical practiceand eventually established an informa-tion and teaching center, the St. JohnNeuromuscular Pain Relief Institute.

Today, his treatment is widelyacclaimed as an important addition tothe repertory of physical and massagetherapists specializing in pain manage-ment. They receive their training in aseries of four seminars available onlythrough the St. John NeuromuscularPain Relief Institute.

HomeostasisWhile the St. John method incorporatesEastern and Scandinavian techniquesof massage, its approach to the diagno-sis of pain derives from the concept ofhomeostasis first popularized by Amer-ican chiropractic teaching. Homeosta-sis (meaning human equilibrium)refers to the belief that the humanorganism functions perfectly so long asit exists in a state of ease and harmony,free from mental or physical distur-bance. With this idea as its foundation,the St. John method views chronic painas a symptom of a trauma that lingerson in the form of a block or imbalancein the organism’s mechanisms ofresponse.

Further, the St. John method positsthat such old injuries are often neglect-ed because they manifest themselves inan indirect fashion. They may appearhealed yet be the cause of acute pain inanother, apparently unrelated part ofthe body. For the St. John method,chronic pain is thus a systemic, not alocalized problem and cannot be

understood or cured unless the totalityof the organism’s neuromuscular activityis examined.

Instead of X rays, the St. Johnmethod directly observes the nervoussystem’s capacity to maintain the equi-librium of the body. These symptomshave been codified into the five so-called principles of pain: tissue with aninsufficient blood supply; imbalance inthe muscle and skeletal system; habitu-al distortion of posture and gait; “trigger points” of pain explicable onlyby reference to another region of thebody; and “nerve compression” by softtissue, cartilage, or bone.

By means of the five “principles ofpain,” the St. John method chartschronic pain’s pathway from the ner-vous system through the bones, mus-cles, and blood vessels to soft tissue andthe experience of distress. Since thepain is habitual, successful treatment isbelieved to require bodywork that goesbeyond relaxation to disruption of theunhealthy pathways and reeducation ofthe neuromuscular system. A type oftherapeutic massage that exerts strongpressure on tissue is accordingly a stan-dard feature of the St. John method.

The St. John Method in PracticeTreatment with the St. John method is usually received from a physical ormassage therapist who has completedthe seminar program of the St. JohnNeuromuscular Pain Relief Institute. Afirst office visit will include a conversa-tion about the patient’s needs and aphysical examination based on the five“principles of pain.”

The patient’s posture, gait, and the toneof body tissue are analyzed through visualobservation. Additional informationabout “trigger points” and thickened,unhealthy areas of tissue is obtained bypalpating the body. Once a diagnosis hasbeen reached, the therapist and patientagree upon a plan of treatment, whichvaries according to individual need butgenerally comprises a series of office visitsfor therapeutic bodywork.

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The form of massage used in the St.John method is designed to interruptdysfunctional responses in the neuro-muscular system and stimulate healthyblood circulation. Manual pressure isexerted upon selected portions of thepatient’s body in a rhythmic series ofeight- to twelve-second applications.

Though the therapist will be sensi-tive to the patient’s condition, the pres-sure is supposed to be strong enough toproduce moderate discomfort. The dis-comfort is regarded as crucial evidencethat the bodywork is affecting receptorsin the nervous system and initiating thedesired balancing of the body’s struc-tures.

Many BenefitsThe St. John method has gained recogni-tion for its success in relieving soft-tis-sue pain without the use of drugs orcostly laboratory tests. Advocates alsoclaim that it can help rebuild injured tis-sue; eliminate spasms and hyper con-tractions, enhance the flow of blood andlymphatic fluids, restore alignment toposture, and free the individual from theaftermath of severe stress and trauma.

Resources:

American Pain Association

1615 L Street, NW, Suite 925

Washington, DC 20036

Tel: (202) 296-9200

Provides information about techniques for the

relief of chronic pain.

SWEDISH MASSAGE

Swedish massage, also known as tradi-tional massage, is a type of massage characterized by its use of

five distinct stroke techniques. Developedby Per Henrik Ling, these techniques areapplied by Swedish massage therapists

to improve blood flow to the heart. Thecombination of these strokes isbelieved to be an extremely effectivetool to bring about relaxation, stressreduction, better circulation, and ageneral sense of well-being.

How Swedish Massage DevelopedSwedish massage has its origins in thededicated work of Swedish fencingmaster and gymnastic instructor PerHenrik Ling (1776–1839). Ling sufferedfrom a form of rheumatism that affect-ed his fencing arm. As a result, he beganto use anatomical and physiologicalprinciples as a basis of a systematicmethod of massage in order to relievehis symptoms. His method becameknown as the “Ling system.” In 1813,the Royal Gymnastic Central Instituteof Stockholm introduced the Ling sys-tem of massage to its curriculum,where it became known as Swedishmassage.

Basic Techniques of Swedish MassageThere are five stroke techniques used inSwedish massage: effleurage, petris-sage, friction, tapotement, and vibra-tion. As a general rule, the majority ofstrokes in a Swedish massage movetoward the heart in order to facilitateblood flow back to the heart. For exam-ple, an effleurage stroke may begin atthe foot and travel toward the pelvis.

The most often used technique ofthese five strokes is effleurage. Effleuragestrokes are long, gliding strokes that maybe deep or superficial. They are used toinitiate the massage in order to disperse alubricant over the body part being mas-saged, to accustom the person to beingmassaged to the touch of the therapist,and to allow the therapist to discover areasof spasm and tenderness. It is also used asa transitional stroke interspersed withother strokes. Deep effleurage may beused to passively stretch a muscle group.

Petrissage is a kneading stroke thatgently lifts the muscle mass and rhyth-mically rolls, squeezes, or wrings it. Thisstroke has a stimulating effect on the

Swedish Massage

muscles, deeper blood vessels, and lym-phatics. It helps to break down adhe-sions in the soft tissues and relieves themuscles of metabolic wastes whileincreasing blood supply to the area.

Friction is most often performed insmall circular motions with the tips ofthe fingers or the thumb. It is a deeperstroke used around the joints, bonyprominences, or scar tissue. This strokeshould be followed by effleurage to pro-mote absorption of localized blockagesor swelling.

Tapotement, or percussion, is thestereotyped, often misrepresented,Swedish massage stroke commonlyportrayed in motion pictures. Thisstroke is done with the hand rapidlyalternating in hacking, clapping, orcupping movement. Tapotement has astimulating effect on the muscles aswell as on the nerves if done for briefperiods, and a sedating effect on thenerves if prolonged. If, however, a stim-ulating effect is desired, tapotementrenders a slight sense of stimulationand well-being.

Vibration is performed in a rhythmi-cal vibrating motion coming from thewhole arm, with the elbow, wrist, andfingers kept stiff in a slightly flexed posi-tion. The pressure applied with thisstroke should be very light, to impart asmoothing effect.

How Swedish Massage Is PracticedSwedish massage begins with the per-son being massaged lying on his or herback, fully draped with a sheet or towelsso that only the part being massaged isexposed. A full-body massage follows ageneral order of right arm, left arm,right leg, left leg, chest, abdomen; theperson then rolls over and the massagecontinues with the back of the left leg,back of the right leg, and lastly the back.A typical massage ranges from thirtyminutes to one hour depending on theperson’s needs.

For maximum comfort of the personbeing massaged, the room should bewarm but not stuffy. The person shouldbe positioned in a comfortable, relaxed

position, with the part of the body beingmassaged properly supported. Massagestrokes should begin at a moderateintensity and increase in intensity basedon the tolerance of the person beingmassaged. The massage should end asgently as it was begun.

Benefits and CautionsThere are many beneficial effects ofSwedish massage. The most discernibleeffect is its analgesic, soothing effectupon sensory nerve endings in the skin.Depending upon the type of strokesused, and the length of the massagetreatment, this may produce a sense ofrelaxation, stimulation, or even exhaus-tion on the nervous system. Theseeffects are useful in eliminating manypainful muscular, neurological, andarthritic conditions.

Swedish massage also improves cir-culation and increases nutrition to thejoints and soft tissues while easing thedemand on the heart by assisting theheart’s ability to move blood throughthe circulatory system. Massageimproves nutrition to the tissues of thebody by facilitating a cellular exchange of oxygen and nutrients in the bloodwith carbon dioxide and cellular meta-bolic wastes as circulation is increased.This is essential for people who havebeen incapacitated by injury or disease.

It should be noted, however, that noteveryone should be massaged. Massageenhances circulation, therefore anythingthat can be spread via the circulatory sys-tem should not be massaged. Theseinclude cancer, acute febrile conditions,jaundice conditions, bacterial infections,pain associated with infections, andareas of acute inflammation. Massageshould not be given to fracture sites, asit may cause a separation of bony frag-ments.

Hemorrhages, acute phlebitis, throm-bosis, and varicose veins should not bemassaged due to the risk of dislodging aclot in the blood vessels. Persons withcardiovascular problems should becarefully screened and massaged onlywith a physician’s recommendation.

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Care should be taken in areas ofabnormal or decreased sensation due tostroke, diabetes, or people using med-ications such as muscle relaxants. Theperson receiving the massage may havean abnormal vasomotor response tomassage or may not be able to giveaccurate sensory feedback on the depthof the massage.

—Janie McGee

Further Reading:

Tappan, F. M. Healing Massage Techniques: Holis-

tic, Classic, and Emerging Methods. 2nd ed.

Norwalk, CT: Appleton & Lange, 1988.

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PART VIII: ACUPUNCTURE ANDASIAN BODYWORK

Acupressure • Acupuncture • Jin Shin Do® Bodymind AcupressureTM • Jin Shin Jyutsu® Physio-Philosophy • Process Acupressure • Shiatsu • Tui Na

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Acupuncture and Asianbodywork are holisticmethods of healing, healthmaintenance, and humandevelopment based on theprinciples of traditionalChinese medicine (TCM).Asian bodywork is formallyreferred to as Orientalbodywork by many profes-sionals in the field and, inthe United States, the pro-fessional organization ofAsian bodyworkers is calledthe American OrientalBodywork Therapy Associa-tion (AOBTA). All Asianbodywork practices are partof a larger group of methodsthat have come to be knowncollectively as bodywork, ageneral term describing awide variety of methodsthat use touch to improveawareness of feelings andsensations in the body andimprove physical function-ing. They are also used torelieve pain and encouragerelaxation. There are many disciplines in this book that are included in the bodyworkcategory. They may be found in this volume in the sections entitled Body-OrientedPsychotherapies, Massage, Movement Therapy Methods, Skeletal ManipulationMethods, Somatic Practices, and Subtle Energy Therapies.

All acupuncture and Asian bodywork practices view the physical, mental, andemotional states of a person to be the result of chi—an invisible life energy. As water

The principles of traditional Chinese medicine form the basis foracupuncture and forms of Asian bodywork.

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flows through canyons and riverbeds, chi travels through the body in channels calledmeridians. All the methods described in this section are based on observing andmanipulating the flow of chi through twelve major meridians, each of which corre-sponds to organs and systems in the physical body.

According to TCM theory, when chi is flowing freely through the meridians, anindividual will be healthy, well-balanced, and able to adapt quickly and easily tochanges in his or her internal and external environment. When the chi is blocked, itwill produce uncomfortable physical and emotional conditions that will eventuallyproduce debilitating diseases.

Different Approaches to Manipulating ChiEach of the methods included in this section employs different techniques to

manipulate the flow of chi through the body. Acupuncturists insert thin, stainless steelneedles at specific points along the meridians known as acupoints. Acupressure andtui na, the ancient Chinese forms of massage, use many different techniques fromgentle stroking to firm grasping and pinching of the acupoints. In shiatsu massage thepractitioner uses his or her arms, elbows, knees, and feet to create the many differentpressing, stroking, stretching, and percussive movements applied to the acupoints. JinShin Jyutsu®, revived in Japan in the early part of this century from ancient Chineseand Tibetan sources, is characterized by its technique of applying pressure to twopoints simultaneously. Contemporary methods such as Jin Shin Do® and process acu-pressure combine the ancient techniques with others developed by Western body-ori-ented psychotherapies in order to affect the flow of chi.

While all these methods work to alleviate physical pain, they all recognize themany different causes of illness and imbalance. Since every aspect of life, from inneremotions to external environment, is seen as interdependent with the others, anacupuncturist or Asian bodyworker may also suggest changes in diet, exercise, orlifestyle to help an individual find and maintain a harmonic relationship with the con-stant flux of the forces of nature.

Since TCM theory believes that no two people have exactly the same physical,mental, or emotional methods for coping with nature’s flux, all changes will be rec-ommended according to the particular needs of the individual and his or her symp-toms and energy patterns. All methods stress the need for moderation to achievebalance and harmony with nature. Some methods of Oriental bodywork stress theimportance of self-applied bodywork, as the responsibility associated with self-care isseen as a necessary part of the process of strengthening chi.

A Multitude of BenefitsAcupuncture and the various forms of Asian bodywork have been used by millions

to heal hundreds of physical problems. They are useful for acute muscle and soft tis-sue problems such as sprains and strains as well as conditions resulting from over-work. These techniques have also been shown to be effective with many chronicproblems related to stress, such as headaches, insomnia, stomach disorders, asthma,and arthritis. Other complex chronic problems that combine emotional and physicalattributes, such as alcohol, tobacco, and drug addictions, have been treated success-fully with these methods. On a physical level, acupuncture and Asian bodywork aid

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circulation of all body fluids, removing harmful toxins from the system. By clearingblockages on the physical level, these practices tone and balance the interdependentorgans and systems, opening neurochemical lines of communication in the body. Butit is by clearing away blockages on the energetic level, and by treating every individ-ual as a unique image of nature that they teach awareness and respect for the innerand outer needs of each person at each stage of life, providing a means for living along, healthy, happy, productive life.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

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Resources:

American Association of Acupuncture and Oriental

Medicine (AAAOM)

4101 Lake Boone Trail, Suite 201

Raleigh, NC 27607

Tel: (919) 787-5181

Offers information about traditional Chinese medi-

cine.

The American Oriental Bodywork Therapy Associa

tion (AOBTA)

Glendale Executive Campus, Suite 510

1000 White Horse Rd.

Vorhees, NJ 08043

Tel: (609) 782-1616

Fax: (516) 364-5559

A professional organization that has determined

and enforces minimum entry-level standards (500

hours) for all types of Asian bodywork. Currently

represents about 1,200 members.

Further Reading:

Claire, Thomas. Bodywork: What Type of Massage to

Get—And How to Make the Most of It. New York:

William Morrow, 1995.

Knaster, Mirka. Discovering the Body’s Wisdom.

New York: Bantam Books, 1996.

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ACUPRESSURE

Acupressure is an ancient practiceof applying hand and finger pres-sure to specific points on the body

in order to control the flow of chi, orvital energy, which, according to tradi-tional Chinese medical theory, coursesthrough the body at all times. It isbelieved that doing this helps alleviatetension, pain, and other discomfortingsymptoms, and to prevent harmful tox-ins and disease from spreadingthroughout the body. According torecorded history, acupressure, as a for-mal and defined therapeutic practice,originated in China more than 2,000years ago. Oral tradition suggests thatthe practice is even older than that, upto 5,000 years old.

Acupressure is a part of traditionalChinese medicine, the system of holis-tic medicine that relates all of the partsof the body to each other through theflow of chi. Further, it relates the healthof the human body to a person’s geneticbackground, psychological conditions,and to exterior conditions of nature,such as climate and the changes of theseasons.

How the Ancient Art of AcupressureDevelopedIt is hard to know the exact date of acu-pressure’s origin since it is known to pre-date existing written records. It is thoughtto derive from the instinctive practice ofpeople rubbing, holding, or kneadingpainful places on the body for relief.Through experimentation and closeobservation, early healers developed anunderstanding of certain places on thebody that could assist in the recoveryfrom illness and promote wellness. Overmany years of practice and experiencewith acupressure, healers came to identi-fy the points on the body, called acu-points, where stimulation producedmaximum effects. They found that stim-ulation of these points cured numbness,stiffness, and chills in afflicted areas. The

use of acupoints was refined and testedthrough study of the body, experiencewith patients, and contemplation over aperiod of at least 2,000 years. It is stillpracticed in Asia today.

Though traditional Chinese medicinewas overshadowed somewhat during thelast century by the introduction of West-ern medicine, it has now come back intowidespread use. At present both Easternand Western medical practices are oftenused together in order to provide maxi-mum relief to patients. Since the “open-ing” of China to the West in the 1960s, theprinciples and methods of traditionalChinese medicine are now being dis-seminated throughout the West, inacupuncture, acupressure, and herbalmedicine programs where Westernersare able to study these ancient methodswith traditional Eastern practitioners.Training for acupressure specialistsbegins with a basic 150-hourcertification program and can range upto 850 hours for advanced training pro-grams.

Other Forms of Bodywork Based onthe Acupressure ModelVarious styles of acupressure weredeveloped over time, although they allrely on the basic traditional model ofenergy flow through the meridians, acu-points, and whole person. Tui na is theChinese massage method of using acu-points to regulate energy flow. Ammawas the name used in Japan for a similarmethod. Shiatsu, meaning “finger pres-sure” in Japanese, is a vigorous form ofacupressure that uses firm and rhyth-mic pressure on acupoints over thewhole body for three to ten secondseach. Jin shin jyutsu is the practice ofholding two-point combinations at thesame time until a release of energy and tension is felt. It was developed by JiroMurai in Japan in the twentieth centuryand has been taught throughout theworld. Contemporary American pro-gressions from jin shin jyutsu are: JinShin Do®, developed by Iona MarsaaTeeguarden, which combines gentle yet

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An acupressurist applies pressure to a client’s head and neck to manipulate the flow of chi.

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In acupressure, pressure is applied to the body by an acupressure specialist using his orher hand, knuckle, finger, or a blunt-tipped instrument called a tei shin, which causesthe body to release endorphins, an important neurochemical that is credited with effec-tive pain relief. Various styles of acupressure have been developed over time, althoughthey all rely on the use of acupoints to control energy flow through the meridians andregulate the whole person—body, mind, and spirit.

deep finger pressure on acupoints withsimple verbal techniques that heightenawareness of the connection betweenthe body and the mind; and processacupressure, developed by AminahRaheem, which combines psychologicaland spiritual work in consciousnesswith acupressure. In addition, self-acu-pressure techniques such as acu-yoga,developed by Michael Reed Gach inAmerica, teach people how to find theiracupoints and to release energy andrelieve tension through self-massage.

Meridians and Acupoints The Chinese holistic system is postulat-ed on the premise that when the energysystem and the internal organs of thebody are functioning normally, a personwill be in good health. Conversely, ifeither the energy or the organs are out ofbalance or distressed, illness will eventu-ally occur. Therefore, the therapeuticapproach is to locate any site of conges-tion, tension, or imbalance, in eitherenergy or organs, and then to apply themethod that will release this obstruction,thereby returning the body to its owninternal regulation processes and health.

The energy system of the body wasmapped during ancient times. It isdefined by explicit energy pathways(called meridians) that flow up anddown the body, from head to toe. Twelveof these pathways are linked to internalorgans and are said to help regulate thehealth of these organs. The pathwaysare accessed by acupoints, or “win-dows,” into the pathways, which can bestimulated to affect energy flow. Origi-nally 361 acupoints were located on thesurface of the body. These are still the

primary acupoints today. Through thecenturies more acupoints have beenadded to the map so that there are nowsome 2,000 points in the contemporaryChinese system.

The Importance of Open Communication In initial meetings with an acupressuretherapist, open communication isestablished between patient and thera-pist. A therapist will determine apatient’s total body symptoms, andestablish a thorough family and child-hood history to uncover genetic or envi-ronmental reasons that could cause orcontribute to a patient’s disorder. Oncethe patient and therapist are satisfiedthat all significant issues have been dis-cussed, the patient is encouraged torelax and pressure is applied to prede-termined pressure points. During thesession, acupressure should result inlessened muscle tension, increasedblood circulation, as well as a release ofendorphins and subsequent pain relief.Toxins are also released and purgedfrom the body. Length and frequency ofthe sessions are determined by the ther-apist and patient and depend on theseverity of the problem.

A Powerful ToolAcupressure is particularly beneficialfor those who suffer with severe backpain, arthritis, nonarticular rheuma-tism, or chronic muscle aches. It can aidin relieving the pain of headaches. It isalso credited with balancing the differ-ent systems of the body and eliminatingharmful toxins. In this sense it is consid-ered a powerful preventive tool against

Acupuncture

the onslaught of illness and disease as itpurifies and strengthens the body’sresistance, resulting in a healthy, vital existence.

As a caution, self-acupressure re-quires no special tools but instruction isencouraged in order to effectively deter-mine pressure points.

—Aminah Raheem, Ph.D.

Resources:

Acupressure Institute

1533 Shattuck Avenue

Berkeley, CA 94709

Tel: (510) 845-1059

Offers certification programs from basic to

advanced, including specialized classes and an

850-hour program.

The American Oriental Bodywork Therapy Associ

ation (AOBTA)

Glendale Executive Campus, Ste. 510

1000 White Horse Rd.

Vorhees, NJ 08043

Tel: (609) 782-1616

Fax: (516) 364-5559

Web site: www.healthy.net/pan/pa/bodywork

A professional organization that has determined

and enforces minimum entry-level standards (500

hours) for all types of Oriental bodywork. Current-

ly represents about 1,200 members.

Jin Shin Do Foundation for Bodymind Acupressure

366 California Avenue, Ste. 16

Palo Alto, CA 94306

Tel: (408) 763-7702

Provides a myriad of information on Jin Shin Do

acupressure, including a list of registered practi-

tioners, newsletters, books, videotapes, and train-

ing courses.

Further Reading:

The Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine. An

Outline of Chinese Acupuncture. Peking: For-

eign Languages Press, 1975.

Raheem, Aminah. Soul Return: Integrating Body,

Psyche and Spirit. Santa Cruz: Aslan, 1991.

(Available from author at Process Acupressure

Unlimited, P.O. Box 1096, Capitola, CA 95010.)

Serizawa, Katsusuke. Tsubo: Vital Points for Orien-

tal Therapy. Tokyo: Japan Publications, Inc.,

1976.

Steinfeld, Alan. Careers in Alternative Medicine.

New York: Rosen Publishing, 1997.

Teeguarden, Iona Marsaa. Acupressure Way of

Health: Jin Shin Do. Tokyo: Japan Publications,

Inc., 1978.

——. A Complete Guide to Acupressure. Tokyo:

Japan Publications, Inc., 1996.

ACUPUNCTURE

Acupuncture is one of the ancient healing practices recommendedby traditional Chinese medicine to

cure disease, relieve pain, and maintainhealth. Acupuncture is a holistic medi-cine, that is, it stresses the interconnect-edness of one’s body, mind, and spirit. Anacupuncturist understands that physicalailments can affect one’s emotional orpsychological state and equally, emo-tional, spiritual, or psychologicaldifficulties can lead to disease. Accordingto Chinese philosophy, energy—calledchi or qi (pronounced chee or key)—cir-culates through all things, including ourbodies. The proper flow of chi is essentialto good health. The practice of acupunc-ture involves placing needles intospecific points on the body in order tocontrol the flow of this energy.

Origins and Development ofAcupunctureThere is evidence suggesting thatacupuncture has been practiced for morethan 5,000 years. It is mentioned in one ofthe first written records of traditionalChinese medicine practices, called the

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A practitioner of traditional Chinese medicine works with herbs and oils to administer acupuncture.Here she removes the needles used in acupuncture.

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Huang-ti Nei Ching (The Yellow Emperor’sClassic of Internal Medicine). This text wascompiled sometime between 213 BCE and240 CE, and is reputed to document prac-tices used during the legendary reign ofthe Yellow Emperor in China (2697–2595BCE). Acupuncture started spreadingthroughout Asia around 1000 CE andreached Europe by around 1700 CE.

Until recently in the United States,acupuncture has been used mostly foranesthesia and for the treatment of alco-hol, tobacco, and drug addictions. Theseare very limited uses of acupuncturethat may be of help in some situationsbut do not embrace the underlyingholistic philosophy of acupuncture. Asmore studies reinforce the benefits ofacupuncture, its use as a method ofhealth care and health maintenanceseems to be increasing in the West.

The Philosophy of AcupunctureAcupuncture is based on the belief thatour body, mind, and spirit are fully

integrated aspects of our being. Theycannot be separated from one another.They must be balanced in order for us tobe healthy. Chi is the energy of our lives,what motivates us, our life essence—itaffects our whole being. It is believed thatwhen the energy flows we feel generallywell, and when it is impeded we feel out ofbalance and begin to develop the symp-toms of disease. Chi is thought to travel inchannels, called meridians, deep insidethe body. Acupuncture points are theplaces where these meridians come closeto the surface and where the chi can thenbe influenced.

Acupuncture, like all aspects of tra-ditional Chinese medicine, is firmlyrooted in Chinese philosophy. The Tao,yin and yang, the five elements, and thetwelve meridians or officials provide thefoundations for acupuncture’s origin,development, and procedures.

Tao. The principle of the Tao comesfrom the book Tao Teh Ching (Book of theWay of Life), written by the philosopher

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Lao-tzu. Like the Taoist principles thatLao-tzu described in this classic book,acupuncture emphasizes the impor-tance of balance and harmony, changeand growth, and ever-flowing energy ofone’s life.

Yin-Yang. The terms yin and yangrepresent polar opposites that accord-ing to Taoism are continually merginginto, and creating balance with, eachother. Yin and yang create balance inthe world and in ourselves. Yin is thecool, nighttime, reflective energy thattakes things to completion; yang is thehot, daytime, active energy that startsthings into motion. Yin is often consid-ered representative of female energyand yang of the male energy.

Five Elements. Chinese philosophysees individuals as an integral part ofnature, a microcosm reflecting themacrocosm. In nature we have ele-ments such as fire, earth, metal, water,and wood. In acupuncture we envisionthese elements within us. We can feel allfired up or burned out; dry and stiff asdried wood or flexible and supple as awillow shoot; hard and cold as steel orhot and flowing as molten gold; freshand pure as a freshwater stream or stag-nant and dank like a polluted well. Anacupuncturist uses these and many,many more images to conceptualize aperson’s state of well-being.

Meridians. The twelve meridians, orofficials, are seen as channels within ourbodies that act as conduits for the chi toflow through, to animate and nourish us.The meridians have names akin to West-ern medical terms for organs but aremuch broader in their scope. For exam-ple, the lung meridian is thought of as thereceiver of chi. It takes energy in and letsit go. In addition to breathing, the lungmeridian has the capacity for inspirationon an emotional and spiritual level. Thesmall intestine meridian is in charge of“separation of pure from impure.” On aphysical level this determines whichnutrients to absorb or to discard. On anemotional and spiritual level it deter-mines which aspects of ourselves we willkeep and which we will let go.

Experiencing an Acupuncture SessionToday, a session with an acupuncturistis conducted in much the same way itwas thousands of years ago. Talking tothe patient, hearing his or her descrip-tion of the illness, is very important.The practitioner wants to hear thepatient describe the problem in his orher own words rather than a standardmedical definition or diagnosis. Thepractitioner will want to know aboutthe patient’s background, includingfamily history and his or her childhood.According to traditional Chinese medi-cine, no two people ever have exactlythe same illness, even if the Westerndiagnosis would be the same. One’sindividuality affects how and why onebecomes ill and must be taken intoconsideration when deciding on atreatment. Listening to the sound of thepatient’s voice, seeing subtle face color,palpating (touching), noticing anyunusual breath or body odor, examin-ing the tongue and taking the pulse atthe wrist are all very important meth-ods of diagnosis and aid in formulatinga treatment plan. There are severalhundred acupuncture points, and thepractitioner chooses which will be usedin a session by using these diagnosticmethods.

The goal, simply stated, is to restorethe flow and balance of chi. Theacupuncturist accomplishes this byinserting very thin, solid, sterile stainlesssteel needles into acupuncture points inorder to open blockages and manipulatethe chi. Needles are placed and eithertaken out quickly or left to stay in for upto thirty to forty minutes, depending onwhat the acupuncturist wants to accom-plish. On occasion the acupuncturistwill warm or energize the chi by burningan herb called Artemesia vulgaris (mug-wort, moxa) on the skin. This techniqueis called moxibustion. The practitionermay check the patient’s pulse again andwill decide whether or not to treat morepoints. An acupuncturist may also rec-ommend herbal remedies, dietaryand/or lifestyle changes, or exercises, toassist in recovery.

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Jin Shin Do® Bodymind AcupressureTM

BenefitsThe World Health Organization acceptsacupuncture as a treatment for more than100 health problems, including migraines,bronchitis, back pain, sinusitis, high bloodpressure, ulcers, arthritis, PMS, hay fever,and the common cold. Also, various stud-ies in China, Europe, and the United Stateshave shown acupuncture to be a usefultool in treating drug and alcohol addic-tions, mental disorders, depression, anxi-ety, insomnia, and stress.

Theories from the Western PerspectiveFrom a Western perspective, two theoriesas to how acupuncture works have beenput forth. One by researchers Melzackand Wall is called the double gate theoryof pain. This theory suggests thatacupuncture stimulates certain nervesthat close a neurological “gate” in thespinal column, inhibiting pain fibersfrom ascending to higher cognitive levels.The other theory, suggested by the stud-ies of several different researchers, sug-gests that acupuncture stimulatesopiate-like substances called endorphinsand enkephalins that account for itspain-relieving effects. These theories areenlightening but, acupuncturists con-tend, do not account fully for the far-reaching and long-lasting effects thatacupuncture can have on a patient’sbody, mind, and spirit.

—Dr. Robert J. Abramson

Resources:

American Association of Acupuncture and Orien-

tal Medicine

4101 Lake Boone Trail, 201

Raleigh, NC 27607

Tel: (919) 787-5181

Works to improve awareness and acceptance of

acupuncture as a form of complementary medicine.

National Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine

Alliance (NAOMA)

638 Prospect Ave.

Hartford, CT 06105-4298

Professional organization with a membership of

individual practitioners and medical colleges. The

group lobbies to integrate acupuncture into Ameri-

can health care.

Worsley Institute of Classical Acupuncture, Inc.

6175 N.W. 153rd Street, Suite 324

Miami Lakes, FL 33014

Offers information, resources, and training in five-

element acupuncture.

Further Reading:

Mann, Felix. Acupuncture: The Ancient Chinese Art

of Healing. Magnolia, MA: Peter Smith, 1990.

——. Acupuncture: Cure of Many Diseases. Second

Edition. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann

Ltd., 1992.

Melzack, Ronald. The Puzzle of Pain. New York:

Basic Books, Inc., 1973.

Mitchell, Ellinor R. Plain Talk About Acupuncture.

New York: Whalehall, Inc., 1987.

Worsley, J.R. Traditional Acupuncture, Volume II.

Warwickshire, U.K.: College of Traditional

Acupuncture, U.K., 1990.

JIN SHIN DO® BODYMIND

ACUPRESSURETM

Jin Shin Do® Bodymind Acupres-sureTM is a form of Asian bodyworkthat was developed by Iona Marsaa

Teeguarden. It combines gentle yet deepfinger pressure on specific points on thethe body (acupoints) with simple verbaltechniques to release tension andheighten the connection between bodyand mind. Jin Shin Do is effective inhelping to relieve muscular pain andstress-related problems such asheadaches, backaches, anxiety, fatigue,

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insomnia, eye strain, menstrual andmenopausal discomfort, digestive dis-tress, joint pain, urogenital problems,sinus pain, and allergies.

The Recent Development of Jin ShinDo®

Iona Marsaa Teeguarden was born in1949 in Rugby, North Dakota. She stud-ied piano performance and philosophyat the University of Michigan, but wasstill in search of a profession when shemet Mary Burmeister, who practicedJin Shin Jyutsu®, a Japanese acupres-sure technique developed in the twen-tieth century by Jiro Murai. Teeguardenturned to Burmeister in 1971 for reliefof back pain due to scoliosis. Theimprovement that Teeguarden experi-enced motivated her to study acupres-sure and, two years later, she began totreat clients in her home, workingmainly with patients suffering frompain. She subsequently studied withChinese, Korean, and Japaneseacupuncture and acupressure special-ists.

In 1979, to better understand how torespond to emotions released by herpatients during sessions, Teeguardenreturned to school, receiving an M.A. inpsychology from Antioch University in1980 and a license to practice psycho-therapy in 1982. Integrating Western andEastern theories, she developed theemotional kaleidoscope, a detailed mapof body-mind connections identifyingacupoints that have an effect on specificemotions.

In 1982 Teeguarden began to develop anew teaching approach, including a color-coded system that illustrates where theforty-five basic points are on the body andhow to combine them in a simple way. Shealso established the Jin Shin Do Founda-tion, and began offering teacher trainingprograms. There are now about eightyauthorized Jin Shin Do teachers, and morethan 300 registered Jin Shin Do acupres-surists throughout the world.

A Synthesis of TechniquesThe energy system of the body wasmapped in ancient times by practitioners

Iona Marsaa Teeguarden, developer of Jin Shin Do® Bodymind AcupressureTM, combined tradition-al Asian bodywork practices with the theories of body-oriented psychotherapist Wilhelm Reich.

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of traditional Chinese medicine. It isdefined by energy pathways (calledmeridians) that flow up and down thebody, from head to toe. Practitionersbelieve these meridians help regulatethe health of internal organs as well thephysical and psychological processesthat these organs control.

In developing Jin Shin Do, Tee-guarden connected four main energyflows taught by Jiro Murai with the eight“strange flows,” or “extraordinary merid-ians,” of acupuncture. The strange flowsare a primary self-regulating system that,when functioning correctly, move energyaround the body, continually adjustingand moderating the balance of thetwelve organ meridians. They also storeand release energy for the meridians.

To this already rich therapeutic her-itage, Teeguarden added a Western com-ponent—Dr. Wilhelm Reich’s view of thebody as a series of segments that containmuscular tension related to specificemotional experiences. Reich stated thatthe health of human beings dependsupon proper flow of energy within thebody. He believed that a stoppage ofenergy flow is unhealthy and results inboth character armoring and musculararmoring.

Character armor is evident in theattitudes of people and the makeup oftheir personalities. For example, a com-mon type of character armor is aloof-ness stemming from guilt and shame.Muscular armor is apparent in musculartensions and contractions, which arephysical barriers to the flow of energy.Both forms of armoring eventually leadto pain. Reich contended that they areunconscious techniques used by thebody-mind complex to cope with earlytraumatic experiences and that thecharacter armoring and musculararmoring are just different aspects of thesame defense.

Teeguarden related classic Chinesetheories of the emotions and acupointswith Reichian theories of character andmuscular armoring. She found thatarmoring could be released by holding“local points,” or acupoints in the area of

tension, with “distal points,” which arefar away from the area of tension butenhance the effectiveness of local-pointpressure. At the same time, she uses psy-chotherapeutic techniques, verbally en-couraging the individual to remain opento emotions and thoughts that arisewhen muscular armor begins to dis-solve.

Achieving RelaxationA typical session lasts between sixtyand ninety minutes, with the clientclothed and lying on his or her back ona massage table. The practitioner evalu-ates the tension pattern in the body byasking the client and through pulsereading and inquiring touch, or “pointpalpation.” After identifying mainpoints of muscular contraction, thepractitioner holds combinations ofacupoints to release tensions andrebalance energy. The individual beingtreated initially will feel sensitivity atthe point of pressure, but that is quick-ly replaced by a pleasurable feeling oftension being discharged. The generaleffect is a state of deep relaxation inwhich the individual achieves a peace-ful mental state and a deeper aware-ness of his or her body. After a session,clients typically feel relaxed and rejuve-nated. Over a series of sessions, armor-ing is progressively released in thehead, neck, shoulders, arms, back,chest, diaphragm, abdomen, pelvis,and legs.

The Way of the Compassionate SpiritTeeguarden, like Reich, believes thatwhen we are not allowed to express anemotion, we hold it back by tighteningthe muscles that would normallyexpress it. This tension can becomechronic, with the muscles involvedbecoming rigid and incapable ofexpression. Teeguarden believes thatwhen we hold our emotions back withmuscular tension, we also impede theflow of the Oriental energy pathways.

At its basic level, Jin Shin Do is a relax-ation method that helps release physical

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and emotional tension, and so is named“The Way of the Compassionate Spirit.”In the hands of a trained psychothera-pist, it appears to help ease the effectsof childhood abuse and other traumatrapped by the body in the form ofphysical tension. Treatment can havethe intensity of catharsis, but is gener-ally characterized by gentleness. JSDacupressurists avoid pressing on opensores and rashes, and pressing too hardin cases of phlebitis (inflammation of avein), varicosities (swollen veins), bro-ken blood vessels, or extensive bruis-ing. Certain points are forbiddenduring pregnancy. Of course, clientsshould first consult their medical doc-tor, particularly in the case of chronicor acute conditions.

—Iona Marsaa Teeguarden

Resources:

American Oriental Bodywork Therapy Association

Glendale Executive Campus, 510

1000 White Horse Rd.

Vorhees, NJ 08043

Tel: (609) 782-1616

Fax: (609) 782-1653

Founded in 1984, this organization represents

practitioners and teachers of all types of Oriental

bodywork, including acupressure, shiatsu, and

AMMA. The American Oriental Bodywork Therapy

Association Council of Schools and Programs

includes the JSDF among its members.

Jin Shin Do Foundation for Bodymind Acupres-

sure (JSDF)

P.O. Box 1097

Felton, CA 95018

or

1084G San Miguel Canyon Rd.

Watsonville, CA 95076

Tel: (408) 763-7702

Fax: (408) 763-1551

Founded in 1982, the Jin Shin Do Foundation is a

network of Jin Shin Do teachers and acupressurists

throughout the United States, Canada, Europe,

and elsewhere. Write for a free newsletter, which

includes a list of books, charts, and audio and

video tapes available as well as a description of the

Jin Shin Do training program. An international

directory is also available.

Further Reading:

Teeguarden, Iona Marsaa. The Acupressure Way of

Health: Jin Shin Do. New York: Japan Publica-

tion, 1978.

——. Color-Coded Strange Flows Chart. Wat-

sonville, CA: Jin Shin Do Foundation, 1981.

——. A Complete Guide to Acupressure. New York:

Japan Publication, 1996.

——. Fundamentals of Self-Acupressure. Wat-

sonville, CA: Jin Shin Do Foundation, 1989.

——. The Joy of Feeling: Bodymind Acupressure.

New York: Japan Publication, 1987.

JIN SHIN JYUTSU® PHYSIO-PHILOSOPHY

Jin Shin Jyutsu® Physio-Philosophy isan ancient art that uses the hands onspecific areas of the body to harmo-

nize the flow of life-giving energy through-out the body. It can be utilized either as a“self-help” tool or received from a practi-tioner. Jin Shin Jyutsu provides the bodywith an excellent opportunity to restoreand maintain healthy physical, mental,emotional, and spiritual well-being.

An Ancient DisciplineAccording to records in the ImperialArchives of Japan, the principles of Jin ShinJyutsu date back to ancient times. Thisunderstanding was passed down in theoral tradition from generation to genera-tion, until many of the principles becamedistorted and the art was nearly lost.

Near the turn of the twentieth centurythis art was rediscovered by Master JiroMurai, the second son born into a family

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Jin Shin Jyutsu® Physio-Philosophy

of medical professionals. Faced with alife-threatening illness, considered termi-nal by traditional medicine, Jiro Muraiturned to the wisdom of the great sagesfor his salvation. Jiro healed himselfthrough the application of hand mudrasand through breathing exercises.

Upon his healing, Master Muraivowed to dedicate his life to the studyand development of the art he eventual-ly named Jin Shin Jyutsu, which trans-lates as “the art of the Creator throughman of compassion and knowing.”

In the late 1940s, Jiro met MaryBurmeister, an American-born Japanese,working in the U.S. diplomatic corps.Upon their first meeting, Jiro asked Maryif she would like to bring a gift fromJapan back to America. Without knowingwhat Jiro was referring to, Mary acceptedhis offer, and became Jiro’s first student.Mary studied with him for the next sixyears, and then for another six years ofcorrespondence after she returned to theUnited States until Jiro’s death.

Mary spent the next several yearsdeepening her understanding of the artof Jin Shin Jyutsu. It wasn’t until theearly 1960s that Mary was approachedby the doctor of a neighbor she hadbeen helping. Having noted positivechange in the neighbor, this doctorwanted to learn more about what hadhelped so much and became Mary’s firststudent. Mary continued to teach until1990, sharing her awareness and under-standing of this profound art with thou-sands of students across the United

States and western Europe. Mary hassince selected eight instructors whomshe has certified to continue her teach-ings and those of Jiro Murai.

Safety-Energy LocksJin Shin Jyutsu employs twenty-six safety-energy locks throughout the body. Theseare found along the various pathwaysthrough which the universal energy trav-els. This energy flow creates and supportslife, and all the functions of the body,including organ function. For many rea-sons—hereditary, character, stress, acci-dents, tension of daily lifestyle, etc.—thesepathways may become blocked, causingsymptoms and illnesses. By placing ourhands (jumper cables) on these safety-energy locks in specific sequences (flows),practitioners can unlock these areas torestore harmony, balance, and the properfunctioning of the body. There are manydifferent sequences that can be used, andthese sequences are determined by listen-ing to the pulse and reading the confor-mation of the body. These show whereattention is required.

To apply Jin Shin Jyutsu, the handsare placed on a clothed body. There is nomassage or manipulation. Practitionersonly wait to feel the rhythmic pulsationin the safety-energy lock to know thatarea is in harmony with the universalenergy. Then they move on to the nextarea of the sequence. Upon completionof this sequence, they will have becomeaware of the harmony restored to this

Studying Jin Shin Jyutsu®

For those interested in studying Jin Shin Jyutsu, the basic five-day course is offered inthe United States, Canada, Brazil, and throughout Europe. The number of locationsexpands each year as interest grows. At this point, there are only eight instructors autho-rized by Jin Shin Jyutsu®, Inc., the sole organization offering instruction in this disci-pline. The class includes lecture, material, and a good deal of hands-on experience. It isbroken down into two parts. Part I is the first three days and covers the safety-energylocks. Part II is the remaining two days, and covers the seventeen “individualized” bodyfunction energy flows. Anyone is welcome to attend, and there is no prerequisite.

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particular flow of energy. Symptoms willdisappear over time or, in some cases,immediately.

These sequences can be applied by apractitioner to another person, or by anindividual utilizing them for self-help.This self-help is an important aspect ofJin Shin Jyutsu as self-awareness, or“now know myself,” helps us to main-tain balance and harmony, or to simplyfeel relaxed and peaceful. In order tofind the proper techniques andsequences for self-help, people canconsult their practitioner or self-helpbooks.

Jin Shin Jyutsu is an art, not merely atechnique. A technique is a mechanicalapplication whereas an art is a skillfulcreation. This art is supported stronglyby its underlying philosophy, whichemphasizes an awareness of ourselvesand of our connection to the universalenergy. By maintaining this, we remainin harmony—happy and healthy. Whenwe forget the philosophy, we can utilizeour “jumper cables” to recharge our bat-teries and restore the proper function-ing of our body. As Mary has said,“Philosophy is the richness of Jin ShinJyutsu, and the technique is for when wedon’t live the philosophy. It’s a tool to getus out of trouble.”

Achieving HarmonyA Jin Shin Jyutsu session lasts about anhour. The recipient lies face-up on atable or any available comfortable sur-face. The practitioner will “listen” to thepulse not for diagnosis, but to deter-mine which energy function flowsmight be utilized to bring the body to itsnatural state of harmony. At this point,the practitioner uses the hands inspecific sequences to restore energyflow. By the end of the session, the pulseshould be even and balanced.

The practitioner often providesinformation during or after the session.The actual experience and results mayvary from person to person. The recipi-ent may feel a sense of relaxation anddeeper breathing as the energy flow isrestored. The immediate effects of the

session will continue for eight hours, asthe circulation pattern is completed.

—Ian Kraut

Resources:

Jin Shin Jyutsu®, Inc.

8719 E. San Alberto

Scottsdale, AZ 85257

Tel: (602) 998-9331

Fax: (602) 998-9335

Web site: www.inficad.com/*.010jsjinc

Offers information on seminars, books and mate-

rials, and practitioner referrals.

Further Reading:

Burmeister, Alice. The Touch of Healing: Energiz-

ing Body, Mind, and Spirit with the Art of Jin

Shin Jyutsu. New York: Bantam Books, 1997.

PROCESS ACUPRESSURE

Process acupressure (PA) was devel-oped as a single modality foraddressing and supporting all parts

of an individual. According to PA, touch isable to release tension stored in a person’sbody, allowing him or her to developmore balance, strength, and clarity tounderstand and handle problems better.As in traditional acupressure, gentle pres-sure is applied to the body to strengthen,release, and balance the body’s energysystems. PA also is concerned with reveal-ing a person’s soul, or inner wisdom. Thisdeep inner knowing is accessed as a guid-ing influence over one’s healing anddevelopment.

PA grew out of Dr. Aminah Raheem’ssearch for ways to support a person’swellness and growth in body, mind, emo-tions, and soul simultaneously. In PA, shecombined traditional acupressure meth-ods with the unique touch of Zero Bal-ancing®. It also uses skills developed from

Process Acupressure

transpersonal psychology, which includesCarl Jung’s analytical psychology, RobertoAssagioli’s psychosynthesis, and ArnoldMindell’s process oriented psychotherapy.It took six years for Dr. Raheem to test anddevelop her theoretical framework into ahands-on application. PA premiered inZurich, Switzerland, in 1986. Since then ithas been continuously taught there and inthe United States and England to body-workers, psychologists, and laypersons.

According to PA, energy offers themost natural access to the whole per-son because it integrates the body,mind, emotions, and soul. Two energy

systems—meridians and chakras—arereferenced in PA. While the meridianscomprise the network of energy path-ways used in Chinese acupuncture,chakras are an ancient Hindu system ofenergy vortices along the central mid-line of the body. Both of these systemsare directly connected and intermin-gled, with the meridians feeding energyinto and out of the chakras.

By allowing personal history to sur-face from the body during bodywork, PAis able to process directly the most rele-vant psychological material for the per-son’s growth at the time. For example, if

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Aminah Raheem, developer of process acupressure.

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memories or traumas from the past ariseduring the bodywork, the PA practitionerknows how to help a person bring feel-ings and images to consciousness, allow-ing him or her to reach a resolution. Or iffeelings, images, or issues come to mindduring the bodywork they can beexplored and furthered in consciousnessfor the client’s health and well-being.

Typically a PA session takes from oneto one and one-half hours. In a typicalPA session the client lies on a massagetable, fully clothed, and relaxes deeplywhile the practitioner applies custom-designed acupressure techniques. Phys-ical, psychological, or spiritual issuesare addressed in a team approach byboth practitioner and client. In somecases a problem is clarified and resolvedin one session. More commonly, severalsessions are required to resolve a condi-tion and prevent recurrence.

PA has been used to address a varietyof physical symptoms, including backproblems, headaches, respiratory,digestive, and systemic problems aswell as colds, flus, allergies, and healingfrom injuries. Advocates also recom-mend PA to help relieve stress-relatedconditions, including post-traumaticstress. PA is promoted as a method offurthering and empowering develop-ment in the well person who wishes togrow toward his or her full potential.

PA should not be used to treat severemedical problems and does not sup-plant medical care. It should not beused for psychotics or people duringsevere psychotic episodes because ituncovers and releases unconsciousmaterial that may be overwhelming fora person in a weakened ego state.

—Aminah Raheem

Resources:

Process Acupressure Unlimited

P.O. Box 1096

Capitola, CA 95010

Certifies health care professionals as PA practition-

ers after progressive levels of training, supervised

experience, and examination. PA does not give licen-

sure, therefore practitioners must be licensed in a

professional health care modality, such as massage,

medicine, or osteopathy; or in a psychological field,

such as marriage and family counseling, psychology,

or psychiatry, before they can be certified in PA.

Further Reading:

Raheem, Aminah. Process Acupressure I. Palm

Beach Gardens, FL: The Upledger Institute,

Inc., 1994.

——. Process Acupressure II: Releases for the Whole

Being. Palm Beach Gardens, FL: The Upledger

Institute, Inc., 1994.

——. Process Acupressure III: The Hologram.

Aptos, CA: Process Acupressure Association,

1996.

——. Soul Return: Integrating Body, Psyche and

Spirit. Santa Rosa, CA: Aslan Publishing, 1991.

SHIATSU

Shiatsu is a method of Japanese body-work derived from ancient healingpractices. In shiatsu, practitioners

apply pressure using the fingers, palms,elbows, forearms, knees, and even feet, topressure points (called tsubos in Japan-ese) along a receiver’s body. This practiceencourages the proper flow of qi, or lifeenergy, which, according to traditionalChinese medicine, is necessary for theoptimum health of one’s body and mind.Primarily, shiatsu is recommended as apreventative technique, that is, to bepracticed even when you are healthy inorder to maintain good health. It is alsopracticed for the relief of pain, to improvemental functioning, and to relieve a vari-ety of ailments, including chronic stress,digestive problems, and lower back pain.

Shiatsu: A Practice with Ancient RootsThe use of bodywork and massage for

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Shiatsu therapy is widely available, so anyone interested in experiencing this rejuvenat-ing form of treatment should have no trouble finding an experienced practitioner. Manyspas, health clubs, and resorts offer shiatsu as one of their treatments. As the training ofpractitioners can vary widely, you should check the educational background and expe-rience of any practitioner you are considering visiting.

Shiatsu

curing disease and improving health hasancient origins in China. Massage is oneof the treatment principles of traditionalChinese medicine, the basic tenets ofwhich are thought to date back to thelegendary reign of the Yellow Emperor inChina from 2697–2595 BCE. Although theprinciples of traditional Chinese medi-cine were not written down until sometime between 213 BCE and 240 CE, peoplebelieve that the practices had beenpassed from generation to generationfor thousands of years before that.

The various practices of traditionalChinese medicine spread throughoutAsia, making their way to Japan in about500 to 600 CE. In Japan, massage becameknown as amma, which literally meansrubdown. By the early 1900s amma wasstill being practiced in Japan but hadearned a reputation as folk medicine andbecame associated more with pleasure,relaxation, and sensuality than with medi-cine. As a result, some practitioners whowanted to continue practicing therapeuticmassage began calling their practice shiat-su. These practitioners worked to raisepublic awareness of the healing aspects ofmassage. Today shiatsu is one of the mostpopular forms of massage in Japan.

Balancing and Fortifying Life EnergyShiatsu is a holistic form of bodywork.This means that the body and mind areviewed as connected to each other, aswell as to the external environment.Practitioners of shiatsu believe that avital life energy, called qi, surrounds andinterpenetrates the physical body. Qiflows through the body through invisiblechannels called meridians. Practitionersof shiatsu are trained to manipulatepressure points that lie along these

channels of energy in order to balance areceiver’s energy. According to the tradi-tional Asian worldview, illness or disease(including emotional and psychologicalproblems) is the result of an imbalancein the flow of qi. By balancing and forti-fying vital life energy, the shiatsu thera-pist can help a client maintain andimprove his or her health. Shiatsu isthought to help prevent the onset of ill-ness. If illness or disease has already setin, shiatsu is used to encourage thebody’s healing process.

Experiencing Shiatsu MassageShiatsu emphasizes the physical manipu-lation of the body. It aims to work withboth the physical body and the energy thatsurrounds and interpenetrates it. As thenumber of practitioners grows, the varietyof styles of shiatsu also grows. A shiatsusession may be a vigorous massage or itmay employ only gentle touch, dependingon the practitioner. Some people find themore vigorous method painful. Oneshould seek a shiatsu therapist that bestmeets his or her own personal needs.Increasingly, Western shiatsu practice isgentle and less invasive than the tradition-al Japanese approach. The most wellknown and representative form of thisstyle of shiatsu is Ohashiatsu

®. Ohashiat-

su® was developed by a Japanese mannamed Wataru Ohashi. Ohashi probablydid more than any other person to intro-duce and popularize shiatsu in the West.Ohashi’s style of shiatsu is taught andpracticed at the Ohashi Institute.

Traditionally, someone receiving shiat-su dresses in loose, comfortable clothingand lies on a comfortable futon—a kind ofJapanese mattress—or cushioned spaceon the floor. The practitioner kneels and

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crawls around the person he or she is mas-saging. Because there are differentapproaches to shiatsu, however, somepractitioners have receivers disrobe totheir level of comfort and lie on a paddedmassage table rather than on the floor. Atypical shiatsu session lasts from a halfhour to an hour and a half. Pressure can belight or deep depending upon the style ofshiatsu practiced and what is best for thereceiver.

Practitioners may also gently stretchthe receiver’s body. They may also act as akind of coach or teacher to the receiver inorder to help him or her achieve betterenergy balance. For instance, a shiatsutherapist might recommend a more nutri-tional diet, getting more exercise, or otherhelpful suggestions regarding lifestyle.

Benefits for the Body and MindPeople who receive shiatsu often saythey feel both energized and relaxed atthe same time. They may also feel calmand peaceful, lighter in spirit, and phys-ical aches and pains may diminish. Shi-atsu is considered by many to be awonderful healing practice for individu-als seeking physical relief of muscleaches and soft tissue pains. It is also auseful practice for exploring the ener-getic aspects of bodywork.

Shiatsu can be an important part of anongoing health maintenance program. Bytaking time to be more aware of our bod-ies, we may be able to spot physical andemotional problems before they have achance to make us sick. In addition tohelping relieve aches and pains, shiatsucan fortify the functioning of the immunesystem, which protects us from illness;stimulate circulation, which is vital to life;provide massage to the internal organs;and encourage proper functioning of thenervous and endocrine systems. Peoplewho receive shiatsu often report relieffrom a variety of complaints, includinglow back pain, sinus problems, constipa-tion, and premenstrual syndrome.

When to Avoid Shiatsu Shiatsu therapy can be used by nearly

anyone. However, there are someinstances in which it should be avoided, orcaution should be exercised in its use. Youshould not receive shiatsu if you have can-cer. It should also be avoided if you sufferfrom brittle bones or are on cortisonetreatment, which weakens the bones. Shi-atsu should not be practiced under theinfluence of alcohol or by anyone with afever or contagious disease. If you havehigh blood pressure, you should notreceive shiatsu to the abdomen; pregnantwomen should consult with their doctor before treatment.

—Thomas Claire

Resources:

American Oriental Bodywork Therapy Association

(AOBTA)

Glendale Executive Campus, Suite 510

1000 White Horse Road

Vorhees, NJ 08043

Tel: (609) 782-1616

Fax: (609) 782-1653

The AOBTA is a professional organization that rep-

resents practitioners of a number of different styles

of Asian bodywork, including shiatsu.

The Ohashi Institute

P.O. Box 505

Wallace Rd.

Kinderhook, NY 12106

Tel: (800) 810-4190

Fax: (518) 758-6809

The Ohashi Institute has twelve locations in the

United States and Europe. It is the leading world-

wide educational institute devoted to the teaching

and practice of shiatsu, and serves as a bridge

between Western and Eastern healing arts.

Further Reading:

Bienfield, Harriet, LAc, and Efrem Korngold, LAc,

OMD. Between Heaven and Earth: A Guide to Chi-

nese Medicine. New York: Ballantine Books, 1991.

Claire, Thomas, M.A., LMT. BodyWork: What Type

of Massage to Get—and How to Make the Most

of It. New York: William Morrow, 1995.

197

The oldest mention of bodywork in Chinese texts is more than 4,000 years old and looks like this.

Tui Na

Connelly, Dianne M., Ph.D., MAc. Traditional

Acupuncture: The Law of the Five Elements.

Columbia, MD: The Centre for Traditional

Acupuncture, 1989.

Haas, Elson M., M.D. Staying Healthy with the

Seasons. Berkeley, CA: Celestial Arts, 1981.

Ohashi, Wataru. Do-It-Yourself Shiatsu: How to Per-

form the Ancient Japanese Art of “Acupuncture

Without Needles.” New York: E. P. Dutton, 1976.

Ohashi, Wataru, with Tom Monte. Reading the

Body: Ohashi’s Book of Oriental Diagnosis. New

York: Arkana, 1991.

TUI NA

Tui na is an ancient form of massageused for maintaining and improv-ing health, to cure disease, and to

relieve pain. It is one of several methodsrecommended by traditional Chinesemedical philosophy, now commonlyreferred to as traditional Chinese medi-cine. The philosophy of traditional Chi-nese medicine and the methods that itrecommends are holistic in nature,viewing the health of an individual asaffected by three equally important andinterconnected aspects of our being:body, mind, and spirit. Practitioners oftui na manipulate the physical body bypushing, pulling, pinching, and tappingon it. The goal is to affect the flow andbalance of the vital energy called qi,which according to Chinese philosophyflows through our bodies and affects thehealth of mind, body, and spirit.

The History of Tui NaChinese massage can be dated as farback as 4,000 years ago. Archaeologistshave discovered an early form of Chi-nese writing dating to this time thatlooks more like pictograms than the

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Physicians in traditional Chinese medicine have always been required to demonstrate amastery of bodywork to increase their digital sensitivity for competent palpatory andassessment skills. Today in China, massage is a doctoral study that takes five to six yearsto complete.

sophisticated characters used today. Inthis early form of writing they havefound what they believe are mentions ofmassage.

Some experts have concluded fromthis evidence that massage was devel-oped to an extent that it was used anddiscussed at the court of the emperor,where all writing took place.

Massage is also mentioned in the old-est existing medical text, Huang-ti NeiChing (The Yellow Emperor’s Classic ofInternal Medicine). This text was compiledduring the Han Dynasty in China, whichspanned 206 BCE to 240 CE. Some expertsbelieve that the Huang-ti Nei Ching docu-ments practices that had been handeddown verbally for thousands of years, fromthe time of the legendary reign of the Yel-low Emperor in China (2697–2595 BCE),suggesting that medical massage may beup to 5,000 years old.

Massage evolved to such a point thatin the fifth century CE, a doctoral degreewas created for it at the Imperial Collegeof Medicine in Xian, the ancient capital ofthe Tang Dynasty. Massage was originallycalled moshou, which means “hand rub-bing,” then became known as anmowhich means “press and rub,” and by theMing Dynasty (1368–1644) the name tuina, meaning “push and grasp,” was used.

During the Republican period(1911–1949) in China all forms of tradi-tional medicine were overshadowed byWestern allopathic medicine. Tradi-tional medical practices gained a repu-tation as folk medicine, and more andmore young people began to study andpractice Western medicine. With theestablishment of the People’s Republicin 1949, the government made an effortto gather and systematize traditionalmedical practices under the heading

Traditional Chinese Medicine and tointegrate Chinese and Western healingmethods. Today in China clinics areavailable for both styles of healing, andpatients can choose where they want togo. In addition, many hospitals use acombination of Western allopathic andtraditional practices to create the mosteffective treatment.

How Tui Na WorksAll of the treatment methods of tradi-tional Chinese medicine, including tuina, take a holistic view of humans ascomposed of inseparable componentsof body, mind, and spirit. The principlesof traditional Chinese medicine areinfluenced by the naturalist school ofTaoism, which emphasizes a lifestylebased on moderation and harmony withnatural cycles. According to Taoism, thehighest ideals of human attainment—wisdom, serenity, and compassion—come with age. So this medical systemseeks to maintain health and vitality intoold age. There is a strong focus on pre-venting disease.

According to the traditional Chinesemedical theory, a major component of lifeis called qi, a vital life energy that is inconstant motion through channels in ourbodies. If qi is deficient, excessive, or stag-nant we feel dis-ease, which can eventual-ly lead to disease. Tui na uses a variety ofhand techniques—massaging the body,applying pressure to specific points thataffect the qi, and holding the body in cer-tain poses. These techniques act on the qito move and invigorate it and restore bal-ance in the individual’s whole self.

Experiencing Tui NaIn a typical session, a tui na practitionerwill use traditional Chinese medicine’s

Tui Na

four methods of evaluation—looking, lis-tening/smelling, asking, and touching togather information about the patient.Practitioners believe that interior dishar-monies can appear in the exterior of theself and that exterior stresses can affectthe interior of the self. Since all aspects oflife and behavior reflect the other, all areimportant to the therapist, includingspecific complaints, pain, movementpatterns, sleep and dietary patterns,lifestyle, etc. The massage therapist willseek to weave all the data together to seethe entire tapestry of the patient’s ener-getic landscape. That is, to determinehow the qi is flowing, where it may beblocked or stagnant, and how this isaffecting the individual as a whole.

After the assessment, the therapistwill choose specific points, pathways,and hand techniques to create a mas-sage that is specifically helpful for thatpatient on that day. The hand tech-niques can vary from gentle stroking tofirm grasping and pinching with innu-merable combinations and possibilities.The session can last for thirty to sixtyminutes. The therapist’s intention dur-ing this session is to see some immedi-ate change and lay the groundwork forlong-term progress.

Benefits and RisksIn China tui na is used as a health main-tenance program, to treat chronicstress-related problems, such asheadaches, insomnia, and stomach dis-orders; illnesses, such as asthma andarthritis; and injuries, such as sprains.Patients often feel an increase in energy,relief from pain, diminished fevers,improvements in digestion and sleep,and a regulation of the processes of theinternal organs. Tui na is not recom-mended for fractures, in the case ofinfections, or when there are openwounds or lesions on the body.

Tui na is a quickly growing therapy inthe United States, with licensed practi-tioners available throughout the country.

Because tui na is considered a comple-mentary therapy to Western scientificmedicine, each state regulates it differ-ently. Always check to see if your practi-tioner is state licensed and/or nationallycertified. This will ensure that he or she isadequately trained and familiar withpathologies and conditions that makethis treatment inadvisable.

—Gina Martin

Resources:

The American Oriental Bodywork Therapy Associ

ation (AOBTA)

Glendale Executive Campus, Ste. 510

1000 White Horse Rd.

Vorhees, NJ 08043

Tel: (609) 782-1616

Fax: (516) 364-5559

Web site: www.healthy.net/pan/pa/bodywork

The AOBTA is a national organization of body-

workers in eleven different styles. They certify prac-

titioners, teachers, and schools throughout the

United States. The organization enforces mini-

mum entry-level standards (500 hours) for all

types of Oriental bodyworkers. Currently represents

about 1,200 members.

The Swedish Institute of Massage Therapy and

Allied Health Sciences

226 W. 26th St.

New York, NY 10010

Tel: (212) 924-5900

Master Jeffrey Yuen, and licensed massage therapists

Reggie Crosan, Alix Kasat, Paula Chin, Tom Banaci-

ak, and Gina Martin offer classes and sessions.

Further Reading:

Chengnan, S., ed. Chinese Bodywork: A Complete

Manual of Chinese Therapeutic Massage. Berke-

ley, CA: Pacific View Press, 1990.

Eisenberg, D., and T. L. Wright. Encounters with

Qi: Exploring Chinese Medicine. Rev. ed., New

York: W. W. Norton, 1995.

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PART IX: MOVEMENT THERAPYMETHODS

Alexander Technique • Aston-Patterning® • Bartenieff Fundamentals • Body-Mind Centering® • Feldenkrais Method® • Hanna Somatic Education®

• Hellerwork • Ideokinesis • Kinetic Awareness • Meir Schneider Self-Heal-ing Method • Sensory Awareness • Soma Neuromuscular Integration •Somato Respiratory Integration • Trager Psychophysical Integration

Movement therapy meth-ods are disciplines that seekto relieve pain, improve phys-ical performance, andincrease the potential foremotional and creativeexpression by developingawareness of body movementand repatterning it. Thesemethods are part of a largergroup of methods that havecome to be known collective-ly as bodywork, a generalterm describing a wide vari-ety of methods that use touchand movement to improveawareness of feelings andsensations in the body andimprove physical function-ing. Bodywork methods arealso used to relieve pain andencourage relaxation.

There are many disciplinesin this book that are includedin the bodywork category. Theycan be found in the sectionsentitled Acupuncture andAsian Bodywork, Body-Orient-

ed Psychotherapies, Massage, Skeletal Manipulation Methods, Somatic Practices, andSubtle Energy Therapies. Movement therapy methods are distinguished from other body-work methods by their use of the process of movement itself as their primary diagnosticand therapeutic tool.

In addition to believing in the primacy of the curative and life-enhancing value ofmovement, these disciplines share certain common origins. They were all developed

Movement therapies enhance the whole person by expanding hisor her ability to move.

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in the West in the twentieth century. Many of the originators of these disciplines weredriven by the urgent need to solve their own physical health problems. In doing sothey each recognized a lack of mental awareness of body movement patterns as a rootcause of their symptoms. Eventually each found a way to teach his or her unique pathof discovery to others.

Pioneers in Movement TherapyThere is no single figure who can be credited with the start of the field of move-

ment therapy. Like the invention of the telephone, movement therapy is an idea thatwas developed simultaneously by several people working separately in different partsof the world. At the turn of the century F. M. Alexander (1869–1955), an Australianactor, developed a method for freeing the body of excess tension and changing inef-ficient movement patterns while searching for a cure for his own recurring loss ofvoice. He named his method the Alexander technique.

Working just a little later in time and several continents away, a young Germanwoman, Elsa Gindler (1885–1961), developed her method of “restorative observation”as a cure for her own life-threatening bout with tuberculosis. Later, while working asa young movement educator, Gindler met the musician and teacher Heinrich Jacoby(1889–1964). He was exploring teaching methods that addressed the effects of mentalattitudes on performance. They combined their ideas and methods to create sensoryawareness, a practice designed to “free people from conditioned habits, fears, andtensions.”

At about the same time that Gindler was curing herself of tuberculosis, an Ameri-can teenager, Mable Elsworth Todd (?–1956), was teaching herself to walk and movenormally after a severe back injury. The methods she discovered became the basis ofher private dance education practice and eventually the method known as ideokine-sis. All three of these tireless educators introduced thousands of people, many ofwhom were performers, to a whole new way of integrating their bodies and minds foroptimum efficiency and expressiveness performance.

A second wave of movement therapy methods occurred in the 1940s and 1950s. Atthis time performing artists such as Irmgard Bartenieff (1900–1981) were exploringthe ways in which body and mind interact in the process of movement. But peoplefrom other fields also turned their attention to the connection between movementand health, such as Milton Trager, an athlete, and Moshe Feldenkrais, a physicist andengineer. While some of these pioneers continued to be driven by self-healing needs,others were responding to mass healing crises, such as the polio epidemic of the1940s. This helped take movement therapy beyond the performing arts, directly intothe world of health care.

In the 1960s and 1970s a third wave of movement therapy methods was developedby performing artists, engineers, a philosopher, healers, and people from the estab-lished medical profession. Most of these explorers were students of second-wavefounders, and the new disciplines they created were firmly rooted in the principlesand theories of their teachers. Many individuals developing new methods weredeeply influenced by Dr. Ida Rolf, making use of Rolf’s method of physically manip-ulating the tissue covering the muscles (see entry on Rolfing for more information on

The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines

this discipline). For example, Joseph Heller, the founder of Hellerwork, and Drs. Billand Ellen Williams, the founders of soma neuromuscular integration, combined Rolf’smethods with movement exercises and psychological processing techniques to bringgreater levels of body-mind integration to the process of healing and maintaininghealth through movement.

In the late 1990s many of the organizations that support the teaching and profes-sional activities of the various methods described in this section banded togetherunder the umbrella of the International Somatic Movement Therapy and EducationAssociation (ISMTEA). ISMTEA aims to increase public awareness of the value ofmovement therapy in health and education and to insure quality among movementtherapists. Recently ISMTEA petitioned and won the right from the U.S. governmentto include the title Registered Movement Therapist® among the official U.S. Depart-ment of Labor occupational titles. This step integrates movement therapy methodsfurther into the mainstream of American health care practices.

Unifying Principles of Movement TherapyMovement therapists stress the fact that the living body is in constant motion.

From the subtle expanding and contracting motions of breathing to the more obvi-ous exertion of muscles during strenuous activity, efficient movement is believed bymovement therapists to be crucial for human health. And since movement thera-pists see the human being as an integrated combination of physical, mental, andemotional aspects, all body movement is seen as related to the emotional life of themover.

Inefficient and painful movement patterns are seen as creative coping mechanismsthat our body and mind develop to deal with traumatic experiences or chronically stress-ful physical or emotional situations. Learning to move painlessly or more freely andexpressively is often an “unlearning” process by which our individual, intuitive copingstrategies can be relinquished in favor of patterns that work more harmoniously with nat-ural forces such as gravity and with the physical realities of our bodies.

The first step in this educational process is to become aware of habitual movementpatterns that are restrictive and counterproductive. Some of these may be very deepand subtle such as holding our breath when we want to exert our strength. Since oxy-gen is essential to the functioning of our muscles, holding our breath will only frus-trate our efforts. Most methods use some form of touch to help develop awareness ofcounterproductive patterns. Many employ forms of manipulation that have grownout of specific bodywork, or massage practices.

The second stage in the movement therapy education process is described byISMTEA as “gaining increased awareness and control over basic psycho-physiologicalprocesses which can begin to correct restrictive habit patterns and can lead towardoptimal body-mind performance.” For instance, as you continue to explore your abil-ity to exert force in a powerful tennis serve, for example, you may become aware of aburied psychological reason that causes you to hold your breath and prevents youfrom releasing all your power into the serve.

While all the methods described in this section of the encyclopedia believe thathuman beings have all the internal self-healing mechanisms they need to develop the

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increased awareness of the second stage of the movement therapy education process,different methods will approach this stage of movement education in different ways.Some methods, like sensory awareness, believe that solely developing consciousnessof your physical sensations without taking any subsequent action will stimulate theself-correcting mechanisms. Most methods, however, teach that a conscious controlover movement patterns is necessary to achieve a complete change and healing. Inmost methods it is believed that this conscious control will eventually function on anunconscious level. This occurs through a repatterning of the messages your brainsends to your muscles via your nervous system.

The third level of learning in the movement therapy model is to be able to expressthese new movement patterns in all your daily activities. To help you do this, move-ment therapists might recommend certain exercises that you practice at home. Theymight help you find visual images that will help you perform particular movementsmore efficiently. They may help you evaluate lifestyle practices such as the kind ofshoes you wear, or the arrangement of your study area, which could also be negative-ly affecting your performance.

Finally it is the goal of all movement therapists to help you learn to be self-reliantso that you can continue developing without their help. Mastering the three preced-ing levels of learning can help you develop new physical and mental awareness, alongwith newly ingrained neuromuscular reflex patterns that allow you greater freedom,ease, and pleasure living in your moving body.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

Resources:

International Somatic Movement Education and

Therapy Association

148 W. 23rd Street, #1H

New York, NY 10011

Tel: (212) 229-7666

The Somatics Society

1516 Grant Avenue, Suite 212

Novato, CA 94945

Tel: (415) 892-0617

Fax: (415) 892-4388

Organization offering seminars and information

for all movement therapy educators. Publishes the

biannual magazine-journal Somatics.

Further Reading:

Claire, Thomas. Bodywork: What Type of Massage

to Get—And How to Make the Most of It. New

York: William Morrow, 1995.

Knaster, Mirka. Discovering the Body’s Wisdom.

New York: Bantam Books, 1996.

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ALEXANDER TECHNIQUE

The Alexander technique is a methodused to help people illuminate theirunconscious patterns of body ten-

sion and correct habits that cause physi-cal and emotional problems. It is used toallow a person to pattern his or her body’smovement, inhibiting habits that causetension or pain and replacing them withthose that help his or her body to functionmore efficiently. Teachers of the Alexan-der technique believe that people cangain greater control over the way they usetheir bodies once these habitual move-ments are brought to consciousness. Anindividual may then apply new andhealthier ways of using his or her body toimprove the performance of activities inhis or her life. For almost a century thistechnique has been used to help peoplefind relief from many chronic painfulconditions and to help performing artistsand athletes expand their potential.

The History of the Alexander TechniqueThe Alexander technique was developedby Frederick Matthias Alexander(1869–1955), an Australian actor whoexperienced a recurring loss of his voice.Through ten years of self-observationand experimentation with the aid of athree-way mirror, he observed that themanner in which he was breathing andholding his head was the source of hisdifficulties. He was able to correct hisvoice problems by altering his posture,muscular reaction patterns, and behav-ior. In addition, he observed that thesechanges improved his physical health,emotional outlook, and the balancethroughout his body. Pursuing hisfindings further, Alexander began tostudy the way the body functioned dur-ing various activities, looking for signs ofmisalignment or misuse of his own mus-cular-skeletal system. He discerned thatmental and physical habits, acquiredearly in life, often control one’s everydaymovements. Over time, Alexander devel-oped a technique for breaking inefficient

and counterproductive habits andreplacing them with conscious, con-structive control. Throughout the rest ofhis life, Alexander taught his technique inEngland. Today there are more than 3,000certified Alexander teachers worldwide,teaching privately or in schools, institu-tions, and corporations.

The Theory of the Alexander TechniqueAlexander believed that the alignment ofthe head, neck, and spine was the mostimportant relationship within the body,affecting the functioning of the entirebody and mind. He called the relation-ship of head to neck the “primary con-trol” and found it to be the integratingforce for all movement. Alexanderbelieved that from an early age constantstress and accommodation to both phys-ical and emotional environments causedpeople to distrust the natural alignmentand integration of the head and neck.According to Alexander’s theories, by thetime a person is fully grown he or sheestablishes patterns of postural andmuscular-skeletal distortion that givehim or her uniquely identifiable move-ment characteristics, but also contributegreatly to his or her individual physicaland emotional problems.

Through his extensive self-examina-tion process, Alexander found that prop-er positioning of the head creates areflexive lengthening of the spine, whichstimulates a gentle upward release,relieving forces of compression through-out the entire body. Compression can beresponsible for tight muscles, poorbreathing, tightness or constrictionaround the joints, and for poorcommunication throughout the nervoussystem. Because the nervous system,which consists of the brain, the spinalcord, and the nerves, is the communica-tion system for the whole self, poor com-munication can lead to disordersincluding headaches, backaches, stom-achaches, and even low self-esteem.

Alexander believed that all peoplecould develop conscious awareness oftheir distorted muscular-skeletal patterns.

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The Alexander technique focuses on the relationship of the head to the spine.

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A session in the Alexander technique generally lasts from thirty minutes to an hour. Aseries of twenty to thirty sessions, conducted once or twice a week, is typically recom-mended. People who have a poorly developed kinesthetic sense, or sense of movement,may take a longer time to become aware of their body movement.

By developing that awareness, peoplecould learn to resist or inhibit old, restric-tive, or dysfunctional patterns and there-by allow the body to function anddevelop effectively and effortlessly.

The Alexander Technique in PracticeExperts in the Alexander technique arecalled teachers, since the process oftherapy is considered a reeducation ofthe body. A teacher seeks to equip stu-dents with the skills to recognize andmodify movement patterns used inbasic activities. During a session thestudent is led through a sequence ofsimple exercises such as sitting, walk-ing, bending, or even crawling to helphim or her become aware of the body’smovement. The student receives bothverbal and hands-on instruction. Ateacher may use touch to place a stu-dent’s body in proper alignment. At thesame time, a teacher may verbally rein-force a student and direct him or hertoward better posture and movement.These activities are gentle and painless.The teacher’s goal is to familiarize a stu-dent with proper body alignment andpatterns of motion, allowing him or herto use the lessons independently. Thespecific exercises that a person experi-ences in a session will be designedaccording to the activities that he or shewants to improve. For example, ath-letes, actors, singers, or musicians willwant to focus on motions and parts ofthe body that are used in each activity.The emphasis throughout is on self-awareness and improved control.

The Benefits of the Alexander TechniqueThe result of Alexander lessons is oftena sense of greater lightness, vitality, and

well-being. Participants commonlyreport greater ease of motion, greaterflexibility, and relief of pain. The tech-nique is frequently used by people withchronic neck and spinal injuries anddisorders, including scoliosis. Athletes,dancers, and other performing artistshave found that it enhances physicalfunctioning and creativity.

—Diane Young

Resources:

The American Center for the Alexander Tech-

nique, Inc.

129 West 67th Street

New York, NY 10023

Tel: (212) 799-0468

The oldest Alexander technique training center in

the United States.

North American Society of Teachers of the

Alexander Technique (NASTAT)

3010 Hennepin Avenue South, Suite 10

Minneapolis, MN 55408

Tel: (800) 473-0620

Fax: (612) 822-7224

e-mail: nastat@ix.netcom.com

Offers information on practitioners, training pro-

grams, reading lists, and other materials.

Further Reading:

Alexander, F. M. Constructive Conscious Control of

the Individual. 1923. Reprint. Long Beach, CA:

Centerline Press, 1985.

—–. The Alexander Technique: The Essential Writ-

ings of F. Matthias Alexander, ed. Edward

Maisel. New York: Lyle Stuart, 1990.

Aston-Patterning®

Barlow, Wilfred. The Alexander Technique: How to

Use Your Body Without Stress. Rochester, VT:

Healing Arts Press, 1990.

Caplan, Deborah. Back Trouble: A New Approach

to Prevention and Recovery. Gainesville, FL:

Triad Publishing. 1987.

Gray, John. Your Guide to the Alexander

Technique. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990.

ASTON-PATTERNING®

A ston-Patterning® (A-P) is an edu-cational system developed byJudith Aston based on more than

thirty years of teaching and life experi-ence. The Aston process combinesbodywork, movement education,fitness, and ergonomics. Ergonomics isa method of arranging living and workareas so that they are used mostefficiently and safely. A-P may be usedas a rehabilitative process for thoseseeking relief from acute or chronicpain, and it is also used to assist peoplewho wish to improve posture, athleticperformance, or overall efficiency indaily living activities.

The Theory of Aston-Patterning®

Aston-Patterning practitioners look at thealignment of your body, the ways that youmove, and areas of tension and discom-fort in your movements. They believe thateveryday activities—at work, school, andhome—athletics, injuries, and emotionalhistory all work together to develop pat-terns of movement in your body. Some ofthese patterns are easy on the body andsome are not. They may be caused byreactions to injuries, by physical reac-tions to emotional distress, or by physicalenvironments that are improperlydesigned. By understanding individualpatterns, A-P practitioners provide ses-sions that are highly individualized andproduce positive changes in posture andmovement habits that are long-lasting.

Traditionally, medical understandingof body alignment has been based on alinear model. Lines are drawn up anddown or side to side to define alignment.Movement is traditionally perceived assymmetrical—that is, balanced equallyon each side. In contrast, Aston models ofthe body have volume—they are three-dimensional. When looking at alignmentand movement, consideration is given tothe unique length, width, and depth ofeach body. Aston concepts also considerthe body’s internal structure, which isnaturally asymmetrical. It has the hearton the left, the liver on the right, andalthough there are paired organs (i.e.,lungs), each has its own shape and size.Therefore, A-P practitioners believe thatsince we are naturally asymmetrical,movement needs to be slightly asymmet-rical in response to this internal design.A-P practitioners use this information tohelp individuals find their body’s naturalalignment and to recommend efficient,tension-free ways to move.

What Happens in an Aston-Patterning® Session?Aston-Patterning sessions are cus-tomized to individuals’ interests, takinginto account their own unique patternscreated by their histories. This methodrequires that each client take an activerole in his or her process of change.Throughout a session, one wears com-fortable clothing and may be asked toperform a variety of movements—sit-ting, standing, or lying down—as the A-Ppractitioner assesses his or her three-dimensional body shape, movement,and muscular tensions. This informationis used to design a program of therapy torelease the muscular tension and reedu-cate the body for a new, efficient move-ment pattern. These new patterns arepracticed, and once learned, are appliedto the person’s goals and interests.

Each well-rounded session includes ablend of pain-free bodywork, movementcoaching, fitness training, and ergonom-ics. Massage tables, padded stools, andlotions are used for releasing patterns of

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Through touch, Judith Aston teaches the bodywork techniques used in Aston-Patterning.

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muscle tension. Stools, stretch cords,toning platforms, and exercise andergonomic equipment are used to helpclients be more aware of where theirbody is in space. This equipment is alsoused to improve alignment and bodymechanics and increase overall fitness.Mirrors and skeleton models play a partin the visual education and explanationduring a client session. Special foamwedges (designed by Aston) help clients

modify their environment (car seatbacks, office chairs, etc.) to support thenew, more efficient alignment.

Private A-P sessions are normallyone and a half to two hours long.Though sessions are most effectivewhen offered as a series, they may alsobe beneficial on a one-time basis. Grouplessons or clinics are also available,offered for a wide variety of applicationsfrom athletics to daily activities.

Aston-Patterning®

How Aston-Patterning® DevelopedAston-Patterning is named after itsfounder, Judith Aston. She earned a bach-elor’s degree in fine arts at UCLA, with aspecialization in dance therapy. She com-pleted her master’s degree at UCLA in1965, with emphasis in theater, psycholo-gy, and dance. During this time Astonalso earned a lifetime teaching credentialin secondary education. Her teachingsfocused on the relationship betweendance movement and the movementsencountered in everyday life.

Aston believed that “there must be abetter way” to teach movement. On oneoccasion Aston had a student, a trackathlete, who had reluctantly enrolled inher ballroom dancing course to meetcollege requirements. Though theyoung man was consistently able topost record times on the track, he hadtwo left feet on the dance floor. Whentraditional teaching methods failed,Aston tried a very different approach.She took the student out to the track,where she carefully observed his run-ning style and his movement patterns.Aston asked him to sprint, then jog—also requesting that he run forward,then backward, and to run left, thenright. She used her creative skills tointegrate the young man’s individualrunning patterns into dance patterns.Before long, they were dancing the fox-trot right on the running track. This andsimilar success stories led Judith Astonto focus on the “how-tos” of teaching.By understanding that “what you teach”is not as important as “how you teachit,” Aston realized incredible results.

In 1966 Aston was in a car accidentthat caused severe whiplash andsignificant tissue injuries to her neckand back. Another accident the follow-ing year made her condition worse.Doctors recommended that she under-go surgery but Aston looked for analternative solution. One doctor sug-gested Aston get in touch with Dr. IdaRolf, who was at the Esalen Institute inBig Sur, California. Rolf, founder of theRolfing system, was a respected expert

in the field of soft-tissue mobilization.Rolf was interested in Aston’s educationbackground, and at Rolf ’s request,Aston developed the first movementeducation system to be used at the RolfInstitute.

In the late 1960s, Aston expandedher knowledge of movement therapy bycompleting massage training andRolfing studies. As she continued topractice her own theories, she began tomove away from traditional Rolfingprinciples, especially in regard to herperception of the body and movementas asymmetrical rather than symmetri-cal. By 1977, Judith Aston had devel-oped her own basic classes inmovement and bodywork and trade-marked the title “Aston-Patterning.”

The Benefits of Aston-Patterning®

Aston-Patterning can help individualsuse their bodies more efficiently andbecome aware of stressful movementsthat can be harmful to the body.Because it focuses on relearning how touse the body more efficiently, it is usedas a rehabilitative therapy for thoseseeking relief from acute or chronicpain. It is also used to assist people whowish to improve posture, athletic per-formance, or overall efficiency of move-ment in activities of daily living. Manypeople who have been through Aston-Patterning have reported that sessionshelp them to “better understand theirown bodies.” As a result, these peopleseem to enjoy long-lasting benefits.

—Allison Funk,Certified Aston-Patterning Practitioner

Resources:

The Aston Training Center (ATC)

P.O. Box 3568

Incline Village, NV 89450-3568

Tel: (702) 831-8228

Fax: (702) 831-8955

Provides printed material and course descriptions

upon request. Courses include two- to five-day

options. A twenty-one-week practitioner training is

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offered every two years. Also offers information

about A-P practitioners or classes in specific areas

of the country.

Further Reading:

Aston, Judith. “Your Ideal Body.” Physical Therapy

Today, Summer 1991, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 30, 32,

34, 36.

Aston, Judith, and Jeff Low.“Your Three-Dimen-

sional Body: The Aston System of Body Usage,

Movement, and Fitness.” Physical Therapy

Today, Fall 1993, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 50–59.

Brody, Liz. “Axling: A New Spin on Fitness.” Shape,

April 1993, Vol. 12, No. 8, pp. 80–84.

Calvert, Robert. “Exclusive Interview with Judith

Aston, Developer of Aston-Patterning Body-

work.” Massage. Issue 16, October-November,

1988, pp. 12–13, 15, 17–19.

Cook, Jennifer. “Body Ease.” Self. December 1985,

p. 146.

Low, Jeffrey. “The Modern Body Therapies.” Mas-

sage , Issue 16, October-November, 1988, pp.

48–50, 52, 54–55.

Richardson, Nancy, R.P.T. “Aston-Patterning,”

Physical Therapy Forum, October 28, 1987, Vol.

VI, No. 43, pp. 1, 3.

Servid, Laura. “Aston-Patterning: Accessing the

Power of the Ground.” P.T. and O.T. Today, July

21, 1997, pp. 18–22.

Woods, Jenna. “Forces of Nature in the Aston Para-

digm: Key Concepts of Aston-Patterning.” Mas-

sage and Bodywork , Spring 1997, pp. 123–25.

——. “A Patterns Tale: Moving into Aston-Pattern-

ing.” Massage and Bodywork , Fall, 1996, pp.

95–97.

BARTENIEFF FUNDAMENTALSSM

Bartenieff FundamentalsSM are a setof movements that reinforceefficient communication between

the mind and body as the body moves.The Fundamentals were developed byIrmgard Bartenieff, a German dancer,choreographer, and physical therapist.A person trained in Bartenieff Funda-mentals is able to observe an individ-ual’s movement style and diagnosewhat makes that individual struggle or succeed with certain movements.Fundamentals are used by people whoare recovering from injuries or copingwith physical limitations caused by ill-ness. Athletes, dancers, and peopleinvolved in fitness training use the Fun-damentals to improve their coordina-tion and overall performance.

The History of Bartenieff FundamentalsSM

Bartenieff (1900–1981) studied biology,art, and dance before beginning herdiploma studies in Berlin with RudolfLaban in 1925. Laban was a Hungarianmovement theorist, choreographer, andteacher responsible for introducing sev-eral influential theories about thenature of movement. Laban created asystem to observe, record, and analyzeall types of movement including dance,the martial arts, and everyday actions.Bartenieff emigrated to America in 1936and began applying her knowledge ofhuman movement to help the ill andthe injured. She studied physical thera-py at New York University and beganworking in that field. She also exploredthe therapeutic possibilities of dance,helping to found the field of dance ther-apy.

Bartenieff is known for the innova-tions in physical therapy she developedin the 1940s and 1950s while sheworked as chief physical therapist forthe Polio Service of New York City atWillard Parker Hospital and later at an orthopedic hospital for children. Anepidemic of polio had swept America,crippling many children and adults. Tohelp these physically challenged indi-viduals, Bartenieff drew from herknowledge of physical therapy andwhat she had learned from Laban aboutthe dynamics of movement and how the

Bartenieff FundamentalsSM

mover can interact with the full circum-ference of space that surrounds him.She developed the Fundamentals tohelp polio patients regain their fullrange of movement. In traditional phys-ical therapy, the therapist manipulatesthe limbs of a patient who remains, forthe most part, passive. Bartenieff insist-ed that her patients take an active rolementally, physically, and emotionally inthe movement sequences she designedto increase their mobility. Her methodswere successful, and her patients pro-gressed more rapidly than those treatedby traditional physical therapy.

Bartenieff first called her method“Correctives,” a term doctors used todescribe orthopedic exercises for cor-recting posture and the alignment of thespine. But the movement sequencesBartenieff perfected were more thanisolated exercises. She renamed themBartenieff Fundamentals because shesaw them as the building blocks of allhuman movement. She referred to the movements as “sequences” rather than “exercises” because she wanted toemphasize that a mover should alwaysbe thinking about each movement andits connection to the next; never shoulda mover simply count the number ofrepetitions. Doing the Fundamentalsproperly, she believed, helps the moverrestore efficient neuromuscular path-ways, the communication channelsbetween muscle, nerve, bone andbreath within the body.

To promote her method and the the-ories of Laban, Bartenieff founded theLaban Institute of Movement Studies inNew York City. Since the 1960s, Barteni-eff and other Laban movement analysts,who are the only certified BartenieffFundamentals practitioners, havehelped athletes, actors, dancers, musi-cians, children, and adults. Some usethe Fundamentals to recover frominjuries, others to improve or polishtheir performance in a sport or special-ized movement skill. Today there aremore than 800 certified Laban move-ment analysts (CMAs) practicingthroughout the world.

The Theory of Bartenieff FundamentalsSM

Like Laban, Bartenieff approachedmovement as requiring a person’s com-mitment on a physical, an emotional,and a mental level. Through his observa-tion of people engaged in such variedactivities as t’ai chi ch’üan, folk dancing,and factory assembly line work, Labandeveloped a system for analyzing move-ment known as Laban movement analy-sis (LMA). Laban’s system breaksmovement into four primary compo-nents: body, space, effort (dynamics),and shape. Although Bartenieff Funda-mentals promote awareness of all fourcomponents, the Fundamentals primar-ily emphasize the body.

The Fundamentals are developmen-tally based; that is, they mirror thestages of development of the brain andmotor skills that babies and toddlersprogress through on their way to mas-tering mature movement patterns.Practicing the Fundamentals strength-ens the body’s internal support for botheveryday and highly skilled movement.The Fundamentals require the use ofdeep muscles, close to the core of thebody, and the use of breath support toincrease the power and flow of move-ment. They also require a clear spatialintent: an understanding of wheremovement initiates in the body andhow it sequences through the bodyfrom one part to another. PracticingBartenieff Fundamentals helps a moverunderstand how to initiate and com-plete a movement efficiently.

By watching a mover perform theFundamentals, a CMA can identifywhich body parts do or do not functiontogether smoothly and where move-ment does or does not flow in the body.Astute observation skills allow a CMA totailor movement sequences specificallyfor an individual who wants to addressproblem areas and meet goals forimprovement.

Experiencing Bartenieff FundamentalsSM

Fundamentals are taught in groups orin one-on-one sessions that usually

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take place in a studio with a woodenfloor. Participants should wear clothingthat allows freedom of movement. TheFundamentals are usually done lyingon the floor. There the individual moreeasily becomes aware of the body’sparts, the center of weight, and how itrelates to the initiation of action. With-out the struggle against gravity or inter-action with the environment or otherpeople, the individual can focus men-tally on what is going on in the body. Inaddition to demonstrating the move-ment sequences clearly, CMAs oftenuse imagery to help students under-stand movement qualities or to sensemore readily how the movementshould flow through the body. Using ahands-on technique, CMAs also guidestudents in performing the movementsequences correctly, drawing attentionto where in the body the movementbegins.

Although there are many variationsof Bartenieff Fundamentals, the mostcommonly known are “the basic six.”They are thigh lift (hip flexion), pelvicforward shift, pelvic lateral shift, verti-cal body half, knee drop, and arm circle.All practitioners use these six sequencesto analyze movement. They also devel-op variations based on the principles ofBartenieff Fundamentals to addressspecific problems. Because the Funda-mentals provide the foundation for somany other actions, they look simple.However, once people begin to studythem, they find that moving from thecore of the body without excess tensionis not easy. Most people tend to moveinefficiently. Often they don’t noticetheir inefficient habit until a teacher, acoach, or an injury brings it to theirattention.

BenefitsStudying Bartenieff Fundamentals helpsan individual learn to move more easilyand more expressively. Athletes frommany sports have improved their per-formance and reduced the risk of injuryafter incorporating Bartenieff Funda-mentals into their training. Dancers,

actors, and musicians have found thatpractice of the Fundamentals bringsgreater clarity and expression to theirperformances. People rehabilitatingfrom injuries and other conditions thatlimit mobility have used the Funda-mentals to regain functional andexpressive movements. Others practicethe Fundamentals simply for the joythey experience from moving morefluidly and with greater ease.

—Janet Hamburg, CMA

Resources:

Laban/Bartenieff Institute of Movement Studies

234 Fifth Avenue

New York, NY 10001

Tel: (212) 477-4299

Offers classes in Bartenieff Fundamentals and

certification programs in Laban movement analysis.

Further Reading:

Bartenieff, Irmgard, and Dori Lewis. Body Move-

ment: Coping with the Environment. New York:

Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Inc.,

1980.

Laban, Rudolf. The Mastery of Movement. Rev.

and enlarged by Lisa Ullman. Boston: Plays,

Inc., 1971.

——. The Language of Movement: A Guidebook to

Choreutics. Lisa Ullman, ed. Boston: Plays, Inc.,

1974.

BODY-MIND CENTERING®

Body-Mind Centering® is a thera-peutic and educational systemcombining movement, vocal, per-

ceptual, and hands-on work with thestudy of life’s physiological, psychologi-cal, and developmental processes.

Body-Mind Centering®

Body-Mind Centering can help one tobalance one’s inner and outer experi-ence in the context of one’s environ-ment. While the work itself does notdirectly treat symptoms, by creatingnew options for listening and respond-ing to one’s own body and the externalenvironment, Body-Mind Centeringpromotes self-healing and enhancesone’s quality of life.

The Founding of Body-Mind Centering®

Body-Mind Centering was developedduring the 1960s by American BonnieBainbridge Cohen, who studied occupa-tional therapy at Ohio State University.She continued her studies in England,where she was certified as a neurodevel-opmental therapist. She was alsocertified as a Laban movement analystand as a Kestenberg movement profiler.Bainbridge Cohen’s professional back-ground and her interests in dance, mar-tial arts, and yoga are reflected in herwork, which combines Eastern andWestern approaches to relating mindand body. By the late 1960s her work hadbegun to influence the fields of danceand body and movement therapies. In1973 she founded the School for Body-Mind Centering to train and certify prac-titioners and teachers.

Integration of Mind and BodyBainbridge Cohen has compared therelationship of mind and body to windblowing sand. She said, “The mind islike the wind and the body is like thesand. If you want to know how the windis blowing, look at the sand.” (Bain-bridge Cohen, Program Guide for Body-Mind Centering Certification Program,1994). This kind of interrelationship is at the heart of Body-Mind Centering.Relationship is a key and multilayeredprinciple in this work, where the mindand body are engaged in a dynamic,interactive process that shapes thedevelopment of the organism. Funda-mental to this process is the interactionbetween the systems of the body andone’s movement development.

Body-Mind Centering identifiesseven body systems (skeletal, ligamen-tous, muscular, organ, endocrine,fluids, and nervous), each contributingindependently to the expression of thebody-mind, and at the same time bal-ancing and interacting with all the othersystems, creating a unique expressivequality for each individual.

Although a Body-Mind Centeringapproach to study of the systems of thebody may entail lessons in anatomythrough pictures, models, and move-ment, it does not view the body as anobject to be brought under the controlof the intellect. This approach is basedon the premise that the body has a wis-dom of its own, and Body-Mind Cen-tering seeks to mobilize and supportthis wisdom. This inner knowing ismanifested in both a new awareness ofthe body-mind and a greater vitality andcoherence among its various parts. Theresonance of the voice, for example, isused to reach down into the torso toarouse the visceral organs and to pro-mote integration of the inner and outerstructures of the body—a key for gain-ing awareness of and healing the body.

The bones of the skeletal system arestudied by means of illustrations andmodels and by tracing, or palpating,their forms through the skin with thehands. The learning process in Body-Mind Centering interweaves abstractand sensory knowledge of the body’sstructure, moving toward the goal ofenhancing the body’s functioning andrange of expression.

Body-Mind Centering considersmovement the expression of “innerlearning” accumulated since infancy, asbasic skills (such as breathing, nursing,rolling, crawling, and walking) areacquired and the structure of the organ-ism takes form. How a person moves oreven holds his or her body is a reflectionof a process of personal evolution. Fur-ther, Body-Mind Centering assumes thateach stage in human growth underliesand supports the next and must be fullyrealized if the individual is to achieve thebalance and ease needed to withstand

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Bonnie Bainbridge Cohen, founder of Body-Mind Centering.

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stress and interact with the world in sat-isfying ways. Conversely, skipped orunintegrated patterns can lead to align-ment/movement problems, systemsimbalance, and problems in perception,organization, memory, and creativity.

Body-Mind Centering developmentalmovement sessions can help infants, chil-dren, or adults identify developmentalgaps and facilitate the learning of anyabsent patterns, allowing them to realizenew potential. These “repatterning”sequences involve exploring the anatomi-cal and psychological ramifications ofbasic movements, such as breathing,pushing the hands against a surface, orreaching out for what one desires.

A Class in Body-Mind Centering®

Group classes or private sessions inBody-Mind Centering are directedtoward the individual’s self-discovery andtransformation. They may be organized

around the specific concerns and goals ofthe participants, or they may presentprinciples of the work for exploration. Atypical class may involve movement orhands-on bodywork to heighten the stu-dent’s awareness of a specific system orarea of his or her body.

The class may also include “repat-terning” exercises, study of anatomicalillustrations and models, and experien-tial explorations to increase sensoryawareness and integrate that awarenesswith one’s intention and action. Thenumber and frequency of private ses-sions are determined by the client inconsultation with the practitioner. Thework is designed to supply insights andskills that can be incorporated intodaily experiences.

The Benefits of Body-Mind Centering®

By creating new options for how onesenses, feels, and acts in the world,

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Body-Mind Centering® strives to give the individual access to the totality of his or herdevelopment by enabling him or her to explore the body’s structure through movement,sensory awareness, and imagery. First the cells, next the systems of the body, then move-ment and action in the world are examined as elements in a progressive formation ofself. Participation in this review enables the individual to bring consciousness to bear onstrengthening and focusing his or her own body-mind interaction.

Body-Mind Centering can help individu-als change limiting patterns or attitudes.It can be used to address problems suchas headaches, chronic pain, sportsinjuries, hypertension, eating disorders,and perceptual and learning difficulties. Itcan also be used as a means to improvingflexibility, coordination, creative expres-sion, communication, and sense of self-identity and well-being.

—Vera Orlock

Resources:

The Body-Mind Centering® Association

16 Center St., Suite 530

Northampton, MA 01060

Tel: (413) 582-3617

Organization that promotes the study and use of

Body-Mind Centering.

Videotapes:

Bainbridge Cohen, Bonnie (1996). “Experiential

Anatomy in the Training of Young Dancers.”

(Set of two videos on the foot and the pelvis

with an accompanying text. Available from

SBMC, 189 Pondview Dr., Amherst, MA, 01002.)

Stokes, Beverly. (1995). “Amazing Babies: Moving

in the First Year.” (Available from Beverly

Stokes, 418 St. Claire Ave., E. Toronto, ON,

Canada M47 1P5.)

Further Reading:

Bainbridge Cohen, B. Sensing, Feeling and Action:

The Experiential Anatomy of Body-Mind

Centering.® Northampton, MA: Contact Edi-

tions, 1993.

Grossinger, Richard. Planet Medicine. (2 Vols.).

Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1995.

Hartley, Linda. The Wisdom of the Body Moving:

An Introduction to BodyMind Centering®. Barry-

town, NY: Station Hill Press, 1993.

Johnson, Don Hanlon. Body, Spirit and Democra-

cy. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1993.

——. Bone, Breath and Gesture: Practices of

Embodiment. D. H. Jonson, ed. Berkeley, CA:

North Atlantic Books, 1995.

——. Groundworks: Narratives of Embodiment. D.

H. Jonson, ed. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic

Books, 1997.

Olsen, Andrea, in collaboration with Caryn McHose.

Body Stories: A Guide to Experiential Anatomy.

Barrytown, NY: Station Hill Press, 1991.

FELDENKRAIS METHOD®

The Feldenkrais Method® is an approach for improving bothphysical and mental functioning

through the exploration of body move-ment patterns and the use of attention.It is based on the brain’s innate capaci-ty for learning and the potential forlifelong development and growth.Movement is used as the mediumtoward understanding our habits and

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identifying, learning, and acquiringalternatives that promote ease andwell-being. The applications of theFeldenkrais Method range from reduc-ing pain, improving neurologicallybased difficulties and learning disabili-ties, and increasing mobility to enhanc-ing performance of professionalathletes, dancers, musicians, andactors. People who come to doFeldenkrais are referred to as students,rather than patients, because learningunderlies the basis of the method.

Origins and Development of theFeldenkrais Method®

The Feldenkrais Method was developedby Dr. Moshe Feldenkrais. Born in Rus-sia, Feldenkrais emigrated to Israel atthe age of thirteen. After receivingdegrees in mechanical and electricalengineering, he earned his D.Sc. inphysics at the Sorbonne in Paris. Hesubsequently worked for a number ofyears in the French nuclear researchprogram. Physically active, Feldenkraisplayed soccer and practiced the martialarts. He studied with Kano Jigoro, theoriginator of judo, and in 1936 becameone of the first Europeans to earn ablack belt in that discipline. A chronicknee injury prompted him to apply hisknowledge of physics, body mechanics,neurology, learning theory, and psy-chology to the body and mind. Hisinvestigations resulted in the formula-tion of a unique synthesis of scienceand aesthetics, known as theFeldenkrais Method.

The Process of MovementA lesson could begin with a practitionersaying, “As you’re sitting, what are youaware of about your sitting? Perhaps it’syour back against the chair, or your feeton the floor, or your buttocks on theseat. Now bring your attention to whatthe back of your neck is doing; to whatyour chest is doing; to what your shinsare doing.”

A student’s reply might be, “It isdoing this.” Yet most often, it is “I have

no idea what those parts are doing.”This answer indicates that we give littleor no attention to certain parts of our-selves or we tend to notice the sameparts habitually. The fact is our wholeself is involved in everything we do, butwe sense only certain parts of ourselvesin our actions and it generally tends tobe the same parts. Through a morecomplete self-image in our actions anda more even distribution of effort andforce throughout our whole self, anoverall enhancement of movement,action, and thought results.

The practitioner might continue,“While seated, without changing theplacement of your feet, notice where youhave placed your feet. Slowly come tostanding. (You may find that it is impos-sible to get up without changing whereyour feet are placed.) Sit again, moveyour feet an inch closer together andcome to standing. Move your feet back towhere you started and then move theman inch further apart and come to stand-ing. Can you observe that a differentplacement of your feet influences yourability to come to standing? You maynotice the effects of this in your breath-ing, your jaw, your neck, your balance, orin the amount of effort required in eachaction. Slowly get up to standing as youlook down. As you slowly get up, look up.Then get up looking right. Next get uplooking left. Can you sense that the dif-ferent placement of your eyes affects howyou come to standing?” This processwould continue with more variations inorder to help the student clarify, inform,and understand how one goes from sit-ting to standing.

The foundation of this kind of explo-ration is not the kind of learning basedsolely on information; rather it involveslearning that can lead to a change inaction, a change in thinking and feeling.The introduction of new variations awak-ens curiosity and teaches adaptation forcontinually altering circumstances.Rather than attempting to learn the “rightway” of doing something, or “correcting”or “fixing,” a student can explore choic-es, options, and different ways of using

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Alan Questel guides a client in a Functional Integration® exercise.

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himself. Thus, he can act more effectivelyand efficiently depending on the contextand the intention in that moment.

The Feldenkrais Method utilizesattention in a learning environmentthat is safe, easy, and geared toward anappropriate degree of challenge. In thiscontext, he can discover and shifthabitual patterns that interfere withfunctioning. He becomes his own labo-ratory for developing understandingand awareness of his daily actions.

The Two Modalities of theFeldenkrais Method®

There are two main modalities of learn-ing in the Feldenkrais Method: Aware-ness Through Movement® andFunctional Integration®. AwarenessThrough Movement lessons are groupsessions. Participants are verbally ledthrough a series of structured movementsequences that utilize attention, percep-tion, and imagination. Designed to

evoke a more synergistic use of oneself,the lessons establish new patterns ofmovement. As the lessons progress, par-ticipants become more aware of theirmovement habits, affording new pat-terns of behavior. There are more than athousand different lessons with move-ments ranging from developmentallybased patterns to innovative configura-tions. The movements are usually donelying down or sitting, and in a mannerthat recognizes each participant’s ownpace and range of motion. Comfort, ease,and the quality of movement are themain criteria used as one is developingmore inner authority.

The other modality, Functional Inte-gration, is a one-to-one, hands-on inter-action specifically designed to meet theneeds of an individual. Practitioners,primarily through the use of their hands,guide students to a new and more varieduse of themselves. The quality of touchis noninvasive, informative, and interac-tive in nature. Students usually lie or sit

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Each individual, Feldenkrais believed, possesses an inner body wisdom that whenallowed will choose the most comfortable and efficient movement patterns for itself. Asthe individual develops greater awareness of movement patterns and feels the ease andcomfort of new choices, a stronger self-image is formed, which directs new, healthymodes of thinking, feeling, and acting.

and are comfortably dressed. As withAwareness Through Movement grouplessons, these individualized sessionsuse movement as the means to promotechanges in patterns of thinking, sens-ing, feeling, and interacting with others.

Benefits of the Feldenkrais Method®

The Feldenkrais Method aims to improvephysical and mental functioning. It isapplicable to anyone wanting to enhancethe quality of his or her everyday life andactivities. People from many differentwalks of life do Feldenkrais. They reportresults of increased vitality, enhance-ment of self-image, better breathing andposture, greater flexibility and range ofmotion, and reduction of pain. By bring-ing attention to the process of move-ment, students usually feel lighter andmore graceful, and have greater ease andeffectiveness in turning their intentionsinto actions.

—Alan S. Questel

Resources:

The Feldenkrais Guild of North America

P.O. Box 489

Albany, OR 97321

Tel: (800) 775-2118

Fax: (503) 926-0572

e-mail: fldgld@aol.com

Offers information regarding practitioners in your

area, training programs, and other services.

Feldenkrais Resources

830 Bancroft Way, Suite 112

Berkeley, CA 94710

Tel: (800) 765-1907

Fax: (510) 540-7683

e-mail: feldenres@aol.com

Provides information regarding books, tapes, and

materials related to the Feldenkrais Method.

Feldenkrais Recordings

467 Cahill Lane

Santa Rosa, CA 95401

Tel: (800) 722-7349 or (707) 577-8282

Another source of tapes.

Further Reading:

Feldenkrais, Moshe. Body and Mature Behavior: A

Study of Anxiety, Sex, Gravitation , and Learning.

Capitola, CA: International Universe Press, 1970.

——. Elusive Obvious. Capitola, CA: META Publi-

cations, 1985.

——. The Master Moves. Capitola, CA: META Pub-

lications, 1985.

——. Awareness Through Movement: Easy-to-Do

Health Exercises to Improve Your Posture,

Vision, Imagination, and Personal Awareness.

San Francisco: Harper, 1991.

——.The Potent Self: A Guide to Spontaneity. San

Francisco: Harper, 1992.

HANNA SOMATICEDUCATION®

Hanna Somatic Education® is a method in which people learn howto relax chronically tensed muscles

and to regain control of various muscle

Hanna Somatic Education®

groups and movement patterns. It seeksto change the body by working with aperson’s “soma,” or internal first-personview of him- or herself. A soma includes aperson’s internal feelings, movements,and intentions. Hanna Somatic Educa-tion seeks to bring all these internalaspects to conscious awareness andcombine them with scientific knowledgeof how muscles work, thereby helpingpatients to reeducate their bodies tomove freely and without pain.

The History of Hanna SomaticEducation®

Hanna Somatic Education (HSE), alsocalled Hanna Somatics, was developedby Thomas Hanna. A philosopher andformer chair of the Philosophy Depart-ment at the University of Florida,Hanna wrote about the philosophy ofthe body in his book Bodies in Revolt: APrimer in Somatic Thinking. Hanna firstcoined the term “somatics” in 1976 inorder to describe a kind of training thataddresses the unification of mind andbody. Hanna began with the concept ofthe “soma,” which is the body experi-enced from within. Soma is the Greekword for “body.” Historically, somatol-ogy referred to the field that eventuallydivided into anatomy and physiology.This division separated the study of thestructure of the body from the study ofits functions.

From Hanna’s perspective, there wasno division between body and mind. Heused “soma” to describe a first-personview of the body in which a person isfully aware of his or her own internalfeelings, behaviors, and intentions. Thisfirst-person perspective is an integralpart of Hanna Somatic Education.

In the early 1970s, Hanna met MosheFeldenkrais, an Israeli physicist andbody educator, whose FeldenkraisMethod was compatible with Hanna’ssomatic philosophy. Hanna created thefirst Feldenkrais training program in theUnited States, under the sponsorship ofthe Humanistic Psychology Institute(now the Saybrook Institute), where

Hanna was a director. He continued hisstudy with Feldenkrais for many years atthe Novato Institute for SomaticResearch and Training, an institutionthat he founded in 1975.

As he practiced the FeldenkraisMethod, Hanna observed characteristicpostural difficulties in people of all agesand walks of life. He also noticed thatcertain techniques were extremelyeffective in helping clients regain con-trol of the muscles that were holdingthem in these postures and restrictingtheir movements. These techniquesbecame known as Hanna Somatic Edu-cation.

The Basic Principles of HannaSomatic Education®

Hanna Somatic educators believe thatpeople stand in characteristic posturesbecause chronically contracted muscleshold them there. When muscles are bal-anced in their tonicity—front, back, andsides—people stand up against gravityin a comfortable, upright posture. Whenthe muscles are more contracted on oneside or another, people are pulled inthat direction.

Muscles become contracted becausethe nervous system sends messages,instructing them to shorten their musclefibers. When this message is sent contin-ually the muscle becomes chronicallycontracted. The message to contract hasbecome a habitual pattern that the per-son doesn’t control consciously.

In his work with clients, ThomasHanna identified three reflexes: the redlight reflex, green light reflex, and trau-ma reflex. The red light reflex is alsoreferred to as the startle response or theescape response.

The green light reflex refers to thepostural reflex that begins at around sixmonths of age, when an infant first con-tracts the back extensor muscles. Alsocalled the Landau reflex, it includes thearched back, extended neck, arms, andlegs. It enables the infant to sit up, thenstand in preparation for walking. It is theactivation of our antigravity muscles.

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Philosopher Thomas Hanna uses techniques he developed to help people gain a greater awareness oftheir own physical sensations.

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Unfortunately, some adults remain inthis posture out of habit.

The startle reflex is a set of changesthat happen rapidly when there is asudden change in environmental stim-ulation. This might be a loud noisenearby, or someone saying “Boo!” Thereflex includes a set of responses suchas eyes widening, muscles contracting,respiration stopping, etc. It takes awhile to release these responses andreturn to normal. With repeated trig-gering of the startle reflex there will besome chronic muscle holdings. Themuscular holdings contribute to a pos-ture in which the person is bent for-ward, knees bent and pulled together,arms bent, with the head forward. Themuscles on the opposite side of thebody also become contracted, whichmay become painful.

The trauma reflex includes motorcontractions, which surround any phys-ical or severe emotional trauma—acci-dent, surgery, long-term stress, etc. Thetrauma reflex posture may result in theperson being tilted to one side, or thetrunk being tilted to one side, while thehead tilts to the opposite side. Theremay be various rotations: head, shoul-ders, or pelvis rotated to one side or theother. The rotations may be slight, orvery noticeable.

Hanna put forth the concept of sen-sory-motor amnesia (SMA) to describethe tendency of humans to forget cer-tain movements or ways of relating tomuscles or muscle groups, leaving themchronically contracted. This occurswhen muscles are contracted frombeing constantly subjected to differentkinds of stress responses or injuries overan extended period of time. Hannabelieves the contraction is the result ofongoing brain-stem-level impulses sentto the motor units, causing contractionsof muscle fibers.

How to Practice Hanna SomaticsThere are two approaches to HSE:hands-on table lessons, guided by theHanna Somatic educator, and SomaticExercises™, developed by Thomas

Hanna, done by the individual. In thehands-on HSE lessons, a typical sessionis one-on-one and lasts fifty minutes toone hour. The person is dressed andpositioned on a low table. The practi-tioner guides the person to perform cer-tain movements, evaluating andemphasizing movements according tothe person’s needs. People can learn theexercises immediately. It is estimatedthat people average only three visitswith a Hanna Somatic educator beforethey can become comfortable and ableto move freely.

In the second approach, individualsdo the Somatic Exercises™ on theirown. These basic maintenance exercis-es, also called the “cat stretch,” weredeveloped by Thomas Hanna and aredone once or twice daily. They take tenminutes to perform. There are manymore specific exercises for specific pur-poses. In fact, these are not really con-sidered exercises, but are reminders tothe brain about how to efficiently usethe muscles of the body. They are doneslowly and gently. There are few repeti-tions.

Benefits and CautionsHSE provides significant posturalimprovements. It is especially effectivewith conditions that are characterized bychronic muscle contractions. HSE is rec-ommended for the following conditions:accident trauma, whiplash, long-termstress, repeated use stress, difficulties inmoving, back pain, and headaches.

Great care needs to be taken withpatients suffering from osteoporosis, orwith the many conditions that would beaggravated by movement.

—Eleanor Criswell Hanna, Ed.D.

Resources:

Novato Institute for Somatic Research and Training

1516 Grant Ave., Suite 212

Novato, CA 94945

Tel: (415) 892-0617

Fax: (415) 892-4388

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The Novato Institute

The Novato Institute of Somatic Education and Training is the only place to find trainingin Hanna Somatics. It is a certified training program that began in 1990. The Institutealso provides seminars, books, audiotapes, and videotapes through Somatics Educa-tional Resources. Practitioners can also join the Somatics Society, an organization forbodywork professionals.

Provides certification training programs to

qualified students. It also conducts individual ses-

sions and workshops.

The Somatics Society

1516 Grant Ave., Suite 212

Novato, CA 94945

Tel: (415) 892-0617

Organization for somatic educators and body-

workers. Provides information on the practice of

somatics, and publishes newsletters as well as

Somatics: Magazine-Journal of the Bodily Arts

and Sciences. This membership organization is

run by Novato Institute for Somatic Research and

Training, also at the same address.

Further Reading:

Criswell, Eleanor. An Introduction to Somatic

Yoga. Novato, CA: Freeperson Press, 1987.

Hanna, Thomas. Bodies in Revolt: A Primer in

Somatic Thinking. Novato, CA: Freeperson

Press, 1985.

——. The Body of Life: Creating New Pathways for

Sensory Awareness and Fluid Movement.

Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press, 1993.

——. Somatics: Reawakening the Mind’s Control

of Movement, Flexibility, and Health. Reading,

MA: Addison-Wesley, 1988.

HELLERWORK

Hellerwork combines hands-onbodywork movement educationand dialogue to release the accu-

mulated stress and trauma that cause

people to become rigid in their bodies,in their movements, and in their think-ing. Hellerwork allows the client toexperience the inseparability of body,mind, and spirit by releasing the achesand pains stored in a type of connectivetissue called fascia, thereby freeing upmovement patterns, as well as mentalpatterns, that waste energy. Its tech-niques, developed from those ofRolfing, differ in that Hellerworkemphasizes movement education overhands-on bodywork; Hellerwork aimsto teach its clients how to live withoutpain.

History of HellerworkJoseph Heller, the founder of Heller-work, was born in Poland in 1940 andreceived his early education in Paris. Heemigrated to the United States at theage of sixteen, settling in Los Angeles. In1962 he began working as an aerospaceengineer for NASA.

In 1972, in the midst of an intenseinvolvement with humanistic psycholo-gy, Joseph Heller gave up engineeringand trained with Dr. Ida Rolf in order tolearn her method of structural integra-tion (techniques to rid the body ofhabitual patterns of storing stress) forthe body called Rolfing. In 1973 hebecame a Structural Patterner afterstudying with Judith Aston, the creatorof the discipline known as Aston-Pat-terning®. In the mid-1970s, while main-taining a very successful Rolfingpractice, Heller received advancedtraining from Dr. Rolf and from Dr.Brugh Joy, a noted physician, author,and innovator in the field of preventivemedicine and the use of energy as a

Hellerwork

means of healing. In 1976 Hellerbecame the first president of the RolfInstitute.

As a result of his unique combina-tion of expertise and training in struc-tural integration, movement education,and body energy awareness, Mr. Hellerbegan to synthesize a new form ofbodywork that emphasized movementreeducation. In 1978, he left the RolfInstitute and moved to the San Francis-co Bay Area, where he founded Heller-work and began training certifiedpractitioners.

The Principles of HellerworkAlthough Hellerwork is effective fortemporary pain or tension relief, practi-tioners recognize that pain and tensionare usually the result of an overall pat-tern of imbalance occurring in thebody. Rather than treating the pain ortension “symptom,” Hellerwork focuseson rebalancing the entire body, return-ing it to a more aligned, relaxed, andyouthful state. To fully understand howHellerwork works, one must learnabout connective tissue and gravity.

According to Heller, any tissue in thebody that has a connecting function isconsidered to be connective tissue. Theform of connective tissue that Heller-work primarily affects is called fascia.Fascia is a plasticlike tissue that wrapsall muscles and all of the individualfibers and bundles of fibers that makeup muscles as well. Fascia comestogether at the end of the muscle andbecomes the tendon, which attachesthe muscle to the bone. The fascial sys-tem of our body can be seen as one mul-tilayered body stocking, with fascialsheaths wrapping the muscles andorgans, throughout the body. Becauseof this, stress in any one area of the bodyhas an effect on every other part of thebody.

In its optimal condition, fascia is aloose, moist tissue and in a balancedbody, the fascial body stocking staysloose and mobile, facilitating move-ment. However, under continual stress

or lack of movement, fascia becomesrigid and layers of fascia begin to glue toone another, causing the “knots” peopleexperience in their backs or necks. Thesheaths of fascia stick in a systematicway, based on our habitual patterns ofholding and movement. Holding pat-terns are often created by emotionalmemories stored in the tissue of thebody; movement patterns are often aresult of genetic predisposition orunconsciously learned behaviors fromparents and primary caregivers.Although people associate tension andstiffness with their muscles, it is actual-ly the connective tissue around themuscles that accumulates most of thisstress.

In Hellerwork, the practitioner usesconcentrated deep tissue bodywork onfascial areas in order to release and alle-viate tensions. Only then can the bodyattain its optimum alignment. Also, byeliminating stress and pain, Hellerworkpractitioners believe the body shouldbe able to rid itself of repressed mentalmemories and physical and emotionaltraumas that function as an obstacle togood physical and mental health.

Hellerwork in PracticeDuring a session a practitioner interactswith a client in three major ways: work-ing with his or her soft tissues while theclient rests on a table; leading him orher through movement experiences;and discussing the relationshipbetween body sensations, emotions,and thought.

At the start of the first session, thepractitioner takes a health history andestablishes with the client the goals forthe series. The client then undresses tohis or her underclothing and has “before”pictures taken as the practitionerobserves the client’s body for structuralimbalance and restrictions in movement.The client then lies down on a bodyworktable and the practitioner proceeds towork with his or her hands on the rigidparts of the client’s soft tissues. Throughpressure, movement, and stretching, the

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The Role of Verbal Communication in Hellerwork

In Hellerwork, practitioners use verbal dialogue with their clients to discuss the rela-tionship between their client’s body sensations, emotions, and thinking.

During the bodywork session, the practitioner highlights the more common attitudesand emotions associated with the affected area of the body. As the client becomes awareof these emotions, they become easier to recognize and deal with, resulting in a dis-cernible change in movement and mental outlook. When the client has integrated thechanges in his or her structure with new movement patterns and attitudes, the sessionis complete.

practitioner restores fluidity to those tis-sues and rearranges the parts so that theyfit better in their alignment with gravity.When the structural work is done thepractitioner works with the client inestablishing a new movement patternthat supports the new alignment. Duringthe session, the practitioner talks withthe client, highlighting the more com-mon attitudes and emotions associatedwith the areas of the body that have beenworked with in that session. As the clientbecomes aware of these emotions he orshe has the opportunity to become moreresponsive to them, so he or she is lesslikely to limit self-expression. When theclient has integrated the changes in his orher structure with new movement pat-terns and attitudes the series is complete.

The Benefits and Risks of HellerworkThe reported benefits of Hellerworkinclude increased flexibility and adapt-ability, increased energy levels, and asense of wholeness and well-being.Although not a treatment for anyspecific condition, Hellerwork is said toreduce and even eliminate musculo-skeletal pain from trauma and stress.

Hellerwork is particularly effective asfirst aid after trauma to the musculo-skeletal tissues. It is not a treatment forany disease, conditions of organs, orsymptoms of the nervous system. Use ofHellerwork is not advisable when pressureon the soft tissues cannot be tolerated.

All certified Hellerwork practitionershave completed the training programoffered by Hellerwork International, LLC.

In addition to being trained to deliver theHellerwork series, they have receivedextensive training in anatomy, move-ment, psychology, and energy systems.

—Sandy Sullivan for Hellerwork International

Resources:

Hellerwork International, LLC

406 Berry Street

Mount Shasta, CA 96067

Phone: (916) 926-2500 and (800) 392-3900

Fax: (916) 926-6839

e-mail: Hellerwork@aol.com

Web site: www.hellerwork.com

Offers a list of Hellerwork practitioners. Also pro-

vides information about the discipline, as well as

training opportunities.

Further Reading:

Heller, Joseph, and William Henkin. Bodywise:

Regaining Your Natural Flexibility and Vitality

for Maximum Well-being. Oakland, CT: Wing-

bow Press, 1986.

IDEOKINESIS

Ideokinesis is a method of movement therapy that utilizes the capacity of thenervous system to correct awkward or

Ideokinesis

inefficient movement. The term ideoki-nesis derives from two Greek words, ideo,meaning “idea,” and kinesis, meaning“movement.” Ideokinesis views the neu-rological system as the messenger ofideas or patterns of movement that stim-ulate and organize muscular and skeletalactivity. Through anatomy lessons, exer-cises, and guided imagery, ideokinesisimparts healthy patterns of movement tothe nerves and ultimately to the wholemuscular and skeletal structure of thebody. Either on its own or combined withother movement training, ideokinesiscan aid in overcoming physical impair-ment caused by illness or injury. It is alsoconsidered a means of learning patternsof movement that enhance coordina-tion, reduce tension, and promote a gen-eral sense of well-being.

The History of IdeokinesisIdeokinesis is an outgrowth of tech-niques Mabel Elsworth Todd discoveredwhen, as a teenager in upstate New York,she struggled to cure herself after suffer-ing a back injury. Once she had com-pletely recovered, Todd developed hertechniques into a form of movementtherapy that she practiced first in Boston,then in New York City. By the late 1920sshe was attracting a steady stream ofpatients to her private clinic and lectur-ing on her method at Columbia Universi-ty and the New School for SocialResearch. Todd’s books, The ThinkingBody (1937) and The Hidden You (1953),record the substance of her teachingsand remain essential to the study ofideokinesis. But Todd’s method mighthave been forgotten without the effortsof a former student, Lulu Sweigard, and aformer patient, Barbara Clark. Theyintroduced her method into the curricu-lum of New York University and the Juil-liard School of Dance, ensuring that herlegacy would be passed on to students inthe 1950s and 1960s. Human MovementPotential, published shortly afterSweigard’s death in 1974, is an importantupdating of Todd’s original practice andgave it the name ideokinesis. While

ideokinesis is not well known to the gen-eral public and has no national profes-sional organization or certificationprocedure, it is studied and used by anetwork of private practitionersthroughout the United States. Manypractitioners combine it with dance,Rolfing, or physical therapy.

The Theory of IdeokinesisIdeokinesis is based on the idea thatmovement is an event in which each ofthree systems of the organism—neuro-logical, muscular, and skeletal—plays aspecific and integrated role. The eventstarts when the neurological systemacts as a messenger and transmitsimpulses from the brain to the muscularsystem. The muscular system, in turn,acts as a motor, responding to theimpulses. It moves the third componentin the event, the skeletal system orframework.

The particular focus of ideokinesis isthe subcortical level of nervous activity.Todd described the delicate subcorticalnerves as “the hidden you,” since it isthrough these nerves that ideas andimages about the totality of the body arerealized. If thoughts about the body arehabitually faulty or weak, then the sub-cortical nerves will transmit debilitatingmessages to the rest of the body andmovement will be impaired. To improvemovement, ideokinesis accordinglyconcentrates not on increasing flexibili-ty or muscular strength, though theseoften occur, but on changing the neuro-logical system’s coding of movement.This is accomplished through exercisesand guided imagery, which modify bothconscious and unconscious thoughtabout body movements and positions.

Experiencing IdeokinesisA class in ideokinesis generally openswith a discussion of anatomy, physiolo-gy, and body mechanics, which furnish-es some of the mental images used inthe positions and movements to follow.Beginning-level work often centersupon the constructive rest position, a

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recumbent position in which the armsare folded softly over the body and thelegs are flexed at the knees and kepttogether. As the constructive rest positionis assumed, the participant is instructedto conceive of her or his body as anempty suit of clothes. The ideokinesisteacher then uses suggestive language toevoke a process of gentle pressing thatsimultaneously removes wrinkles fromthe imagined suit of clothes and tensionfrom the real body of the participant.

In a comparable fashion, work on sit-ting, standing, walking, and other basicmovements makes use of exercises, men-tal images, and suggestive language.Participants attempt to perform variousmovement patterns while calling to mindthe biomechanical and metaphoricalimages the teacher has introduced in theclass. Participants work in pairs, with oneparticipant executing the movement,while the other touches her or him lightlyto clarify the initiation point and pathwayof the movement.

By contrast, the experience of ideoki-nesis done on a one-to-one basis will varyfrom person to person, depending on thespecific methods of the practitioner andthe needs of the client. Instruction in thebiomechanics of movement might beomitted and attention given over to diag-nosis of difficulties and the establishmentof a regimen of remedial exercises.

The Benefits of IdeokinesisWhen practiced consistently, ideokine-sis can help restore range of motion andimprove the integration of sensory andmotor skills. Further, it is credited withproducing or restoring homeostasis, acondition in which all the systems andsubsystems of the organism functionharmoniously. In a state of homeosta-sis, the individual experiencesenhanced freedom of movement,release from tension and fatigue,increased vitality, and a sense of well-being that often leads to the discoveryof unexpected inner potential.

—Andre Bernard

Further Reading:

Matt, Pamela. A Kinesthetic Legacy: The Life and

Works of Barbara Clark. Tempe, AZ: CMT Press,

1993.

Sweigard, Lulu. Human Movement Potential: Its

Ideokinetic Facilitation. Lanham, MD: Univer-

sity Press of America, 1988.

Todd, Mabel E. The Thinking Body: A Study of

Balancing Forces of Dynamic Man. Pennington,

NJ: A Dance Horizons Book, 1968.

KINETIC AWARENESS

Kinetic awareness is a disciplinethat aims to increase knowledge ofthe human body on both physical

and emotional levels. It aims to improvethe individual’s mental image of his orher body while also revealing ways thatphysical tension affects health, attitude,and emotional well-being. Practitionersof kinetic awareness believe thatthrough the careful exploration of thebody’s responses to concentrated phys-ical pressure, people can gain a height-ened sensitivity to posture andmovement, both in daily life and in spe-cialized activities such as sports, dance,and martial arts.

How Kinetic Awareness DevelopedKinetic awareness was developed bydancer/choreographer Elaine Summersin the 1960s. Her dance career wasinterrupted at an early age when shebegan to experience symptoms ofosteoarthritis, a potentially cripplingdisease of the joints. Doctors told herthat within five years she would beunable to walk. Eventually, through herown determination, she was able toresume her dance career. During theperiod of her recovery, she studied withCarola Speads, whose system of physi-cal reeducation evolved from the work

Kinetic Awareness

of Elsa Gindler, a bodywork innovator.Summers’s method of bodywork grewout of these studies and her own searchfor treatment of her physical condition,and upon experiencing positive results,she began to teach it to others.

Rubber Balls and Kinetic AwarenessThrough experimentation, Summersdeveloped an extensive system of tech-niques to increase physical awarenessand release muscular tension. A specialfeature of this method is the use of rub-ber balls of various sizes to highlightbody parts in isolation.

When an individual rests his or herbody on a ball, the ball provides a focalpoint of attention; the individual natural-ly concentrates on the muscles and bodypart directly above the ball, where pres-sure on the body is greatest. It both sup-ports and stretches the body. Musculartension dissipates because of the pres-sure of the ball and the intentional move-ment of the body as the individual slowlyshifts his or her position over the ball.

As an individual moves, the ball teststhe elasticity and responsiveness of themuscles and joints. The intensity of thepressure created by the ball is a directresult of the size and firmness or soft-ness of the ball and, therefore, can becontrolled. People often feel a pleasur-able ease and warmth in the part of thebody where the ball has been and analert quietness in the mind from thefocused attention and overall relaxationthat occurs from this.

As practitioners work, they releasethe unnecessary tension that causesmany individual aches and pains. Thework helps to prevent future injuries byrevealing the body’s warning signs.Practitioners also see how the mind andemotions manifest themselves in thebody. For example, anger, sadness, orjoy can each create a particular physicalresponse in the body. Similarly, howpeople feel physically can create a cer-tain mood, which then affects behavior.Through kinetic awareness individualsdiscover that they have choices about

how they move, and that it is possible tolet go of habits and images of the bodythat restrict them. Moving with aware-ness is a profound way to reconnect themind and the body.

Practicing Kinetic AwarenessKinetic awareness can be taught bothin classes and private sessions. Peoplewill often experience benefits such asrelief of pain or greater range of move-ment after one or two sessions, butkinetic awareness can be practiced onan ongoing basis—many dancers andperformers incorporate it into theirtraining.

A typical class begins with an evalua-tion of body sensations while the partic-ipant lies quietly on the floor. Closeattention is paid to breathing and slowmovement explorations, with or with-out rubber balls. The individual focuseson one body part at a time, movingslowly through its full range of motionwhile noting any sensations. A personmight become aware, for example, thatcertain parts of the body are dull andhave little sensation, while others arehypersensitive. He or she also begins todiscover that tension can exist in veryspecific, concentrated locations in thebody. Practitioners of kinetic awarenessassert that each person has preferredways of moving, and that these favoredmodes naturally exclude other possibil-ities for movement. Summers believesthat moving every part of the bodythrough its potential range, often andwithout pain, encourages the body toattain physiological balance.

After the initial warm-up is com-plete, the teacher will suggest an exer-cise that enables the students to workat their own pace on the part of thebody that is chosen as a focus.Throughout the session, the teacherwill invite the students to share theirfeelings and observations. The processmay include some explanation ofanatomy to further an understanding ofthe musculoskeletal system and how itworks. After the first phase of kinetic

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Alleviating Stress

Kinetic awareness encourages the individual to experience the pleasure of movement forits own sake. Practitioners of kinetic awareness maintain that a strong link existsbetween a person’s mental state and the level of muscular tension in the body. This dis-cipline seeks not only to relieve muscular tension resulting from daily stress and agitat-ed emotional states, but also to achieve a corresponding enhancement of psychologicalwell-being through holistic treatment of the human being.

awareness, people can then choose toexplore more advanced phases thatemploy multiple simultaneous move-ments and a full range of speed. Thetechnique is adaptable; there is ampleroom for creativity and experimentation.

Benefits of Kinetic AwarenessAs people practice kinetic awareness, theygain a deeper understanding of their bod-ies. They are able to release the unneces-sary tension that causes many bodilyaches and pains and they can preventfuture injuries by becoming familiar withthe body’s warning signs. Furthermore,advocates of this discipline emphasizethat the mind and emotions are expressedin the body. By improving physical condi-tion and relieving stress through kineticawareness, a person is able to create a feel-ing of well-being that will affect behavior.Through this practice, then, individualsreportedly discover that they have thecapacity to choose how they move andthey can enjoy more freedom and self-expression through movement.

—Ellen Saltonstall, J. Robin Powell,Ph.D, and Michelle Berne

Resources:

The Kinetic Awareness Center

1622 Laurel Street

Sarasota, FL 34236

Provides information about kinetic awareness as

well as referrals to qualified teachers.

The Kinetic Awareness Center

P.O. Box 1050

Cooper Station

New York, NY 10276

Provides information about kinetic awareness as

well as referrals to qualified teachers.

Further Reading:

Saltonstall, Ellen. Kinetic Awareness: Discovering

Your Bodymind. New York: Kinetic Awareness

Center, 1988. (Available through the Kinetic

Awareness Center)

MEIR SCHNEIDERSELF-HEALING METHOD

The Meir Schneider self-healing method (“self-healing”) combinesmassage, movement exercise, and

other methods, including visionimprovement exercises for those whoneed them, into a comprehensive reha-bilitation system. It focuses on estab-lishing communication between themind and the body, and understandingthe needs of the body as it strives toheal itself.

How Self-Healing DevelopedMeir Schneider, Ph.D., LMT, was bornin Ukraine in 1954. He was blind atbirth, with cataracts and other seriousvision problems. Shortly after he wasborn, the family emigrated to Israel. Bythe time he was six years old, fiveunsuccessful surgeries had left his lens-es shattered, which resulted in admit-ting less than 1 percent of light in one

Meir Schneider Self-Healing Method

eye and 5 percent in the other. Doctorssaid that nothing further could bedone. Meir was given a certificate oflegal blindness and taught to do hisschoolwork in Braille. He refused to usea cane or guide dog, and insisted ondoing everything a sighted child coulddo, even riding a bicycle, although hesometimes ran into walls. He wasconfident that he would gain function-al eyesight one day.

At age sixteen, he learned about theBates method of vision improvement,as well as massage. He began to devel-op his own theories and insights aboutmovement and the body. He practicedeye exercises, self-massage, and move-ment exercises up to thirteen hours aday. Worried about false hopes, his fam-ily and friends told him he was wastinghis time. At first he saw lights and shad-ows only in a blur, but soon he began todistinguish some of the shapes as win-

dows. Within eighteen months he couldread print without glasses. After yearsof effort, he learned to see well enoughto earn an unrestricted driver’s license.

With the Bates exercises, he relaxedhis eyes, adjusted them to varying lev-els of light, and trained his brain to usehis eyes in different, more effectiveways. But he also needed self-massageto improve circulation and relieve theunderlying strain of his face and upperbody. Movement exercises helped tobalance his vision. Through all of thisexperience, Schneider discovered howdeeply the function of any one organ orarea of the body is related to that of thewhole body.

While still working to gain functionalvision, he began to work with clientswho experienced chronic pain, multiplesclerosis, and other problems. The mas-sage and movement techniques he haddeveloped from his own experience

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Meir Schneider practices the vision exercises of his self-healing method.

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What Makes Self-Healing Unusual Among the Bodyworks?

• It combines massage and movement equally.• It includes vision improvement work.• Self-healing offers detailed programs, carefully tailored to the needs of the individual at

a given time, to nurture specific organs or organ systems that are fragile or damaged.• It emphasizes client motivation and empowerment. Self-healing is above all an edu-

cational process, and the client becomes an active, inventive partner of the therapist.

resulted in improvement in his earlyclients. He opened his first clinic withtwo of these clients, a youth with mus-cular dystrophy and a young womanwith polio. His clinic and work gainednational attention in Israel. In 1977 hefounded the Center for Self-Healing inSan Francisco. A few years later, heopened the School for Self-Healing.

Today, Schneider’s work with muscu-lar dystrophy is the subject of scientificstudies. An internationally known thera-pist and educator, he is the author ofSelf-Healing: My Life and Vision, andMeir Schneider’s Miracle EyesightMethod, a recently published visionseminar on tape, and coauthor of TheHandbook of Self-Healing.

Philosophy of Self-HealingSchneider believes that the body has apowerful, innate ability to heal itself.Using the body only as a tool to accom-plish our everyday goals, most of us losetouch with this ability.

For many people, the body is unex-plored territory. Only a fraction of thetotal capacity of muscles, lungs, andbrain are regularly called upon. Forexample, we overuse about 50 of thebody’s approximately 600 muscles, andunderuse the rest. Stress-related tensionis a major cause of this problem. It cre-ates “frozen” areas where muscular ten-sion restricts movement, feeling, andcirculation. People respond to stresswith shallow breathing, eventuallyimpairing lung and heart function.Chronic stress exacerbates disease. Forpeople with serious health problems, it

aggravates the course of the disease andinhibits the body’s natural tendency torepair itself.

Schneider believes that these prob-lems stem from a lack of communica-tion between the body and mind. Formany of us, so much of our attention isdirected away from ourselves—to otherpeople, work, the constant barrage ofexternal stimulation—that sensationswithin go unnoticed. In our culture, wetend to listen to our bodies only intimes of extreme crisis. By developingan intuitive sense of the body’s needswe can overcome serious health prob-lems and increase health and vitality.This is the goal of self-healing therapy.

The School for Self-Healing offerstraining in the Meir Schneider self-healing method. Level one graduatesare eligible in some places for massagetherapy certification. Graduates of thefull 760-hour program are recognizedas self-healing practitioner/educators.Many students enroll in the beginningand intermediate stages of training inorder to work with their own or a fami-ly member’s health problem. Some stu-dents are already health careprofessionals or bodyworkers, whileothers are newly entering the massage-bodywork field.

Self-Healing TherapyA self-healing therapy session is usuallyabout one and a half hours long. Theclient wears underwear or a swimsuit.With the therapist’s guidance, the clientexplores the body-mind link by experi-encing a combination of many different

Sensory Awareness

kinds of movement—massage, self-massage, visualizations of movement,breathing, coordination exercises, andeye exercises when appropriate. Thesession often begins with a movementthat is problematic, difficult, stiff, oruneven. It is repeated at times as acheckpoint to see if there is anyimprovement. The methods that provemost successful during the session areincorporated into a home exercise pro-gram. In this way, deeply ingrained,harmful movement patterns, such asthe habit of tensing up in order tomove, can be reprogrammed.

For example, a bodybuilding cham-pion came to Schneider with constantpain in her shoulders, neck, and knees,which resulted in diminished perfor-mance. “Many bodybuilders have suchtight muscles and joints, they can’t pulla T-shirt on, and they’re in constantpain,” she told him. Athletes oftenexhibit this kind of harmful use of thebody, which eventually jeopardizestheir performance. He taught her toisolate specific movements, to use onlythe correct muscles for a specific actionwithout compensating with the others,to stay soft, and to move through asense of relaxation. Her musclesbecame longer and fuller, the pain dis-appeared, and her weight-lifting per-formance improved.

Benefits of Self-HealingThe Meir Schneider self-healing methodhas helped athletes and musiciansimprove their performance. It preventsand alleviates the occupational healthhazards of computer work and otherdetailed eye-hand tasks. It has been suc-cessful with breathing, neuromuscular,joint, heart/circulatory, digestive, pos-ture and spine problems, injuries,chronic pain syndromes, poor visionfrom nearsightedness, farsightedness,astigmatism, lazy eye, a wide variety ofeye diseases, and many other healthproblems.

—Carol Gallup

SENSORY AWARENESS

Sensory awareness is a practice infreeing ourselves from conditionedhabits, fears, and tensions that keep

us from being what we really want to beand doing what we really want to do. Theprocess promotes direct awareness ofour sensations: sight, hearing, touch,taste, smell, and especially the subtlekinesthetic sense of body movement. Inpracticing this kind of awareness, weexperience how we relate to ourselves,other people, and the world around us.We begin to be present for what is hap-pening from moment to moment—to behere, now—with greater interest and joy,and more creative responsiveness tothings as they are.

The Development of Sensory AwarenessIn Germany, at the beginning of thetwentieth century, a young womannamed Elsa Gindler contracted tuber-culosis, for which, at that time, therewas no known cure. Her doctor asked,“What have you done to yourself?” andshe took this question literally. Fromthat moment on she began giving fullattention to how she behaved and whathappened inside her body, from thetime she awoke in the morning untilgoing to sleep at night. In so doing, herlungs began to function normally andshe recovered her health.

Sensory awareness is the name nowgiven to such “restorative observa-tion”—this interested, nonjudgmentalattention to the sensations of tensionand release felt throughout the body asone moves in response to life’s continu-ally changing events. Through suchattention, Gindler became aware of nat-ural processes and learned to work withthem instead of against them, particu-larly in regard to breathing and interac-tion with the pull of gravity, whichattracts us to the earth at every moment.

Gindler not only cured herself of TB,but discovered that awareness of what ishappening in the “physical” body can

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Pioneers in movement therapy, Elsa Gindler and Heinrich Jacoby in Zurich, 1957.

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bring about liberation from “mental” anx-iety. This practice brought about a statewhere she was no longer disturbed by herown thoughts and worries. She came tounderstand that calm in the physical fieldis equivalent to trust in the psychic field.

At about the same time, a youngmusician named Heinrich Jacoby wasasking himself why some of the singerson the operatic stage had beautifulvoices but were blocked musically, andothers could master the music, but notmove with it. He came to see how “tal-ent” and “lack of talent” were mainlyresults of conditioning. A person wastalented or untalented depending onthe imposed ideas of family, teachers,society, culture, rather than on inherentcapacities.

His thesis was that every humanbeing born without physical defectshas the biological equipment for everynatural function, and that these includeall possibilities of living, moving, expe-

riencing, and creating. He demonstrat-ed with thousands of people that there isan unrealized human potential forreceiving impressions and allowingexpression in every mode that can con-tinue to unfold throughout our lives—ifwe are not blocked by our own limitingmental attitudes.

When these two people came togeth-er, they found in each other’s discoveriesthe missing part of their own work. Jaco-by was a highly educated “intellectual,”while Elsa Gindler had no formal educa-tion beyond public school, and taught abodywork called “gymnastik”—throughwhich she had already recognized thatone’s attitudes are not just abstractthoughts, but tensions embedded in thephysical tissue. When Gindler and Jacobybecame colleagues, “mind” and “body”came together. In their classes studentsmight consciously experience a state ofbalance that was not “physical” or “men-tal,” but both—not only new ways of

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Charlotte Selver brought the movement therapy work of Elsa Gindler and Heinrich Jacoby to the UnitedStates and named it “sensory awareness.”

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This work makes possible a way of being that is full of life, more security, and more courageto dare something new. The wonder is the blessed feeling that comes when I can be morefully, as if each cell in me were happy to exist.

—Ruth Veselko, a longtime Gindler/Jacoby student and Sensory Awareness teacher in Switzerland, speaking of her own experience.

moving, but new ways of seeing andhearing, of thinking and relating, of beingcreative in many ways.

Students of Gindler and Jacoby have carried their work around the world: toGermany, Switzerland, England, Israel,Spain, the United States, Mexico, Canada,and Japan. Sometimes it is the practice assuch that is offered, sometimes the prac-tice offers a transforming approach to var-ious professions such as musicalperformance, dance, child care, or psy-chotherapy. Dr. Lily Ehrenfried took thework of Gindler and Jacoby to France,where she established a new kind of phys-ical therapy, called gymnastique holis-tique. The AEDE (Association des Elevesde Dr. Ehrenfried et des Practiciens enGymnastique Holistique) was formed in1986, and now has practitioners in tencountries in Europe and the Americas.

The Gindler/Jacoby theories andpractice were brought to the UnitedStates in the 1930s by several of their stu-dents, including Else Henscke Durham;Clare Fenichel; Carola Speads (whocalled the work physical reeducation);and Charlotte Selver. Each offered thepractice in her own way.

Selver coined the name “sensoryawareness,” presenting the first classesin “body awareness” and “nonverbalexperience” ever given at the NewSchool for Social Research in New Yorkand Esalen Institute in California. TheCharlotte Selver Foundation, now theSensory Awareness Foundation, wasestablished in 1971 to support her work.The psychologist Erich Fromm studiedextensively with Selver and found the

work “of great significance for the fullunfolding of the personality.” Fritz Perlsincorporated much of what he learnedfrom her into his gestalt therapy, whileAlan Watts, who presented many jointseminars with Selver, called this practice“the living Zen.”

Typical Session of Sensory AwarenessSensory awareness sessions are simplyan inquiry into what it feels like to be aliving human being—when you areaware of what you are feeling and howyou are living. There are no set “exercis-es.” Experiments inspired by the feltneeds of the student or students at thatmoment are outlined by the leader.Afterward, there is reporting as to whata student might have discovered. Thereare no preconceptions as to what oughtto happen or be felt; what is felt is nei-ther “right” nor “wrong”; it just is.

All living is movement, and theseexperiments are not only large move-ments, such as walking, running, danc-ing, stretching, etc., but the most subtle:inhalation and exhalation, the pulsing ina wrist, the vibration of the vocal cords inthe throat as a person speaks or sings, theresting of a hand on a cheek, or on ashoulder, the lifting of a partner’s arm, orhaving one’s arm lifted. In just noticinghow these movements feel as they takeplace, the habitual tensional patternsthat produce inappropriate and painfulmovements of the body can change.

Sensory awareness is offered private-ly, in regular group sessions, and in work-shops. There are no formal trainingcourses for leaders; leaders and students

Soma Neuromuscular Integration

come to a mutual understanding as towhen the student is ready to become aleader, usually after many years’ practice.

Benefits of Sensory AwarenessAs sensory awareness experiments arefollowed over a period of time, musclesmay become more elastic, aches andpains fade, illnesses subside. Fear maybe replaced by self-confidence. Move-ment and thinking may become morespontaneous and creative. There may beless effort and greater joy in relating toothers and taking part in private or pro-fessional activities. But the fundamentalaim is just to wake up—to experiencelife in every bit of us and be happy toexist at this moment.

It is recommended that one study withan experienced sensory awareness leader,to help you begin to explore this uniquepractice of making friends with your body,of discovering all of the possibilities thatcan unfold when you learn to trust in theinnate wisdom of the body-mind.

—Mary Alice Roche

Resources:

Sensory Awareness Foundation

c/o Sara Gordon

955 Vernal Ave.

Mill Valley, CA 94941

Tel: (707) 794-8496

Distributes various publications concerning the

practice of sensory awareness.

Sensory Awareness Leaders Guild

c/o Louise Boedeker

411 West 22nd Street

New York, NY 10011

Tel: (212) 675-5730

Recommends qualified sensory awareness leaders

in the United States and abroad.

Further Reading:

Brooks, Charles V. W. Sensory Awareness: Rediscov-

ery of Experiencing Through the Workshops of

Charlotte Selver. New York: Viking Press, 1974.

SOMA NEUROMUSCULARINTEGRATION

Soma neuromuscular integration, or“soma bodywork,” utilizes ten indi-vidual sessions that address partic-

ular and progressive soft-tissuemanipulation, primarily through work-ing with the fascia, or connective tissue.Developed by Dr. Bill Williams and Dr.Ellen Gregory Williams in 1978, Somawas developed, and continues to betaught, as a way of enabling people tofunction more optimally by providinggreater access to the body-mind. Peoplewho inhabit their whole and integratedbody-mind frequently experiencegreater levels of emotional openness,creativity, and self-reliance.

Importance of Body and MindSoma neuromuscular integration wasdeveloped by Bill M. Williams, Ph.D.,and Ellen Gregory Williams, Ph.D. Dr.Bill Williams taught and collaboratedwith Ida Rolf in the early developmentof her well-known ten-session work infascia manipulation. He was a memberof the founding board of directors thatestablished the institute teaching Dr.Rolf’s methods. Dr. Ellen Williams is apsychologist who after many years oftalk therapy realized that there must bean involvement with the body to effectdeep and lasting psychological change.In his early years as a Rolfer he contin-ued to be aware of the interaction of thebody and the mind and wanted todevelop a training program that wouldmore effectively address and work withintegrating the whole person. Dr.Williams was one of the first to develop ahands-on training to combine the phys-iological and psychological approachesto healing.

The Three-Brain ModelFascia is the tissue that wraps muscles andgives them their shape. Ideally, musclesshould be able to move independently

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L/H R/H

RAS

Core

Place of strugglePlace of tryingLanguageSurvivalFrictionPositive thinkingGossipGoal definition/answer: What?ThesisComputer:Programmer/SoftwarePower: 16 Bits per second

Place of all knowingPlace of creation and beingSynthesisInertiaNo language and no struggleComputer: Modem to all computers in the universePower: Infinite

Filtering System70% of allbrain cells

are here

Physical activityFeelings/behaviorAntithesisMomentumThrustAnswers question: How?Powerplant of personComputer: Central Processing UnitPower: 500,000 to 1,000,000 bits per second

Three-brain model of soma neuromuscular integration.

and slide over each other, but often as aresult of age, injury, or physical or emo-tional stress, the fascia that wraps theindividual muscles glues together, caus-ing the fascia and the muscles to losefunctional and structural differentia-tion. Someone who has experienced aserious neck injury may attempt to turnhis or her head from side to side, butinstead of using only the muscles nec-essary to accomplish the rotation, themuscles of the neck and shoulders actas one, and turning the head ends uprequiring rotation of the entire uppertorso. Such gluing is a restriction inmovement that is expensive in terms ofenergy output and general vitality.

By working directly on the fascia, thesoma practitioner frees the musculature,allowing it to assume a more effective

structural relationship with the fascia.As a result, one stands taller with lesseffort, and moves with greater ease andcomfort. In addition, chronic muscle orjoint pain is almost always reduced oreliminated as muscles have the oppor-tunity to lengthen and assume optimalrelationships with surrounding fascia.

Neural tissue is embedded within themyofascial system. In the process of free-ing restricted and adhered fascia, somapractitioners work directly with the ner-vous system, sending sensory informationto the brain that allows the body newoptions to organize itself in more comfort-able, more energy efficient, more satisfy-ing ways. Practitioners believe that somabodywork teaches the body to self-correctand continuously reprogram itself togreater levels of ease and freedom.

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Training

The soma training is designed to be a unique, experiential, nonlinear training using Dr.Williams’s three-brain model as the underlying principle of integrating the body andmind. The soma training was first held in 1978 in Gainesville, Florida. In 1986 Marcia W.Nolte, LMP, and Karen L. Bolesky, M.A., CMHC, LPM, became co-directors of the SomaInstitute. In 1987 the Soma Institute moved to Washington State and continued toexpand and develop.

According to Marcia Nolte, codirec-tor of the SOMA Institute: “Life ischange and change is movement,movement in our bodies, our feelings,our thoughts. It is the loss of the abilityto move and change our bodies and ourthinking that continues over time todiminish our ability to experience life.soma bodywork focuses on accessingmore somatic options. Soma therapistsare not working toward the evolution ofa ‘perfect person’ by replacing old pat-terns with new, ‘right’ ones, but rathertoward a less rigid, more authenticindividual who responds creativelyrather than reacts to his or her environ-ment.”

To help accomplish this, soma thera-pists work with the three-brain modeldeveloped by Dr. Williams. The three-brain model is a way of understandinghuman consciousness and the activity ofthe nervous system. It is based in part onneuropsychiatric research, which hasclearly outlined specific differencesbetween the roles and functions of theleft and right sides of the brain. In sim-plified terms, the left half of the brain ismore logical and the right side is morecreative. The third “brain” in the modelis the corebrain, which consists of nerveplexi located in the abdomen. Accordingto Dr. Williams, it is the source of bodilyenergy and the means by which the leftand right hemispheres translate cogni-tion into activity.

Soma therapists believe that beingstuck or dominant in any one “brain”prevents optimal functioning. Theyendeavor to educate people as to howto integrate all three “brains.” The

structural organization resulting fromthe soma bodywork, the integrativeexercises, and somatic education are alldesigned to improve access to the three“brains.”

Ten SessionsThere are ten sessions in soma bodyworktreatment. These sessions last for approxi-mately ninety minutes to two hours andprogress layer by layer, working progres-sively deeper. The practitioner and clientwork together to slowly release and rebal-ance layers of tissue until reaching thedeepest layers of “the core.”

Unresolved feelings can surface inthe rebalancing process. Past traumathat may have been understood intel-lectually will continue to remain buriedin restricted tissues until it is addressed,released, and repatterned. The repat-terning part of the work is accom-plished through journaling with specialgoals, the three-brain model of body-mind functioning, a notebook of inte-grative movement, and individualsomatic learning.

ResultsThe results of soma bodywork are notlimited to the relief of symptoms,although relief occurs consistently. Theresults are believed to include increasedlevels of energy and performance, fewerstress-related symptoms, increasedflexibility, increased alignment andfreedom of movement, heightenedawareness emotionally and physically,greater self-reliance, and creativity.

—Karen Bolesky and Marcia W. Nolte

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Dr. Donald Epstein uses the techniques of touch and breath awareness, which form the basis ofsomato respiratory integration.

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Resource:

Soma Institute

730 Klink

Buckley, WA 98321

Tel: (360) 829-1025

Fax: (360) 829-2805

Web: www.soma-institute.com

Provides the professional licensing program and

the certification program in soma neuromuscular

integration and somassage. Trainings are held in

Washington state. The Soma Institute is licensed

by the Washington Workforce Training and Educa-

tion Coordinating Board, and the Washington

State Board of Massage. It also lists soma body-

work practitioners.

SOMATO RESPIRATORYINTEGRATION

Somato respiratory integration (SRI)is a system of breathing and touchthat is used to allow a person to

heal himself or herself. While it is notused to remedy a specific ailment, SRIinvites participants to access the body’sinner rhythms and experience the pre-sent moment more fully. The body’srhythms are charted in a twelve-stageprocess, through which a person expe-riencing SRI will progress.

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Over nearly two decades Dr. DonaldEpstein developed network chiropracticand network spinal analysis. He noticedspecific patterns of breath, movement,and self-touch that spontaneouslyoccurred in his clients after receivingnetwork care. Eventually he categorizedthese expressions into twelve stages ofconsciousness, each with its own pat-tern of breath, touch, and movement.The stages are suffering, polarities andrhythms, being stuck in a single per-spective, reclaiming power, mergingwith an illusion, preparing for resolu-tion, resolution, readiness in emptiness,light beyond form, ascent, descent, andcommunity.

Most of the exercises are done whilelying down or seated. At the start of anSRI session, participants are instructedto breathe gently while using their handto feel the rise and fall of their chest andabdomen. The breathing patterns mayinvolve various combinations of noseand mouth breathing. This exercise isused to transfer a peaceful rhythm tothe person’s hand, equipping it to healother regions of the body. The individ-ual then places his or her hands on var-ious areas of the body to allow them tomove in alignment with the rhythms.The exercises are used to find the mostpeaceful areas of the body and spreadthese areas of peace to other regions.They are a tool used to help an individ-ual pay attention to him- or herself in ameaningful way.

A practitioner intends to educate theclient in each of the twelve possiblerhythms of healing. An entire SRI ses-sion may involve connecting with up tofour rhythms. The time it takes to trans-fer a rhythm will vary with a person’sexperience. This technique is valued forbeing simple and effortless. The bodybecomes increasingly able to dissipatestored tension or energy. The benefits ofSRI will occur progressively over thetwelve distinct stages of the healingprocess. With each session, the naturalmovement of the body overtakes thethinking mind.

SRI does not attempt to force anyparticular outcome or catharsis. Theintent is to acknowledge and accept thebody’s rhythms without changing them.By observing the way a person moves,touches, and breathes, SRI is used toincrease a person’s self-awareness andrespect for his or her own healingprocess.

The SRI exercises are best learnedunder the guidance of a trained SRI facil-itator. SRI is not intended as a replace-ment for any form of therapy, nor as atreatment for specific health conditions.It is ultimately intended as a self-caresystem that may be used in conjunctionwith other healing modalities.

—Donald Epstein

Resources:

Innate Intelligence Inc.

444 N. Main Street

Longmont, CO 80501

Tel: (303) 678-8086

Provides information about SRI workshops and a

list of those who have taken the SRI programs.

Further Reading:

Epstein, Donald, and Nathaniel Altman. The

Twelve Stages of Healing. Novato, CA: New

World Library, 1994.

TRAGER PSYCHOPHYSICAL

INTEGRATION

Trager psychophysical integration isa type of bodywork that uses thehuman ability to feel pleasure and

other sensations as the basis for devel-oping and maintaining a healthy body.According to Trager theory, a healthybody is both the container for and areflection of a healthy mind and spirit.

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Practicing the Trager approach canresult in relief from pain and greaterfreedom of motion. It can also assist incorrecting long-standing patterns ofposture and movement that cause dis-comfort, unhappiness, and unfulfilledlife potential.

History of the Trager ApproachTrager psychophysical integration wasdeveloped by Milton Trager, M.D. As ayoung man Trager was an aspiringboxer. At the gym, the trainers and box-ers used bodywork to alleviate muscularpain after rough workouts. One dayTrager gave his trainer a rubdown anddiscovered that he had a gift for body-work. Shortly thereafter Trager quit box-ing and began to practice his ownintuitive form of bodywork on family,friends, and clients in his Miami neigh-borhood. He experienced success incases of sciatica, polio, and many otherconditions from which people hadfound no relief through conventionalmedicine.

After eight years of private informalpractice, Trager sought out more formaltraining and certification. At age forty-one, Trager entered the UniversiteAutonoma de Guadalajara in Mexico,where he studied medicine. While there,he impressed the doctors, professors,and Catholic nuns with his work with afour-year-old polio victim. After work-ing with her for just forty minutes, thegirl, who had been paralyzed from thewaist down for two years, could moveher foot in four directions. The demon-stration caused the university to orga-nize a clinic for Trager, where hecontinued to treat polio victimsthroughout his years of study.

In 1959, Trager opened a privatepractice in general medicine and physi-cal rehabilitation in Waikiki, Hawaii. In1974, while visiting Los Angeles, heworked on a patient with muscular dys-trophy. At the patient’s request Dr.Trager agreed to try to teach hisapproach to the patient’s regular thera-pist. Trager’s attempts to teach his

approach in the past had been unsuc-cessful. This time he first had the thera-pist place his hands over Trager’s ownhands as he worked. Then he had thetherapist place his hands on the patientwhile Trager worked on top of them.Finally, he let the therapist work alone.Trager knew he was successful when thepatient exclaimed, “That’s it, Doctor,he’s got it! It almost feels like you aredoing it!”

In 1973 Trager gave the first publicdemonstrations of his approach at theEsalen Institute in California. There hemet Betty Fuller and found that he couldteach her in the same fashion that he hadtaught the therapist. Fuller immediatelyrecognized the significance of Trager’swork and persuaded him to let her forman organization that would allow others tostudy it. The Trager Institute was foundedin 1980 with Fuller as director.

By 1977 Trager had closed his privatepractice in Hawaii to devote all of his timeto his growing number of students. Atpresent there are more than 900 studentsthroughout the world, more than 1,000certified practitioners, and fifteeencertified instructors.

The Principles of the Trager ApproachTrager believes that human beings are thesum total of all the experiences of theirlives. These experiences are ingrained inboth the body and the mind. Changes inreflex responses, tissue condition, andbehavior are possible, he believes,because of the deep neurological associa-tions between sensory stimulations, emo-tional feelings, attitudes, and concepts, aswell as the body’s motor response to all ofthem. He believes that clients shouldcome to him ready to learn more abouttheir bodies and minds rather than sim-ply to receive treatment.

Trager’s method of manipulating thebody is actually a form of movementreeducation. The Trager practitioner isnot concerned with moving particularmuscles or joints. Instead, he or sheuses motion in muscles and joints toproduce pleasurable feelings. These

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A Trager practitioner, in a relaxed state of consciousness called “hook-up,” transmits pleasurable sensa-tions to a client.

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Facts About Mentastics

It is a program of do-it-yourself exercises, often given as a kind of homework after the psychophysical integration (also known as bodywork or massage) session.

Instruction in mentastic exercise can be given by the practitioner at the end of the bodywork session or in a class.

A mentastics class is taught in a workshop format and usually lasts thirty to ninety minutes.The exercises consist of simple, dancelike movements. Students stretch and rock gently

and lightly. The objective is to relax and increase range of motion. The exercises are meant to allow

the body to feel free and agile, as well as releasing areas of pain and tension.

enter the central nervous system andbegin to trigger tissue changes bymeans of the many motor-sensory feed-back loops between the mind and themuscles. The Trager practitioner doesnot change the condition of tissue withhis or her hands. He or she uses thehands to remind the nervous systemhow it can feel. This feeling elicits tissueresponse within the client to achievethis relief and pleasure again. Over thecourse of many sessions a client learnshow to move and hold one’s body in ahealthier, more beneficial manner.

A Typical SessionA Trager psychophysical integrationsession takes from one to one and a halfhours. No oils or lotions are used. Theclient wears a bathing suit or under-clothing and lies on a well-padded tablein a warm, comfortable environment.The practitioner gently and rhythmical-ly moves the body of the client, first as awhole and then by moving individuallimbs and parts, in such a way that theclient feels the sensation of free, effort-less, and graceful movement.

In order to facilitate a successfulbodywork session the practitionerenters a relaxed state of consciousnessknown as “hook-up,” in which he or shephysically remembers pleasurable sen-sations. The practitioner transmitsthese pleasurable sensations throughhis or her hands directly to the client’sbody tissue, encouraging the tissue to

release into a lighter and freer physicalstate. When the Trager practitionerencounters stiffened limbs or hardenedmuscles, his or her response is to applygentle pressure to release tight, painfultissue and restore it to a deeply relaxedphysical state. After getting up from thetable, the client is given some instruc-tion in the use of mentastics, a system ofsimple, effortless movement sequencesdeveloped by Trager to maintain andenhance the feeling of balance, free-dom, and flexibility that was instilled bythe table work. Clients can also takeclasses in the exercise of mentastics.These are run in a workshop format.

Benefits and CautionsFor most clients, the effects of a Trager ses-sion appear to penetrate below the level ofconscious awareness and continue to pro-duce results long after the session itself.Benefits include the disappearance ofspecific symptoms, such as discomfort orpain; heightened levels of energy and vita-lity; better posture and carriage with lesseffort; greater joint mobility; a deep relax-ation of the body and mind; and a newease in daily activities.

Although the Trager session involvesgentle and light movement and body-work, it is not advisable for those suffer-ing from joint, bone, and disk disorders;complicated or high-risk pregnancies;broken bones, or blood clots.

—Nancy Allison, CMA, with Deane Juhan

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Resources:

Trager Institute

21 Locust Ave.

Mill Valley, CA 94941-2806

Tel: (415) 388-2688

Fax: (415) 388-2710

e-mail: TragerD@trager.com

Manages the certification program in Trager psy-

chophysical integration and mentastics movement

education. Training is conducted throughout

North America and Europe. The Trager Institute is

accredited by the California Nursing Continuing

Education Board and the Florida State Massage

Board.

Further Reading:

Trager, Milton, and Cathy Guadagno. Trager Men-

tastics: Movement as a Way to Agelessness. Bar-

rytown, NY: Station Hill Press, 1987.

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PART X: SOMATIC PRACTICES

Brain Gym® • Contact Improvisation • Continuum • Eurythmy • Gurdjieff Movements • Pilates Method of Body Conditioning® • ROM Dance •Skinner Releasing Technique • Spatial DynamicsSM • T’ai Chi Ch’üan

Somatic practices aremovement practices thatdevelop one’s mental,emotional, and spiritualexperience of life by awak-ening greater awareness ofthe sensations of his or herphysical body as it movesthrough space. The termsomatics was coined bythe American philosopherThomas Hanna (1928–1990) in the 1970s. Deriv-ing it from soma, the Greekword for “body,” Hannacoined the word somaticsto describe “the field ofstudy of the human beingas experienced by him orherself from the inside.”Hanna’s definition includesmany disciplines describedin other sections of thisencyclopedia. However, thissection focuses on disci-plines that were devised notfor relief from a particular

ailment or pain, but for those seeking to enhance one’s understanding and awareness ofwhat it means to be fully alive in a human body.

HistoryThroughout history, various cultures have used movement to impart mental, emo-

tional, or spiritual lessons. T’ai chi ch’üan, one of the oldest extant methods, wasdeveloped in China between the years 2205 BCE and 1100 CE, although its sources canbe found in the even more ancient practices of qigong. Called “great dances” by

Many people regularly practice t’ai chi ch’üan to stay fit and healthy.

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Emperor Yü, one of its earliest developers, t’ai chi’s sequence of movements wasdeveloped collectively by many generations of philosophers, healers, and artists. Theywere all influenced by Taoism, an ancient Chinese religion that encourages a keenobservation of the patterns of movement and change in nature as a means to helphuman beings understand the physical, mental, and emotional changes that occurduring the course of human existence.

Many ancient Western educational and spiritual traditions also developed move-ment practices. Most of these, including those believed to have been developed by theGreek philosopher and father of geometry Pythagoras and those developed by Jewishand Christian esoteric sects, have been lost to us. They were often practiced in secretand generally frowned upon by the dominant sects of the Judeo-Christian tradition,which condemned the body and its sensations.

For hundreds of years most Western culture, including educational methods andspiritual practices, maintained a separation of spirit and flesh, mind and body. Inthe latter part of the nineteenth century, however, some philosophers began to reex-amine the possibility of using physical exercises to promote healthy mental andemotional functioning. One of the best-known explorers of this period was theArmenian philosopher George Gurdjieff (1866–1949), whose “movements for edu-cating the whole person” were inspired by “sacred dances” he observed in a remotepart of Central Asia.

As the twentieth century dawned, the concept of learning mental, emotional,and spiritual lessons through body movements began to echo in many quarters. In1919 the Austrian philosopher Rudolph Steiner (1861–1925) opened the WaldorfSchools to teach eurythmy, his movement practice to promote spiritual growthbased on sound vibrations. Working from a different perspective, the German phys-ical culturist Joseph Pilates (1880–1965) developed contrology, now known as thePilates Method of Body Conditioning®, to free people from the stress and mecha-nization of living in the industrialized world. Pilates’ sequence of exercises borrowsheavily from the physical postures and concepts of the practice of hatha yoga.

In recent times, the concept of enhancing one’s experience of life through move-ment practices has been embraced by innovators in many other professions. Edu-cational theorists Paul and Gail Dennison developed Brain Gym

TMas a corollary to

contemporary educational practices. Dancers/choreographers Steve Paxton, EmilieConrad-Da’oud, and Joan Skinner developed contact improvisation, continuum,and Skinner release technique, respectively, from their own creative explorations ofmovement. Occupational therapists, such as Diane Harlowe—one of the originatorsof ROM dance—and clinical psychologists, such as Jaimen McMillan—the origina-tor of Spatial DynamicsSM—have created new movement sequences that also havebecome popular in many contexts outside their original healing work.

Theories of Somatic PracticesThe primary theoretical construct that ties these practices together was first elu-

cidated by the ancient cultures of China, India, and the Middle East and has beengiven voice in our own time by physicists studying the physical laws governing theuniverse. This ancient construct holds that the entire universe is in constant motion.As parts of the universe, humans are subject to the same laws of movement. By

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learning to experience how those laws of movement are reflected in our own bodies,we improve our physical condition. We also develop an intuitive understanding ofhow these physical principles affect our everyday experience. These physical lawsbecome metaphors for ways of thinking, feeling, and living.

Somatic practices help participants focus on the messages they receive from theirbodies and become more aware of their physical sensations in the present moment.Each method begins by teaching a person a physical skill. In some practices, such ast’ai chi ch’üan, Pilates Method, or Spatial Dynamics, the movement patterns areextremely specific and must be precisely replicated. In others, such as contact impro-visation, continuum, or Skinner release technique, the form of the movement is spon-taneously created by exploring a particular concept of movement. Whether the formis set, like an ancient spatial architecture, or improvised, like a free jazz tune, theprocess used develops one’s sensitivity to subtle changes in the body and its relationto its spatial environment. By developing heightened physical sensitivity, a person canexperience freer, more graceful, original, or daring movements, creating a sense ofpleasure, accomplishment, or calm.

Experiencing a Somatic PracticeSomatic practices are taught in just about every part of the world today. They may

be experienced in public and private schools, recreation and growth centers, at busi-ness seminars, or in private studios. Classes are generally taught in groups, althoughprivate instruction is sometimes available. Classes may be geared for any age level orspecial needs group. In addition to conditioning the physical body and offering apleasurable social interaction, these practices seem to imprint themselves on boththe body and the imagination of the mover, empowering and freeing him or her toface the challenges of life. In addition, many participants claim that these practiceshave expanded their sense of connection to the rest of the universe and awareness ofwhat it means to be a human being.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

Resources:

International Somatic Movement Education and

Therapy Association

148 West 23rd Street, 1H

New York, NY 10011

Tel: (212) 229-7666

The Somatics Society

1516 Grant Avenue, Suite 212

Novato, CA 94945

Tel: (415) 892-0617

Fax: (415) 892-4388

Organization offering seminars and information

on many somatic practices. Publishes the bi-annu-

al magazine-journal Somatics.

Further Reading:

Arnheim, Rudolf. Visual Thinking. Berkeley: Uni-

versity of California Press, 1969.

Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: The Theory of

Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books,

1985.

Hall, Edward T. The Hidden Dimension. New York:

Doubleday & Co., 1966.

Schneider, Michael S. A Beginner’s Guide to Con-

structing the Universe. New York: Harper-

Collins, 1994.

Brain Gym®

BRAIN GYM®

B rain Gym®* is a system of exercisesthat joins physical and mentaldevelopment in ways designed to

improve the person’s ability to learn andperform in all areas of endeavor. Thetraining focuses on linked brain andmotor skills but also includes exercisesfor the release of stress, now considereda major factor in children and adultswith learning differences. Practice inBrain Gym has been shown to accelerateprogress at school for students of all agesand skill levels, and to enhance successat work and in recreational pursuits.

Coping with Challenging SituationsBrain Gym was developed by Paul E.Dennison, Ph.D., in the late 1960s. Thedirector of several learning clinics in theLos Angeles area, Dennison was dis-couraged by inconsistent results insome of his patients. He researchedtechniques and information from earlychildhood developmental theory, brainresearch, developmental optometry,applied kinesiology, language acquisi-tion theory, dance and movement ther-apy, and his own field of learning theoryto formulate a way to improve the skillsof his patients. Dennison coined theterm “Brain Gym” to describe the move-ment activities he developed, whichwere simple enough for anyone, of anyage, to do, while effective enough thatanyone could benefit.

After the initial success of Brain Gym,Dennison collaborated with his wife,Gail, in exploring its potential as a self-help tool of broad application in busi-ness, sports, and the arts. In 1987 theyestablished a research-and-informationcenter on body-mind development, theEducational Kinesiology Foundation,that oversees the training of Brain Gyminstructors and coordinates the interna-tional network of Foundation faculty andBrain Gym instructors.

In 1991, Brain Gym was recognizedby the National Learning Foundation

(NLF) as one of twelve “successfullearning innovations.” Established inresponse to the White House Task Forceon Innovative Learning’s 1989 ActionPlan, the NLF’s mission is to make themost effective innovations in educationavailable nationwide.

Whole Brain LearningBrain Gym is based on theories aboutthe connection of mind and body in theformation of dynamic, balanced intelli-gence. The human brain has two hemi-spheres, each in control of one half ofthe body and a distinct type of mentalfunction. The left hemisphere is incharge of the body’s right side and carries out analytic processes, while theright hemisphere activates the left sideand works with visual and spatial per-ception. Though the right “gestalt”hemisphere can absorb large amountsof sensory information simultaneously,it cannot easily express the materialwithout the participation of the left “analytic” hemisphere. According to theDennisons, modern educational sys-tems are themselves imbalanced sincethey emphasize left-brain, logic-orient-ed skills at the expense of the compre-hension and creativity of whole-brainlearning.

Stress impedes whole-brain learningby stimulating the “fight-or-flight” reac-tion in which there are profound physi-cal changes. These changes includeelevated pulse and blood pressure, anincreased breathing rate, slowed diges-tion, and unfocused vision—all normal,healthy responses to threat, and useful tomobilize energy to escape from or over-come the threat. However, theseresponses can make learning difficult atbest and, if prolonged, can lead to illness.Using movement to activate the parts ofthe brain where logical, rational thinkingtakes place, Brain Gym helps the brain torecover from the fight-or-flight response,evaluate the nature of the threat, andrespond appropriately. As the brainresponds, the overall stress level drops,and competence increases. In the case of

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Brain Gym’s Popularity

In 1991 the White House Task Force on Innovative Learning acclaimed Brain Gym as oneof twelve “successful learning innovations” because of its effectiveness in improvingbasic math, reading, and writing skills. Its reputation is now international, and schoolsin countries such as New Zealand have incorporated Brain Gym into their curricula.

children, this is crucial to their entireprocess of growth and change sincestress disturbs the organism at everylevel of its relationship to the world.

Brain Gym® ExercisesThere are several ways to use BrainGym. A series of individual sessionswith a certified instructor usually getsthe quickest results. Each sixty- to nine-ty-minute session is focused on aspecific goal, and starts with PACE (pos-itive, active, clear, and energetic), aseries of steps that prepare the partici-pant for the work ahead.

Then the instructor and the studentgo through a process called a “balance.”Together they identify where the brain isworking smoothly, and where it’sresponding less efficiently. The instruc-tor guides the student through basicBrain Gym or in-depth edu-k move-ments, to help the brain make thoseconnections more effectively. Whole-body activities, exercises to activate eye-hand coordination, movements for finemotor coordination, and others may beused, depending on each individual’sneeds.

By the end of the balance, the stu-dent notices positive changes in atti-tude, posture, and skills. The student isassigned exercises to do daily at home.These exercises, called “homeplay,”support and stabilize the cumulativebenefits of the balance. Parents areencouraged to do exercises at homewith their children, and often the wholefamily will do Brain Gym together.

Benefits of Brain Gym®

Today, Brain Gym is used in thousands

of schools in the United States, Canada,Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Africa,and Russia. Improvements are reportedin all areas of academic skills, includingself-esteem, memory, recall, test-taking,listening and attention, technical andcreative writing, reading speed andcomprehension, oral reading and self-expression. People with learning difficul-ties such as dyslexia, ADD, and ADHDreport improved focus, comprehension,and physical coordination with BrainGym. Reports indicate, students getmore out of other methods when BrainGym is added.

—Lark Carroll

* Brain Gym® is a registered trademark of the Edu-cational Kinesiology Foundation.

Resources:

The Educational Kinesiology Foundation

P.O. Box 3396

Ventura, CA 93006-3396

Tel: (800) 356-2109

Web site: www.braingym.com

Lists Brain Gym instructors in your area, provides

copies of the newsletters Brain Gym Journal and

Edu-K Update, and offers schedules of courses.

Further Reading:

Dennison, Gail E., and Paul E.Dennison, Ph.D.

Brain Gym. Ventura, CA: Edu-Kinesthetics, Inc.,

1986.

——. Brain Gym: Teacher’s Edition, Revised edi-

tion. Ventura, CA: Edu-Kinesthetics, Inc., 1994.

Contact Improvisation

——. Edu-K for Kids. Ventura, CA: Edu-Kinesthet-

ics, Inc., 1987.

——. Personalized Whole Brain Integration. Ventu-

ra, CA: Edu-Kinesthetics, Inc., 1985.

Dennison, Gail E., Paul E. Dennison, Ph.D., and

Jerry V. Teplitz, J.D., Ph.D. Brain Gym for Busi-

ness. Ventura, CA: Edu-Kinesthetics, Inc., 1995.

Hannaford, Carla, Ph.D. Smart Moves. Why Learn-

ing Is Not All in Your Head. Arlington, VA: Great

Ocean Publishers, 1995.

CONTACT IMPROVISATION

Contact improvisation is a form of dance that explores the relation-ship of mind and body during the

experience of interactive touch andimprovised movement. While it is gener-ally performed in group classes and jamsessions, and involves ensemble exercis-es, training focuses on the skills and theattitudes required to create a duet with-out cues from a choreographed scenarioor speech. In fact music is often not usedin contact improvisation. The processstarts by tuning the partners’ capacity to “listen” and respond to touch and leadsto dancing that ranges freely from gentlegestures to acrobatic movements. In atypical dance, the partners lean, roll,and fall on and with each other; theymay also lift or invert the other. At anylevel of expertise, the dancing builds amomentum that encourages trust, risk-taking, and physical dialogue from par-ticipants. Contact improvisationcontinues to be best known as a compo-nent of professional dance, but aware-ness of its psychological and physicalbenefits has won it growing popularityas an “art sport” for amateurs. Duringthe past few years, it has also beenapproached as a mode of mind/bodyhealing and as an adjunct to the martialarts of Asia.

The Development of ContactImprovisationAlthough contact improvisation is nowincluded in many dancers’ repertory oftechniques, it originated in the 1960samid a wave of experiments that chal-lenged the traditions governing the con-ception and presentation of dance.Stylized movement, mythic narrative,and stage spectacle were jettisoned in aneffort, led first by the Merce Cunning-ham and then the Judson Church Group,to find ways to connect dance to therealities of contemporary life. JudsonChurch productions featured movementtaken from work, sports, and the martialarts and often investigated ordinaryactivity, such as sweeping a floor. Whatwas eventually called contact improvisa-tion first appeared in 1972 in “Magne-sium,” a piece presented by StevePaxton, a choreographer and dancerwho had been a member of both theCunningham Company and the JudsonChurch Group. The dancers of “Magne-sium” did not attempt to “perform” any-thing; they instead reacted to oneanother, improvising their movementsand going with the flow of the experi-ence. Later in 1972, Paxton presented aperformance evolved from “Magne-sium.” It retained the use of a group ofimprovising dancers but focused on theinteraction of mixed- and same-sexpartners and became the prototype forhis subsequent work with contactimprovisation.

Assisted by teachers such as NancyStark Smith and Daniel Lepkoff, Paxtonstarted to offer workshops and perfor-mances in contact improvisation. By thelate 1970s, it had its own publication, theContact Newsletter, later renamed theContact Quarterly, and was becoming amajor force in the development of post-modern dance. Dance companies thatbased their work on contact improvisa-tion were mushrooming in the UnitedStates, and by the early 1980s, dancers incultural centers throughout the world,especially Amsterdam, Berlin, and Lon-don, were adapting its principles.

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Nancy Stark Smith and Steve Paxton, developers of contact improvisation, a dance-like somatic practice.

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Contact improvisation entered theworld of body-mind therapy throughan outpouring of popular support. Ithad been attracting a huge amateur fol-lowing during the 1970s and 1980s andgradually made its way into the curric-ula of many colleges and universities.In this context of self-discovery and lib-eral arts study, contact improvisationbegan to be viewed as a techniqueaccessible to anyone interested inenhancing their understanding ofbody-mind communication. For some,contact improvisation became a com-plement to the practice of t’ai chi, aiki-do, or yoga. For others, it offered ameans of helping children, senior citi-zens, and people with disabilities.Today, three organizations, Touch-down, DanceAbility, and Mobility Junc-tion, are at the forefront of the workbeing done to incorporate contactimprovisation into therapy programsfor people with special needs.

The Principles of Contact ImprovisationDespite the diversity of its sources andimprovised structures, contact improvi-sation has a remarkably consistent lookand feel, whether done by professionalor amateur dancers. This is because,like a conversation, it has a few groundrules that everyone understands andfollows as they meet and exchangeresponses. Trust is a top priority. Thedancers need to release tension anduncertainty and meet one another in anopen, relaxed way. Otherwise they willnot be able to establish the connectionthat is essential to the process of recip-rocal improvisation. Trust and physicallistening are key factors in determiningthe actions of the dancers. They dropconcern for the look of the body inorder to concentrate on the flow ofenergy between them and their partner.The outcome is a collaborative processdescribed as “a cross between jitterbug-ging, wrestling, and making love.” The

Contact Improvisation

dancers focus on the physical sensationsof touching, leaning, supporting, andfalling with one another. Awkwardnessmatters only if it is a symptom of onedancer’s lack of focus and withdrawalfrom the spontaneous release into thehere-and-now of physical experience.The emphasis on being present in themoment links contact improvisation tothe martial arts, yoga, and meditation.All these disciplines encourage the indi-vidual to let go of blocks that preventhim from apprehending the energy thatconstantly courses between mind andbody.

Experiencing Contact ImprovisationStudents work with one another, learn-ing to establish connection throughlight physical touch and to movetogether in a shared kinesphere. A kine-sphere may be pictured as a bubble ofspace in which the body moves. It isusually envisioned as the 360 degrees ofspace encircling an individual, but incontact improvisation the kinesphere isthe joint creation of dancers whobecome adept at falling and rollingtogether, sliding off each other, spiral-ing around, and leaning into eachother. They learn to find “tables” orbody surfaces on one partner that cansupport the balanced weight of theother.

The structure of a class in contactimprovisation depends on the teacher’sparticular interests and on the needsand abilities of individual students.Beginning-level classes concentrate onthe basic skills for performing duet andgroup improvisation. Exercises in touchincrease the skin’s ability to registerinformation about the speed and angleof movement. Other exercises help thebody to release and become receptive.Students learn to roll and slide on thefloor and on each other with ease; touse the body’s surfaces for support; toflow with the momentum of move-ment; to reverse and invert the body’sorientation; and to circle and spiral inspace.

More complex duet and groupimprovisation is the focus of classes atthe intermediate and advanced levels.Mastery of an exercise known as “flying”is often the last skill to be taught. Thedancers vault in the air, are caught bytheir partners, and perch momentarilyover the head of their partner. Genderequality is valued at this as at all levelsof training: men lift women and viceversa.

A portion of each class is generallyreserved for free-form dancing by stu-dents. The action is likely to begin in a“round robin.” Some members of thegroup improvise while the others form acircle around them. As the dancing pro-ceeds, the organization of the “roundrobin” becomes increasingly fluid. Peo-ple join and leave the dancing at will,improvise with various partners, ordance alone.

The Risks and Benefits of ContactImprovisationThough injuries are rare in contactimprovisation, it is a strenuous activityand many participants take the precau-tion of wearing kneepads. It is alsoadvisable to review one’s personalboundaries before taking up contactimprovisation. Those with a history oftrauma or abuse may find it disturbing.

Advocates regard contact improvisa-tion as a unique blend of sport, art, andmeditation and credit it with numeroushealth benefits. It can release tension,promote an overall sense of well-beingand ease, boost vitality, and aid con-centration. Further, as a non-sexualform of intimacy, it affords a safe way tosort through volatile issues of gender,trust, bonding, control, and spontane-ity in human relationships. Some pro-ponents would add that contactimprovisation is most effective andcomplete when experienced as ametaphor for the movement andchange pervading all aspects of latetwentieth-century life.

—Paul Langland

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Resources:

Contact Collaborations

c/o Forti Studio

537 Broadway

New York, NY 10012

Provides information about contact improvisation

training and performance; maintains a video

archive of contact improvisation.

Contact Quarterly

P.O. Box 603

Northampton, MA 01061

Tel: (413) 586-1181

A journal with articles on contact improvisation

and compiles an international directory of contact

improvisers.

Movement Research

296 Elizabeth Street

New York, NY 10012

Tel: (212) 477-6635

Provides information about contact improvisation

classes.

Further Reading:

Novack, Cynthia J. Sharing the Dance: Contact

Improvisation and American Culture. Madison,

WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990.

CONTINUUM

C ontinuum, a movement programdeveloped by Emilie Conrad-Da’oud in 1967, encourages partici-

pants to resonate with the motions andrhythms of our primordial origins, whichare subtle, undulating movements pulsingin the fluids of our bodies. One of thebenefits of this practice is to facilitate therelease of mental and physical illness fromthe body and promote health throughengagement on a biological level.

Origins of ContinuumContinuum springs from the work ofone woman, Emilie Conrad-Da’oud,

who was born in New York City in 1934.Conrad-Da’oud is a classically traineddancer who spent five years as a chore-ographer in Haiti in the late 1950s.Upon her return to the United States in1960, Conrad-Da’oud remained fasci-nated with the throbbing drum rhythmsof Haitian music and dance. She won-dered if the richness of Haitian dancemight draw from roots deeper than cul-ture. She wondered whether its powermight stem from a biological source.

Guided by all that she had absorbedfrom the richness of the sacred dancesof Haiti, Conrad-Da’oud spent sevenyears deconstructing their movementsand exploring their origins. Inspired byDamballah, the snake deity from thevodou religion of Haiti, Conrad-Da’oudgained insight into the powerful originsof these movements. As a serpent withits belly to the earth, Damballahbrought the undulating movements ofthe water to land, and it was thesemotions that Conrad-Da’oud recog-nized in Haitian sacred dances as a linkbetween humankind’s water-based ori-gins and our current, land-based lives.

From 1974 to 1979, Conrad Da’oud’swork was researched by Dr. ValerieHunt, professor of kinesiology at UCLA.Hunt’s findings questioned convention-al notions of movement education at thetime. She found that, through a practicesuch as continuum, we can access ourown cellular world, or effect changes inour body on a cellular level, and encour-age our body’s capacity to innovatewhen faced with injury or illness.

Many movement education programsdeal with the body as an object whilecontinuum presents it as a process. Inother words, continuum explores thebody on a fluid and cellular level, believ-ing the body is not bounded by form;there is a constant exchange in our fluidsand cells with those of the environment,and we are in continual participationwith the planetary process.

These ideas have influenced thefields of dance, physical therapy, deeptissue therapy, as well as disciplinessuch as chiropractic, physical fitness,

Continuum

and somatics. People from many differ-ent disciplines in the alternative healthcommunity explore continuum andapply to their own practices the idea ofthe human being as a fluid, innovative,boundless being, with movement inher-ent to our very selves.

Theory of ContinuumThe continuum program representsConrad-Da’oud’s distillation of Dambal-lah’s wavelike motions with our ownhuman biology. A human’s first environ-ment, in the uterus, is liquid. Accordingto Conrad-Da’oud, our fluid origin isinseparable from our surrounding envi-ronment. In other words, the fluids ofthe biosphere resonate with the fluid ofour bodies and we are in concert withour world. For these reasons, continuumholds that human beings are primarilyaquatic and become terrestrial.

Conrad-Da’oud also sees humanbeings as “biomorphic,” which meansthat we include all life-forms. We are allpart of a larger process, along with otheranimals, plants, and Earth itself. Conrad-Da’oud emphasizes that the human bodyemerges from the matings of earlier life,from protozoa to mammals, the vestigesof which lie within us, along with thevastness of biological intelligence.

Continuum encourages participants toexplore themselves as biomorphic beingsand to establish a mental and physicalrapport with the various life-forms withinthem. Participants allow their primordialmovements—which curve, arc, and spi-ral—to emerge. Through rapport with ourbiological heritage, Conrad-Da’oud hasfound that our complex fluidity can pro-vide an environment for creativity andinnovation to occur. In relation to “heal-ing,” the suggestion is made that innova-tion can create neural pathways that canbypass trauma, allowing life to move on innew and surprising ways.

The Experience and Health Benefitsof ContinuumConrad-Da’oud’s work involves a greatdeal of attention to the movement of

breath. All movement begins with inhal-ing and exhaling. By invoking a soften-ing of the breath, participants ofcontinuum disrupt habitual patternsand encourage an increased mobility ofbreath to access greater flexibility andadaptability. This new dexterity ofbreath invigorates nerve fibers and con-nective tissues that have becomeentrenched in the old patterns. Ulti-mately, these breathing exercisesincrease our capacity to receive cellularnourishment and bring about a healingenvironment to areas that have becomebarren and atrophied.

Physical and emotional trauma andgenetic deformities sometimes leavethe body with limited functionality.Among the paralyzed, for example, thetraditional neural pathways have beeninjured. By breathing in a manner thatcreates a wavelike motion, we can causemicro-movements to spread into dor-mant areas, often returning function toareas that traditional medicine cannotaffect.

Continuum, more than anything else,provides a context for questioning andcomprehending not just physical move-ment but all aspects of our functioning.Our whole thinking-feeling-moving-elec-trochemical-electromagnetic organismparticipating within its biological and cul-tural environment can be lived as oneunbroken movement. Participants cometo understand that our responsibilities,the significance and meanings we giveour world, can be seen as one process offlowing movement.

—Compiled in consultation with Emilie Conrad-Da’oud

Resources:

Continuum Studio

1629 18th Street 7

Santa Monica, CA 90404

Tel: (310) 453-4402

Fax: (310) 453-8775

Offers workshops in Continuum.

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EURYTHMY

Eurythmy is a movement art that translates verbal and musicalsounds into movement of the

human body. According to eurythmy,there are three most basic ways inwhich life expresses itself. They aremovement, form, and language. Byintegrating these elemental expressionsof life and creating a harmoniousexpression of them, eurythmy isbelieved to reach the spiritual naturebehind all living things, giving this spir-itual nature a clear voice and a visible reality.

The Origin of EurythmyEurythmy was conceived in 1912 byRudolf Steiner, the Austrian-bornfounder of the spiritual movementknown as Anthroposophy. Eurythmy isa Greek term meaning “harmoniousrhythm” and was chosen becauseSteiner saw rhythm as the very basisand center of life. Around the time thathe began to consider the notion ofeurythmy, Steiner founded the Anthro-posophical Society, a movementintended to help further his teachings,particularly his belief in the existenceof a spiritual realm that can be per-ceived by people with highly developedmental faculties.

A philosopher and visionary, Steinerasserted that all human beings—withproper training and preparation—havethe potential to participate in the spiri-tual world. To this end, he devised a sys-tem of education called the WaldorfSchool movement, which uses such dis-ciplines as eurythmy to teach individu-als from the earliest age about theirinner spirituality and their relationshipto the world around them. Eurythmyalso can be performed on stages beforeaudiences or employed as a therapy fortreating various types of illness. Thereare currently more than thirty eurythmytraining centers located throughout theworld.

Language and Music as a Basis forMovementIn eurythmy the human voice and lan-guage are often used as the basis formovement. Human sound can bethought of as carrying all of life withinit. The name of a thing, a person, or anexperience can be seen as more thanjust a separate description. The soundschosen to represent something can beseen as a reenactment of the uniquespiritual and physical qualities of thething in question, as holding the essen-tial qualities of the thing itself. And sowhen eurythmy is performed, the ges-tures are not symbols, they are expres-sions of the essence of the thing itself.

The human voice is a remarkableinstrument, capable of transformingour inner experiences into anothermedium—sound. When the sounds oflanguage and song are intoned, they setinto motion unique yet invisible wavesor gestures through the air. In eurythmythese gestures are artistically expressedto reveal the outer forms belonging toeach consonant or vowel, each musical tone or interval.

The Philosophy of EurythmyFor Steiner, eurythmy was not a physicalillustration or interpretation of languageand music, but instead a true expressionof sound through the body. Claiming tosee a shifting field of energy aroundeach human being, Steiner identified asystem of body movements that corre-spond to the shapes of the energy fieldas it responds to each spoken word andmusical sound. To an uninformed mem-ber of the audience, eurythmy mayseem to be a mix of mime, dance, andsign language performed to music,singing, or spoken word. Steiner, howev-er, declared that eurythmic movementsare equivalent to sound, not artistic rep-resentations of it. To him, eurythmy isone means of assisting humankind inreturning to an earlier state in whichpeople were more aware of their innerbeing and the invisible processes of theworld. In the Introduction to Eurythmy,

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The techniques of eurythmy can be used to create concert dance.

Steiner stated: “The seeds of movementare manifest in the human larynx andits neighboring organs when someonespeaks . . . or when he produces musi-cal sounds. If one had some artificialdevice by which one could see at such amoment how the air mass is stirred torhythmic vibration by the incipientmovements of the larynx and its neigh-boring organs, he would realize . . . howthe entire man is revealed through it.”

Eurythmy in PracticeIn studying eurythmy, a person learnsabout the different qualities found inthe sounds of language and tones ofmusic. Eurythmy classes begin withmovement exercises that help studentsbetter understand and be more com-fortable with space, with people aroundthem, and with their own movements.Subsequently, one is taught specificmovements or gestures that correspondto each letter of the alphabet. Initially,

movements are acted out in silence, andlater they are performed in collabora-tion with live music or spoken words. Ina speech eurythmy class, studentsexamine the elements of languageSteiner felt appeared in poetry, drama,and fiction. In a tone eurythmy class,they study the gestures Steiner believedwere inherent in music. Performance ofeurythmy on a stage can incorporatecolorful costumes and dramatic light-ing, which heighten the mood createdby the actors and musicians.

Benefits of EurythmyStudents who have studied eurythmy atWaldorf schools reportedly benefit fromimproved coordination, agility, andflexibility, and a greater sense of physicalwell-being; for these reasons, eurythmyis also commonly used as therapy.Group practice of eurythmy creates astrong sense of teamwork, as individualsjointly overcome their reluctance to use

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physical expression in public. Further-more, since eurythmy is taught as ameans to explore the psyche, this verypersonal, revealing experience can havethe effect of bonding those who undergothe process together. As well as thesereasons for practicing eurythmy, Steinerinsisted that the most important benefitis mental: decreased dependence on theworld of the senses and increased per-ception of the spiritual world.

—Beth Dunn-Fox

Resources:

Anthroposophic Press

RR 4 Box 94 A-1

Hudson, NY 2534

Tel: (518) 851-2054

Fax: (518) 851-2047

Publishes many Rudolf Steiner texts, including sev-

eral on eurythmy. A catalog is available upon

request.

Eurythmy Association of North America

13726 23rd Avenue NE

Seattle, WA 98125

Tel: (206) 361-6113

Eurythmy Spring Valley

285 Hungry Hollow Road

Chestnut Ridge, NY 0977

Tel: (914) 352-5020

Fax: (914) 352-5071

e-mail: bdeury@aol.com

Provides a professional training program accredit-

ed by the Association of Eurythmy in Dornach,

Switzerland. Weekly courses and summer work-

shops are also offered for those interested in experi-

encing eurythmy for refreshment and

self-development.

Waldorf Schools in North America Director of

Schools

Web site: www.io.com/user/karisch/

waldir.html

Waldorf schools, many of which offer eurythmy class-

es for children, teens, and adults, are located through-

out the United States and Canada.

Further Reading:

Steiner, Rudolf. Curative Eurythmy. Hudson, NY:

Anthroposophic Press, 1984.

——. Eurythmy as Visible Speech. Hudson, NY:

Anthroposophic Press, 1984.

——. An Introduction to Eurythmy: Talks Given

Before Sixteen Eurythmy Performances. Hudson,

NY: Anthroposophic Press, 1983.

——. A Lecture on Eurythmy. London: Rudolf

Steiner Press, 1977.

GURDJIEFF MOVEMENTS

The Gurdjieff movements weredeveloped by the Armenianteacher George Ivanovitch Gurdji-

eff as the way for his pupils to experi-ence in movement the reality of histeaching. Practice of the Gurdjieffmovements has meaning only whenundertaken in the context of an entireprogram of activities and studies of thesystem of Gurdjieff’s ideas. The aim ofthe movements is to bring together themind, body, and feelings through theperformance of different kinds of exer-cises, rhythmic sequences, series ofpostures, and dances.

George Ivanovitch GurdjieffGeorge Ivanovitch Gurdjieff was bornin 1866 in Alexandropol, now known asGumri, in what is now Armenia. He wasraised and educated in Russian Arme-nia at a time and place in which therewas a confluence of new technologiesand scientific ideas of the West with thetraditions, thought, and religions of theEast.

In his autobiographical account,Meetings with Remarkable Men (pub-lished posthumously in 1963), he writesof his father, a well-known ashokh, orbard, who was part of an oral tradition

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stretching back to the distant past. Thelegends that he heard from his fatherleft a mark on his whole life. His tutors,men of science and religion, trainedhim for both the priesthood and medi-cine, and he pursued his studies withburning interest. In Meetings withRemarkable Men, Gurdjieff describes

several close escapes from death as wellas encounters with “magic” and othermanifestations of realities beyond theexplanations of science and logic. As hecame of age in the midst of theseunfathomable mysteries and inexplica-ble events, Gurdjieff felt dissatisfiedwith the answers of contemporary

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knowledge and began his search forother sources of wisdom. He and fellow“seekers of truth”—young people withquestions similar to his own, includingengineers, doctors, archaeologists, andmusicians—journeyed for several yearsthrough central Asia and northernAfrica to find the answers to their ques-tions about the meaning of life.

Eventually they found a school in aremote, nearly inaccessible monastery,whose exact location remains a mystery.It was here that Gurdjieff first witnessedsacred dances.

In the early 1900s, Gurdjieff came toMoscow with a teaching that attractedgroups of artists and intellectuals,including P. D. Ouspensky (1878–1947),one of his best-known disciples. As theRussian revolution drew near, Gurdjieffand a small group of followers movedto Tiflis (now Tbilisi, Georgia) andestablished the Institute for the Har-monious Development of Man. It washere that he first taught “sacred gym-nastics”—now known as the Move-ments. He was joined at this time by thecomposer Thomas de Hartmann andhis wife, and by the Russian painterAlexandre de Salzmann and his wife,Jeanne, a teacher of Dalcroze euryth-mics, a study of the relationshipbetween music and movement. WhenWorld War I made it impossible for himto continue his work there, Gurdjieffand his pupils continued their journeyto Essentuki, Russia, in 1917, to Istan-bul, Turkey, in 1920, and finally toFrance. In 1922, he reestablished theInstitute for the Harmonious Develop-ment of Man at the Chateau du Prieuréat Fontainebleau, near Paris. Duringthe 1920s and 1930s, Gurdjieff furtherdeveloped many of the central methodsand practices of his teaching, includingthe movements. His work began toattract people throughout Europe, andin 1924 he visited America for the firsttime.

During the years between 1924 and1935, Gurdjieff reduced the work of theinstitute, putting most of his energy andattention on writing. After 1935, assisted

by Jeanne de Salzmann, he expandedthe work of the institute in France andvisited the United States three moretimes, enlarging his work there. He diedin Paris on October 29, 1949.

For forty years after Gurdjieff’s death,his primary pupil, Jeanne de Salzmann,guided the ongoing efforts of GurdjieffFoundation groups throughout theworld. She oversaw the publication ofhis writings, and between 1950 and1984, she produced a series of docu-mentary films of the movements as anarchive of the Gurdjieff teaching. Today,movements classes are part of a whole program of activities conducted at theGurdjieff Foundations in Paris, London,New York, Caracas, and other majorcities. The Gurdjieff work remains anoral tradition, passed from teacher topupil in a living chain of transmission.

At the heart of Gurdjieff’s teaching isthe perspective that human beings area vital link in a universal process.Unfortunately, they are “asleep” to theirunique cosmic place and to the fullpotential of their individual essentialnatures. Each person is like someonewho lives in the smallest room of his orher house, never suspecting there areother rooms, filled with treasure.

According to Gurdjieff’s teaching,what is needed in order to discover eachperson’s own hidden treasure is a newkind of attention that comes from thephysical and emotional sides of one’snature as well as from the mind. Gurdji-eff was a merciless critic of the usualkind of education, which he said only“stuffs” the mind with unrelated infor-mation and opinions. He constantlytold his pupils that they should verifyfor themselves everything he taught andaccept nothing until they had personal-ly experienced its truth.

The MovementsWith the aim of an education for thewhole human being, Gurdjieff intro-duced the study of ideas, group meet-ings, practical physical work, and themovements. Participation in the move-ments is one of the primary means

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The Sacred Dances

During his youth, Gurdjieff traveled to regions of Central Asia in search of answers to thequestions that tormented him. In remote monasteries, he first witnessed certain sacreddances that made a lasting impression on him. This is dramatized in Peter Brook’s film,Meetings with Remarkable Men, when the young Gurdjieff asks, “What is the meaning ofthese movements?” An older pupil answers, “They tell us of two qualities of energy mov-ing without interruption through the body. As long as the dancer can keep in balancethese two energies, he has a force that nothing else can give. . .”

through which students are able toexperience the power that mechanicalhabits such as posture, tension, facialexpression, etc., have over their innerstates. The practice of experiencingone’s actual way of being, or self-study,according to Gurdjieff, is the beginningof self-knowledge and inner freedom.Practice of the movements offers theopportunity for such study and theforetaste of such a liberating knowl-edge.

The task of the dancers is to learn toparticipate with the whole of them-selves. What is seen is the movementitself, as if the series of postures werethe outer image of an inner and moresubtle energy. Understood in this way,one realizes that the aim of the move-ments is not to create a psychic state ofsome kind, but to develop a specificattention leading to an immediate andpractical experience of the inner struc-ture of the human being and of the cos-mological order to which humanitybelongs.

Movements classes are composed ofstudents working together in a group,with more experienced pupils directingand guiding the course of each class.There are exercises of different quali-ties, including movements of forcefuldynamism and quiet prayer, men’s andwomen’s dances, and exercises thatdemonstrate the cyclic movements ofmathematical laws. Each dance or exer-cise is composed of sequences of fixedpostures executed in specific rhythmsand tempos in which a demand is made

to stretch the attention beyond its usuallimits. Practicing these exercises, onefinds it possible to truly inhabit thebody; from there, one may then open tothe transformative power that a betterquality of attention can bring.

The music used to accompany thesacred dances comes from varioussources. Gurdjieff had a keen sensitivityto and memory for the music he hadheard since his early childhood andduring his travels in Asia. Between 1919and 1924, he began to write music forthe sacred dances in close collaborationwith the composer Thomas de Hart-mann. Later, de Hartmann and othersexpanded this literature, and pianistsaccompanying today’s movementsclasses play these earlier compositionsas well as improvise music based onsimilar scales and harmonies. The taskof the pianist, like the pupils working inthe class, is to seek to understand themeaning of each exercise as it is beingpracticed.

A New PotentialThe study of the Gurdjieff movements,when undertaken in conjunction withthe study of his system of ideas, offersthe means for inner discovery anddevelopment. Through this practice, themind and the feelings are able to com-bine with the movements of the body toexpress the potential of the wholehuman being.

—The Gurdjieff Foundation of New York

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Further Reading:

Gurdjieff, G. I. Beelzebub’s Tales to His Grandson.

Aurora, OR: Two Rivers Press, 1993. (A facsimile of

the original 1950 edition published by Harcourt

Brace and reissued by E. P. Dutton in 1964.)

——. Beelzebub’s Tales to His Grandson. New York

and London: Viking Arkana, 1992. (A revised

translation of the original.)

——. Meetings with Remarkable Men.* New York:

E. P. Dutton, 1963; New York and London:

Arkana, 1985.

——. Life Is Real Only Then, When “I Am.” New

York: E. P. Dutton, 1978; New York and London:

Viking Arkana, 1991.

——. Views from the Real World: Early Talks in

Moscow, Essentuki, Tiflis, Berlin, London, Paris,

New York and Chicago as Recollected by His

Pupils. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1973; London:

Viking Arkana, 1984.

Ouspensky, P. D. In Search of the Miraculous:

Fragments of an Unknown Teaching. New York:

Harcourt Brace and World, 1949.

——. The Psychology of Man’s Possible Evolution.

New York: Knopf, 1954.

* The film Meetings with Remarkable Men, createdby Jeanne de Salzmann and Peter Brook, is avail-able on videocassette through Corinth Video.

PILATES METHOD OF BODYCONDITIONING®

The Pilates Method of Body Condi-tioning®* consists of a series of exer-cises designed to develop a

complete and balanced individual bystrengthening and stretching the bodywhile fully engaging the mind. Foundedmore than seventy years ago by JosephPilates, this method has been quite pop-ular among dancers and professional

athletes. While the exercises may appearto be just physical, there is a consciousaspect that is essential. Students useconcentration and mental focus to con-trol body alignment and breathing andto perform exercises with grace and con-trol. The exercises are intended to createa graceful efficiency in one’s everydaymovements. Many practitioners alsoreport a direct “mental rejuvenation” as aresult of performing these exercises.

The History of the Pilates Method ofBody Conditioning®

Joseph H. Pilates was born in Germanyin 1880. He was a frail and sickly childsuffering from rickets and asthma.Determined to be strong and healthy,Pilates worked extremely hard at body-building, and by the time he was four-teen years old, he had become sophysically fit that he was able to posefor anatomical charts. He then went onto become a boxer, diver, skier, andgymnast.

In 1912 Pilates moved to England,where he continued his boxing trainingand taught self-defense classes. DuringWorld War I he was interned with otherGerman nationals on the Isle of Man.While there he began devising his per-sonal exercise methods and starteddesigning special equipment to helpwith the exercises. He also helped reha-bilitate injured internees and encour-aged others to practice his technique inorder to stay healthy.

In 1923 Pilates left England forAmerica, and on the way he met andmarried a woman whose own ideasabout exercise fused with and encour-aged his. Together they founded the firstPilates studio in New York City.

For many years the Pilates Methodwas extremely popular among dancersand professional performers in New YorkCity, while it remained virtuallyunknown elsewhere. Dancers embracethe method for its ability to fine-tune thebody, giving the dancer great strengthand energy while maintaining long, leanmuscles with tremendous flexibility. In

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more recent years this system’s populari-ty has grown to encompass people of allages and all stages of fitness. Today, suchmedical professionals as physical thera-pists and chiropractors are recommend-ing and adopting Pilates as a means ofrehabilitation and preventative medi-cine, and certified studios now can befound throughout the world.

Pilates’ Philosophy of Body/MindDevelopmentJoseph Pilates believed that fitnessrequired more than just physical educa-tion. He believed in the development ofthe whole person—body, mind, andspirit. Pilates referred to his unique sys-tem of exercise as the “art of controlo-gy.” In his book Return to Life, he states,“Contrology develops the body uni-formly, corrects wrong postures,restores physical vitality, invigorates themind, and elevates the spirit.” Pilatesfelt that with improved physical func-tioning, one’s endurance improves,allowing more time and energy for what

he called “playing,” spending qualitytime with family and friends, enjoying amovie or a play, or reading a book.Pilates believed that having increasedenergy for such activities wouldundoubtedly have a positive effect onone’s mind and spirit.

Control, Centering, Precision, Flow-ing MovementThese are the key principles of the PilatesMethod. Throughout a session, one con-centrates on all of these aspects. To beeffective the movements have to be per-formed correctly, according to precisestandards. For this reason, concentrationis considered as important as the physi-cal movements. The mind focuses oncontrolling all aspects of the movement:maintaining body alignment, doing exer-cises exactly as indicated by the instruc-tor, using graceful, flowing movements,and keeping the breath flowing. Anessential element of the Pilates Method isthe concept of the body’s “center,”referred to as the “powerhouse of the

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anatomy.” This circular “belt” aroundthe body encompasses the lower backand abdominals; an immediate benefitone feels as a result of practicing Pilatesis strength in the abdominal musclesand relief of chronic lower back discom-fort.

The Pilates® Studio and ClassesToday these studios often look strangeyet elegant with equipment, mats, andvarious apparatus, all built to JosephPilates’ specifications. While there areseveral machines used, the main piece ofequipment is known as the universalreformer. It looks similar to the frame of asingle bed with a sliding carriageattached to four springs. After adjustingthe number of springs to regulate theresistance, the student pushes or pullsagainst a metal bar or straps. The exercis-es are done sitting, lying down, kneeling,and standing. Emphasis is not on maxi-mum resistance but on the student’s abil-ity to work with and control the springs.The springs help with a stretching andcontracting action in the muscles.

Individuals may begin practicingPilates at any level of fitness. The exer-cises are learned slowly, and strength isbuilt gradually. Students are encour-aged to progress at their own rate. Oncefundamental exercises have been mas-tered, new and more challenging onesare introduced, each in a very particularorder, thus building up a repertoire ofexercises. There are hundreds of various exercises and, depending on theindividual’s progress, as many of thesewill be taught as deemed necessary bythe instructor.

At the initial session, the client’sphysical history is discussed, a certifiedinstructor takes the student through theinitial series of exercises from beginningto end. An experienced certified instruc-tor will be able to assess a person’s par-ticular strengths and weaknessesquickly and gauge what exercises are tobe included in, or omitted from, the per-sonal routine. From the beginning, basicprinciples are taught, including how to

engage lower abdominal muscles, howto roll through the spinal column evenlyand smoothly and how to maintain cor-rect body posture and alignment.

While there is a specific sequence tothe system, lessons are customized tosuit the individual, with special prob-lems taken into account. Each persondoes a complete series of exercises onspecialized equipment and on a flatcushioned mat; in Pilates, the apparatuswork and mat work are of equal impor-tance. Within each exercise, repetitionsare kept to a minimum, focusing onquality rather than quantity. This allowsfor a very high level of concentrationand precise, careful movements andinsures that muscles are never workedto exhaustion. The instructor often setsthe rhythm, keeping the workoutdynamic and energetic, yet always gen-tle and never hurried. One rarely hearsmusic or chatting because students areencouraged to concentrate fully on theexercises and on their breathing. Manystudios offer small group classes withrarely more than four students perinstructor. Once a student has learnedto perform the basic exercises correctlyand confidently he or she can choose tosupplement studio time with work doneat home on a cushioned mat. Studentscan generally expect results afterapproximately ten consistent lessons,although some react more quickly.

The Pilates Method always considersthe body as a whole rather than separatebody parts. Every exercise will engagethe entire body while paying particularattention to one main muscle group. Atthe end of each session the whole body isstretched and strengthened equally.Although a person’s heart rate mayincrease, the Pilates Method is comple-mentary to rather than a replacement foraerobic exercise.

Benefits of The Pilates Method®

Depending on the individual, benefits ofusing Pilates exercises may includeimproved posture, longer, leaner muscles,improved all-over strength (especially

ROM Dance

in the abdominal region), greater flexi-bility, general ease of movement, reliefof chronic aches, more energy andendurance, and a higher level of con-centration and focus in all aspects ofone’s life. A added benefit is that stu-dents invariably leave a Pilates studiofeeling invigorated.

—Leah Chaback,certified instructor and teacher trainer

*Pilates® and the Pilates Method ofBody Conditioning® are registeredtrademarks.

Resources:

The Movement Center

39 Broadway

Kingston, NY 12401

Tel: (914) 331-0986

A certified, fully equipped Pilates studio that offers

private, semiprivate, and group lessons.

The Pilates Studio

2121 Broadway

New York, NY 10023

Tel: (800) 4-PILATES

e-mail: mrpilates@aol.com

Web site: www.pilates-studio.com

A certified, fully equipped Pilates studio.

Further Reading:

Friedman, Philip, and Gail Eisen. The Pilates

Method of Physical and Method Conditioning

New York: Warner Books, 1981.

Pilates, Joseph, and William John Miller. Return to

Life Through Contrology. Boston: Christopher

Publishing House, 1960.

ROM DANCE

ROM dance is an exercise and relax-ation program created for peoplewith chronic pain and other physical

limitations. ROM is the acronym used inphysical therapy to describe the rangeof motion as flexibility of joints. Theseexercises, recommended by doctors andtherapists, are combined with the basicprinciples of t’ai chi ch’üan, an ancientChinese exercise practiced for healthand longevity. T’ai chi ch’üan trains theparticipant to be calm while alert, bothstrong and flexible, and to relax in themidst of activity. These elements areapplied to ROM dancing, teaching theparticipant to move gently and slowly inorder to maintain the ability to move inspite of pain. It also allows the partici-pant to develop sensitivity to subtlechanges in the body that may eventual-ly reduce pain and limitations. Throughregular practice, this slow, fluid exerciseis purported to enhance mental focus,body awareness, and imagination.

The History of ROM DanceROM dance was created in 1981 by DianeHarlowe, M.S., an occupational therapistand researcher, and Tricia Yu, M.A., a t’aichi instructor and health educator, at St.Mary’s Hospital in Madison, Wisconsin.Patients had complained that their exer-cises were boring and monotonous. Har-lowe and Yu designed this uniqueroutine of stretches and movements,which take about seven minutes to com-plete, to encourage their patients to keepmoving everyday.

The program had the followingobjectives: assisting and inspiring theparticipants in following any medicalrecommendations for involvement indaily exercise/rest routines; increasingfrequency, enjoyment and perceivedbenefit of involvement in daily exerciseand rest; enhancing the ability to copewith stress and pain through use ofrelaxation techniques; improving bodyawareness; and promoting a generalsense of well-being.

Originally designed as an eight-weekcommunity health education program, itis now taught by physical and occupation-al therapists, nurses, dance and recreationtherapists, and t’ai chi ch’üan instructors

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in hospitals, senior centers, nursinghomes, outpatient clinics, patients’homes, and rehabilitation clinics.

The Principles of ROM DanceThe seven major ROM dance principlesare adapted from the ancient body-mindprinciples of t’ai chi ch’üan. Attention tothe present awakens all the senses of theROM dance practitioner as he or she isguided to look, listen, smell, or feel allthe physical sensations coming to andfrom the body-mind. Diaphragmaticbreathing and postural alignment helprelax and nourish the body and mind. Asa result, the respiratory and muscu-loskeletal systems function more fullyand easily. Moving more slowly than nor-mal enhances awareness of movementsensation and builds strength as well assensitivity in the body and the mind.Avoiding unnecessary tension or forcecreates relaxed movement which encour-ages healthy functioning of the circula-tory and nervous systems. Exercising theimagination by reciting poetic imagesfrom nature while doing the ROM danceseems to evoke soothing, nurturing,healing feelings of warmth and a sense ofpersonal involvement and well-being.

ROM Dance in PracticeROM dance, which takes about seven minutes to complete, can be performedboth sitting and standing. It incorporatesmovement in all ranges for the largejoints, and includes a special exerciseroutine for the small joints of the hands.

The program includes instruction inboth exercise and relaxation. It isdesigned to be practiced as a daily rou-tine to help maintain flexibility. Therelaxation and pain management train-ing provides participants with strategiesfor relaxing both during periods of restand when dealing with stress or pain inthe middle of daily activities.

The Benefits and Risks of the ROMDance ProgramThe program can help people with avariety of disabilities maintain a range

of motion and cope with stress andpain. It can also be used as the warm-upand cool-down phases of more exten-sive exercise programs.

ROM dance is based on movements usually recommended for rheumatoidarthritis. It has also been successfullyused in the following areas: fibromyal-gia; hand therapy; psychiatry; geri-atrics; oncology (cancer); Parkinson’sdisease; stress management; pain man-agement; lupus; and the practice ofneurology.

Those interested in learning andpracticing ROM dance should beadvised that it is not a substitute formedically recommended exercise ther-apy unless approved or modified by aphysician or therapist. Also, the follow-ing risks should be noted: people withsevere neck problems or hip replace-ments should check with their doctorsbefore attempting the movements;dancers should avoid straining or forc-ing any movements and should person-ally modify them when necessary; andthose using this dance program shouldalways apply proper body mechanicswhen standing and sitting.

Because the movements of ROMdance are gentle and take only a fewminutes a day to perform, nearly every-one—including individuals in wheel-chairs—can do them. The program mayimprove flexibility and mobility whilepromoting a general sense of relaxationin a safe, slow, and gentle manner.

—Patricia Yu, M.A.

Resources:

The ROM Dance Network

P.O. Box 3332

Madison, WI 53704-0332

Tel: (608) 242-9133

Fax: (608) 242-9140

Links practitioners and professionals, disseminates

information and instructional materials, and

organizes seminars and training workshops. Pro-

vides the ROM Dance Multimedia Instructional

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Skinner Releasing Technique

Kit, which is available to both professionals and

individuals for personal home practice. It includes

videos for both standing and wheelchair exercise,

guided relaxation and music audiotapes, as well

as a text for instructors.

SKINNER RELEASINGTECHNIQUE

The Skinner releasing technique(SRT) is a movement disciplineused to alleviate physical pain and

tension. Based on the philosophy thatall human beings have the potential tomove with natural grace, SRT taps intointrinsic, primal coordination and theexperience of movement at a deepkinesthetic level by using movementalong with poetry, music, and imagery.It encourages people to understand

how their bodies move and to visualizehow their bodies can function withoutdiscomfort.

The Development of the SkinnerReleasing TechniqueJoan Skinner was dancing in the compa-nies of Martha Graham and Merce Cun-ningham during the late forties andearly fifties. Between her ballet class inthe morning and her modern class in theafternoon she began to explore dancetechnique in her apartment in Green-wich Village, New York. She found an oldbanister that she used for a barre and setup mirrors so that she could see herselfat the 3/4 angle from the front and backsimultaneously. She kept a notebook inwhich she posed questions about thetechniques she was learning in herdance classes. Teachers at that time usedthe terms “pull up—grip—hold on,” andshe wondered how one could breathe asnature intended while gripping andholding. Then she suffered a back injury

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that would not heal, and she was advisedto consult an instructor who specializedin the Alexander technique—one of onlythree such instructors in the country atthat time. The Alexander technique madesense to Joan because it did not compressthe body with gripping but opened andextended it in a multidirectional way. Itfacilitated natural breathing, and it tookthe pressure off the injury so that it couldheal.

After leaving New York, Joan spentthree years working alone to developwhat is now known as SRT. She began byapplying the Alexander principles to bal-let barre movements. In searching for thatmultidirectional balance, the barre exer-cises broke down to where she spent timebalancing on one leg—without grippingand holding the balance. In the beginningthis meant wobbling and losing balanceand then getting back on the leg. Thework then became kinesthetic—that is,she began perceiving movement at a sub-tle level of the muscular sensation.

When she went to the University of Illi-nois in 1966 to teach a traditional moderndance class, she introduced some of hernew knowledge and techniques to her stu-dents. She used images and metaphors forkinesthetic experiences she wanted herstudents to have. They responded power-fully to the imagery and would drop thestructure of the class to stay with animage. Joan realized that somethingimportant was happening to them, so sheallowed the class to become less struc-tured, a concept that formed the founda-tion of the Skinner releasing technique.

SRT in PracticeA typical class in the Skinner releasingtechnique includes three parts: tactile studies; floor work with guided imagery;and movement studies for the group,guided by the instructor. Music andsounds are interwoven throughout thesession. The SRT pedagogy progressesfrom introductory work through ongo-ing levels to the advanced.

The tactile studies in SRT help stu-dents experience kinesthetically the

releasing of fixed tension patterns in theshoulders, back, or legs. Almost everyonehas acquired patterns of tension, some-times hidden, in the body during theprocess of growing up under numerousstresses. Trained dancers often find thesetension patterns in the body underneaththeir training. The tensions are blocks—distortions of the alignment of the natur-al body. Releasing these blocks allows forrealignment of the body. This makes itpossible to move with greater flexibility,range, speed, and strength.

A unique aspect of SRT is its integra-tion of technique with creative processthrough the use of imagery. For exam-ple, if an instructor wants to focus aclass on the concept of “autonomy of thelimbs” he or she might begin with a tac-tile study focusing on the hip joint. Theinstructor guides student partners togain a physical experience of more free-dom of movement at the hip by instruct-ing one partner to rotate and extend hisor her partner’s leg while the partner ispassive, relinquishing control of his orher leg. Eventually the active partner isinstructed to let go of the leg, allowingthe passive partner to continue themovements alone. Later in the class, thesame concept is developed through theuse of a metaphor, a poetic image givenby the teacher that stimulates an impro-vised exploration. To begin this creativeprocess, students lie on the floor whilethe teacher, using a procedure similar torelaxation technique, verbally guidesstudents into a state just under con-scious control. This state is free of anxi-eties, and sensory perception issharpened. In this state, one can bephysically transformed by a mentalimage. Propelled by the image, studentsbegin to move up from the floor, toimprovise from the image of freeing thelegs, and eventually to dance as the con-cept of “autonomy of the limbs” playsthrough the body-mind.

How SRT WorksThe objectives of the technique aresimilar to traditional dance techniques:

Skinner Releasing Technique

optimal alignment, flexibility, strength,coordination, balance, speed, clarity ofarticulation, and control of nuance. Butthe means are distinctly different, in thatthe nature or essence of a movementfinds its own form, fostering creativity.

The Skinner release technique dealswith the universals within all danceforms. The individual discovers how sheor he can move with the essences ofbasic body movements, such as turningor spinning, rather than a specific styl-ized form of the movement. Gradually,SRT practitioners are encouraged toimprovise in more complex and chal-lenging ways with the movement, at thesame time they are focusing on a princi-ple, such as—no one segment of the bodycompresses against any other segment.Thus the practitioners develop maxi-mum technical freedom without beingconstricted within a specific dance styleand ideally can adapt to any form.

Some professional dancers use SRTas a practice to enhance their study of aspecific dance technique. Some prac-tice SRT as their only dance technique.Many declare that their technicalprogress speeds up and their growth asartists deepens with these SRT experi-ences. Nonprofessional dancers whostudy SRT are frequently artists in othermedia: musicians, painters, and poets,as well as doctors, psychologists, physi-cists, and pregnant women. SRT’sorganic, holistic approach to body-mind integration becomes part of a wayof life. The technique gives the individ-ual an understanding of the uniquenessof his or her own body and the way inwhich a movement flows through it.

Benefits of SRTAs it is the primary objective of the disci-pline to maximize the movement poten-tial of all its practitioners, it can beuseful to people of all ages. The use ofguided imagery allows individuals toexplore important issues and encour-ages people to get in touch with their cre-ative and expressive selves. Individualswho experience the Skinner release

technique report reduced levels ofstress, relief of chronic pain, improvedalignment, increased flexibilty andstrength, as well as increased energyand vitality.

—Joan Skinner

Resources:

The New York Public Library for the Performing

Arts

Dance Collection

c/o Lincoln Center Plaza

New York, NY 10023-7498

Tel: (212) 870-1657

Provides information about SRT.

Skinner Releasing

Emily Herb, Administrator

University of Washington Dance Program

Box 351150

Seattle, WA 98195-1150

Tel: (206) 233-8803

Fax: (206) 726-0616

e-mail: ejherb@aa.net

Manages workshops and seminars on the practice

of SRT. Offers listings of certified teachers of SRT

worldwide.

Further Reading:

Books:

Knaster, Mirka. Discovering the Body’s Wisdom.

New York: Bantam Books, 1996.

Journals:

Davidson, Robert. “Transformations: Concerning

Music and Dance in Releasing.” Quarterly

Dance Journal, Winter. 1985.

Skinner, Joan, Bridget Davis, Sally Metcalf, and

Kris Wheeler. “Notes on the Skinner Releasing

Technique.” Quarterly Dance Journal, Fall 1979.

Skura, Stephanie. “Releasing Dance Interview with

Joan Skinner.” Quarterly Dance Journal, Fall 1990.

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SPATIAL DYNAMICSSM

Spatial DynamicsSM is a disciplinethat concerns itself with the humanbeing’s movement and interaction

with space through spatially orientedmovement activities. Focus on how thebody moves through space is used as acatalyst for developing awareness of thepotential of the body. It is a corepremise of Spatial Dynamics that thisawareness influences psychological,emotional, intellectual, and spiritual development.

How Spatial DynamicsSM DevelopedIn the mid-1970s a young clinical psy-chology student named Jaimen McMil-lan was struck by the disconcertingsimilarity in the postures and movementpatterns of patients suffering from simi-lar complaints. In the case of autisticchildren, for example, where it could bedetermined that they had never beenexposed to others with the same disor-der, their movement repertories were sosimilar as to appear almost rehearsed. Itwas clear that a particular conditionaffected the movement patterns of thepatient. McMillan wondered if onecould possibly work in the oppositedirection. If, indeed, the disorder had anegative effect on a patient’s movementpatterns, could practicing more whole-some movement patterns have a posi-tive effect on the person’s disorder?McMillan’s initial attempts in this direc-tion yielded encouraging results.

It became clear to him that in order touse spatial movement therapeutically inan appropriate and scientific way, one’sown movements had to be worthy ofimitation, one had to develop new con-cepts of space and new ways of perceiv-ing movement, one had to know whicheffects a given movement elicited, andone had to work from a holistic move-ment picture of the balanced individual.

Attracted by the artistry and upright-ness of the discipline of fencing, McMil-lan began his movement research

through extensive training with thesaber and attained “fleeting momentsof mastery.” In comparing his experi-ences with those of others who hadachieved success in their fields, he con-sidered a common factor largely over-looked in the study of sport, physicaleducation, therapy, and movement ingeneral: the concept of enlivened space.

His inclination to experience andunderstand enlivened space led him tobegin rigorous training in various disci-plines, including two ancient martialarts and yoga, which incorporated East-ern philosophies that allowed him todevelop mental power and experiencethe effects of concentrated space. Healso studied water, sound, sculpture,projective geometry, and eurythmy,which helped him learn about fluidityof movement and the processes ofchange through movement.

McMillan was also influenced by thework of such revolutionary twentieth-century thinkers as Albert Einstein andanthropologist Edward T. Hall, in partic-ular their concepts of time and space.From Rudolf Steiner came the conceptsof the evolution of space, and the con-nections between the human soul andthe dimensions of space. These con-cepts contributed to the developmentof Spatial Dynamics.

McMillan worked, traveled, andstudied in Europe for the next ten years.He went on to receive diplomas in phys-iotherapy, massage, movement therapy,and Bothmer gymnastics. He continuedto collect and develop suitable move-ment activities that aid the processes ofgrowth, health, and integration. Thisbody of exercises has come to be knownas Spatial Dynamics.

Philosophy of Spatial DynamicsSM

In Spatial Dynamics, space is perceivedas a vibrant medium and movement asa dynamic force that is at our disposalto span distances psychologically aswell as physically. The concept of spaceis further differentiated to designate anever-widening range of possibilities for

Spatial DynamicsSM

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The Role of Bothmer Gymnastics in Spatial DynamicsSM

The Bothmer exercises are spatial gems, developed to augment the Waldorf School cur-riculum for grades three through twelve. (The Waldorf School was a special institutionset up by Rudolf Steiner in 1919.)

Spatial Dynamics makes use of the Bothmer exercises and in addition has expandedthe range of its spatially oriented movement activities to touch the whole spectrum oflife, from a unique approach to childbirth preparation all the way to working with theelderly, including preparation for death and dying.

self-knowledge and interaction withothers. Working first from the “body-space” in Spatial Dynamics exercises,practitioners can explore movingthrough the “personal,” or surroundingspace; the “interpersonal,” or meetingand exchange space; to the “public,” orsocial space; and finally to the “supra-personal,” or macrocosmic space.

Out of the totality of spatial work,many exercises and games that aid inbalance, orientation, and spatial differ-entiation have been developed andbrought together. Many of the exercisesare taught in slow motion so that onecan learn to follow, distinguish, andcontrol the quality of the movement. Atno time, even when performed morerapidly, are they done automatically.Great emphasis is placed on the individ-ual’s need for awareness and freedom.The exercises incorporate a develop-mental sequence that spans the years ofmovement development, correspond-ing to the unique spatial need of anygiven age and stage of development. Foryoung children, they have the quality ofplayful imagination and joyfulness,whereas for adults they bring calm andenable one not merely to change but tochoose one’s own habits.

Perhaps the most distinctive charac-teristic of Spatial Dynamics is the con-scious interplay between the opposingforces of gravity and levity. The earthrepresents a force that pulls everythingtoward one point, which is called gravi-ty. For Spatial Dynamics practitioners,the sun represents a force that draws

and lifts toward the periphery, towardinfinity. This force is called levity. A thirdforce, rhythm, is born out of the interac-tion between these two.

The concept of enlivened space haseducational, artistic, and athletic appli-cations. A movement artist can learn tocreate consciously by bringing the threeabove-mentioned forces (gravity, levity,rhythm) into play through deliberatedifferentiation. An observer perceivesan athlete or dancer who orchestratesthese forces successfully as graceful. Anactor may employ these techniques totranscend his or her own personalityand represent the forces called for inwhatever role is being played. A childwho has a learning block may move tothe next step in the learning process ifthe correct movement experiences thatare missing in his or her developmentare given.

Practicing Spatial DynamicsSM

One of the goals of Spatial Dynamics is toenable people to experience, and effec-tively enliven and employ, their spheres ofactivity in daily life. As a discipline it canbe practiced alone, even subtly during thecourse of the day, pursued one-on-onewith a teacher, or carried out in largergroups. Another important aspect of Spa-tial Dynamics is its unique approach toposture as a spatial process rather than asa set position or “pose.” The social aspectof the exercises is visible in group work, inwhich the extensions of each individual’smovements create weavings of geometri-cal patterns with others.

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Benefits of Spatial DynamicsSM

McMillan and Spatial Dynamics gradu-ates have made an impact on the field ofpsychosomatic illness, most notablywith eating-related disorders such asanorexia and bulimia, with space-relat-ed phobias such as claustrophobia andagoraphobia, and with problems involv-ing nervousness, lack of awareness, andlack of “presence.” Movement thera-pists, physical therapists, chiropractors,and orthopedic doctors have imple-mented Spatial Dynamics principlessuccessfully in the area of physical med-icine.

—Jaimen McMillan

Resources:

Spatial Dynamics Institute

423 Route 71

Hillsdale, NY 12529

Tel/Fax: (518) 325-7096

Provides in-service training programs in the disci-

pline of Spatial Dynamics. Annual public confer-

ences are also held at varying locations around the

country.

Further Reading:

Hall, Edward T. The Hidden Dimension. New York:

Anchor Books, 1969.

McMillan, Jaimen. Posture: Giving Yourself Space.

Hudson, NY: Lindisfarne Press, 1998.

Schwenk, Theodor. Sensitive Chaos. Ann Arbor,

MI: Rudolf Steiner Press, 1972.

Steiner, Rudolf. Man: Hieroglyph of the Universe.

Translated by G. and M. Adams. Ann Arbor, MI:

Rudolf Steiner Press, 1972.

Whicher, Olive. Sunspace. Ann Arbor, MI: Rudolf

Steiner Press, 1989.

T’AI CHI CH’ÜAN

T’ai chi ch’üan is an ancient Chineseexercise art, a system of activatingthe body for the simultaneous

development of physical, emotional,and mental well-being. Composed of aslow, continuous series of circularmovements, it is said to develop bal-ance, stamina, and grace. It is one of theoldest exercise arts, going back to about2205 BCE, but it wasn’t fully establishedas a body-mind technique for increas-ing the span of a healthy life until 1100CE. From the Chinese viewpoint ahealthy life includes emotional stabilityand a high degree of mental efficiencyas well as physical stamina.

A Long HistoryFor centuries, many civilizations havedevised systems to improve health andreduce occurrences of disease and ill-ness. Believed to be one of the earliestsystems of this nature, the “greatdances” were devised by the Chineseemperor Yü in 2205 BCE. He maintainedthat these exercises, if done daily, wouldstimulate the body’s natural circulatoryprocess, combat disease, and keep themind alert by tending to the activity ofthe stipulated patterns and rhythms. Itwas also believed that performing theseorganized and structured movementsawakened “positive and agreeable feel-ings” in the practitioner, thereby calm-ing the emotions as well.

As centuries passed, the exercisesbecame more intricate than those of theprevious century until, as history has it,the twelfth century, when Chang San-Feng profoundly extended the range ofself-understanding physically and spiri-tually. He created the uniquely structuredform of t’ai chi ch’üan as a set of move-ments that build upon one another,movements that are interconnected andrequire the full concentration of the prac-titioner.

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Yin and Yang

The symbol for t’ai chi ch’üan is a circle divided by a flowing line that represents themovement of a wave. Filling the circumference of the circle are two curved shapes ofequal size, one white, representing yin, and one black, representing yang. There is asmall dot of the opposite color in each shape, showing the sympathetic character of eachto the other. The dynamic flow within the symbol represents movement and the conti-nuity of the life force.

Connected and Flowing ExerciseT’ai chi ch’üan is never to be practiced,as Chinese t’ai chi masters say, auto-matically, as for example the way onecan recite the alphabet with thethoughts wandering elsewhere. It is acomplex composition of multiplethemes. The varied patterns pass fromone part of the body to another so thatno part is overworked and the mindstays interested. The mind directs theaction and participates in it.

T’ai chi ch’üan is a long exercise,continuous for twenty-five minutes.This basic length of time is an essentialingredient. According to experts, it isjust long enough to overcome resis-tance and laziness; to develop physicalstrength, patience, and persistence; togive every part of the body varied exer-cise, but not long enough to fatigue thebody or the mind.

The way of moving in t’ai chi ch’üanlooks soft, continuous, light, and fluid,giving the appearance of effortlessness.Yet in order to do it the body must befirm, stable, and strong. The mind mustbe alert and active. The movements oft’ai chi ch’üan are circular, made incurves, arcs, and spirals. According tot’ai-chi masters, moving in circles con-serves energy, creates security, andlessens nervousness.

During the process of action, musclesare never tensed to their maximum abil-ity. The amount of effort-tension useddepends entirely upon the demands ofthe position or movement itself. Forinstance, it requires more energy tostand on one leg than on two. The mus-cles naturally behave differently in each

case. Force is never added to a move-ment; one tries to use exactly as muchforce as is necessary to perform themovement. As Chinese t’ai chi masterssay, “Use one pound to lift one pound.”The approach of t’ai chi ch’üan is to bal-ance force with necessity, which awak-ens the practitioner to the proper use ofstrength and helps him or her find aharmonious relationship with the nat-ural force of gravity.

Balance is an essential aspect in thepractice of t’ai chi ch’üan. Through thecontrol of every nuance, muscles andjoints are strengthened. Proper postureand lightness of movement are inevitableresults of good body balance. Balance onthe physical level also contributes tomental and emotional stability.

T’ai chi ch’üan is connected andflowing. Each unit, each moment ofmovement, is joined to the next withouta visible break. Calmness and lightnessare evoked by such fluidity. There is nocessation of movement throughout theentire twenty-five-minute exercise. Sta-mina and endurance grow as one devel-ops the ability to sustain an evencontinuity.

It is a slow exercise. The breathing ismeant to stay natural, the heartbeatsteady. The tempo of the movement isrelated to a healthy heart rate. Slownessdevelops patience, poise, and power.But that is not to say that t’ai-chi iswithout changes in dynamics. Changesof delicate force and strength, stillnessand activity are in constant alternationthroughout the form. The variation indynamic flow produces flexibility, plia-bility, and resilience.

T’ai Chi Ch’üan

The Chinese masters recognized andworked with the mind’s desire for diver-sity. The form was designed to engagewhat the Chinese believe to be the twovital energies of life, which they call yinand yang. Yin represents all thingsreceptive and quiet. Yang represents allthings assertive and active. The manyways in which yin and yang are con-trasted within the form add to thedevelopment of good coordination andheightened perception as well as mem-ory. With the mind satisfied and thebody exercised, a sense of total relax-ation and well-being results.

A Lifelong PracticeT’ai chi ch’üan is generally taught insmall group classes, but some teachersalso offer private lessons. It is usuallytaught indoors in studios with woodenfloors. In temperate climates it is oftentaught and practiced out of doors,where students can breathe freely andfully and perhaps more easily feel them-selves in harmony with their naturalsurroundings. Loose comfortable cloth-ing is worn. Students may be barefoot,in socks, or in soft Chinese slippers,depending on the surface of the floor.Music is never used when teaching thediscipline, as it distracts students fromthe awareness of the dynamic rhythmswithin the form.

T’ai chi ch’üan can be practiced inevery phase of life: as a child, adult, andsenior citizen. While beginners are gen-erally separated from advanced practi-tioners in classes, it is always possiblefor experienced practitioners to learnsomething new by starting at the begin-ning once again, or for beginners tolearn by feeling the flow of movement ofan experienced practitioner.

Reasons to Practice T’ai Chi Ch’üanMany people believe the practice of thisdiscipline can be a calming preparationfor any task. Many people report that bydoing even some of the form, their mindfocuses away from their anxious self, andemotional and psychological problems

seem to evaporate. Other people reportthat t’ai chi has helped them becomemore mentally and physically proficientand limber. With quickened physicalreflexes comes an easier acceptance ofnew ideas and a quickened capacity todiscard old habits. Emotionally, self-con-sciousness is diminished and self-assur-ance awakened. Many practitionersassert that practicing the form has helpedthem develop patience, awareness, andendurance.

—Sophia Delza

Resources:

T’ai Chi Chüan/Shaolin Chuan Association

(TCC/SCA)

33W624 Roosevelt Road

P.O. Box 430

Geneva, IL 60134

Tel: (708) 232-0029

Conducts demonstrations, seminars, lectures, and

certification program for members. Publishes

annual booklet on the practice of martial arts.

T’ai Chi Foundation, Inc.

5 East 17th Street

New York, NY 10003

Tel: (212) 645-7010

Founded in 1979, this is an educational organiza-

tion that strives to make the practice of t’ai chi

ch’üan more accessible to Western society through

promoting international conferences. In addition,

it operates a resource center that provides informa-

tion about this discipline.

Further Reading:

Delza, Sophia. T’ai Chi Ch’üan: Body and Mind in

Harmony. Rev. ed. New York: State University of

New York Press, 1985.

Emerson, Margaret. Breathing Underwater: The

Inner Life of T’ai Chi Ch’üan. Berkeley, CA:

North Atlantic Books, 1993.

Hooten, Claire. T’ai Chi for Beginners: 10 Minutes

to Health and Fitness. New York: Berkley Pub-

lishing Group, 1996.

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PART XI: MARTIAL ARTS

Aikido • Capoeira • Ju Jutsu • Judo • Karate • Kendo • Kung Fu Wu Su •Taekwondo

Martial arts are forms ofcombat that advocate theintegration of mind andbody as the basis for thestudy and practice of physi-cal forms of self-defense.Although many differentstyles of martial arts haveevolved over time, many ofthose practiced today aresimilar in their belief thatthe highly charged, dynam-ic quality of a physical con-frontation is a powerfulmetaphor for life. Todaymartial arts are practicedthe world over by peoplewho enjoy the vigorousphysical conditioning theydemand, as well as theinner path of psychologicaland spiritual transforma-tion and growth they offer.A list of martial arts andcountries where they devel-

oped appears in the tablethat accompanies this entry.

Three TheoriesIt has been suggested that hunting skills comprised the early forms of combat for

primitive man. As these techniques were used, their degree of sophistication gener-ally increased. However, the origins of the martial arts remain speculative and opento controversy among writers, historians, and researchers. Three general theoriesexist to explain how martial arts developed throughout time.

Martial arts integrate body and mind in athletic practices of self-defense.

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One theory holds that ancient fighting techniques of the Greeks and Romansspread into Asia following the routes of commerce and trade. Indeed, some combat-ive elements can be found in literary writings and sculptures of Greece and Rome.However, the complexity of specific Asian martial arts techniques appear to be lack-ing in literary descriptions or sculptured poses uncovered thus far in archaeologicalinvestigations.

A second theory maintains that martial arts could be traced to either China orIndia. A common myth credits Bodhidharma, a prince of India and founder of Bud-dhism in China, with teaching specific exercises to monks at the Shaolin Temple thatlater evolved into formal combative techniques. Under close scrutiny, this theory con-tradicts historical fact, and has lost favor with experts and historians.

The third theory argues that similar techniques of several martial arts that differedcoincidentally evolved in parallel form in widely separate regions of the world. Uniquecharacteristics of these similar techniques later evolved as a function of certain con-ditions, such as social structure and physical demographics. As examples, slaves fromAfrica who were brought to Brazil initially developed capoeira techniques in chainsand restraints, which limited the development of hand strikes while emphasizingkicking movements from a handstand position. In China, individuals who were tallerdeveloped systems that emphasized kicking (northern region) while individuals ofshorter stature resorted to systems that stressed close-range hand movements (south-ern region). In the Philippines, Chinese merchants from the Fukien province taughtkuntao to the royal families of people of Mindanao as a token of their friendship andgood faith. The “hard” style that evolved here reflected the more external, combativefocus of the Filipino martial arts in general.

Central to the problem of documentation is the fact that martial arts were oftenshrouded in a veil of secrecy. The older teachers did not reveal their knowledge readi-ly. Secret teachings were not passed on to the student until after many years of train-ing and dedication to the art and teaching alike. If no suitable successor to thetradition could be found, the art often died with the master. Information was alsooften transmitted orally (as opposed to any documentation in written form), leadingto further gaps in any traceable history.

Today, the martial arts of Asia have emerged as a significant component of Ameri-can culture. It is difficult to find an individual who does not have some sense of famil-iarity with or recognition of these ancient disciplines when reference is made to them.Following World War II, a number of servicemen who had been exposed to these eso-teric practices endeavored to pass on their teachings to other Americans. Fueled bydevelopments in media presentations, the growth of interest in martial arts—seldomeven mentioned forty years ago—has been quite phenomenal. Depiction of martialarts in films, television, and popular magazines is now commonplace.

The Basic Principles of Martial ArtsThe physical foundations of the martial arts as a whole have roots in self-defense

movements that make use of punches, hand strikes, blocks, kicking, jumping, grap-pling, rolling techniques, chokes, joint manipulations, locks, and throws. Aside fromempty-hand techniques, many systems of martial arts make use of weapons, which

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might include a staff, stick, blade, or projectile instrument. Martial arts disciplinesthat stress these combative components are often labeled “external.”

Other martial arts disciplines emphasize an esoteric component in their teachingsthat has been described as “internal” in nature. These practices and exercises includespecific types of breathing techniques, performance of unique rituals, use of specialhand-body configurations, chanting or recitation of specific combinations of lettersor words, cultivation and manipulation of “internal energy,” and sitting, standing, andmovement meditation exercises. These more esoteric practices are taught for improv-ing physical performance, enhancement of health, and psychological and spiritualdevelopment. Practice of traditional, regimented, prearranged forms often serves tounify both external and internal aspects of martial arts.

Each of the different systems of martial arts has defining characteristics thatidentify the nature of the art. For example, t’ai chi ch’üan is a Chinese art that con-sists of smooth, flowing, gentle movements with no hesitation observed betweenvarious postures and rounded, curling gestures that involve kicks, strikes, and eva-sive actions. Originating in Africa, capoeira is now practiced widely in Brazil and ischaracterized by a dancelike, acrobatic movement style accompanied by music andsong and takes on the form of a game being played as a performance. Anotherexample is aikido, which is a contemporary Japanese art of self-defense based uponprinciples of non-resistance to and harmony with one’s opponent that makes use ofcircular movements to gain control of an attacker’s momentum, thus neutralizingaggressive actions.

Learning Martial ArtsWhile each discipline of martial arts is unique, some general principles underlie

the pursuit and study of all the disciplines. Instructions are often given in a groupsetting, with classes being taught anywhere from three to seven days a week for one,two, or even more hours per session. An instructor or set of instructors will lead theclass and often insist upon the display of proper behavior, attitudes, moral conduct,and discipline throughout the class. Training can be demanding physically andmentally and requires dedication and perseverance to progress through a definedranking system.

Benefits and Risks of Martial ArtsMillions of people worldwide study martial arts disciplines. They report many pos-

itive effects, including the following: an increase in mental clarity and means ofachieving self-discipline; maximum physical fitness; general well-being throughproper breathing techniques; an outlet for aggression; increased personal powerthrough internal energy development exercises; and increased self-confidence fromthe knowledge of valuable self-defense techniques.

People with severe physical limitations may have difficulty participating in themore vigorous “external” forms of martial arts. Choosing which martial art to studyshould entail some knowledge of the physical techniques involved, the mental,emotional, and spiritual goals stressed, and exposure to the teaching style of a par-ticular instructor. The degree to which the philosophical aspects of a practice are

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COUNTRY MARTIAL ART

India kalarippayattu, thang-taChina t’ai chi ch’üan, wing chun, pa kua, Hung-garKorea taekwondo, hapkido, tang soo do, hwarang-doJapan kendo, aikido, ju jutsu, judo, karateOkinawa Islands Goju-ryu, Shito-ryu, Uechi-ryu, Shorinji-ryuIndonesia pencak silat, kuntaoPhilippines arnis, escrimaThailand muay Thai, krabi-krabongAfrica, then Brazil capoeira, ju jutsuUSA jeet kune do, talahib-marga

emphasized will depend upon the individual teacher, but the physical self-defenseaspect of these disciplines remains the defining feature that distinguishes themfrom other body-mind disciplines.

—Michael Maliszewski, Ph.D.

Further Reading:

Books:

Draeger, Donn F., and Robert W. Smith. Compre-

hensive Asian Fighting Arts. Tokyo: Kodansha

International, 1969.

Maliszewski, M. Spiritual Dimensions of the Mar-

tial Arts. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1996.

Journals:

The Black Book: The Quarterly Martial Arts Sup-

plies Guide and Master’s Desk Reference. Erica

Talorico, editor. Bellmawr, NJ: Marketing Tools,

Inc. (204 Harding Ave., Bellmawr, NJ 08031)

Journal of Asian Martial Arts. Michael DeMarco,

editor. Erie, PA: Via Media Publishing Compa-

ny. (821 W. 24th St., Erie, PA 16502)

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AIKIDO

A ikido is a Japanese martial art. Theword aikido means the path to thecoordination of body, mind, and

spirit. It is a defensive system of continu-ous, circular movements meant tocounter the attack of an armed orunarmed opponent. Continued practicein aikido allows you to effectively antici-pate and successfully defend yourselfwith minimum effort against an attack.

History of AikidoThe founder of aikido, Morehei Ueshiba(1883–1969), also known as O Sensei, or“great teacher,” was influenced by twothings—religion and martial arts. InTokyo in 1902, O Sensei studied kendo(Japanese sword technique), and ju-jutsu, the traditional art of hand-to-hand and small weapons combat.Ueshiba would continue these studiesall his life, earning several certificates invarious schools. He also studied sojut-su, or spear fighting, sumo wrestling,and kokodan judo.

Ueshiba studied extensively withOnisaburo Deguchi, founder of Omoto-Kyo, a religion based on the traditionalShinto religion. After his father’s death,Ueshiba went to live in Deguchi’sorganic farming community near Kyoto.There he studied spiritual works thatlater influenced his philosophy of mar-tial arts. In 1920 Ueshiba opened hisfirst martial arts school, Ueshiba Acade-my. By 1922 his teachings evolved into adiscipline he called aiki-bujutsu, knowngenerally as Ueshiba-ryu Aiki-bujutsu.Later, the art became known as aikido,the way of harmony, reflecting O Sen-sei’s concern with the peaceful resolu-tion of conflict.

In the thirties and forties, the prac-tice of aikido spread throughout Japanand was recognized by the state as amartial art. During the Second WorldWar, Ueshiba retreated to the country tobuild a shrine to aikido. After the war,aikido’s focus on conflict resolution

allowed for its practice during theAmerican occupation. In 1961 the firstpractice hall opened outside of Japan inHonolulu, Hawaii. Ueshiba died in1969.

Concepts and PrinciplesThe central concept of aikido is thepeaceful resolution of conflict. To thisend, O Sensei envisioned it as trainingfor the spirit and mind, as well as thebody. All techniques in aikido aredefense techniques and guide theaggressor’s attack to its conclusion,resulting in the aggressor’s downfall.These techniques are meant to show theaggressor the error of his or her judg-ment and end the attack. The defender,called nagi, protects himself and hisattacker, known as uke, with these tech-niques. Rank is given according toknowledge of technique and ability toperform basic movements. Rankingtests are given, but they are not compet-itive.

On a physical level, the focus anddirection of ki, or vital life energy, is veryimportant in practice; ki is developedthrough breathing exercises. The pelvis,center of ki, is the origin of all move-ment in aikido. From the pelvis, ki ischanneled through the arms and legs,and eventually to the hands. Thisprocess is called extension, anotherimportant principle of aikido. Theembodiment of these concepts pro-duces flowing, circular movement thatis the trademark of aikido.

Aikido PracticeAll aikido practice takes place in a dojo, aroom with mats on the floor and a shrineto O Sensei at one end. For practice allstudents wear a gi, a heavy white cottonsuit, a kimono jacket, pants, and belt.Students in the lower ranks, known as thefive kyus, wear white belts. Advanced stu-dents in the higher ranks, or dans, wearblack belts. Senior students in the dojoare often given permission to wear blackwide-legged pants called hakama. Alladvanced students wear hakama.

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Etiquette is important in aikido.Class begins and ends with a setsequence of quiet bowing to the shrine,to the teacher, and at the end of class, tofellow students. Students are expectedto bow to the shrine on entering and

leaving the mat. Bowing is a gesture ofrespect rather than worship.

After opening the class, the instruc-tor, also called Sensei, leads the class ina warm-up. Then the instructordemonstrates a technique with a senior

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The Role of Etiquette

Etiquette is very important in aikido. All students are expected to bow to the shrine of OSensei when they enter or leave the dojo and at the beginning and end of class. This is asign of respect rather than worship. Class begins and ends with a set protocol of medi-tation, bowing to the shrine, to the teacher, and, at the end of class, to fellow students.

student. In the course of most classes, afew techniques will be practiced. Ofteneach student will take a partner andwork on the technique. Both studentsin each pair practice being the attackerwho takes the fall, and in turn play thedefender. By changing roles, studentslearn to cooperate with each other.They are expected to adapt their prac-tice to their partners. Injuring yourpartner is considered bad form in mostdojos, since injury takes a student outof class. Aikido classes often are silent,which fosters students’ concentrationon the technique; concentration isimportant since all aikido techniquescan injure the attacker.

The attacker’s falls in aikido arecalled ukemi; these movements, likeother aikido defensive techniques, arecircular and flowing. Ukemi maneuversare just as important as defense move-ments, called nagi. For example, theforward roll in aikido begins fromstanding, and flows from the leadingarm, across the back, down to the leg,and back to standing. This roll shouldalways be flowing, without any jarringmovement.

An Ideal Martial ArtBecause of its psychological and physi-cal benefits, aikido is an ideal martial artfor life. Practice builds strength, coordi-nation, and flexibility. As studentsadvance, the tempo of practice acceler-ates, bringing aerobic benefits. On anintellectual level, many students findmental focus and clarity through theirpractice. The benefits of aikido havetaken O Sensei’s students all over theworld to open dojos. Today, O Sensei’s

son, Kisshomaru Ueshiba, heads aikidoschools worldwide.

—Clio Pavlantos, M.A., CMA,Second Kyu USAF, in collaboration with

Marvin Bookman, Third Dan USAF.

Resources:

United States Aikido Federation, Eastern Region

142 West 18th Street

New York, NY 10011

Web site: www.usaikifed.org

Eastern United States division of the international

organization founded by O Sensei and now headed

by his son, Doshu Kisshomaru Ueshiba. The USAF

provides lists of affiliated dojos in America and

abroad. Publishes the Federation News, a newslet-

ter promoting aikido.

CAPOEIRA

Capoeira is an ancient martial art thathas its roots in African culture butdeveloped fully and attained an

immense popularity in Brazil. Like othermartial arts, capoeira strives to integratemental as well as physical strength inorder to perform combat maneuvers withdexterity, skill, and grace. Yet capoeira dif-fers from other martial arts in that rhyth-mic music, including singing, clapping,and the playing of instruments, is integralto the unique spirit and practice of the dis-cipline.

African OriginsAlthough there are many theories about

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the origin of capoeira, most scholarsagree it can be traced back to certainhand-to-hand combat forms anddances of central Africa. Two Africandances are most often credited withbeing the origin of capoeira: sanga andn’golo. Both dances exhibit characteris-tics that are integral to the practice ofcapoeira today. Sanga was an ancientwar dance, also known as a sworddance, in which warfare and dancemovements were inextricably linked.The dance element is significantbecause the ability to leap, twist, roll,and dodge the arrows and blows ofopponents is one of the most importantskills of capoeira. N’golo was an acro-batic dance used as competitionbetween the young males of theMucope people in Angola.

Capoeira traveled with the Atlanticslave trade to Brazil. Among themselves,slaves trained in capoeira as a form ofphysical resistance, stressing the fightingaspects of the discipline. When the slave

owners were present, the dance aspectsof capoeira were emphasized. Slaveowners outlawed capoeira and madethe practice punishable by death. Wellinto the twentieth century, capoeira wasan outlaw art, performed secretly byslaves or by thieves and criminals. Rov-ing bands of capoieristas (those thatpractice capoeira) were employed asthugs and enforcers by businessmenand would attack taverns and police,further advancing the negative image ofthe discipline.

It was through the efforts of twomodern masters, Manoel dos ReisMachado (known as Mestre Bimba) andVincente Ferreira Pastinha (known asMestre Pastinha) that capoeira eventu-ally became an acceptable part ofBrazilian life. Mestra Bimba is known asthe great innovator. He invented thestyle called capoeira regional, whichemphasizes the offensive, fightingaspects of the martial art. Known as thegreat traditionalist, Mestre Pastinha was

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Lack of Hand Techniques in Capoeira

There is little use of offensive hand techniques in capoeira. Some scholars have attrib-uted this to the belief that slaves had to fight with their hands immobilized by chains andtherefore developed advanced foot and leg techniques. Other commentators contendthat it is more likely that the absence of hand techniques is based on an old centralAfrican proverb that says, “Hands are to build, feet are to destroy.”

a proponent of the style called capoeiraangola, which aims to maintain the rit-ualistic, defensive, aesthetic, and philo-sophical aspects of the discipline.

Today many styles of capoeira arepracticed throughout Europe, the UnitedStates, and South America. It is taught inprivate academies and in many universi-ties. The Capoeira Foundation in NewYork City promotes the study, research,and performance of the art.

Six Principles of CapoeiraCapoeira is based on the African cultur-al values from which it arose. The reli-gious traditions and rituals of centralAfrica form the basic philosophicalunderpinnings of the practice of theart.

In Karate/Kung-Fu Illustrated,August 1988, scholar Alejandro Frigerioidentified six characteristics of moderncapoeira angola:

• Complementation is the importanceof playing with, not against, theopponent. It is similar to a “cuttingsession” in jazz, in which the musi-cians try to outplay each other withthe ultimate goal of creating beauti-ful music. Through complementa-tion the most creative interactionpossible is achieved.

• Malicia is the art of being evasive ordeceptive. One aspect of malicia is tolook vulnerable until the opponentattacks, then gracefully defendand/or counterattack. In other wordsone should play closed (or con-trolled), while appearing open(undisciplined or vulnerable).

• It is not enough merely to defeat theopponent; one must prove superiorskill by displaying it with style orbeautiful movement. This style andgrace are as important as the victory.

• Both slow and fast movements areimportant to capoeira angola. Mostmovements are slow and deliber-ate—they teach control and preci-sion, which then enablepractitioners to perform the move-ments very quickly and effectivelyand to improvise new moves.

• Capoeira angola is a sophisticateddiscipline with subtle rules and rites.If a player displays ignorance ofthese unwritten rules, he or she isconsidered an inferior player, uned-ucated in the proper, traditional way.Secret personal and religious ritualscalled mandingas protect a playerfrom harm.

• Finally, unlike other martial arts, thejogo, or play of capoeira, is per-formed for others. The viewersshould be entertained by the skill,deception, and humor of the play.The practitioners of this disciplineshould always be aware of the effecttheir display has on those attendingand develop their play accordingly.

PerformanceThe play of capoeira takes place in whatis known as a roda, which is a circleformed by the players and onlookers.Included in the circle is the bateria,which is an ensemble of musicians andsingers.

Music is one of the most importantelements of the art of capoeira. Different

Ju Jutsu

songs and rhythms inspire the playersto more intense levels of performanceand function to calm them down if thedance becomes too heated. The order ofsongs is part of the ritual aspect ofcapoeira.

The berimbau, a musical bow withone string, is considered “the soul ofcapoeira.” Attached to the bow is a hol-lowed-out gourd that acts as a resonatorbox. Tones are produced when the bow-string is struck by a thin flexible stick(baqueta). A small rattle (caxixi) is alsoheld in the hand that holds the baqueta. Each instrument has a pre-scribed position in the circle.

The ritualized practice of capoeirabegins when two players enter the circleand kneel at the foot of the berimbau.One player sings a ladainha, a ritualsong of commencement. If his oppo-nent doesn’t respond with a song of hisown, the first begins another song, acor-rido, a song for going out to play. Thesong is then passed on to one of themusicians as the jogo-de-capoeira (playof capoeira) begins.

Capoeira is characterized by dynamicmovements such as cartwheels, hand-stands, circling kicks, and acrobatics.Performers use agility, guile, and superi-or technique to maneuver the other intoa defenseless position, rendering him orher open to a blow, kick, or sweep. Onlyone’s hands, head, and feet are allowedto touch the floor. Disqualificationoccurs when a player is knocked down.

Improvisation is greatly admired. Itallows the capoeirista to create openingsand keep the action of the performanceinnovative and fluid. Also prized are eva-sive techniques and implied strikes, espe-cially when one fighter has beenmaneuvered into an indefensible position.

Why Practice Capoeira?Capoeira aims to teach its practitionershow to face harsh experiences whileremaining flexible and receptive, howto respond to violence with evasion andgrace, how to use the trials and tribula-tions of life to develop physical

strength, spiritual strength, and wis-dom in thought and action. It is anancestral wisdom that aims to createbalanced and productive bodies,minds, and lives.

Resources:

The Capoeira Foundation

104 Franklin Street

New York, NY 10013

Tel: (212) 274-9737

e-mail: dancebrazl@aol.com

Provides information on capoeira, including infor-

mation on instructors.

Further Reading:

Almeida, Bira. Capoeira: A Brazilian Art Form.

2nd ed. Richmond, CA: North Atlantic Books,

1986.

Dimock, Anne. “Capoeira Angola.” In Black Peo-

ple and Their Culture: Selected Writing from

the African Diaspora. ed. by Linn Shapiro.

Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution,

1976.

Kubick, Gerhard. “Capoeira Angola.” In Angolan

Traits in Black Music, Games and Dances of

Brazil: A Study of African Cultural Extensions

Overseas. Lisboa: Junta de Investigacoes Cien-

tifica do Ultramar, Centro de Estudos de

Antropologia Cultural, 1976.

Lewis, John Lowell. Ring of Liberation: Deceptive

Discourse in Brazilian Capoeira. Chicago: Uni-

versity of Chicago Press, 1992.

JU JUTSU

Ju jutsu is a type of fighting thatinvolves grappling, throwing, andlimb twisting. Although variously

spelled as jiu jitsu, ju jitsu, or even jujutso, the name refers to the yielding

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principle of the art, which refers to theability to submit to an opponent’s direc-tion of attack while attempting to con-trol it. The Japanese character ju hasseveral meanings: soft, pliable, submis-sive, adaptable, yielding, and harmo-nious. The character jutsu means skillor technique. Yet the common transla-tion of ju jutsu as the “gentle art” issomewhat misleading. Many ju jutsutechniques can be very forceful anddamaging to the opponent. Sometimesgreat strength is needed to ensure thedefeat of an opponent, though experttechnique can make it appear to beeffortless. Perhaps it is the fact that jujutsu is an art that adapts to the oppo-nent and the situation, using leverage,balance, and the minimum amount ofeffort necessary to gain an advantageover the aggressor, that has earned it thename the “gentle art.” In ju jutsu, themind is used to evaluate the opponent’sweaknesses and anticipate the nextmove, while the body controls theopponent’s balance and positioning.

The History of Ju JutsuJu jutsu is considered the forerunner ofthe popular martial arts judo and aiki-do. It dates back a thousand years,being known as tai-jutsu, yawara, andhakuda during the course of its devel-opment into what is recognized todayas ju jutsu. Grappling and throwing artshave long existed in Japan, and there area number of legends about the emer-gence of ju jutsu. According to one pop-ular story, ju jutsu originated with aJapanese physician named Akiyama. Hetraveled to China to study medicineand, while there, learned an art knownas hakuda, which consisted of kicking,striking, seizing, and grappling.

Upon his return to Japan, Akiyamabegan to teach hakuda. According to thelegend, he had few techniques, so hisstudents grew bored and left him.Angered, Akiyama went to meditate atthe Tenjin Shrine. During a snowstormon his journey, he saw a pine tree bro-ken beneath the weight of snow. Nearby

there was a slim willow tree bendingunder the snow, its branches so pliablethat the snow slipped from them, leav-ing the tree unbroken. Akiyama latermeditated at the shrine and is said tohave come upon 303 different martialart techniques that applied the princi-ple he had seen demonstrated by thewillow. He opened a new school inwhich flexibility and suppleness wereall important, naming it Yoshin-Ryu, orWillow Tree School.

The 1500s are considered a turningpoint for ju jutsu. During this time ofthe art’s greatest popularity, there weremore than 700 schools sharing few stan-dard techniques. No method existedthat could be considered a completeand independent system of unarmedfighting.

Many sources regard the TakenouchiRyu, founded in 1532 by TakenouchiHisamaro, as the core ju jutsu ryu(school) from which all “empty-hand-ed” (meaning without weapons) ju jutsusprang. Ju jutsu had traditionally beentaught in conjunction with, and as acomplement to, archery, swordsman-ship, and other forms of armed fighting.Takenouchi Ryu, also known as Kogu-soku, parted with weapon-orientedtraining, establishing a pure method ofunarmed ju jutsu.

Modern Ju JutsuIt is doubtful that the “empty-handed”ju jutsu practiced today bears muchresemblance to the ancient art fromfeudal Japan. Although Takenouchiestablished a formal system of unarmedcombat, ju jutsu still continued to flour-ish mainly as a part of the samuraitraining.

In the mid–seventeenth century,changes in ju jutsu began to emerge.Increasingly, ju jutsu systems started todevelop independently from weaponstraining.

In the nineteenth century, schoolsopened to teach people other thansamurai who were interested in study-ing the martial arts. The new schools of

Ju Jutsu

ju jutsu lacked the real combat trainingof the older schools, and many methodsbecame theoretical as the need for prac-tical application disappeared. This kindof ju jutsu came to be the most wellknown, and eventually spread to theWest. A few old schools still exist, prac-ticing their dangerous art according totradition. Over the years, ju jutsu, likekarate, judo, and many other arts,developed as a form of sporting andgood-natured competition. Because ofthis, lethal techniques were furtherremoved from the training programs.

Since the 1970s, when the martialarts benefited from tremendous growthdue to the Bruce Lee cinema phenome-non, many offshoots from the tradition-al styles have sprung up, and with thehelp of no-holds-barred contests, jujutsu and grappling arts are enjoyingrenewed popularity.

Ju Jutsu TrainingJu jutsu does not require any particularclothing to be effective, unlike the high kicking arts that require loose clothesfor proper execution. The student isexpected to wear traditional clothing,not for effectiveness, but out of respectfor the history of ju jutsu.

Many of the training procedures dateback to the early days of ju jutsu, whenthis discipline was still part of the samu-rai’s training. For example, ju jutsu ispracticed mostly with the partners fac-ing each other. This custom originatesfrom the battlefields of the old samurai.Sometimes a samurai would stand fac-ing the enemy before his soldiers andscream out a challenge, his name, hisryu (school), or even a favorite tech-nique. A samurai from the enemy campwould come forward and accept thechallenge. Such a duel could determinethe outcome of the whole battle.

While ju jutsu is often identified aspure grappling that incorporates armlocks, joint manipulation, throws, andbreakfalls, the art also includes devas-tating kicks and punches. Training in jujutsu progresses from the learning of

basic techniques to the practice of chore-ographed or prearranged series of fightmoves, to freestyle or improvisationalpractice.

The many techniques of ju jutsuinclude atemi waza (striking tech-niques), tachi waza and nage waza(standing and throwing techniques),and ne waza and katame waza (lyingand grappling techniques). Just as inother martial arts, ju jutsu trainingincludes prearranged fight patterns orchoreography called jigo waza (defensetechniques). Jigo waza is a methodicalway to learn how to apply the basictechniques. Randori, or free sparring, isa means of learning one’s strengths andweaknesses because it tests the stu-dent’s fluency with spontaneous movesand responses. In randori, studentsavoid causing injury but may use anytechniques at their disposal.

As the name implies, ju jutsu is not acontest of muscular strength. Excellentbalance, leverage, and speed are neededto get the most out of the technique.Throws, holds, and locks are carried outin a manner that, if not handled withcare, could be devastating to the oppo-nent. Calling for an awareness of anato-my, ju jutsu focuses on the vital points onthe body and the effective use of force onthe joints and limbs. Nevertheless, com-petitors are taught to stop short of harm-ing each other. Modern ju jutsu isdesigned to render an opponent helplesswithout causing injury.

The Nature of Ju JutsuBecause ju jutsu originated in Japan,there are similarities in etiquette andterminology with martial arts such askarate and judo. The training takesplace in a dojo, or training hall. As inkarate, the philosophy of ju jutsu isbased on Zen Buddhism. According tothis philosophy, the dojo is consideredmore than a place to practice. The vigor-ous training that occurs there helpspractitioners to understand themselves.

Through competition and practice,students develop confidence and learn

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about commitment, determination,discipline, and conquest of fear. Thelessons learned in the dojo help the stu-dent to deal with conflicts and stressesthat occur outside the dojo. In this way,ju jutsu training is a source of self-enlightenment.

The mental aspect of ju jutsu com-plements the physical aspect. The phi-losophy of ju jutsu stresses the power ofki (also known as chi), or inner spiritand energy. According to this thinking,each time attackers commit themselvesto a movement, they are also commit-ting their ki. Skilled students of ju jutsucan control this energy by applying theprinciple of yielding, which meansusing opponents’ attacks and move-ment against themselves: if the oppo-nent pulls, the defender pushes; if theopponent pushes, the defender pulls.

It is believed that by controlling theopponent’s ki one can also control hismind, and therefore his whole being.Because this art is potentially destructiveand must be used responsibly, ju jutsu,like other martial arts, places strongemphasis on character and self-control.Students must be patient and tolerant,with the ability to resist confrontations ifdeemed unnecessary. By studying jujutsu, students learn not only to controltheir opponents but, more important,about self-control, commitment, disci-pline, and rising to challenges.

—Stefan Nikander

Resources:

American Judo and Jujitsu Federation (AJJF)

c/o Central Office Administrator

P.O. Box 993312

Redding, CA 96099-3312

e-mail: ajjfdanzan@aol.com

Web site: www.ajjf.org

Founded in 1958, this is a nonprofit corporation

that promotes the DanZan Ryu system of ju jutsu.

American Jujitsu Institute (AJI)

c/o 1779 Koi Koi Street

Wahiawa, HI 96786

Tel: (808) 621-6274

Fax: (808) 622-2179 (call first to set up fax)

e-mail: pra0005@pixi.com

Web site: www.pixi.com/~pra0005/aji.html

Founded in 1939, AJI is the oldest martial arts

organization in the United States. It sponsors tour-

naments and offers instruction, testing and

certification, and seminars and clinics.

World Martial Arts Association

P.O. Box 1568

Santa Barbara, CA 93102

Tel: (805) 569-1389

Fax: (805) 569-0267

Promotes and teaches martial arts such as ju

jutsu, judo, aikido, and karate.

Further Reading:

Ferrie, Eddie. Ju Jitsu: Classical and Modern. Wilt-

shire: Crowood Press, 1990.

Nakae, Kiyose, and Charles Yeager. Jiu Jitsu Com-

plete. Secaucus, NJ: Carol Publishing Group,

1995.

Palumbo, Dennis G. The Essence of Hakkoryo

Jujutsu. Boulder, CO: Paladin Press, 1995.

Uphoff, Joseph A., Jr. Jujitsu: The Art of Precision.

Colorado Springs, CO: Arjuna Library Press, 1993.

JUDO

Judo is a modern Japanese martial artthat has its roots in the ancient martialart of ju jutsu. It integrates mental as

well as physical strength in order to per-form a series of combat maneuvers andmovements with dexterity, skill, and grace.Like other martial arts, this disciplineplaces a strong emphasis on spiritual bal-ance, serenity, as well as mental and phys-ical fitness as an approach to life. It ischaracterized by techniques that are usedto upset the balance of an opponent,eventually neutralizing him or her. Todayjudo is often thought of as an aggressive,competitive sport, but in its original formit was nonviolent and basically defensive.

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A young student learns judo, the Japanese martial art primarily consisting of movements usingbare hands.

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Origins of JudoThe story of judo begins with TeradaKanemon, a warrior who in the eigh-teenth century developed a specific artof combat using only bare hands, fromthe many techniques of ju jutsu. Hecalled this martial art judo, whichmeans “way of gentleness.”

The modern art of judo, however, isattributed primarily to the work of KanoJigoro. Born in 1860, he grew up as amember of a wealthy family in Kobe,Japan. He was very dedicated to thestudy of ju jutsu. Even though the disci-pline had a long and respected traditionas a martial art, at that time ju jutsu wasused by bandits and thieves and had avery negative reputation.

Kano Jigoro explored ways to bringtogether the techniques he had learnedstudying with different master teachers.He wanted to create a “sporting disci-pline” that would educate and trainyoung people in a time of peace. Herevived the name judo to describe hisnew “martial sport.”

In 1882 he opened his own school(dojo) in Tokyo. His method was very pop-ular, and by 1889 he had 600 students. Inthat same year he gave a demonstration ofjudo in Marseilles, France; the popularityof judo spread, and the first dojo outside ofJapan was established in Paris under thedirectorship of Jean-Joseph Renaud andGuy de Montgrillard.

Between 1902 and 1912 Kano Jigorowas sent on official missions by theJapanese government to teach the prin-ciples and techniques of judo through-out China and Europe. Soon there weredojos throughout Japan, China, andEurope. In 1922 Kano Jigoro establishedanother school in Japan called theKodokan. It became the official interna-tional center for all the dojos.

Although Kano Jigoro did not believethat public competition was an appropri-ate aim of the study of judo, some studentsenjoyed competing with each other. Pub-lic competitions were held between Euro-pean, Chinese, and Japanese dojos untilthe outbreak of World War II.

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Principle Movements of Judo Corresponding Japanese Name

bending & locking of the joints Kansetsu-wazcontrol techniques Katame-no-katastrangulation Shime-wazthrows Nage-wazaimmobilizations on the ground Osaekomi-waza

After the war, international judo com-petitions resumed. Weight categories,such as those used in boxing, were estab-lished. This step gradually led to an ideo-logical split between those who began tosee judo more and more as a competitivesport and those who remained dedicatedto Kano Jigoro’s view of judo as a person-al art of training the mind and body.Today Judo is one of the most widespreadsports in the world, but very few dojosteach the spirit of gentleness that was atthe heart of Kano Jigoro’s technique.

The Fundamental Principles of JudoKano Jigoro believed that his art ofunarmed self-defense was a means toteach a philosophy or art of daily living.A serene, disciplined mind, working inconjunction with controlled bodyactions, was used to bring down anopponent and, applied in a larger sense,to live life in peace and well-being. Con-trol of body and mind results from a supple body, perfect balance, constantalertness, emotional detachment, andproper breathing techniques.

The techniques of judo are practicedwith a partner and require quick shiftsof body and mind. The fundamentalmovements derived from ju jutsu aredesigned to neutralize the opponent,but the overall aim of the technique,according to Kano Jigoro, is to “under-stand and demonstrate the living lawsof movement.” The movements involvethe body, arms, and legs. They aretaught carefully and repeated manytimes in the course of training.

Today the principal movements ofjudo also include kumi-kata, which is

the action of gripping an opponent;nage-waza, a series of throws; katame-no-kata, which are techniques of con-trol; osaekomi-waza, classified as theaction of immobilizing an opponent onthe ground; shime-waz, which arestrangulation techniques; and finallykansetsu-waz, which are techniques ofbending and locking the joints.

Once the fundamental movementsare learned, the partners practice train-ing in a freestyle combat called randori.In this quick dancelike practice, Uke,the one who submits, is thrown to themat and immobilized by Tori, the onewho throws. Suppleness of body, perfectbalance, serenity, and alertness are alltested and developed here.

Learning JudoJudo is taught on large rectangular tata-mi mats. Traditionally the mats weremade of straw, but today they are oftenmade of pressed foam. Students arebarefoot and wear a special uniformcalled a judogi. It is made of thick whiteor unbleached cotton. It consists oflarge, baggy trousers called zubon, awide-fitting jacket with wide sleevesthat come halfway down the forearmcalled a sode, and a belt called an obi.

Judo training is organized in stages.When a student passes a particular stagehe or she is allowed to wear the coloredbelt associated with that stage. A whitebelt represents a beginner, a black beltthe most advanced practitioner.

Even though today judo is more oftena test of strength between the two oppo-nents, the underlying principles of thespirit of the founder and of all martial

Karate

arts are still at the core of this body-mind discipline.

Benefits of JudoJudo is one of the more popular martialarts disciplines, and many peopleworldwide have reported a variety ofbenefits. These include a significantimprovement in physical fitness; sharp-ened mental clarity and emotional bal-ance; increased self-discipline; and theself-confidence from the knowledge ofvaluable self-defense techniques.

—Nancy Allison

Resources:

American Judo and Jujitsu Federation (AJJF)

c/o Central Office Administrator

P.O. Box 993312

Redding, CA 96099-3312

e-mail: ajjfdanzan@aol.com

Web site: www.ajjf.org

Founded in 1958, this organization promotes the

teaching of ju jutsu and judo in the United States.

International Judo Federation (IJF)

21st Floor, Doosan Bldg.

101-1 Ulchiro 1ka, Choongku

Seoul, Korea

Tel: (82 1 2) 759-6936

Fax: (82 1 2) 754-1075

e-mail: yspark@ijf.org

Web site: www.ijf.org

World’s governing body of judo. Provides informa-

tion about competitive judo, including interna-

tional and Olympic events.

World Martial Arts Association

P.O. Box 1568

Santa Barbara, CA 93102

Tel: (805) 569-1389

Fax: (805) 569-0267

Founded in 1979, this group promotes and teaches

several martial arts, including ju jutsu, judo, aiki-

do, and karate.

Further Reading:

Caffary, Brian. The Judo Handbook: From Begin-

ner to Black Belt. New York: Galley Books, 1989.

Frederic, Louis. A Dictionary of the Martial Arts.

Translated and edited by Paul Crompton.

Boston: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1995.

Tegner, Bruce. Judo: Beginner to Black Belt. Ventu-

ra, CA: Thor Publishing, 1991.

KARATE

Karate originated as a method ofhand-to-hand combat, but today isalso practiced as a sport and a form

of self-discipline. The name karate isformed from the Japanese characters“kara,” meaning empty, and “te,” mean-ing hand, and is therefore often translat-ed as “empty hand.” Karate students,known as karateka, learn highly effectiveweaponless (“empty hand”) techniquesof attack and defense using their armsand legs. The philosophy of karate isbased on Zen Buddhism, which placesgreat value on inner calm, clear think-ing, self-knowledge, and a heightenedawareness of one’s relationship to othersand the world. Therefore, karate not onlyis a form of physical training and self-defense but is also used to develop spir-itual and mental well-being.

Okinawa, the Birthplace of KarateKarate developed in Asia over thecourse of several centuries. Its roots liein the different forms of unarmed com-bat that arose among peasants whosought to protect themselves fromneighboring invaders. Buddhist monksof the Shaolin Monastery in the Hunanprovince of China also refined a methodof fighting to protect themselves againsttroops and robbers. At the ShaolinMonastery, the Zen Buddhist monkBodhidharma equipped his discipleswith the strength and discipline toapproach enlightenment by instructingthem to practice fighting moves. Theteachings of Zen Buddhism became thebasis for the mental and spiritual train-ing that is essential to the martial arts.

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Karate techniques require a high degree of body-mind coordination.

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The island of Okinawa, locatedalmost midway between Japan andChina, became a place that allowedtraders, soldiers, travelers, and localinhabitants to exchange goods, ideas,and fighting techniques. It was here inthe seventeenth century that severalmartial arts styles arose, collectivelyknown as Okinawa-te (“Okinawanhand”). In the early twentieth century,the various styles of Okinawa-te wereunified under the name of karate byFunakoshi Gichin, who is consideredthe founder of modern karate.Funakoshi promoted his sport by trav-eling through Japan staging tourna-ments and demonstrations, and karategained in popularity. The karate prac-ticed at this time was used as a form ofviolent combat. Because of this, karate-do was established as an alternative tothe lethal version of karate. The suffixdo means “way” and conveys the sensethat the new approach was intendedfor spiritual and physical development,not war. In karate-do, blows are never

completed but, instead, stop just shortof impact; in karate-do competitions,karateka are evaluated on their formand the quality of their execution ofprescribed moves.

By 1930 every major university inJapan had a karate club. With the out-break of World War II, karate was taughtto the Imperial Japanese Army. WhenJapan surrendered in 1945, GeneralDouglas MacArthur placed a ban on allmartial arts training, greatly hinderingthe spread of karate. In 1948, one yearafter the United States occupationforces lifted the ban on karate instruc-tion, Funakoshi started to rebuild thesport. He gave a demonstration at a U.S.air base, and the impressed Americancommanders gave permission forinstruction to take place on their mili-tary bases. Funakoshi himself touredthe U.S. air bases giving demonstra-tions. It was this effort that saved karate,and introduced the way of the emptyhand to the West. Karate was officiallyintroduced to the United States in 1953.

Karate

Two years later, the Japanese KarateAssociation was formed, and by 1957karate had reached Europe. Millions ofpeople currently practice karate, andthe sport is known throughout theworld.

The StylesKarate is not a single unified system—infact, hundreds of styles of karate exist.Many of these styles originated in theyears after karate’s first introduction inJapan. Some were advanced by Oki-nawan masters following in Funakoshi’sfootsteps, while others were outgrowthsfrom Funakoshi’s karate school. Howev-er, all of the other styles are outgrowthsof five major branches: shotokan, wadoryu, goju ryu, shito ryu, andkyokushinkai. Each style has its ownstrengths, techniques, and applications.By comparing different styles, individu-als seeking to study karate may find theschool most suited to their ability andtemperament.

The Nature of KarateKarate is practiced in a dojo, or traininghall. According to the philosophy ofkarate, the dojo is not just a place topractice fighting techniques. It is alsowhere karateka learn to become emo-tionally sound and mentally disciplined.Perfecting the technique requires a longand demanding training schedule.Through triumphs and failures, karatekamust remain committed to the study ofkarate and be willing to work hard.

In karate, as in all the martial arts,etiquette is an important part of train-ing and practice. Karateka bow beforeentering the training area of the dojo asa sign of respect for their training com-munity. Before they practice fighting,the students bow to each other. At thebeginning and end of every training ses-sion, they line up and bow to the sensei,or master. When karateka bow, they arenot only showing respect but also learn-ing to display an inner calm and powerthat emanates an aura of inner strengthand invulnerability. Practitioners of

karate believe that confidence, charac-ter, dignity, and self-awareness are asimportant as physical technique.

The student’s uniform is called akarate gi. A belt called an obi is worn by allkarateka and marks the level they havereached in their training. The belts vary incolor, with each color corresponding to aspecific level of progress. When belts werefirst introduced, students started with alight color and dyed them darker shadeseach time they passed the examinationand advanced to the next level. If thekarateka studied long enough and madesignificant progress, the belt eventuallybecame black.

Karate Training: Sport, Physical Exer-cise, Self-Defense, and a Way of LifeKarate employs the whole body and isused to gain and maintain physicalfitness. While karate techniques stressrelaxation, muscular effort is needed toaccelerate the arms and legs. Physicaltraining exercises are performed toimprove stamina, power, and flexibility.

Karate moves include kicking, strik-ing, and blocking with the arms andlegs. The practitioner attempts to focusas much force as possible at the pointand moment of impact. Blows are madeto the opponent with the forearm,elbow, knee, heel, and the ball of thefoot. All are toughened by practiceblows against padded surfaces or pineboards. Tameshiwara, or “power break-ing,” is one of the most spectacular andwell known of karate training tech-niques. This involves breaking pineboards up to several inches thick withthe bare hand or foot. But like all thetechniques of karate, Tameshiwara is apersonal measure of concentration andself-confidence as much as a test ofphysical strength.

Proficiency in karate comes throughdrills and repetition of techniques.Extensive repetition requires patience,stamina, and discipline. The philosophyof karate is based on Zen Buddhism,which promotes these qualities andaims to bring the mind and body into

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harmony. A person training to perfectthe basic teachings of karate developsresilience, respect, and the knowledgeof self-sacrifice.

Semi-sparring introduces the begin-ner to an actual fighting situation.Under controlled conditions, studentsface each other, one as the attacker, theother as the defender. Moves are pre-arranged and may look somewhat stiffin their execution. In contrast, real fight-ing is fast and unpredictable. The free-form movement that occurs in realfighting is difficult to teach, so the move-ments are broken down into their sim-ple components. As students progress,new techniques are learned and addedto the repertoire of movements that theyhave mastered. In the beginning, defen-sive blocking and counterattacking areperformed as separate movements, butas students advance, the lapse in timebetween the two should gradually disap-pear until the block and counter flowfluidly.

The karate kata, or form, is a seriesof carefully arranged offensive anddefensive moves performed againstimaginary opponents. Only one personperforms the kata at a time, and thus nocontact is involved; in tournaments,panels of judges evaluate the executionof the kata. To an outsider, the kataappears to be a confusing sequence ofmovements and may resemble a dancemore than a fight. Nevertheless, it is afundamental element of karate. Besidesteaching the student the basic fightingmovements, the kata helps the studentto bring his or her body under the con-trol of the mind and will. At anadvanced level, the kata trainingincludes very quick strikes and reac-tions. Those who have mastered kataseem to be able to anticipate theiropponents’ movements.

In the hands of a well-trained indi-vidual, karate can be the most lethal ofmartial arts. To some, it is an excitingform of competition, while others enjoyit as a form of physical fitness training.But to Funakoshi Gichin, and to thou-sands of serious teachers and students

of karate throughout the world, it is a powerful vehicle of discipline and self-knowledge.

—Stefan Nikander

Resources:

American Amateur Karate Federation

1930 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 1208

Los Angeles, CA 90057

Tel: (213) 483-8261

Fax: (213) 483-4060

A national governing body for karate. The federa-

tion promotes karate with the intention of improv-

ing the physical and mental health of the public

through the practice of karate.

U.S.A. Karate Federation

1300 Kenmore Boulevard

Akron, OH 44314

Tel: (216) 753-3114

Fax: (216) 753-6967

A national governing body for karate. The federa-

tion certifies instructors, conducts classes, and

organizes competitions.

Further Reading:

Aiello, Jerry L. Warrior Within: A Guide to Apply-

ing Your Warrior Spirit. Berkley, MI: Aiello

Group, 1992.

Aigla, Jorge H. Karate-Do and Zen: An Inquiry.

Santa Fe, NM: Do Press, 1994.

Funakoshi, Gichin. Karate-Do: My Way of Life.

New York: Harper and Row, 1975.

Hassell, Randall G. The Karate Spirit. St. Louis,

MO: Focus Publications, 1995.

Johnson, Nathan. Zen Shaolin Karate: The Com-

plete Practice, Philosophy, and History. Boston:

Charles E. Tuttle, 1993.

Nakamura, Tadashi. Karate: Technique and Spirit.

Boston: Charles E. Tuttle, 1986.

Nicol, C. W. Moving Zen: Karate as a Way to Gen-

tleness. New York: William Morrow, 1982.

Kendo

KENDO

Kendo is the Japanese martial art ofswordsmanship. The name literal-ly means “the way of the sword.” It

is considered the oldest of the Japanesemartial arts and is based on rigorousphysical and mental training and self-discipline. Essential to the practice ofkendo is the knowledge and anticipa-tion of the opponent’s thoughts in ordernot only to defend oneself from theattack of others, but to better under-stand oneself and others in daily life.

History of KendoKendo has a long and respected tradi-tion in Japan, with techniques as old asswordsmanship itself. They were first usedby the bushi, or warrior class, that devel-oped in the northern provinces of Japan intheir fights against the Ainu tribes.Throughout Japanese history the tech-niques have been called ken-jutsu, heiho,toho, gekken, hyoho, to-jutsu, tachi-uchiand hyodo. These techniques were passedon from father to son and from teacher tostudent through oral tradition.

The samurai, an elite class of bushi,started training in these techniques inthe tenth century. It is estimated thatfrom the start of this training until 1876more than 600 different schools ofswordsmanship flourished throughoutJapan. In 1876 the first Meiji emperorforbade the samurai to carry swords dueto the many fights and politicalintrigues between the samurai andnoble class.

The exact origin of modern kendo iscredited to a variety of sources. Accord-ing to Louis Frederic in his Dictionary ofthe Martial Arts, Sakakibara Kenkichi,an expert of the Jikishin kage school ofswordsmanship, improved upon a tech-nique using the shinai, or bamboosword. He gave demonstrations of hisnew technique throughout Japan in1873. Sakakibara’s desire was to revivethe art of Japanese swordsmanshipwithout its violent applications. Thename kendo was given to the new

peaceful discipline by the Abe-ryu, orschool headed by the Abe family. Mod-ern kendo, or Japan kendo style, was acollaboration by the six leading ken-jutsu schools at the end of the feudal erain 1876.

The first academy of kendo wasfounded in Tokyo in 1909. Both menand women were taught, and the newmartial art gained a large followingthroughout Japan. The study was pri-marily confined to Japan until 1955,when it was introduced on an organizedscale to France and the United States. In1970 the first international tournamentwas held in Japan.

Since that time kendo has gained ahigh reputation internationally and ispracticed throughout the world. Kendois practiced in thirty-seven countriestoday, and there are thirty-four membercountries of the International KendoFederation. The federation sponsors aninternational competition every threeyears.

The Basic Principles of KendoThe goal of kendo is to overcome theopponent by overcoming the self. Thisinvolves tremendous self-discipline andintense mental concentration, often inthe face of great physical pain. Unliketai chi ch’üan or aikido, which admon-ishes the practitioner to “go with” theopponent, the philosophy of kendo isthat it is a battle to the death and onlythe strongest will remain alive when thefight is over.

To dominate the opponent thekendoka (someone who practiceskendo) must unite his or her ki with theki of the universe. According to Japan-ese belief, ki is the vital life energyflowing through all things and all peo-ple. Kendo philosophy states that thepower of ki can be channeled anddirected through concentration.

This ability to channel the ki is firstrealized through the kendo stance, inwhich the kendoka absorbs the ki fromthe earth by pulling it up through thesoles of the feet into the legs, torso, andeventually the top of the head. The

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Masks, shinai (swords), and costumes reveal the ancient roots of kendo, the Japanese art of swordsmanship.

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spine must remain straight in order toavoid impeding the flow of ki. The effectof a bent spine on the flow of ki can be compared to the effect of pinching orbending a garden hose on the flow ofwater. As the water is dammed up in thehose, so it will be with the flow of ki inthe body if the spine is broken or bent.

Even more fundamental than thestance is the flow of breath, which isslow and deep. It is pulled through thenose into the tanden, or hara, which islocated about three inches below thenavel, midway between the navel andthe spine. The tanden is considered thephysical and psychological center of thehuman being. It is here that individualki and universal ki unite to form a pow-erful fighting energy. At the momentthat a blow is struck, the attacker releas-es a powerful sound called ki-ai which isthe concentration and focus of kitoward the kendoka’s goal.

The focus of the eyes is another wayin which the kendoka seeks to dominatehis or her opponent. The kendoka must“see through” his or her opponent, pen-etrating to the mind with his or her eyes.This allows the kendoka to predict his orher opponent’s next move. At the sametime the kendoka must “see as far awayas possible.” By seeing “far away” theopponent becomes like a person seenagainst a mountain—a small insignificantdot that cannot stop the kendoka fromachieving his or her goal.

Mental energy is paramount to thetraining in kendo. Only through mentalconcentration can total control andpower be achieved. Yet the kendoka’smind must be like that of a baby, softand focused. In this way the kendokacan stay totally concentrated in themoment and be prepared for any attack.

Typical Session of KendoA typical kendo class is a rigorous, ritu-alized workout, which usually lasts fortwo hours. The dojo (training hall) is alarge open room with a wooden floor. Atone end of the room is the joza, or altar.Each class begins and ends with a bow

to the joza as a sign of respect,specifically to the sensei, or masterteacher, but metaphorically to all ances-tors and all knowledge that have gonebefore.

Students wear the armor and tradi-tional dress of samurai warriors. Navyblue hakama, or wide skirt-like pants,and gi, or jacket, are worn. In the feudalera, only samurai were entitled to wearthe hakama, a symbolically pleated gar-ment. Each of the five front pleats repre-sents a virtue from the bushido, orsamurai code of honor. The first pleatstands for humility, the second for justice,the third for courtesy, the fourth forknowledge, and the fifth for trust. Thetwo back pleats represent yin and yang,the two opposite cosmic energy princi-ples that unite symbolically in onestraight line down the back of the haka-ma.

A taiko drum on the joza is beaten to signify the beginning of class. After theinitial bow, students generally form acircle to perform basic calisthenicswarm-up exercises. Then suriashi (foot-work exercises) are practiced walkingthe length of the dojo. The exercisesprogress from slow to fast and from sim-ple to complex, beginning with thebasic kendo sliding step, by which thefoot never leaves the ground, to com-plex patterns involving multiplechanges of direction and thrusts of theshinai.

The class proceeds to waza, or tech-niques. Waza include instructions inhow to hold the shinai and how toattack. Beginning with a single target,the training advances to multiple tar-gets, all of which must be quickly andprecisely hit during the length of onelong exhale.

In more advanced classes theteacher will eventually signal that it istime to put on the steel grilled headmasks called men. At that point stu-dents line up, in order of their rankedability, with the highest ranking stu-dents nearest the joza. They sit in za-zen, a traditional kneeling posture inwhich the mind, breath, and body are

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Scoring in Kendo Competition

Precision, speed, and coordination are the qualities admired in a kendo attack. BruceRobertson Smith, a first-degree black-belt student, explains that scoring a point inkendo is not as clear-cut as scoring a point in soccer or basketball. Three judges, stand-ing in a triangular formation around the contest area, must all agree that the kendokahas earned the point.

Earning a point involves many things. First of all, the kendoka must strike the exact tar-get that he or she calls out at the instant of the attack. Kendo recognizes nine target spotson the body: the right, left, and middle of the forehead; right and left forearms; the right,left, and center of the torso; and the center of the throat. Only the point or upper thirdof the shinai can effectively be used to strike a target area. The movement of the attackmust be aesthetically pleasing, much like the criteria for earning points in competitivegymnastics. Finally, the energy expressed through the ki-ai must be full and strong.These criteria, known as kikentai-no-ichi, literally translated, mean “life force-sword-body-one.”

brought to a state of calm readiness.Gloves and mask rest in front; the shinaiis placed to the left of the body. The sen-sei puts on a protective head scarf andmask, and then upon verbal cue all thestudents do the same.

Now in full armor the keiko, or prac-tice, begins with a bow to the joza, thesensei, and the opponent. Beginningwith specific thrusts, advancing toseries of thrusts, the keiko eventuallyprogresses to full contact, wherekendokas practice a series of fights,each lasting about three minutes. Thekeiko continues until the taiko drum isbeaten once again.

The students return to their line ofrank and repeat in exact reverse orderthe ritual movements that began thekeiko—bowing, removing the men andhead scarf, and finally kneeling again inza-zen for a brief period of meditation.Classes often conclude with the senseigiving a “teaching” on the spirit ofkendo.

Benefits of Practicing KendoBecause of its psychological and physicalbenefits, kendo is one of the most popu-lar martial arts in Japan. Practice buildsstrength, coordination, and flexibility. On

an intellectual level, many students areable to sharpen their mental focus andclarity through practice. Through therigorous training and self-discipline ofkendo, kendoka learn first to masterthemselves, and through that how tomaster all opponents and adverse situa-tions. The physical, mental, and emo-tional knowledge gained through thestudy of kendo can be applied to allendeavors in life. Many of the politicaland industrial leaders of modern Japanstudy kendo.

—Nancy Allison, CMA, with Daniel T.Ebihara and Bruce Robertson-Smith

Resources:

Canadian Kendo Association

205 Riviera Drive

Markham, ON L3R 5J8

Canada

Tel: (416) 445-1481

Fax: (416) 445-0519

Provides information on kendo in Canada.

Eastern Kendo Federation

c/o Mozart H. Ishizuka

445 Fifth Avenue, Suite 21E

New York, NY 10016

Kung Fu Wu Su

Tel: (212) 679-1230

Fax: (212) 679-1236

Offers information about dojos in the New York

area.

Great Lakes Kendo Federation

c/o Dr. Tsuyoshi Inishita

2423 Fenwick Road

University Heights, OH 44118

Tel: (216) 321-1187

Disseminates information about kendo in the

Midwest.

Pacific Northwest Kendo Federation

616 SW 135th Street

Seattle, WA 98146

Tel: (206) 246-2239

Provides information on kendo in the Northwest.

South East Kendo Federation

2830 Carolyn Drive

Smyrna, GA 30080

Tel: (404) 434-7166

Furnishes regional information on kendo practi-

tioners.

Southwest Kendo Federation

c/o Charles Riddle

12101 Randy Lane

Burleson, TX 76208

Offers resources to those practicing kendo in the

American Southwest.

Further Reading:

Kiyota, Minoru. Kendo: Its Philosophy, History,

and Means to Personal Growth. New York:

Columbia University Press, 1995.

Sasamori, Junzo. This Is Kendo: The Art of Japanese

Fencing. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle, 1964.

KUNG FU WU SU

Kung fu wu su refers to a multitude ofChinese martial arts and gymnasticmovements, and encompasses

nearly 400 disparate styles. For instance,it includes combative styles such ashung gar and more defensive stylessuch as t’ai chi ch’üan, and evenincludes acrobatic exercises. Advancedpractice of kung fu requires almost life-long study combined with knowledge ofChinese culture, customs, and history.

History of Kung Fu Wu SuSome forms of kung fu wu su date backapproximately 5,000 years. The formthat is the basis of most forms practicedtoday is said to have been perfected byTaoist monks, who practiced it to pro-tect themselves from bandits and brig-ands in ancient China. The system itselfis so potent that China’s first greatmonarch, Huang Ti, known as the YellowEmperor, had it systematically taught tohis troops to improve their fighting abil-ity. Kung fu, as we know it today, flour-ished in both northern and southernChina, but throughout the years evolvedin different ways. Generally speaking,southern styles emphasize hand tech-niques, while northern styles emphasizeleg techniques.

The term kung fu wu su has a directtranslation from its Chinese characters,and a philosophical meaning derivedfrom that translation as well. Kungmeans “discipline technique”; fu means“person”; wu means “martial art”; andsu means “technique” or “skill.” But theword as a whole encompasses muchmore. The philosophical idea of kung fuis to develop three distinct but neces-sary characteristics: dar (character); tse(mental ability); and tee (physical abili-ty). The aim is to live a positive and har-monious life.

The concept of self-defense is as oldas humanity. But the first definitivemartial arts systems evolved in China,and it is assumed that the Chinese hadalready cataloged and codified a basicsystem of self-defense as early as 4,500years ago, which they called kung fu orwu su. In time, Taoist monks began toexperiment with various divergentstyles, beginning with five animal styles:

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the crane, tiger, snake, dragon, and mon-key. The second great transformation inthe system came from India, when a trav-eling Buddhist monk, Bodhidarma, intro-duced advanced breathing techniquesand meditative exercises, which wereincorporated into kung fu about 550 yearsago. This reinforced what came to beknown as the Shaolin style, named afterthe temple where it was taught. Bodhidar-ma was enshrined by his Chinese name,dor-mor, for adding to and strengtheningan already established system.

China’s history has been tumul-tuous, and conflict and warfare eventu-ally disrupted the tranquillity of theShaolin Temple. The Shaolin Temple eraended with the Ming Dynasty(1368–1644 CE), when the reigningemperors began to regard the twoShaolin temples, one in southernChina, the other in the north, as a threatto their authority. They effectivelyembarked on a campaign that led to thedestruction of both temples. With thedemise of their temples, Shaolin monksscattered throughout Asia, teachingkung fu wherever they went.

The Varied Styles of Kung FuThe differing styles of kung fu evolvedthrough need or observation. For exam-ple, besides the animal styles, which arebased on observation of animal move-ments, there are also styles based onnatural phenomena, such as movingshadow. Other styles are based on dis-tinct physical features like white eye-brow, a state or condition such asdrunken monk, or even a physical sub-stance, such as green jade.

There are twenty-five groupings inkung fu that identify the various styles.These groupings include everythingfrom an astrological classification, likechee sin, or seven stars style, to insects,like tong lon, or praying mantis style. Allthese groupings can be classified intofour general categories:

• The first classification is based onappearance. Some may emphasize the“hard” way with strong, devastating

blows and movements. Others mayemphasize the “soft” way, where theopponent’s strength may be usedagainst him, but is just as effective insubduing an adversary. For example,gin kong is considered a hard stylebecause of its aggressive nature, andt’ai chi is a soft style because of itsemphasis on defensive movements.Some disciplines, such as northernShaolin style, may be a combinationof both.

• The second classification is based ongeography. Pa kua, a style thatemphasizes distinct stepping move-ments, comes from north centralChina. Jow gar and hung dar, stylesthat emphasize strong hand tech-niques, come from southern China.

• The next classification is based onthe character of the style. T’ai chi,with its emphasis on inner force andevasive maneuvers, is considered aninternal discipline. An example of adiscipline that is external in nature ishung gar, because of its preferencefor force and rapid attack move-ments. A combination of both can befound in the northern Shaolin style.

• The final classification is based onthe purpose of the style. It may be the grabbing, grappling style of chin-nafa, or a weapon style like the steelsword or kong chien. The terminolo-gy used to define each style oftenreflects its content.

Most styles of kung fu employpunching and kicking techniques, butothers use grappling and throwing tech-niques, and/or ground fighting. Most uti-lize a variety of weapons, both long andshort, such as the long or sleeve staff,small-bladed weapons, straight sword ormachete, long-bladed weapons such asthe spear or trident, and throwingweapons such as stars or spikes. Nearlyall the styles incorporate meditation,breathing techniques, and body condi-tioning. The end result is a vigorouscombination of external and internalmethods, designed to promote knowledgeof self-defense and enhance general

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health. The overall makeup is derivedfrom philosophical and theoretical con-cepts from Taoist and Buddhist teach-ings, designed to keep both the bodyand mind agile and resilient.

Kung fu embodies more than justphysical aspects. Ancient masters inChina considered it a way of life, not

just a sport or pastime. In its trueessence, it is an ethical discipline thatpermeates every aspect of life. Sincekung fu is more than a martial arts tech-nique, it can be achieved by any disci-plined person. If one does a task well,and acts in a correct and moral manner,he or she is said to have kung fu. The

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What Is Kung-Fu?

A common question is: How does kung fu differ from other martial arts systems? Thereis no easy explanation. All martial arts are good in and of themselves. It is the effort thatthe individual puts into it that makes the difference. A good martial artist, no matterwhat his or her method may be, will always prevail. Traditionally, kung fu is consideredcircular in its motions, while other disciplines are more linear. This does not take intoaccount other ways of fighting such as judo, ju jutsu, aikido, kempo, and others. One of the defining differences in kung fu is that the students utilize footwear. They donot train barefoot, as in Korean or Japanese styles. Also, traditional Shaolin kung fu doesnot have a belt system. Since training was within the family or village group, a rankingsystem was not necessary. Some large schools in northern China did use a button sys-tem of ranking, which is used in certain kung fu schools today.

purpose of kung fu practice is to createnot a fighting machine, but a completeindividual—one who aspires to contin-ual growth as a total person and whocontributes to the well-being of thecommunity.

When choosing a style to practice,consider your own needs and desires asan individual. There are kung fu schoolsor temples that will emphasize one styleor manner of practice. Others may offer acombination of styles. Eventually, youwill gravitate toward the method that isbest suited to your nature.

The Instruction of Kung Fu Wu SuThe study of kung fu wu su in all itsdiverse forms can take a lifetime. Thebasic course in martial arts practice cantake up to five years to complete. High-level studies will take longer. The lengthof the training depends on how much theindividual student wants from the studyand how much time and effort he or shegives to the training. The basic applica-tions include body conditioning to calis-thenics to basic self-defense techniques.The training is all-inclusive. It can also beextensive in other areas if the student isgiven a grounding in philosophy, concen-tration, kung fu medicines, breathing,meditation, and diet. Not many templesor schools will offer such a varied andextensive program of study.

Benefits of Kung FuPeople study kung fu for many reasons.Some seek a measure of self-protection.Others are drawn by its refined, elegantmovements. Some are enthralled by thesheer power generated by its defensiveand offensive techniques. And some areenticed by the arcane self-healing prac-tices rooted in the system, such as theenhancement of chi, or life force, the pos-itive energy within all of us. Some individ-uals seek to develop this chi to its highestlevel, to channel this energy to protectand heal themselves and others from ill-ness. Kung fu is a system that seeks adynamic flow between mind and body. Inthe beginning, it may test one’s commit-ment to learning and mastering the dif-ferent movements and their applications.

—Oswald Rivera

Resources:

Chinese Kung-Fu Wu-Su Association

28 West 27th Street, 8th floor

New York, NY 10001

Tel: (212) 725-0535

Provides information on different martial arts

disciplines.

T’ai Chi Ch’üan/Shaolin Chuan Association

(TCC/SCA)

33W624 Roosevelt Road

Taekwondo

P.O. Box 430

Geneva, IL 60134

Tel: (708) 232-0029

Founded in 1987, this organization promotes and

offers instruction in t’ai chi ch’üan and Shaolin

chuan kung fu. Conducts demonstrations, semi-

nars, lectures, and certification programs for

members, and publishes a bimonthly newsletter.

World Martial Arts Association (WMAA)

P.O. Box 1568

Santa Barbara, CA 93102

Tel: (805) 569-1389

Fax: (805) 569-0267

Promotes many kung fu wu su disciplines and

instructs practitioners on the technical aspects of

these disciplines.

Further Reading:

Mitchell, David. Shaolin Temple Kung-Fu. Lon-

don: Stanley Paul, 1990.

Parulski, George R. The Secrets of Kung-Fu: A

Complete Guide to the Fundamentals of Shaolin

Kung-Fu and the Principles of Inner Power.

Chicago: Contemporary Books, 1984.

Wong, Kiew Kit. The Art of Shaolin Kung-Fu: The

Secrets of Kung-Fu for Self-Defense, Health, and

Enlightenment. Rockport, MA: Element, 1996.

TAEKWONDO

Taekwondo is one of the most popu-lar martial arts in the world. Itsoffensive and defensive move-

ments are uniform for all of those thatpractice the discipline, which makes iteasy to set standards of accomplish-ment and skill. It is also used by manypeople as an effective system of self-defense. People of all ages and walks oflife have taken up this contemporaryKorean martial art to improve their sta-mina, physical fitness, and mental acu-ity, and to learn to defend against

attack. The practice of taekwondo has arich heritage, and its practitionersadhere to strict ethical and moral guide-lines.

History of TaekwondoThe contemporary art and modernsport of taekwondo can be traced to taekyon, a discipline characterized by itsemphasis on kicking techniques. Someexperts believe that tae kyon was an off-shoot of su bak, the martial art said tohave been practiced more than 1000years ago by Hwarang warriors in Korea.The Hwarang (which means “floweringyouth”) were a national group of out-standing youths handpicked for train-ing in swordsmanship and archery. Thechosen youths were guided by a code ofethics, known as the Code of Hwarang,prescribed by the eminent Buddhistmonk Wongwang. The Code of Hwarangdictated that followers would loyallyserve the king, be obedient to their par-ents, be honorable to friends, neverretreat in battle, and kill justly.

In peacetime, there was little use forthe practice of tae kyon to the commonman. At the time of the Silla dynasty(688–935 BCE), Korea became a highlycentralized Buddhist state. The fine artsflourished, and the practice of martialarts was suppressed because of theiroffensive, warlike capabilities.

The contemporary art of taekwondowas founded by General Choi Hong Hiin 1946. Choi came from a military fam-ily; he studied tae kyon as a child andkarate while forced to serve in theJapanese army. Originally, taekwondowas nothing more than transplantedJapanese karate with a bit of tae kyon. Infact, the term taekwondo (tae meaning“foot,” kwon meaning “fist,” domeaning “art” or “the way”) was adopt-ed by the Korean Taekwondo Federationas the Korean translation of karate (karameaning empty, te meaning hand).Today, however, the World TaekwondoFederation is the undisputed governingbody, sanctioning all taekwondo com-petitions and certifying all belt rank

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promotions at the black-belt level andabove. In addition, the body and move-ment structure of the contemporary,karatelike taekwondo has beenmodified into a modern sport formwithin the past ten years. Notablechanges include a higher fightingstance, faster footwork, a new set of pre-arranged patterns, and an emphasis onsport competition and its rules ratherthan self-defense applications.

The Basic Principles of TaekwondoWhile the physical movements of tae-kwondo are simple, dedicated practice isnecessary for them to become naturaland spontaneous. As a result, the practi-tioner develops discipline and persever-ance, as progress is sometimes slow. Themental discipline, self-confidence, andself-control gained through prolongedpractice bring taekwondo practitionersthe utmost determination and stability ofboth mind and body.

As a sport, taekwondo’s uniform tech-nique sets a standard for all practitioners.As a martial art, the basic techniques oftaekwondo serve as a powerful system ofself-defense skills. In competition, tae-kwondo techniques are evaluated on thepractitioner’s ability to perform themindividually in the air, in series as self-defense techniques with an opponent,and in application through sparring.

Taekwondo ClassTaekwondo is taught in a dojang (train-ing hall), which is usually a simpleroom with a wooden floor. In the moretraditional taekwondo dojang, one willfind a makiwara (striking post), used todevelop focus and power in striking. Inthe modern, sport-oriented dojang,however, this is replaced with a heavypunching bag, and various types ofpadding, such as chest, head, and footprotectors, and padded punchinggloves are used.

Taekwondo

At the beginning of each class, stu-dents line up in rows. The sabumnim(master) will then yell out a few com-mands, and students will bow to him,to the senior student, and the flags ofKorea and the country where the train-ing hall is located. Then the studentswill stand for a few minutes in medita-tion. During meditation, students areasked to clear their minds of thoughtsand to relax as well as prepare for seri-ous practice. Once these preparationshave concluded, physical trainingbegins.

Classes in taekwondo generally lastone hour or ninety minutes. The firstfifteen minutes are spent stretching thelegs and hips. Students spend the nextfifteen minutes practicing sets of basicblocking, striking, and kicking tech-niques in the air. This is followed by afifteen-minute practice of predeter-mined offensive and defensive move-ments known as hyung or poomse. Thenext fifteen minutes are generally spenton the practice of basic self-defensetechniques, including defenses againstthe straight punch, wrist grabs, andholds of various types. The next tenminutes are used for the practice ofsparring, which allows students to usetheir skills against an opponent in acontrolled environment. This is wheremany students feel they benefit themost from training in that they are ableto see firsthand how their skills haveimproved. The final five minutes of classare spent in meditation to calm themind, shed the fighting mentality, andease back into daily activities.

The conclusion of class finds stu-dents reciting the Code of Hwarang,bowing to their master, the senior stu-dent, and the flags once again. Practi-tioners then take a few minutes to sweepthe dojang floor and clean any mirrorsthat may be present. The bowing andcleaning are humbling mechanisms.They instill in the student a sense ofrespect for one’s elders and seniors, thetraining hall, and one’s surroundings. Itis hoped that this will carry over into thepractitioner’s daily life.

Benefits of Practicing TaekwondoAs taekwondo practitioners refine theirphysical abilities, they improve in manyseemingly unrelated areas. A relaxedstate of mind, improved patience,sharpened concentration, and numer-ous other benefits accompany new self-defense skills. Above all, taekwondostudents embrace the philosophicaland ethical beliefs that define the disci-pline, beliefs that function to guide thestudent in his or her daily life.

Since its Olympic debut in 1988,taekwondo’s popularity has spread at aremarkable rate across the world.Profiency in basic taekwondo tech-niques takes only a few years. While theearning of a black belt takes roughlythree or four years, it is typically thoughtto be just the beginning of a lifelongjourney toward self-actualization.

—Mark Wiley

Resources:

International Taekwondo Association

P. O. Box 281

Grand Blanc, MI 48439

Tel: (810) 232-6482

Promotes the practice of taekwondo in the United

States.

Korean Ki Do Federation HQ

Seoul, Kang Nam Gu, Non Hyun Dong

122-2 Nam Yang Bldg. 300

Korea

Tel: (02) 540-2156-7

Provides information for international organiza-

tions and associations.

United States Taekwondo Association

220 East 86th Street

New York, NY 10028

Tel: (212) 772-8918

Disseminates information about taekwondo in the

United States.

United Taekwondo International

4707 48 Street, 2nd floor

Camrose, Alberta T4V 1L2

Canada

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Tel: (403) 672-3500

Offers information about the practice of taekwon-

do in Canada.

Further Reading:

Books:

Cho, S. Henry. Taekwondo: Secrets of Korean

Karate. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1992.

Corcoran, Jon, and Emil Farkas. The Original

Martial Arts Encyclopedia. Los Angeles: Pro

Action Publishing, 1993.

Draeger, Donn F., and Robert W. Smith. Compre-

hensive Asian Fighting Arts. Tokyo: Kodansha

International, 1980.

Haines, Bruce. Karate’s History and Traditions.

Revised edition. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle

Co., 1995.

Park, Y. H., and Jeff Leibowitz. Fighting Back:

Taekwondo for Women. East Meadow, NY: Y.H.

Park Publications, 1993.

Shaw, Scott. Hapkido: Korean Art of Self-Defense.

Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1996.

Journals:

Young, Robert W. “The History and Development

of Tae Kyon.” Journal of Asian Martial Arts 2, 2

(1993): 44–69.

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PART XII: YOGA

Integral Yoga • Iyengar Yoga • Kripalu Yoga

Yoga is an ancient Hindumethod of body-mind integra-tion used to achieve spiritualenlightenment. Literally trans-lated from Sanskrit, the lan-guage of the Hindu spiritualtexts, yoga means “union.” Thisunion refers to the joining of theindividual human spirit with themotivating spirit of the universe.Over thousands of years manymethods of reaching this desiredspiritual union evolved. Thesemethods include such activitiesas the study of metaphysics andphilosophy, meditation, thedevelopment and cleansing ofthe physical body, and living alife of service and devotion. Aspracticed in the United Statestoday, most yoga classes focuson hatha yoga, the method ofdeveloping spiritual enlighten-ment through physical masteryof the body. Hatha yoga practiceincludes stretching, flexing, andbalancing the body in many dif-ferent positions, internal cleans-ing techniques, and breathingexercises. In many yoga classes,such as those offered in health clubs or recreation centers, the physical aspects ofhatha yoga are often more emphasized than the spiritual. With or without the spiritu-al goal, the many forms of yoga now practiced offer a means of gaining and maintain-ing physical, emotional, and mental health and well-being.

Yoga is practiced to center and calm the body and mind.

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The History of YogaArchaeologists and yoga scholars believe that images found on ceramics during

excavations in India’s Indus River basin are of yoga asanas, or postures, and showthat the practices of yoga flourished in India as far back as 3000 BCE. Sometimebetween the fifth and second centuries BCE the Indian philosopher Patanjali gatheredmany of the basic techniques and concepts of raja, or kingly yoga, into a book calledthe Yoga Sutras. The most common forms of yoga practiced in the West today arederived from the concepts and practices that Patanjali recorded.

Yoga was incorporated into the Buddhist religious tradition by Buddhism’sfounder, Prince Siddhartha Gautama. The young Indian prince was well versed in thetheories and practices of yoga when he left his home in search of the cause of humansuffering. The solutions he found form the philosophical basis of Buddhism. Follow-ers of Gautama, also called the Buddha, or the “enlightened one,” lived peacefully inIndia until around the third century BCE, when the political climate became less tol-erant of non-Hindus. It was at this time that the monks and disciples of Buddhismbegan to migrate in large numbers across the Asian continent.

Over time the Buddhist monks became a vital part of the cultural fabric of theiradopted countries, and the yoga-based practices they brought with them were inte-grated into the native religions of China, Japan, and other Asian countries. In eachcountry distinctive variations of the original Indian yogic practices developed. In histhree-volume work, The Complete Yoga Book, James Hewitt states that ancient yogictechniques traveled in similar ways as far east as Siberia, mixing with Inuit shaman-ic practices and as far west as the Middle East, where they were incorporated intoIslamic Sufi practices. Both Hewitt and the scholar Mircea Eliade believe that Indianyogic practices also influenced the mystic sects of Christianity.

The philosophy and practices of yoga have slowly infiltrated Western culturethroughout the twentieth century. With the British colonial expansion into India,knowledge of the physical, psychological, and metaphysical practices of yogaincreased. The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, brought manyyoga teachers to America for the first time. In 1911 the American writer WilliamJames described in his classic study of the psychology of religious experience, OnVital Reserves, the considerable benefits one European friend received through thepractice of yoga. By the 1930s Indian practitioners of yoga, such as ParamhansaYogananda, were lecturing in England and in the United States. By 1946Paramhansa’s book Autobiography of a Yogi, describing the concepts and meditativepractices of yoga, was available throughout the English-speaking world.

In the 1950s and 1960s yoga practices become more popular throughout the Unit-ed States, with many books published on the subject and many yoga schools estab-lished. In 1970 Swami Rama, founder of the Himalayan Institute in Pennsylvania,was the subject of research at the Menninger Foundation in Topeka, Kansas. Accord-ing to journalist Linda Johnsen, writing in Yoga Journal International, he shockedresearchers by “his abilities to stop his heartbeat for extended periods of time and toremain fully lucid while his brain registered the delta waves normally associated withsleep” (“Hatha Traditions: How to Find a Class That’s Right for You,” Yoga Interna-tional’s Guide to Yoga Teachers and Classes, 1996). It was this research that first drew

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the attention of much of the mainstream Western scientific community to the linkbetween human consciousness and physical functioning.

Today many Westerners practice yoga on a variety of levels—from full body-mind-spirit union to the maintenance of physical well-being. Many types of yoga classes areavailable in most major cities and even in smaller towns. There are a multitude oftraining programs where yoga practitioners, from beginner to advanced, can developtheir practice.

The Spiritual Goal of YogaTo understand the practice of yoga it is helpful to understand something about its

spiritual goal. The spiritual goal of yoga is closely connected with the Hindu philo-sophical view concerning the relationship between spirit and matter. According tothat view, the spirit animating the universe and the spirit animating every individualhuman being are one and the same. Every single thing on this planet, from the sim-plest blade of grass to the most complex human being, is, according to the Hinduview, a materialized form of this same spirit.

The desire motivating this spirit, as Mircea Eliade describes in his widely respect-ed book Yoga: Immortality and Freedom, is simply “to be known.” So this spirit incar-nates and reincarnates into more and more complex forms of matter according to amoral code known as the law of karma. When the spirit reaches human form it has theability through many disciplined practices to realize its true nature as part and parcelof the whole. This is a long and varied process involving many changes of human con-sciousness or awareness. Samadhi is the Sanskrit word that describes the blissful stateof human consciousness attained when the individual human spirit experiences itselfonce again as part of the universal cosmic spirit.

The Nine Systems of Yoga Reaching samadhi requires great discipline and much dedication.Over thousands

of years many different systems of yoga practices evolved to suit the needs and per-sonalities of different people. The different systems often share so many concepts andtechniques that it is difficult to find one classification method upon which all yogascholars, and certainly all yoga teachers, would agree. However, the following repre-sents the nine generally recognized paths toward the goal of samadhi.

• Raja yoga, also known as royal, kingly, classical, ashtanga, or eight-limbed yoga,is the path of mental mastery. Mental mastery here refers to the basic yogic beliefthat the disciplined focus of mental energy is the necessary basis for spiritualawareness. Raja yoga recognizes that this energy cannot be tapped unless thebody is strong, healthy, relaxed, and balanced. Students of raja yoga work throughthe first seven limbs, or stages, which cover physical stretching, strengthening,toning and cleansing exercises, breathing exercises, ethical and philosophicalinquiry, and meditation practices to reach samadhi, which is considered theeighth limb.

• Hatha yoga, the path of bodily mastery, is the best-known and most practiced formof yoga in the West. Perhaps because of its focus on the body itself, the benefits ofhatha yoga may be felt most easily without having to accept the spiritual component.

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For this reason many scholars believe that the practices of hatha yoga are merelya preparation for raja yoga. Hatha yoga practices include asanas, or postures inwhich one balances, stretches, and strengthens the body; kriyas, or methods ofcleansing the internal body; and pranayama, or special breathing exercises.Together these constitute a thorough method of hygiene that cleanses and tonesthe internal organs and glands and the musculo-skeletal, respiratory, digestive,and nervous systems.

• Mantra yoga is the practice of influencing consciousness through repetition ofcertain syllables or phrases known as mantras. The word or phrase is consideredto be a mystical distillation of the cosmic energy of the universe. It can be repeat-ed aloud or silently in the mind. In Western scientific terms, spoken mantras maybe understood as sound vibrations affecting one’s emotions, similar to the waymusic often does. Transcendental Meditation, which was brought to the West byMarahishi Mahesh Yogi, is a form of mantra yoga.

• Yantra yoga uses visual images as the focal point for concentration in order toaffect consciousness in the same way that mantra yoga uses sound. Yantraimages may be sculptures or paintings of deities or teachers, but more often theyare mandalas—symbolic, geometric images of the relationship between the indi-vidual and the universal energy. Traditional mandalas are ornate paintings incor-porating many Hindu or Buddhist deities in a sort of map of the spiritualuniverse, but simple abstract images are also common in the West today.

• Kundalini or laya yoga is a method of yoga in which cosmic energy is imaged asa sleeping serpent coiled three and a half times around the base of the spine. Inthis image the mouth of the kundalini, or serpent, is grasping the sushumna, anarrow nerve channel through the spine. Difficult asanas, strenuous pranayama,mantras, yantras, muscular contractions or locks called bandhas, and concen-trated meditative practices are all used to encourage the kundalini to climb upthe sushumna through the seven chakras, or spiritual centers, that correspond tophysical places along the length of the spine. As the kundalini passes througheach center it purifies the channel and awakens specific physical and psychicpowers. While the traditional practices of kundalini yoga are often considereddangerous, the imagery associated with the chakra system is frequently used inother systems of yoga and has affected the development of many Western body-mind disciplines as well.

• Jhana yoga, the path of spiritual knowledge and wisdom, emphasizes philosoph-ical inquiry and meditation to reach spiritual enlightenment. For instance, stu-dents are encouraged to reflect on the nature of the world, reality, and themeaning of life, and their true selves. This is the path of intellectual pursuit anddoes not involve the body directly. A follower of jhana yoga would be comparableto Albert Einstein. Einstein was not a yoga practitioner, but the way he focusedhis intellect to inquire deeply into the nature of the universe had the disciplinedand dedicated quality of a yogic meditation. Interestingly Einstein’s ground-breaking theories about the relationship of energy and matter began a shift inWestern physics that continues to move ever closer to the Hindu philosophicalview of the universe.

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• Bhakti yoga is the path of love and devotion. It emphasizes living a life thatdemonstrates one’s pure and selfless love of the divine. The Hindu god Krishna isoften a focus for this form of yoga in India. The rites of this path include singingsongs and dancing dances of devotion. Members of the Krishna ConsciousnessMovement are among the devotees of this path. While it has traditionally beenone of the most popular paths for the people of India, Westerners are generallyless comfortable with its practices.

• Karma yoga, the path of selfless action and service, might be exemplified byMahatma Gandhi or Mother Teresa. Even though Mother Teresa practicedCatholicism, the way in which her devotion to her religion led her to servehumanity is similar to the way in which a follower of karma yoga is taught to ded-icate all of his or her actions to the good of others.

• Tantric yoga as a general term can refer to any method of yoga using physiologi-cal techniques such as hatha or kundalini yoga, but is more specifically used todescribe the path of union through harnessing sexual energies. In tantric yogasexual union is seen as a way to spiritual illumination. Its practices includeasanas, pranayama, mantras, and yantras employed in preparation of and duringsex, which is performed as a ritual uniting of the male and female aspects of theone universal energy. (The Hindu spiritual texts have many names for theseaspects, which are represented in Hindu art as gods and goddesses in the act ofsexual embrace, but they are more familiar to Westerners through their Chinesenames of yin and yang.) Because tantric yoga is an ecstatic path that embracesthe earthy aspects of life, it has often been abused as a spiritual path, but the goalof tantric yoga, like the goal of all yogas, is spiritual union, and when practiced inearnest requires the same discipline and dedication.

The Yoga Experience in the WestMost yoga practiced in the West today primarily combines elements of hatha,

mantra, and raja yoga. Because of the enormous overlap of the elements of variousyogic systems, jhana, karma, kundalini and/or yantra yoga may also be combined incontemporary practices. Classes are generally taught in groups, but individual lessonsare also available. They are generally taught indoors, but some ashrams, or teachingcenters, offer classes outdoors, where the energy of the sun and fresh air can enhancethe pleasure and effectiveness of the exercises. Often the room will have an altarwhere flowers, incense, candles, or a mandala or a photo of the founder of the schoolwill rest. Students and teacher generally wear comfortable cotton clothing, whichallows for the flow of air to the skin.

Yoga classes may be extremely vigorous and fast-paced or very gentle and slow-moving, depending on the tradition of the school and teacher. Many yoga classes willbegin with the chanting of a mantra. The Hindu sacred syllable oM is often used. Thepurpose of chanting is to utilize the power of sound vibrations to focus and influenceconsciousness.

Classes generally proceed to a series of asanas. Hundreds of asanas and many dif-ferent techniques concerning the approach to and sequence of them have been devel-oped by different gurus, or teachers. But whether the class is vigorous or gentle,

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Yoga practices, such as this forward bending pose, develop physical and mental concentration.

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Yoga Therapy

Yoga therapy is an emerging field of physical therapy most often practiced on a one-on-one basis. Yoga therapy is not a complete method as are the nine ancient systems, butuses the therapeutic properties of yoga breathing, posturing, and meditative techniquesto aid the healing process. Yoga therapy functions much like a visit to a doctor or a ther-apist, at which certain exercises are prescribed to treat particular symptoms, and verbaldialogue between the therapist and client addressing the body-mind nature of the ail-ment may ensue.

students will be urged to focus their attention on the initiation, sequencing, and qual-ity of movement as they enter, hold, and leave each pose. Each pose has a specific pur-pose and name. For example the cobra pose, named for the characteristic pose of theanimal, is a backward lengthening and bending of the spine performed while lying onthe stomach. It’s used to develop flexibility in the spine, strength in the abdomen, andan openness in the personality and spirit. Focusing on the flow of breath while in thepose calms the nervous system and mind, gently preparing the body and mind fordeeper meditation.

The asana portion of the class is generally followed by a series of pranayama, orbreath-control exercises. Through pranayama, yoga students aim to create steadyflowing movement of prana, or life force, through the system. As the breathingbecomes deeper, more controlled, and rhythmical, the mind becomes calm andfocused.

With a cleansed and strengthened body and a calm and focused mind, the studentis better prepared to begin meditation. The meditation portion of the class is designedto create a heightened sense of peace and awareness and to focus, empty, and controlthe mind. It is through the practice of meditation, after many years of long and disci-plined study, that yogis believe the state of samadhi may be reached.

Benefits With or without the goal of samadhi, the benefits of yoga can be numerous. Many

practitioners attribute health, vitality, and peace of mind to the practice of yoga. West-ern scientific studies have shown it to be effective in strengthening muscles andbones, improving circulation and respiration, reducing blood pressure and heart rate,relieving stress and physical pain, sharpening intellectual functioning and motorskills, and aiding in relief from physical and emotional addictions.

With the plethora of classes and approaches available, it is important to take thetime to find a well-trained teacher, in a style and class of yoga that is compatible withthe goals and temperament of the student. Once found, the potential benefits of yogaseem to be limited only by the dedication of the student.

—Nancy Allison, CMAwith consultation by Lillo (Leela) Way

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Resources:

Himalayan International Institute of Yoga, Science

and Philosophy

78 Fifth Avenue

New York, NY 10011

Tel: (212) 243-5995

Offers courses and lectures on all aspects of yoga

practice and workshops for yoga teachers. The

school is dedicated to helping individuals develop

physically, mentally, and spiritually.

The International Association of Yoga Therapists

109 Hillside Avenue

Mill Valley, CA 94941

Tel: (415) 381-0876

International Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres

Worldwide

Sivananda Ashram Yoga Camp

8th Avenue

Val Morin, Quebec

Canada

Tel: (819) 322-3226

Fax: (819) 322-5876

Yoga Journal

2054 University Avenue

Berkeley, CA 94704.

Tel: (510) 841-9200

Further Reading:

Arua, Pandit U., et al. Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

with the Exposition of Yvasa: A Translation and

Commentary. Vol. 1. Honesdale, PA: Himalayan

Publishers, 1986.

Eliade, Mircea. Yoga: Immortality and Freedom.

New York: Pantheon Books, Bollingen Series

LVI, 1958.

Hewitt, James. The Complete Yoga Book.

New York: Schocken Books, 1977.

Satchidananda, Yogiraj Sriswami. Integral Yoga

Hatha. New York: Holt,Rinehart and Winston,

1970.

Vishnudevananda, Swami. The Complete Illustrat-

ed Book of Yoga. New York: Harmony Books,

1980.

Integral Yoga

INTEGRAL YOGA

Integral yoga is a modern approach tothe ancient body-mind discipline ofyoga. Its practice combines six

ancient methods of yoga to help indi-viduals discover inner peace and happi-ness. The methods it combines arehatha yoga, which uses body postures(asanas), breath control (pranayama),and relaxation techniques; karma yoga,which teaches the selfless service ofoneself for the good of others; raja yoga,which stresses concentration and medi-tation on ethical perfection; japa, ormantra, yoga, which uses the repetitionof sounds to help focus the mind inmeditation; bhakti yoga, which stresseslove and devotion to God or the DivineBeing; and jhana yoga, which encour-ages self-inquiry and the investigationof the meaning of life and the nature ofknowledge and reality.

Guiding Principles of Integral YogaThe goal of integral yoga is to help peo-ple achieve what practitioners believe isthe birthright of every individual—thatis, to realize the spiritual unity behindall the diversity of life and to live har-moniously as members of one universalfamily. This goal is achieved by main-taining a well-balanced life with a bodyof optimum health and strength, thesenses under total control; a clear, calm,well-disciplined mind; a sharp intellect;a will that is strong and yet pliable; aheart full of unconditional love andcompassion; an ego as pure as crystal;and a life filled with supreme peace andjoy. Integral yoga strongly encouragessuch principles as truth, nonviolence,and universal brotherhood.

The Development of Integral YogaIn the early part of the twentieth centu-ry Swami Sivananda Saraswati(1887–1963) of Rishikesh, India, devel-oped an approach to yoga that integrat-ed several of the ancient methods ofyoga. Several of his disciples spread this

approach to yoga around the world.One of them, Swami Satchidananda,founded Integral Yoga International(originally the Integral Yoga Institute) inthe United States in 1966.

For the past forty years SwamiSatchidananda has promoted worldpeace through ecumenism—the recog-nition that, intrinsically, all religionsembrace the same ultimate truth andbelief in one God, which may be wor-shiped variously through many namesand forms. He frequently conductsLight of Truth Universal Services, where clergy of all faiths worship together,each according to his or her own tradi-tion.

Integral Yoga International now hasmore than forty Integral Yoga Institutes(IYIs) and Integral Yoga Centers (IYCs)throughout the United States andabroad. The headquarters of IntegralYoga International is SatchidanandaAshram–Yogaville, located in Buck-ingham, Virginia. The centerencompasses almost 1,000 acres ofwoodland and fields. Here, people ofall faiths and backgrounds cometogether to study and practice the prin-ciples of integral yoga.

The focal point of SatchidanandaAshram–Yogaville is the Light of TruthUniversal Shrine (LOTUS), whichembodies Swami Satchidananda’steachings and his efforts to foster worldpeace and religious harmony. Inside theshrine each major faith is representedby an altar, on which rests a carvedinscription from the scripture of thatparticular faith. Other known faiths andthose that may one day develop, butwhich are still unknown to us, are alsorepresented by illuminated arches. Thetheme of LOTUS is “Truth Is One, PathsAre Many,” and this aphorism may alsobe extended to integral yoga. Integralyoga is a system that synthesizes thevarious yogic approaches with one goalin mind: to help the individual experi-ence physical, mental, and spiritualharmony.

—Rev. Kumari de Sachy, Ed.D

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Resources:

Satchidananda Ashram–Yogaville

Route 1, Box 1720

Buckingham, VA 23921

Tel: (804) 969-3121

Fax: (804) 969-1303

Headquarters for Integral Yoga International that

provides teacher training courses, silent retreats,

and classes and workshops in hatha yoga, medita-

tion, yoga philosophy, vegetarian diet, and other

various branches of yoga. These are offered regu-

larly, year-round. Guests are welcome to visit the

ashram.

IYENGAR YOGA

Iyengar yoga is a specific approach tothe ancient body-mind discipline ofyoga. It was developed in the 1940s by

B. K. S. Iyengar. Iyengar’s approach toyoga incorporates all of the methods ofclassical or eight-limbed yoga. Yogabegins with the study of universal andindividual ethical values. This is fol-lowed by the physical practice ofstretching, strengthening, toning, andcleansing the body through postures.After a time breathing exercises areintroduced. This foundation leads tothe various stages of meditation. Iyen-gar Yoga is unique in its specificapproach to asana, or body postures,and pranayama, or breathing practices.

The History of Iyengar YogaB. K. S. Iyengar was born on December14, 1918, in Karnataka, in southernIndia. At the age of sixteen Iyengarmoved to Mysore to live with his uncle,Shree T. Krishnamacharya, who hadfounded a yoga school. Iyengar’s earlyexperiences with yoga postures weretremendously painful and made himaware of his own stiffness. Through per-severance Iyengar found he was able todo more and more, achieving a remark-able skill in his own practice. Soon he

was performing demonstrations andteaching at his uncle’s school. In 1943 hemarried a woman named Ramamani,who inspired him to develop his uniqueapproach to the practices of asana andpranayama.

After his marriage Iyengar moved toPune, in the state of Maharastra. Therehe established his own yoga school,which is currently operating as Rama-mani Iyengar Memorial Yoga Institute,in memory of his beloved wife, whopassed away in 1973. Iyengar’s renownas an accomplished yogi began tospread in India and in the West. His firstof many visits to the United States wasto Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1974.

The first U.S. teacher-training centerfor the Iyengar method was formed inSan Francisco, California, in 1976 fol-lowing a visit by B. K. S. Iyengar toBerkeley, California. The center was runby his students at that time. Presentlythere are schools teaching his approachworldwide. Teacher training includesclasses in anatomy, physiology, kinesi-ology, yoga philosophy, andstudent/teacher relationships as well asasana and pranayama. Iyengar is calledguruji by his students, which is an Indi-an term of affection for a belovedteacher. He has written five books onyoga. He continues to teach in India, theUnited States, and throughout theworld today.

Unique Aspects of Iyengar YogaIyengar yoga relies on standing asanasmore than do other styles of yoga. Stu-dents first learn to balance in the field ofgravity and develop a richer contactwith the Earth through the feet. Iyengarbelieves that active development of theposture inherent to human beings—that of standing on two legs—enhancesthe understanding of other types ofposes. Experience gained in the practiceof standing poses is used in all othertypes of asanas—seated, twisted, invert-ed, and back bending.

Another unique aspect of Iyengaryoga is the use of props such as chairs,

Kripalu Yoga

weights, benches, mats, belts, and blan-kets, which help stretch and strengthenthe body. Iyengar yoga teachers accom-modate students with special needsthrough the effective use of props. In histeaching, Iyengar saw that students newto yoga tend to struggle at a muscularlevel, which creates a disturbance in thebreath. He found that a prop used forsupport can alleviate muscular effort,thus helping the student achieve a free-dom of breath. This encourages quiet-ing of the mind and senses, bringing thestudent to a state of meditation in theasana.

A Summary of B. K. S. Iyengar’sApproach to YogaIn Iyengar yoga, the asana practice canbe quite rigorous. Yoga asanas some-times resemble typical Western exercis-es or stretches. Thus, according toIyengar, a change is required in the typ-ical Western mind-set, a movementaway from a mechanical, purely physi-cal practice toward an integrated, mind-ful approach. Yoga describes the bodyas consisting of five layers: anatomical,physiological, psychological, intellectu-al, and bliss. Iyengar stresses that yogadevelops all five layers, not just thephysiological layer.

—Janet MacLeod

KRIPALU YOGA

K ripalu Yoga is a modern approachto the ancient body-mind disci-pline of yoga. It was developed by

Amrit Desai, a yoga practitionerinspired by Kripalvananda, an Indianmaster of kundalini yoga. The kripaluapproach to yoga combines asanas, orpostures, which involve folding, stretch-ing, bending, and balancing the body ina variety of positions; pranayama, orbreath control; and meditation. Kripalu

Yoga is meant to give practitionerspeace of mind, and good health, and todevelop spiritual awareness so thattheir inner divinity which, according toHindu and yogic tradition, is inherentlypresent in everyone, can manifest itself.

Kripalu yoga is taught in threespecific stages. The first stage is called“willful practice.” The purpose of thisstage is for practitioners to learn to per-form the postures correctly; to learn totake deep, full breaths; to coordinatetheir breaths with the movements; andto pay close attention to body align-ment.

When students have mastered thisfirst stage they move on to the second,called “will and surrender.” In this stage,postures are performed with the con-centration focused fully on the bodyand the physical sensations that arebeing experienced. In this second stagepractitioners hold the postures longerthan in the first stage. Holding the pos-tures longer provides a physical chal-lenge that allows practitioners to facetheir own physical and mental resis-tances. Devakanya G. Parnell, thedirector of resident yoga education atthe Kripalu Center in Lenox, Massa-chusetts, has described it this way:“When you come to your tolerationpoint during prolonged holding, youencounter your self-perceived limita-tions and learn how to consciously tran-scend them” (“Hatha Traditions: How toFind a Class That’s Right for You,” byLinda Johnson in Yoga International’sGuide to Yoga Teachers and Classes, YogaInternational, 1996). This aspect of kri-palu yoga is meant to help students withsimilar experiences in everyday life. Ithelps build confidence and self-reliance.

The third and final stage is reachedwhen practitioners perform postures ina spontaneous flowing pattern, follow-ing their bodies’ intuition and desires.This is known as Meditation inMotion™. In this, the hallmark of kri-palu yoga practice, it is believed that thepractitioner is able to sustain a tangiblerelationship with his or her own divine

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nature. At this level practitioners havetruly released all of the obstructionsthat keep them from recognizing theiressential divine nature.

In addition to its spiritual goals, reg-ular practice of kripalu yoga has a vari-ety of health benefits. It can reducestress, increase flexibility, and enhanceone’s sense of well-being. Practitionersconsider this a method for uncoveringphysical, emotional, and mental ten-sions, allowing for insight into theseproblems and for relaxation.

Resources:

Kripalu Center

P.O. Box 793

Lenox, MA 01240-0793

Tel: (413) 448-3152

Toll-free: (800) 741-SELF

A spiritual retreat center that offers workshops in

yoga, meditation, and holistic health. Weekend,

weeklong, and monthlong programs are available.

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PART XIII: MEDITATION

Relaxation Response • Transcendental Meditation

Meditation, the art ofturning one’s attentioninward in order to achievemore lucid consciousness, isa technique of characterdevelopment most closelyassociated with Asian cul-tures. Since the 1960s, med-itation has been morewidely practiced in the West.Westerners are meditatingto relieve stress, to assist inthe healing of physical dis-orders, to increase athleticperformance, to learn howto improve their concentra-tion, and to enhance theirexperiences in psychothera-py. Meditation is also usedin the practice of yoga andthe martial arts, and as aform of inward personal dis-cipline that many pursue aslifetime spiritual practice. Asan imported product fromAsian cultures, its studyand practice has also ledWesterners to a greaterappreciation of their owncontemplative traditions.

The History of Meditation in the WestMeditation has been practiced in the East by Asian and Indian cultures for thou-

sands of years and has been known by Western travelers to Asian countries for centuries.

Meditation is a quiet, inward-turning experience.

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Meditation was also an integral part of European Renaissance culture and occultChristianity, which helped spread the practice to the West. This was particularly trueamong the mystical religious schools, such as the Rosicrucians.

In the New World, German mystical communities settled in the original thirteencolonies, especially in Pennsylvania, where persecuted religious groups could comepractice freely in an atmosphere of tolerance. Some of these groups practiced asceticforms of meditation informed by Eastern religion and philosophy.

By the mid-nineteenth century, New England transcendentalists, such as RalphWaldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, had read the few Eastern scriptures in cir-culation at the time and integrated ideas about meditation and yoga into their own lit-erary and philosophical meditations. The transcendentalists used a walking form ofmeditation they called sauntering. They also practiced looking within one’s self, orquiet contemplation, while immersed in nature.

By the last quarter of the nineteenth century such international movements as theTheosophical Society, which was first founded in the United States in 1875 and thenreestablished in India in 1878, were disseminating information about Eastern con-templative practices to a public eager for the exotic as well as for alternative sourcesof spiritual discipline.

Asian Meditative Techniques Are Formally Introduced to the WestFormal training in Asian meditative techniques did not come to the United States

until 1893, when the first wave of Asian teachers spoke to American audiences at theWorld Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago. In the aftermath of the Parliament,Swami Vivekananda of the Ramakrishna Vedanta order in India began teaching med-itation to New Englanders who were attending Miss Sarah Farmer’s Greenacre Schoolof Comparative Religions in Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

Americans heard a firsthand account of Buddhist forms of meditation when Ana-garika Dharmapala lectured at Harvard University, at Mrs. Ole Bull’s Cambridge Con-ferences on Comparative Religions in 1904, and when the Zen abbot Soyen Shakugave teachings across the United States in 1906. Asian teachings on meditation werespread in the 1920s and 1930s by spiritual leaders and visionaries such as ParamhansaYogananda, Gurdjieff, and Jidhu Krishnamurti. European and American writers suchas Aldous Huxley and Gerald Heard popularized the meditative tradition of HinduVedanta in southern California during World War II. Swami Akhilananda taughtVedantic meditation in Boston during the same period.

Zen meditation became particularly popular in the 1950s among members of the“Beatnik generation,” like poet Gary Snyder. Writers such as J. D. Salinger and psy-chotherapists such as Karen Horney became followers of the lay Zen teacher, DaisetzT. Suzuki, who by then was lecturing in New York. Zen meditation was further popu-larized through the writings of the psychotherapist and ex–Episcopalian priest, AlanWatts during this same period. Public espousal of the Zen way by such intellectualshelped shift meditation into a position where it could be detached from questions offaith and approached as a countermeasure to materialism and stress. This view ofmeditation became a principal focus of the counterculture movement of the 1960s,when thousands of young people took up Asian spiritual practices in an effort to lib-erate their minds from the strictures of the established society.

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Since that time there have been two major developments regarding meditation asa practice and as a subject of scientific research: First, a uniquely American spiritualtradition of meditation now distinct from Asian sources has evolved; and second, thepractice of meditation in various forms is making its way into the health care systemand into scientific laboratories, where rigorous investigation is now being carried onby a new generation of younger scientists who are also meditation practitioners.

Understanding the Forms of Meditation Practiced in the WestOne way to understand the many different forms of meditation now flourishing in

American culture is to ask from what tradition a particular form of practice comes.This is because there is no application of any kind of technique without some kind ofphilosophy to explain what is happening to consciousness as a result of the practice.

For example, Transcendental Meditation represents the tradition of Vedantic Hin-duism according to the teachings of the Indian guru Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Here, inthe Hindu tradition of Vedanta, the practice of meditation is understood in terms ofself-realization, particularly as the experience of awakened consciousness, where oneis said to realize that the subjective self and the Absolute Self of the universe (Atman),or pure consciousness (chit) are one and the same.

The different branches of Buddhist meditation strive for a completely differentstate of consciousness. Theravada Buddhist meditation seeks nibanna (nirvana), a“burning out of the flame of sense desire,” while Mahayana Buddhist meditationstrives to reach emptiness (sunyata). Both forms of Buddhism believe that there isno such thing as an underlying permanent self, which means that the experience ofenlightened consciousness in meditation is quite different from that of HinduVedanta.

Two other significant forms of meditation, and ones that have direct clinical appli-cation in medicine today, are Herbert Benson’s relaxation response program at theHarvard Medical School/Mind-Body Medical Institute and the Stress Reduction Clin-ic at the University of Massachusetts Medical Center, run by Jon Kabat-Zinn. Bothprograms, well organized and intended to be educational, have been franchised outto schools, prisons, hospitals, and other therapeutic programs.

Benson’s program began with an intensive study of Transcendental Meditationand then shifted to the study of meditation practiced by monks of Tibetan Bud-dhism, which is a combination of Hindu Tantra, Indian Mahayana Buddhism, andthe native religion of Tibet, called Bon. Benson now teaches a generic form of med-itation he calls the “relaxation response.” In Jon Kabat-Zinn’s program, patientsreferred to the stress-reduction clinic are trained in Vipassana (or mindfulness med-itation), which comes from Southeast Asia; specifically, it is the Theravada traditionof Burmese Buddhism. At the same time, many meditators in the West practice Zensitting, the Japanese form of Mahayana Buddhism, which originally came throughChina and Korea from India.

A Few Aspects of MeditationWhile there is no really typical meditation session, Benson believes he has iso-

lated the generic first steps common to all meditative and contemplative practice: aquiet environment, a relaxed position, and focus on the slow repetition of a sound

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or word. To this he has recently added readings from the inspirational texts of apractitioner’s religious tradition.

A normal meditative session might last twenty minutes and be practiced once or twicea day. The subject usually sits comfortably in pleasant, quiet surroundings, preferably in aroom with lowered illumination. The session might begin with a moment of deep relaxedbreathing. The meditation task that follows might be to contemplate an object, such aslooking into a candle flame, meanwhile paying attention to the cycle of one’s breath. Thetask might be to keep the mind clear of attachment to any thoughts. It might be to just wit-ness what goes by in the field of consciousness without thought or judgment.

The inability of a subject to succeed in the task at first should be no cause for alarm.Concentration merely means returning to the task without judgment. Each time the mindwanders, free of guilt or recrimination, one simply returns the mind to its original focus.Eventually, the surface of the mind becomes quieter and quieter, until sustained concen-tration becomes possible. Reentry into normal waking reality should be gradual, and asrelaxed as in the beginning. A typical session might then end with some gentle stretching.

Potential Benefits of MeditationPhysiologically, it is believed that relaxed forms of meditation lead to a decrease in

heart rate, a decrease in blood pressure, an increase in breathing volume, but adecrease in number of breaths taken per minute (typically sixteen in-breaths and out-breaths in the normal waking state; four in the meditative condition), increased alphawaves as recorded on an electroencephalogram, and synchronization of measuredbrain waves between the cerebral hemispheres.

Benson believes that meditation activates the parasympathetic nervous system,which quiets the nerves. Practice twice daily for twenty minutes produces a thermo-static effect, allowing the stressed nervous system—normally in a state of fluctua-tion—to have a standard by which to adjust itself. Studies have shown that when thepractice finally takes effect, hypertensive medication can be cut in half, cramping inmild to moderate premenstrual syndrome can be modulated, standard light therapyfor psoriasis can have an accelerated effect, and so on.

There are many other forms of meditation than quiet sitting, however. Each formhas its own pattern of physiological effects, sometimes quieting, sometimes arous-ing the nervous system. There is walking meditation, for instance, in which the sub-ject perambulates slowly around, remaining exquisitely mindful of each step. Thereis continuous but slow movement meditation in traditional sequences, as in Chi-nese qigong and t’ai chi ch’üan. There is meditation associated with rapid breathing,as in certain forms of kundalini yoga. In general, different types of philosophicalteachings usually lead to radically different patterns of physiological response, mak-ing generalizations about meditation as a generic practice very difficult.

In most cases, it is not the kind of meditation one does that counts, but rather thesimilarity of outcomes among different kinds of techniques that leads to moral andaesthetic improvement, an enhanced sense of well-being, and enriched relationships.These are the criteria against which successful practice, either under an advancedteacher or by oneself, should be measured.

— Eugene Taylor, Ph.D., and Marilyn Schlitz, Ph.D.320

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Further Reading:

Books:

Benson, Herbert, and Miriam Z. Klipper. The

Relaxation Response. New York: Avon Books,

1976.

Epstein, Mark. Thoughts Without a Thinker: Psy-

chotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective. New

York: Basic Books, 1995.

Kabat-Zinn, Jon. Wherever You Go, There You Are:

Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life. New

York: Hyperion, 1994.

Murphy, Michael, and Steven Donovan. The Phys-

ical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A

Review of Contemporary Research with a Com-

prehensive Bibliography. 2nd edition. Edited

with an Introduction by Eugene Taylor. Sausali-

to: Institute of Noetic Sciences, 1996.

Prabhavananda, Swami, and Frederick Manches-

ter, eds. The Upanishads, Breath of the Eternal:

The Principal Texts. New York: New American

Library, 1957.

Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. An Introduction to Zen

Buddhism. Edited by Christmas Humphreys,

with a foreword by C. G. Jung. London: Rider,

1983.

Taimni, I. K. The Science of Yoga: The Yoga-Sutras

of the Patanjali. 4th Quest Book ed. Wheaton,

IL: Theosophical Publishing House, 1975.

Journals:

Tricycle, a magazine of Buddhism in America,

which began publication in 1991.

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RELAXATION RESPONSE

The relaxation response is a body-mind process that is characterizedby significant physical changes,

such as lower blood pressure, adecreased heart rate, and increasedbody temperature as well as a generalsense of intense calm. Dr. Herbert Ben-son, through an examination of the psy-chological and physiological aspects ofmeditation, found that the relaxationresponse can be brought about by theuse of meditation, yoga, repetitive exer-cises, hypnosis, prayer, and other formsof stress management.

The Development of the RelaxationTechniqueIn the late 1960s, Herbert Benson, M.D.,a Harvard cardiologist, began to studythe physical effects of meditation. Laterhe traveled to India to study Tibetanmonks who meditate every day. Dr.Benson was one of the first scientists tostudy advanced meditators using West-ern scientific methods. He measuredsome of the physical changes, such asblood pressure and body temperature,that occurred as the monks meditated.He found that while the monks were ina meditative state their body processesslowed. He documented the fact thatmeditation was associated with loweredblood pressure and heart rate and anincrease in body temperature, all ofwhich are associated with calmness. Helabeled these meditation-inducedphysical changes in the body the relax-ation response.

The Relaxation ResponseStudies prove that if people could relaxthe body they could potentially preventsome of the harmful effects of psycholog-ical stress. Hundreds of scientific studieshave shown that there are negativeeffects from psychological stress; theseeffects are mental or intellectual, behav-ioral and physical. Psychological stresscan make it harder to think effectively

and behave appropriately and can alsocause physical changes associated withthe development of medical illness.

The relaxation response is the oppo-site of the stress response, or what hasbeen termed the fight-or-flightresponse. When most animals in thewild are faced with life-threatening situ-ations, their bodies respond with a pre-dictable arousal pattern that preparesthem to either fight a threat or run awayfrom danger. In humans, this responseprepares the body for vigorous muscu-lar activity by stimulating the sympa-thetic nervous system to increase heartrate, blood pressure, and muscle ten-sion. The fight-or-flight response wasnecessary for the survival of humanswhen confronted by wild beasts. Today,the same response is stimulated to vary-ing degrees when we are faced witheveryday stresses, most often threats toour ego, such as taking tests or beinglate.

The work of Dr. Benson suggested an important symmetrical relationshipbetween the fight-or-flight response and the relaxation response. Whereas repeat-ed or prolonged elicitation of the fight-or-flight response has been associatedwith medical illness related to stressand arousal, repeated or prolonged elic-itation of the relaxation response hasbeen associated with the prevention ofstress-related disease.

Through his examination of the psy-chological and physiological compo-nents of meditation on Tibetan monks,Dr. Benson theorized that the positiveeffects of meditation could be acquiredwithout the belief in Eastern religions oraltered states. The most important thingwas that patients learn to generate thecalming effects associated with therelaxation response. The way in which an individual learned to generate theeffect was unimportant. He then set outto devise a general strategy that wouldbring about the desired response. Hefound that the relaxation responsewould occur using many different disci-plines including yoga, repetitive exer-cise, hypnosis, and other forms of stress

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Meditation and the Relaxation Response Technique

Meditation and its potential role in health is often misunderstood because of its associ-ation with mystical Eastern traditions. While Eastern cultures accept the concept thatregular meditational practice can result in positive psychological benefits, they alsobelieve that it can result in an altered state of consciousness or a change in the percep-tion of reality. Because meditation is so heavily associated with altered states, the West-ern medical community has been slow to acknowledge that the practice of meditationcould be used by patients to produce positive healthful effects.

management. Dr. Benson and his col-leagues concluded that only twospecific steps were necessary to pro-duce the relaxation response: the first isattentional focus on a single repetitiveword, sound, prayer, phrase, image, orphysical activity; the second is to pas-sively return to a specific focus whendistractions occur.

How to Elicit the Relaxation ResponseIn a typical training session the cliententers the therapist’s office and isinstructed to sit in a comfortable chair.The therapist then begins giving the fol-lowing guidance in a quiet voice:

1. Sit quietly in a comfortable positionand close your eyes.

2. Deeply relax all your muscles,beginning at your feet and progress-ing up to your face. Keep themdeeply relaxed.

3. Breathe through your nose. Becomeaware of your breathing. As youbreathe out, say the word “one”silently to yourself. For examplebreathe in . . . out, one; in . . . out,one; etc. Continue for twenty min-utes. You may open your eyes tocheck the time, but do not use analarm. When you finish, sit quietlyfor several minutes at first withclosed eyes and later with openedeyes.

4. Do not worry about whether you aresuccessful in achieving a deep level of

relaxation. Maintain a passive attitudeand permit relaxation to occur at itsown pace. Expect other thoughts.When distracting thoughts occur,ignore them and continue repeating“one.” With practice, the responseshould come with little effort. Prac-tice the technique once or twicedaily, but not within two hours afterany meal, since the digestiveprocesses seem to interfere with thesubjective changes.

Benefits of the Relaxation ResponseThe relaxation response has been asso-ciated with improvements in manymedical conditions, including hyper-tension, cardiac arrhythmia, chronicpain, insomnia, side effects of cancertherapy, side effects of AIDS therapy,infertility, as well as preparation forsurgery and X ray procedures.

—Richard Friedman, Ph.D., PatriciaMyers, Herbert Benson, M.D.

Resources:

Mind/Body Medical Institute

Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center

Harvard Medical School

110 Francis Street

Boston, MA 02215

Tel: (617) 632-9530

Provides a well-respected treatment program that

teaches how to elicit the relaxation response.

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324

Further Reading:

Benson, Herbert. The Relaxation Response. Rich-

mond, VA: Outlet Books, Inc., 1993.

——. Timeless Healing. New York: Fireside, 1996.

Benson, Herbert, and William Proctor. Beyond the

Relaxation Response. New York:

Putnam/Berkley, Inc., 1984.

TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION

Transcendental Meditation (TM), isa simple technique that is used tohelp individuals access their inner

creativity and wisdom while alsoimproving their physical health. Accord-ing to TM theory, which is based on theancient Vedic tradition of yoga, certainmeditation techniques can quiet themind, allowing the body to enter a stateof deep relaxation. Veda, meaning“knowledge,” is a science of life and con-sciousness that is rooted in ancientIndia. TM was introduced in 1957 byMaharishi Mahesh Yogi. He has sincetraveled the world, promoting andteaching TM. As a result, more than 5million people from different countries,religions, and educational backgroundshave learned the TM technique.

The Life of Maharishi Mahesh YogiMaharishi Mahesh Yogi was born in1918 in India. “Maharishi,” meaning“great sage,” is a title of honor. Mahar-ishi graduated in 1941 with a degree inphysics from Allahabad University inIndia. Shortly after his graduation, hemet Swami Brahamananda Saraswati, arenowned spiritual leader in India, andasked to study with him. Maharishi wasaccepted and became his disciple for-more than thirteen years.

After Swami BrahamanandaSaraswati died in 1953, Maharishi spenttwo years in seclusion in the Himalayan

Mountains, where he developed thesystem of Transcendental Meditation.In 1957, at the eighty-seventh birthdaycelebration of his teacher, he announcedhis plan to spread TM around theworld. To accomplish this, in 1959 hefounded the Spiritual RegenerationMovement. His reputation greatlyincreased in the early 1960s, when histeachings gained the interest of themusical group the Beatles and othercelebrities from the West. Subsequent-ly, TM became more popular in theUnited States. Maharishi toured theUnited States in 1967 and delivered lec-tures at several prominent universities.By the 1970s, TM had spread to morethan 100 countries.

Currently, people participate inMaharishi’s teachings to differentextents. There are many students whofollow Maharishi’s versions of variousbranches of Vedic science, includingsystems of medicine, architecture, andprediction. For them, Maharishi’steachings influence various aspects ofone’s lifestyle. His teachings have alsoinspired a political movement, orga-nized in sixty countries as the NaturalLaw Party. At the same time, there aremany other people who study only themeditation technique without changingtheir lifestyles or political beliefs. Theyattend classes where the TM techniqueis taught and use the skill to helpachieve their own personal physical,emotional, and spiritual goals.

Principles of Transcendental MeditationAccording to Maharishi, consciousnessis not merely a function of the humannervous system; it is actually a field innature, just like gravity or electromag-netism. This field pervades the physicaluniverse and is the source of the creativ-ity and intelligence in nature, as well asin an individual’s life. Although thismodel of consciousness is derived fromthe Vedic tradition of ancient India,some have noted its similarities with acontemporary Western scientific theoryconcerning all matter and energy in the

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Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, founder of Transcendental Meditation.

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universe known as the unified field ofnatural law.

Vedic science claims that the humanbrain and nervous system can functionas instruments capable of directly expe-riencing the unbounded field of con-sciousness. TM practitioners believethat when a person is in a quiet, settledstate the mind will naturally movetoward experiencing this field. TM is atechnique to transcend the superficial,active level of the mind, allowing it toexperience this latent and unlimitedsource of energy, creativity, and intelli-gence.

Coming from India, where medita-tion techniques abound, Maharishi wasfrequently asked if all meditation tech-niques—and therefore all benefits ofmeditation—are the same. He assertedthat there are profound differencesbetween practices. Most meditationtechniques, Maharishi said, involveconcentration or control of the mind.

He advocated a departure from thesemethods. To Maharishi, control of themind actually stops the process oftranscending normal consciousness.Instead, meditation should be com-pletely natural and effortless, requiringno concentration or control of themind. Meditation should simply allowthe mind to follow its own natural ten-dency toward the expanded field of con-sciousness, a field of bliss and innerhappiness.

Experiencing Transcendental MeditationEven though the process of TranscendentalMeditation is designed to be simple andeffortless, properly learning the tech-niques is very precise. Learning to medi-tate in the Vedic tradition has alwaysinvolved personal instruction from anexpert or guru. Therefore, TM practi-tioners believe that those who are inter-ested in meditating should learn from aqualified teacher.

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A seven-step course in Transcendental Meditation is offered by hundreds of MaharishiVedic universities and schools throughout the world. The course consists of two lecturesabout the principles of TM and four days of instruction in meditation—about two hourseach day. After the course is completed, additional personal instruction is also available.

TM is practiced for fifteen to twentyminutes twice a day. A person begins medi-tation by sitting in a comfortable positionwith the eyes closed. Then, mantras—meaningless syllables or phrases—aresilently repeated. Proponents of TM believethat meditation quiets the mind, whichhelps the body enter a unique state of relax-ation, deeper than ordinary rest with eyesclosed. As a person begins to relax his or hermind, he or she begins to experience finerlevels of thought. Ultimately, a person tran-scends the finest level of thought and expe-riences the source of thought, the field ofpure consciousness.

Benefits of Transcendental MeditationThere has been a significant effort amongadvocates of TM to integrate traditionalteachings with Western science. Since themid-1970s hundreds of research studieshave been conducted that confirm that TMcan yield both psychological and physicalbenefits. It has been found to reduce stress,anxiety, and depression, and increase cre-ativity, happiness, and self-esteem. It hasalso been used to increase one’s energy,improve memory, and reduce insomnia andhigh blood pressure.

Some students use the TM technique toimprove memory and quicken their ability tosolve problems. People have also used thesebenefits of TM to become more productive attheir jobs. It has also been used as a part ofprograms designed to help people recoverfrom drug or alcohol addiction. In each ofthese cases, the TM technique is used as apractical skill to help a person in his or herdaily life

—Compiled in consultation with Robert Roth

Resources:

Maharishi University of Management

1000 North 4th Street

Fairfield, IA 52557

Tel: (515) 472-7000

Web site: www.miu.edu

An accredited university, offering standard academic

disciplines in addition to Transcendental Meditation.

Maharishi Vedic University

1401 Ocean Avenue

Asbury Park, NJ 07712

Tel: (908) 774-9446

Offers a program of instruction in the Vedic sciences.

Transcendental Meditation Program

Tel: (888) LEARN TM

Web site: www.tm.org

Further Reading:

Denniston, Denise. The TM Book: How to Enjoy the Rest

of Your Life. Fairfield, IA: Fairfield Press, 1986 .

Roth, Robert. Transcendental Meditation. New York:

Primus, 1987.

Yogi, Maharishi Mahesh. Science of Being and Art of

Living. London: SRM Publications, 1967.

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PART XIV: PSYCHO-PHYSICALEVALUATION FRAMEWORKS

Enneagram • Kestenberg Movement Profile • Laban Movement Analysis •Movement Pattern Analysis

Psycho-physical evalua-tion frameworks are orga-nized theoretical structuresand notation systems thatcorrelate body movementwith psychological attri-butes and patterns. Theseframeworks see the processof movement as a complexand multifaceted affair.Each method combines, inits own way, an objectiveapproach to observing andrecording the subtle aspectsof movement with an appre-ciation for the subjectiveelements of the experienceof moving. Because eachmethod aims to create acomprehensive model of allthe possible combinationsof movement elements,these frameworks can beapplied to many athleticand aesthetic activities,therapeutic modalities, andeducational programs fordiagnostic as well as pre-scriptive purposes.

The majority of psycho-physical evaluation frameworks in use today and includedhere are inspired by the work of Rudolph Laban (1879–1958), an Austro-Hungarianmovement theorist. The methods included in this section are distinguished by theirfounders’ efforts to collect first all the variations of movement they could observebefore developing theoretical frameworks linking physical movements to psychological

Many psycho-physical evaluation frameworks use abstract nota-tion to record observed movement. Pictured above is motif writ-

ing used in Laban movement analysis.

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characteristics. They recorded these observations by means of various abstract sym-bol systems that generally developed right along with their theoretical concepts. Fromdata collected, the various frameworks were then formulated. In this way a compre-hensive map of the possible range of movement patterns and their relationship to pat-terns of emotional life was created.

What These Frameworks Have in CommonThe frameworks described in this section are linked by several basic concepts. First

and foremost is the belief that physical movement is reflective of inner psychological pat-terns, preferences, and coping mechanisms. While some frameworks like the Enneagrammodel focus more on behavioral actions, the Laban-based models, including Labanmovement analysis, Kestenberg movement profile, and movement pattern analysis, basetheir observations specifically on the qualitative changes in movements through spaceover a period of time.

These frameworks are also linked by their belief that people have preferred movementrepertories that are unique and special to them. Health, growth, and understanding areoften facilitated by experiencing behavioral actions, movement qualities, combinations,and patterns outside this preferred movement repertory. In this way these frameworksare related to the ancient and contemporary holistic body-mind disciplines that seephysical, emotional, and spiritual health in terms of balance and harmony.

Using the Frameworks to Help YouThe modes of practice of these particular disciplines are extremely varied. In fact,

a client doesn’t so much “practice” them as make use of the information and newinsights they provide. In some cases it is possible to visit a practitioner of one of thesedisciplines for a personal assessment. For example, you can go to an enneagram sem-inar and discover where you fit in that method’s map of the gestalt of human con-sciousness. Or you can learn about your own decision-making process by having yourmovement pattern analyzed by a certified movement pattern analyst.

But it is more likely that if you were to go to a dance teacher, sports coach, or a mas-sage or movement therapist, he or she might be working with one of these psycho-physical evaluation frameworks. The teacher, coach, or therapist is the “practitioner”of this discipline. The framework provides a model within which to assess your con-dition, understand the whole physical and psychological dynamic of your situation,and plan a step-by-step program to help relieve your pain, improve your performance,or assist you in reaching your goals.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

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Further Reading:

Fouts, Roger, and Stephen Tukel Mills. Next of Kin:

What Chimpanzees Have Taught Me About Who

We Are. New York: William Morrow and Compa-

ny, Inc., 1997.

Moore, Carol-Lynne, and Kaoru Yamamoto. Beyond

Words: Movement Observation and Analysis. New

York: Gordon and Breach, 1994.

North, Marion. Personality Assessment Through

Movement. London: Macdonald and Evans, 1972.

Enneagram

ENNEAGRAM

Enneagram is a model of human per-sonality that provides nine person-al strategies, or ways of being in the

world, called types. In Greek enneameans “nine” and gram means “graph”or “model.” The system provides aframework, language, and conceptualvocabulary for understanding peopleand behavior. In offering personalitydescriptions that account for differ-ences between people, the model great-ly enhances people’s ability tounderstand themselves and to appreci-ate that others approach the same situ-ation from different perspectives. Whenused well, the enneagram system opensup new possibilities for people in man-agement, leadership, teaching, learn-ing, and personal growth.

Nine-Pointed StarMany ancient sacred traditions such asesoteric Christianity, Sufism, andJudaism describe variants of the ennea-gram model. This implies an old, com-mon source for the current model.There are other strands that lead intothe modern-day enneagram. Forinstance, the Platonic tradition fromancient Greece, in which the philoso-pher Plato describes nine perfect essen-tial states of being and a tenth statecalled unity, is a philosophy that res-onates with the enneagram as well.

In this century George IvanovitchGurdjieff (1872–1949), the spiritualphilosopher and teacher, brought anine-pointed star diagram to the West,purportedly from Sufi sources. Gurdjieffused the star, and the internal-flow pat-tern that unites the points in a specificway, in his private teaching work.According to Gurdjieff theory, by usingthe star he was able to describe thechanging attitudes and perceptions thatoccur when people feel either secure orstressed. Gurdjieff painted a hugeenneagram on the floor of the Institutefor the Harmonious Development of

Man, the name of his school where stu-dents practiced movements aimed atdeveloping personal awareness.

Oscar Ichazo, a European born in theearly 1930s and a noted contemporaryenneagram author who claimed to havelearned the system from Sufi masters inAfghanistan, added the next develop-ment to the enneagram system. Henamed the central focus of each of thetypes after Christianity’s seven capitalsins—anger, pride, envy, avarice, glut-tony, lust, sloth—and added two more,deceit and fear. This frame of referencehas become widespread, but it does notimply that it is a system of Christianpsychology.

In 1972 the first teacher of theenneagram in the United States, aChilean psychiatrist named ClaudioNaranjo, a student of Oscar Ichazo,taught the system to a group of psychol-ogists, psychiatrists, and students inBerkeley, California. This grouppainstakingly aligned the central fea-tures of the enneagram types with theDiagnostic Survey Manual, a canon inthe psychological community used byall American and Canadian cliniciansfor diagnostic purposes. While the DSMdescribes pathologies (deviations fromnormal psychological functioning), theenneagram describes in general termsthe broadly correlating characteristicsof normal and high-functioning people.For example, in enneagram theorypoint six represents constant fear andvigilance; enneagram practitionersbelieve that this corresponds with thepsychological term paranoid. In a likemanner, every point on the enneagramcorrelates to a contemporary psycho-logical pathology.

Naranjo’s other contribution was toexplore the enneagram using panels ofthe types; in this method groups of peo-ple of the same personality type worktogether to explore the intricacies of theinner structure of their thought andbehavior patterns. These early panelsprovided the empirical proof for the keydistinguishing characteristics of thetypes.

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The enneagram system of human personalities.

The first books on enneagram theorywere published in the United States inthe mid-1980s. Today research on thecorrelation between the enneagrammodel and Western psychological theo-ry is being conducted at Loyola Univer-sity in Chicago, the Center for IntegralStudies in San Francisco, and less for-mally in many other seminaries andgraduate schools.

What Is Type?People have to survive in the world andneed to exhibit traits and characteristicsthat will enable them to make their wayand form relationships. Personality isabout defense mechanisms, characteris-tic habits of thought, emotions thatunderpin thoughts, interpersonal apti-tudes and abilities, and a way of handlingthe body to manage energy. While allpeople have access to all these areas, inmany instances one area predominatesand people fall broadly into physical,

mental, and emotional types. Theenneagram recognizes these distinc-tions too, and the diagram is organizedin triads that are made up of these dis-tinct energies—the emotional triad(points 2,3,4), the mental triad (points5,6,7), and the instinctual/body triad(points 8,9,1).

In traditional psychology, personali-ty type has been identified throughpathology, or deviations in personalitymakeup. Many psychologists and psy-chiatrists believe that if people canunderstand how their personality disin-tegrated, they can be helped to reinte-grate themselves. Psychotherapists aretrained to find how the personalitydefense mechanisms have brokendown, rather than to concentrate onwhat is working.

The enneagram system provides anew way to understand ourselves. Themodel offers a format for normal andhigh-functioning people to examine

The PerfectionistConscientious, preoccupiedwith correcting error, inflexi-ble, judgmental.

The GiverDevoted, empathetic,needs approval, canbe manipulative.

The PerformerHigh achiever, efficient,competitive, obsessedwith image.

The Tragic RomanticCreative, emotionally charged, melan-cholic, attracted to the unavailable.

The Loyal SkepticProne to doubt, questioning,

scans for danger, loyal,excellent trouble-shooter.

The MediatorCalm, seeks consensus, takes on oth-ers' agenda at expense of own posi-

tion, obstinate and stubborn.

The ObserverPrivacy is paramount, detached,

remote, rational.

The EpicureMercurial, hard to pin

down, childlikecharm, backs away

from commitment.

The BossTake-charge, protective of

turf, combative, likes control.

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Enneagram Study Today

There are currently many enneagram centers and hundreds of enneagram teachersthroughout the United States and the world. In 1994 the First International EnneagramConference was cosponsored by and held at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California.In 1996 the First National Enneagram Institute for Educators was cosponsored by andheld at the Milton Academy in Milton, Massachusetts, which is becoming a laboratoryfor enneagram applications in education, particularly learning and teaching styles.

what their reactive or habitual behaviorpatterns conceal. Enneagram theorypinpoints nine patterns of avoidance:error, emotional needs, failure, ordinar-iness, connection, deviance (being dif-ferent), pain, vulnerability, and conflict.Our sense of self is manufactured large-ly out of one of these avoidances in ouremotional experience. When we face upto, process, and integrate those aspectsof ourselves we have been denying, theself can emerge as a whole, and thegrace of compassion for self and othersbecomes possible.

The system offers the choice forproactive, rather than reactive, behav-ior and the opportunity to cease goingon “automatic” without realizing whatone is doing. Knowledge of enneagramtype (e-type) frees people to expand theway they think about themselves, tofind compassion for themselves andothers, to manage emotional energywith more skill, and to end habitualbehavior.

Finding Your Type The key to using the enneagram systemis recognizing one’s type. To do this agroup of interested people will typicallysee a videotape or listen to an audiotapedescribing the nine types. There areobvious dangers and consequences ofmistyping and stereotyping. As people(especially youths) become moreknowledgeable about their own per-sonality, they need to be honest andobjective about their own definingcharacteristics. If after this process theyare still unsure of their enneagram type,

a one-to-one interview is available tohelp those interested in this model toidentify their type.

Enneagram consultants do not tellpeople their type. While multiple-choice tests are sometimes used to helpdetermine type, enneagram consultantsbelieve that knowledge of type is usefulonly if it is part of a process of self-recognition and self-discovery. Theforty-five minute individual interview isdesigned to unobtrusively elicit pat-terns of thought and emotion, deeplyheld inner motivations, and habits. Thequestions asked in the interview andthe manner of asking them have beendeveloped from thousands of inter-views conducted by the Center forEnneagram Studies in Berkeley, Califor-nia. Through this process the ennea-gram system brings many peoplerevelatory understanding of their indi-vidual beliefs, values, and ideas. Find-ing one’s e-type is only the initial step;learning how to work with one’s strate-gy, and to grow in understanding, com-passion, and acceptance of oneself andothers is the journey. To this end, thebody-mind methods of the many sacredtraditions, such as heightened self-knowledge, breathing practices, medi-tation, and developing a sense ofgroundedness, are all helpful.

Benefits and Inherent RisksPeople who use the enneagram systemhave reported that it enriches and facil-itates interactions between people andoffers opportunities for more thought-ful, effective, and honest relationships.

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Business managers, educators, and stu-dents feel that the system helps themdevelop a sense of their motivationsand the patterns behind their thoughtsand actions.

However, there are dangers inherent inthe system. Stereotyping, or not seeing theindividual in the type, is a distinct danger.A shallow understanding of the system onthe part of the practitioner, whetherteacher or student, ignores the facets thataccount for individual differences. Per-haps the gravest danger in the system liesin people prematurely mistyping them-selves and others.

—Janet Levine

Resources:

The International Enneagram Association

849 Independence Avenue, #B

Mountain View, CA 94043

Tel: (415) 903-8300

Fax: (415) 967-0995

Offers a full listing of enneagram centers and teach-

ers both in the United States and internationally.

The National Educators Institute for Enneagram

Studies

Program Director: Janet Levine

Milton Academy

170 Centre Street

Milton, MA 02186

Tel/Fax: (617) 696-9410

e-mail: Jlevinegrp@aol.com

Web site: www.enneagram-edge.com

Provides information about training in the ennea-

gram system for the educational sector.

Further Reading:

Books:

Naranjo, Claudio. Enneatype Structures. Nevada

City, CA: Gateways, 1990.

Palmer, Helen. The Enneagram. San Francisco:

Harper San Francisco, 1988.

——. The Enneagram in Love and Work. San Fran-

cisco: Harper San Francisco, 1994.

Riso, Don Richard. Personality Types: Using the

Enneagram for Self-Discovery. New York:

Houghton-Mifflin, 1987.

Rohr, Richard, and Andreas Ebert. Discovering the

Enneagram. New York: Crossroad, 1992.

Journals:

The Enneagram Monthly. Troy, NY.

KESTENBERG MOVEMENTPROFILE

The Kestenberg movement profile (KMP) is a method of psychologicalassessment based on observations

of patterns of movement. Whileobservers have long recognized thatbodily movement styles often reflectvarious aspects of personality and feel-ings, a framework was needed to unrav-el the mind-body connections in a systematic fashion. Such a frameworkwas developed in the 1960s by Dr. JudithS. Kestenberg and the Sands PointMovement Study Group, consisting ofDrs. Hershey Marcus, Jay Berlowe,Esther Robin, Arnhilte Buelte, andMartha Soodak. A new generation ofstudents such as Susan Loman, MarkSossin, and Penny Lewis continue todevelop the approach in the 1990s. TheKMP provides a methodology and theo-ry for observing and interpreting bodymovement patterns and has been usedeffectively for evaluation as well as pre-scriptive purposes by psychologists,anthropologists, and dance/movementtherapists.

The Sands Point Movement StudyGroupKestenberg first observed the close inte-gration of body and mind in Vienna inthe 1930s while studying patients withneurological brain damage. Later, as achild psychiatrist in New York, she specu-lated about ways in which psychological

Kestenberg Movement Profile

disturbances might be expressed inbody movement. In 1953 she beganwhat was to be a twenty-year longitudi-nal study of the movement patterns ofthree newborns. Unfamiliar with anysystem of movement notation, sherecorded the babies’ movements bymoving her pen in accordance withtheir motions. Her pen traced rhythmicand semi-rhythmic lines across thepaper, creating tracings that looked likeelectrocardiogram graphs. However, itwas not yet clear to her how this datacould be interpreted.

In 1960, the Sands Point MovementStudy Group—four psychiatrists, amovement specialist, and a dance ther-apist—eager to learn together andcross disciplinary lines, gathered tostudy movement in a more systematicway. They were led to the work of themovement specialist Rudolf Laban,who had emphasized that movementpatterns are closely associated withstyles of thinking and feeling. Forexample, Laban pointed out that peo-ple who “tackle” decisions tend to pre-fer strong, quick, direct movements;those who slowly ponder decisionstend to prefer light, sustained, andindirect movement patterns. He creat-ed a system of notation that allowed anobserver to record, categorize, andinterpret movement in relation to themover’s inner intention.

The Sands Point group studiedLaban’s system and adapted it to servetheir interest in child development andpsychological evaluations. In particular,they elaborated on Laban’s observationthat changes of muscle tension mayreflect inner feelings and needs. Theyfound that in children, just as Laban hadtheorized, bound muscle tension oftenreflected states of anxiety or caution,and that relaxed or free-flowing move-ments were associated with feeling atease. How could they study this phe-nomenon more carefully?

Warren Lamb, one of Laban’s stu-dents, suggested that Kestenberg’s trac-ings of the babies’ movementsdocumented changes in muscle tension

and offered a way to study changes oftension flow. Equipped with thismethodology, the Sands Point Move-ment Study Group discovered particularpatterns of muscle-tension changescharacteristic of children’s basic every-day functioning, such as eating, crawling,or jumping. Throughout developmentthese rhythmic patterns serve not onlysuch bodily functions, but also other psy-chological needs.

For example, sucking rhythms usedfor nursing also serve self-soothingfunctions and thus are importantthroughout the life span. Particularrhythmic patterns typically becomeprominent during the early phases ofdevelopment, from birth to age six, par-alleling and reinforcing the process ofmaturation; as an example, short stop-and-go rhythms common in the two-and-a-half-year-old function to helpbladder control and also encourageenergetic activity and competitiveness.A slow, swaying rhythm, common inthree-year-olds, supports and encour-ages nurturing behavior and creativity.

From 1972 to 1990 additional obser-vations were gathered at the Center forChildren and Parents, a private institu-tion in Roslyn, New York, founded byKestenberg. These were used to refineand verify the Kestenberg movementprofile and its interpretive scheme. Asconfidence in the profile grew, itbecame the basis for the evaluation ofmovement preferences, developmentalachievement, cognitive (thinking) abili-ties, self feelings, and social skills.

The Kestenberg Movement Profileand Personality TypesWhile individuals exhibit all ten biolog-ically based rhythmic patterns iden-tified in the Kestenberg movementprofile, they generally favor two orthree rhythmic patterns, infusing theminto many of their activities. For exam-ple, some people eat with a “jumping”rhythm, gulping their food, while oth-ers “drift” along, finishing long aftereveryone else. Severe deficiency of one

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pattern may undermine the develop-ment of certain qualities, such asassertiveness or the ability to relax. Bytracing someone’s “rhythms of tensionflow,” as these patterns are called in theKestenberg movement profile, one canbegin to create a profile of the subject’spreferred ways of meeting personalneeds.

In addition to tension-flow patterns, over sixty-three specific movement qual-ities have also been studied and used tocreate a detailed and comprehensivemovement profile for the psychologicalassessment of individuals. Combinationsof these qualities reflect the individual’sstyle of coping with the environment,self-image, use of psychological defens-es, learning styles, cognitive thinkingpatterns, and ways of relating to others.Laban had theorized, and Kestenberg’sresearch confirmed, that in order to col-lect accurate, useful observations ofmovement patterns it is necessary toobserve more than one movement quali-ty at a time. Observing movement fromthis frame of reference creates a complexpalette of data from which to draw psy-chological implications.

The richness of the material leads theobserver to the discovery of multipleinterconnections between mind andbody. One movement quality oftenunderlies cognitive processes and socialmodes of relating. For example, an indi-vidual who favors “spreading” move-ments over “enclosing” motions alsogenerally prefers to explore widely in an environment and take in manydiverse perspectives. Such a person alsotends to feel comfortable relating toquite a number of different people. Onewho prefers enclosing movements gen-erally favors focused investigations andexplorations, more singular perspectives,and also tends to be more comfortablerelating to others on a one-to-one basis.Of course, most people have access toboth patterns of movement and bothmodes of thinking and relating, butdemonstrate distinct styles and prefer-ences in specific contexts.

Applications of the KMPThe Kestenberg movement profile canbe used in natural, real-world settings aswell as more controlled therapeuticones. Adults engaging in a conversationor children engaged in free play can beprofiled. It has also been used success-fully in different cultural settings.

As a preventive measure, the Kesten-berg movement profile’s model of child-hood development suggests age-appropriate activities for children andremedial movement patterns wheredeficiencies are found. The profile alsoaids in the treatment of problems ininterpersonal relations. For example, bycomparing profiles of family members,the therapist can study the areas of har-mony and clash between individuals.The therapist can then analyze how cer-tain movement patterns inhibit andmislead communication. Individualscan be made aware of the movement-level basis of their clashes and learn tobuild on their areas of harmony, findmore compatible movement patterns,or at least understand their clashes on amore comfortable movement level.

Parents can learn to attune to theirinfants, use affined movement patterns,and develop a body-level mode of com-munication. The process of becomingattuned with others can begin quiteearly. Kestenberg taught pregnantwomen to trace the tension flowrhythms of fetal movements. This facili-tated getting to know and relating to thebaby before birth, and bonding with itafter birth.

The Kestenberg movement profilealso serves as a guide for dance/move-ment therapists who utilize movementas a form of treatment. Psychologists,physical therapists, and physicians whoalso examine the language of the bodyhave found the KMP effective as part ofthe diagnostic process and in the deter-mination of appropriate avenues oftherapy.

—Janet Kestenberg Amighi and Susan Loman

Laban Movement Analysis

Resources:

Allegheny University of the Health Sciences

1505 Reay, Mail Drop 905

Bellet Bldg., 10th Floor

Philadelphia, PA 19102

Tel: (215) 246-5020

Offers a program in the KMP.

Antioch New England Graduate School

Keene, NH 03431

Tel: (603) 357-3122

Provides a training program in the Kestenberg

movement profile.

The Laban-Bartenieff Institute for Movement

Studies

11 East 4th Street

New York, NY 10003

Tel: (212) 477-4299

Teaches the Kestenberg movement profile to

qualified individuals.

Further Reading:

Books:

Kestenberg, J. S. Children and Parents: Psychoana-

lytic Studies in Development. New York: Jason

Aronson, 1975.

Kestsenberg, J. S., and M. Sossin. The Role of

Movement Patterns in Development II. New

York: The Dance Notation Bureau Press, 1979.

Kestenberg, J. S., J. Amighi, S. Loman, P. Lewis, and

M. Sossin. The Meaning of Movement: Develop-

mental, Multicultural and Clinical Perspectives

as Seen Through the Kestenberg Movement

Profile. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1998.

Lewis, P., and S. Loman, The Kestenberg Movement

Profile: Its Past, Present Applications and Future

Directions. Keene, NH: Antioch New England

Graduate School, 1990.

Journals:

Loman, S., and H. Merman. “The KMP: A Tool for

Dance/Movement Therapy.” American Journal

of Dance Therapy 18, No. 1 (1996): 29–52.

LABAN MOVEMENT ANALYSIS

Laban movement analysis (LMA) is asystem that provides a comprehen-sive language to describe, interpret,

and study movement. Central to LMA isthe idea that movement is an outwardexpression of inner intentions and thatmovement is a combination of thephysical, emotional, and mental attrib-utes of human behavior. LMA allows forthe analysis and synthesis of the physi-cal and psychological processes ofmoving. As such, the language of LMA isapplicable to many fields of body-mindstudy.

The History of Laban MovementAnalysisRudolf Laban, artist, scientist, andphilosopher, was born in 1879, in whatwas then Bratislava in the Austro-Hun-garian Empire. He spent much of his lifein France, Switzerland, and Germanyuntil, in 1936, artistic conflicts with theNational Socialist Party (the Nazi Party)led him to relocate in England, where helived until his death in 1958.

From 1913 to 1917 in Ascona,Switzerland, he began developing anabstract-symbol system that notatedmovement. Originally this system pro-vided the impermanent art of dancewith a means for documentation andhistorical preservation. But Laban’sbroad range of interests coupled withhis scientific approach to the study ofmovement led him to develop a systemof notating all types of movement.

Between 1920 and 1936 Laban was most active in Berlin. He establishedtwo dance companies, TanzbuhneLaban and Kammertanzbuhne Laban.Laban’s system of notation was pub-lished in 1928 as Kinetography Laban,which became known as Labanotationin the United States. Laban establisheddance schools throughout Germanyand gained a reputation for his prolificwork in developing movement choirs,

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orchestrating large groups of laypeoplein movement displays of pageantry andcommunity.

His life work continued in Englandfrom 1936 to 1958. His book ModernEducational Dance, published in 1948,became the basis for a curriculum inmovement education in public schools.He also began teacher-training pro-grams in movement with recognitionfrom the Department of Education andScience.

Laban’s legacy continues through hiswritings, his notation system, andthrough his groundbreaking investiga-tion into nonverbal expression and thecreative unconscious sources of move-ment expression. Several of Laban’s stu-dents, including Irmgard Bartenieff,Warren Lamb, Judith Kestenberg, andAnne Hutchinson Guest, have contin-ued his work and expanded its range ofapplication to a variety of fields. Lamb,for instance, applied the theories to thecorporate sector to help professionalsunderstand their own and others’ deci-sion-making processes. And Kestenbergworks with children in a body/move-ment-conscious psychotherapy.

The Ingredients of MovementTo facilitate a fundamental understand-ing of all human movement, the Labanmovement analysis system articulatesand differentiates the ingredients ofmovement expression. These ingredientscombine in infinitely varying ways tobecome the work actions, human behav-iors, and dance styles of culturesthroughout the world. Although move-ment is a constantly changing state, theseingredients continuously emerge asobservable points of emphasis in move-ment patterns. LMA places these move-ment ingredients into four majorcategories: body, effort, space, and shape.

Body This category focuses on howmovements are executed physically. Itlooks at specific body parts and rela-tionships between body parts, identifieshow movements are initiated, anddescribes simultaneous or sequential

phrasing of movement. The body cate-gory also distinguishes between postur-al and gestural movements andexamines the rhythms created as onegoes from being still to moving and vice versa.

Effort This category covers qualita-tive changes in the energy of movement.It addresses movement in terms ofweight, space, time, and flow. Fluctua-tions of weight occur between light orstrong, space is direct or indirect, time isquick or sustained, and flow is free orbound. These eight effort elements com-bine in a multitude of configurations thatLaban described as “states” and “drives.”These “states” and “drives” appear asmoments of significant change and yieldthe endless rhythmic variation evident inhuman movement. For example, the lan-guage may serve to compare and con-trast the percussive, strong, quick accentof a tap dancer’s movement and the deli-cate, light, sustained, free promenade ofa ballet dancer.

Space This category examines theway the body moves through the spacearound it and addresses issues of prox-imity, direction, pathway, location, andrelationship. The LMA framework iden-tifies a personal kinesphere as a bubbleof space that travels with an individualthrough the general space. Proximityrefers to the relative distances betweenpeople or between a person and anobject. Appropriate proximity variesfrom culture to culture and is an impor-tant aspect of social behavior. To furtherdelineate three-dimensional space,Laban imagined a human being stand-ing inside various geometric forms orcrystals such as a sphere, cube, octahe-dron (an eight-sided crystal), icosahe-dron (a twenty-sided crystal), ordodecahedron (a twelve-sided crystal).The vertices, edges, and facets of thiscrystalline architecture suggest possiblepathways through space.

Shape In shape description,Laban movement analysts observe theforms the body makes and the processof shape change as one moves between

Laban Movement Analysis

forms. It provides a vocabulary for iden-tifying design elements that appear inthe arrangement of body parts in rela-tionship to one another. In addition tofamiliar descriptions of shape such ascurved, angular, symmetric, or asym-metric, shape is viewed as a dynamicprocess, the outward shape changerevealing a variety of inner attitudes.The change in body shape that occurswhen an individual is actively engagingor responding to the outer environment,as in building a sand castle, appears verydifferent from a change in the bodyshape that results from a deep sigh orother internally motivated action. Thisframework provides a way to describethe plasticity of the body, the forms itreveals, and the way in which its formconstantly changes.

Any movement event is a complexlayering of many movement elements.Variables of body, effort, shape, andspace are all occurring simultaneously.The Laban framework provides differen-tiated concepts within each category.The vocabulary that results from thisconceptual understanding of movementenables observers to identify the mostimportant characteristics of a movementevent and to describe how these charac-teristics change through time.

LMA in PracticeLMA provides a means of moving fromdescription of movement to interpreta-tion and creating plans for change orimprovement in movement expression.In athletics, performance arts, martialarts, and fitness training, LMA is used tobreak an action down into its separateelements and then to determine whichelements are most important in per-forming the action most efficiently,effectively, and/or expressively. Fromthis assessment it is possible to moveactively toward developing and refiningthe specific movements that contributeto virtuosity within any physical skill. Inthe same way LMA can also serve as adiagnostic tool in injury rehabilitationand in maximizing movement patterns

for health and efficiency. Since LMArecognizes that movement can expressinner intentions and psychologicalmotivations, the system also providesconcrete tools for deciphering the non-verbal language of movement expres-sion as viewed within the fields ofpsychology, sociology, and anthropolo-gy. As a conceptual framework, it pro-vides movement educators with aconcrete language for the clarificationof somatic goals and an assessment ofprogress. As a system that providesspecific links between mental, physical,and emotional realms of human func-tioning, its range of potential applica-tion extends to any inquiry concernedwith the intersection of body and mindexperience.

—Ed Groff, M.F.A., CMA

Resources

The Laban-Bartenieff Institute of Movement

Studies

11 East 4th Street

New York, NY 10003-6902

Tel: (212) 477-4299

An institute providing comprehensive training in

LMA that offers a certificate program.

The Dance Notation Bureau

33 West 21st Street

New York, NY 10001

Tel: (212) 807-7899

An institute providing certificate training in

Labanotation.

Motos Humanus

P.O. Box 11036

Denver, CO 80211

Tel: (303) 421-2023

An organization serving the needs of Laban-based

movement professionals through publications,

conferences, advanced training seminars, and pro-

fessional consultation.

Laban Centre for Movement and Dance

University of London Goldsmith’s College

London SE 14 6NW

England

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Tel: 01-692-4070

A school offering undergraduate, postgraduate,

and special courses in Laban studies.

The Language of Dance Center

17 Holland Park

London W1135D

England

A school offering comprehensive training in

Labanotation.

Further Reading:

Bartenieff, Irmgard, and Dori Lewis. Body Move-

ment: Coping with the Environment. Revised edi-

tion. New York: Gordon Breach Science

Publishers, Inc., 1980.

Dunlop, Valerie P. Modern Educational Dance.

Revised edition. Boston: Plays Inc. Publishers,

1990.

Guest, Ann Hutchinson. Your Move: A New

Approach to the Study of Movement and Dance.

Revised edition. New York: Gordon and Breach

Science Publishers, Inc., 1990.

Laban, Rudolf. A Life for Dance. New York: Theatre

Arts Books, 1975.

Laban, Rudolf. The Mastery of Movement. Revised

by Lisa Ullman. Boston: Plays Inc. Publishers,

1975.

North, Marion. Personality Assessment Through

Movement. London: Macdonald and Evans, 1972.

MOVEMENT PATTERN ANALYSIS

Movement pattern analysis focus-es on the relationship betweenmind and body in the structure

and coding of movement. Though it canbe applied to a broad range of activities,it is generally used in executive trainingprograms to improve individual skills indecision making, communication, and

group interaction. There is no pre-scribed regimen of exercise in move-ment pattern analysis. It assesseshabitual structures of behavior in orderto provide information that will help inthe choice and attainment of life goals.

The History of Movement PatternAnalysis Movement pattern analysis has its roots inthe system of movement analysis firstdeveloped in the early twentieth centuryby Rudolf Laban, an Austro-Hungarianartist, scientist, and philosopher. The riseof Hitler forced Laban to flee to GreatBritain where, from 1941 to 1946, he and F.C. Lawrence, a management consultant,conducted a study of industrial produc-tion tasks. Their findings contradicted themechanistic principles of time/motionstudy, which governed thought aboutefficient factory production at that time.

Laban and Lawrence approached fac-tory work as if it were a form of dance, pay-ing particular attention to thecharacteristic mental attitude needed toperform each individual movement of thetask. They argued that this dynamic pat-terning, which Laban called effort phras-ing, should be the basis for determining aworker’s suitability to a job. Struck by therepetitive nature of factory work, they alsoencouraged workers to make motionsthat, strictly speaking, were inefficient butlent a satisfying rhythm to their tasks.Workers at factories who adopted theLaban Lawrence industrial rhythm, alsocalled Laban personal effort assessment,increased their output, suffered less stress,and felt more complete as human beings.

At the end of World War II, WarrenLamb joined Laban’s group and began toexplore ways of applying effort assess-ment to managerial work. He observedthe behavior of managers in their officesand devised a system for correlatingeffort phrasing with the decision-mak-ing skills required for a number of man-agerial activities. First marketed in the1960s as action profiling, Lamb’smethod had an enormous impact on thecorporate community, particularly in

Movement Pattern Analysis

Great Britain. Action Profiling gavecompanies a new, effective means forallocating responsibility and buildingsuccessful management teams. In 1992disagreements over the Laban heritageforced Lamb to leave his first organi-zation, Action Profilers International,and rename his method movement pat-tern analysis.

The Theory of Movement PatternAnalysis Lamb’s method is based on the belief thatmovement is a direct, faithful register of aperson’s inner intention, whether con-scious or unconscious. The nature of theintention is evaluated through study of aparticular type of movement, which Lambnamed integrated movement. Thesemovements, which seem to appear whena person is most fully revealing of his orher inner intentions, are distinguished bythe fact that they flow throughout theentire body, moving from the core out-ward, or from the extremities inward.

Information for assessment of thedecision-making process is derived fromextended observation of integrated move-ments. The shape these movements takein space, rising or falling, spreading orenclosing, retreating or advancing, isnoted and correlated with qualities ofeffort. According to Lamb, who followsLaban on this principle, effort is manifest-ed in four qualities: flow, weight, space,and time. Each of these four attributes ofmovement is indicative of a specific innerattitude of the mover. For example, flow, orthe quality of ongoingness of the move-ment, is indicative of an inner attitude ofprogression. A controlled movementreflects a sense of caution, whereas a free-flowing movement indicates an inner atti-tude of abandon. By attending to therelationship between effort and shape inintegrated movement, it is possible todetermine “where” a person is in the deci-sion-making process. A picture of her orhis entire decision-making process can beproduced with data drawn from pro-longed study. The profile is as distinctiveand indelible as a fingerprint.

Experiencing Movement PatternAnalysis Movement pattern analysis is conduct-ed like a job interview or an ordinaryconversation. The client remains fullyclothed and in some instances may notbe aware of the precise purpose of themeeting. The movement pattern analystasks questions concerning the client’sjob or life. As the conversation pro-ceeds, the analyst assesses the client’sintegrated movements and records thedata on coding sheets formulated byLamb. The results are then discussedwith the client and possibly with theclient’s employer.

When a group such as a managementteam is evaluated, movement patternanalysis is done in two stages. In the firststage the members of the group areapproached on an individual basis andgiven information about their decision-making habits. In the second stage thegroup is studied as an entity with its owncharacteristic mode of behavior. Thissecond analysis of group movementpattern is used by the group leader andthe group as a whole to determine tac-tics for achieving smoother, more pro-ductive teamwork.

The Benefits of Movement PatternAnalysis A profile of one’s decision-making pro-cess can be an important means of self-empowerment. It allows decision mak-ing to be understood as a pattern ofbehavior with strengths and weakness-es that can be examined and changed.

—Warren Lamb

Resources:

Motus Humanus

Carol-Lynne Moore, Director

P.O. Box 11036

Denver, CO 80211

Organizes workshops and conferences in move-

ment pattern analysis and supervises the training

of movement pattern analysts.

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Further Reading:

Laban, Rudolf, and F. C. Lawrence. Effort. London:

Macdonald & Evans, 1947.

Laban, Rudolf.The Language of Movement. Lisa Ull-

man, ed. Boston: Plays, Inc., 1974.

Lamb, Warren. Posture and Gesture. London: Duck-

worth, 1965.

——. Management Behavior. London: Duckworth,

1969.

Lamb, Warren, and Elizabeth Watson. Body Code:

The Meaning in Movement. Princeton, NJ:

Princeton Book Company, 1987.

Moore, Carol-Lynne. Executives in Action: A Guide

to Balanced Decision-Making in Management.

4th ed. London: Pitman, 1992.

Ramsden, Pamela. Top Team Planning: A Study of

the Power of Individual Motivation in Manage-

ment. London: Associated Business Programmes,

1973.

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PART XV: EXPRESSIVE AND CREATIVEARTS THERAPIES

Art Therapy • Authentic Movement • Dance Therapy • Drama Therapy • Halprin Life/Art Process • Journal Therapy • Multi-Modal Expressive ArtsTherapy • Music Therapy * Poetry Therapy • Sandplay Therapy

Expressive and creativearts therapies are methodsthat use one or several ofthe fine arts as a means toeffect changes in physical,mental, or emotional func-tioning. Music, paintingand sculpture, dancing,mimicry, and story-tellingwere all used by earlyhumans to try to createorder in a seeminglychaotic universe. By givingaesthetic form to theirfears, hopes, and dreams,our ancestors found manyways to cope with the mys-terious and sometimes ter-rifying forces that controlthe universe. Expressiveand creative arts therapiesare grounded in this samenotion, using the evoca-tive, organizing power ofaesthetic expression tohelp people of all ages facechallenges of healing andgrowing—challenges thatcan be as difficult in thisday and age as they werefor our primal ancestors.

Learning Life Skills Through the ArtsAlthough the use of the fine arts for therapeutic purposes is comparatively new in

Western medicine, the healing and educational power of the arts has been intuitively

Expressive and creative arts therapies are based on the beliefthat a person’s creativity reveals his or her inner life.

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recognized around the world from the beginnings of human history. For ancient pri-mal cultures and their contemporary relatives, the indigenous peoples of North andSouth America, Africa, Polynesia, Australia, and Asia, the arts are an intrinsic part oflife. In these cultures children develop gross and fine motor skills along with a strongsense of identity as they learn to weave baskets or make pottery, clothing, or huntingequipment in the traditional patterns of their culture.

In these cultures religious celebrations mark the seasons of the year and importantevents in life, such as birth, reaching adolescence, marriage, and death. These cele-brations are often communal events in which participants might prepare traditionalcostumes, masks, and musical instruments and take part in ritualized singing, danc-ing, and theatrical presentations. These activities develop physical and intellectualskills in the participants while serving on a deeper level to guide their emotional andspiritual development.

In the highly developed ancient cultures of China, India, and Egypt the arts werean integral part of political, educational, religious, and health practices. These cul-tures believed that the universe was perfectly ordered by divine forces. They believedthat achieving power, success, happiness, and health was a result of learning howthese divine forces operate in the universe and working harmoniously with them. Oneway this could be accomplished was through aesthetic expression. Sound, motion,and light—the elemental materials of music, dance, and visual and performance art—were believed to follow divine cosmological laws. Artists and philosophers, who alsofunctioned as teachers and healers in these cultures, worked to discover aesthetic the-ories for the arts so that artistic expressions would reflect the divine order of the uni-verse and help people experience a sense of harmony with it. The teachers appliedthese laws to various artistic disciplines such as music (including chanting), calligra-phy, dance, and theatrical performances.

The Changing Role of the ArtsAesthetic modes of healing, praying, and learning continued unbroken for nearly

5,000 years in the East. As Western culture evolved, the arts began to be separatedfrom these basic human activities. Ironically, the philosophy of Plato (c. 428–348 BCE),known for its promotion of aesthetic beauty, is partially responsible for this change.He believed humans could create a more perfect order in the universe and put forththe idea that human behavior was created from three basic sources: desire, emotion,and knowledge. In Plato’s hierarchical philosophy reason and intellect, located in thehead, were a more valuable pilot for the soul than the emotions located in the heart,or desires located in the loins or pelvis. From this point of view the physical embodi-ment of divine laws through art grew to be less valuable than intellectual and theo-retical discussions of those laws.

As Western culture passed through the decline of Greece and the rise and fall ofRome, the arts continued to lose their primacy as a means of praying, teaching, andhealing. In the Dark Ages that followed, the arts remained connected to religious activ-ities within the Judeo-Christian tradition, but they were no longer valued as a primarymethod of communicating spiritual knowledge or healing. That tradition denigratedthe physical body and all sensory modes of expression and glorified the human mind

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and intellectual thought as the one true path to spiritual salvation. The arts were treat-ed as crafts in need of direction and control and became a mere adornment to the pur-suit of spiritual excellence. Then, during the Renaissance, the arts began to fall prey tothe secularized demands of commerce, where they have by and large remained to thisday.

However, at the dawn of the twentieth century a confluence of forces in art, poli-tics, and health care served to partially reestablish the role of the arts as a tool for heal-ing in the West. In the first decades of the century Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and hiscolleagues, notably Carl Jung (1875–1961), began to explore the connections betweenphysical health and the workings of the human mind and emotions. Freud’s theoriesof the unconscious and its role in the development and behavior of human beingsbecame the basis of an entirely new mode of treatment in Western scientific medicine.Both psychoanalysis, as Freud termed his approach, and analytical psychology, asJung described his approach, relied on the revelation of personal unconsciousimagery to effect a cure. This unconscious imagery is still an important tool for manyexpressive and creative arts therapists.

At about the same time Western artists such as Pablo Picasso (1881–1973),Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951), Isadora Duncan (1877–1927), Rainer Maria Rilke(1875–1926), and Konstantin Stanislavsky (1863–1938) were becoming disillusionedwith traditional art forms, which they felt were outmoded and had lost their abilityto inspire. They began creating modern art forms full of vibrant abstract imagesreflecting personal perceptions. By the time World War II rocked the Western worldin 1939 there was a large body of artists in Europe and the United States exploringthe power of the arts to capture, reflect, and organize unconscious content. Many ofthese artists intuitively recognized the therapeutic value of their own artistic activi-ties, and they explored its potential in private teaching situations. Open-mindeddoctors, aware of the therapeutic successes of some of these artists, invited theminto the hospitals, which were strained by the large number of people suffering fromphysical and emotional trauma as a result of the war. Predominantly dancers andvisual artists, but also musicians, writers, and theater artists, entered the hospitalsetting, and the new modalities of music, dance, art, poetry, and drama therapywere born.

After 1945 the nascent expressive arts therapies were introduced into other insti-tutional settings such as schools, prisons, and senior citizen homes. Experientialexploration and theoretical development continued throughout the 1950s with moreand more creative artists developing unique practices and approaches to healing andchanging through the arts. With the social upheaval of the 1960s and its demand formore meaningful forms of living, the creative and expressive arts were enlisted onceagain in growth centers across the country. For example, at the Esalen Institute in Cal-ifornia and the Omega Institute in New York, the arts became a means by which evergreater numbers of people sought to expand their understanding of themselves andtheir role in the universe.

Today each of the expressive arts therapies (music, dance, visual art, poetry, anddrama) is represented by a national organization that sets standards for the training oftherapists and offers a forum for the many technical and philosophical issues confronting

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the field. In addition, an ever-growing number of related creative arts practices serveindividuals in their efforts to heal and grow physically, mentally, emotionally, andspiritually.

The Process of Creation as Exercise for the BrainAll the expressive arts therapies and creative arts practices share the belief that cre-

ating a work of art is in and of itself therapeutic. The process, not the end product, isthe most important part of the work. For instance, creative dance sessions can extendthe range of movement and develop the physical coordination of people with cerebralpalsy, muscular dystrophy, or polio. Painting and sculpting can develop hand-eyecoordination in the physically healthy as well as the physically challenged. Musicclasses that focus on the use of the voice can help people with asthma discover a newrelationship to their lungs and the process of breathing.

Contemporary research into the nature of the brain suggests how the practice ofcreative arts brings about these seemingly miraculous improvements. Researchershave discovered that the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body andis also responsible for imaginative, nonlinear thought. The left side of the brain, whichcontrols the right side of the body, is also the location of all logical, rational, analytic,and verbal skills. Creative arts use both imaginative and analytical skills calling onboth sides of the brain, developing brain cells and nerve connections that drugs andspecific repetitive physical exercises simply cannot awaken.

Creating Art to Improve Social and Emotional SkillsSocial and emotional skills are also explored through the process of making art. Cre-

ating a work of art independently requires developing an ability to turn one’s attentionalternately inward toward the creative impulse and outward toward the form that isbeing created, and to develop a dialogue between the two. The communication skillsdeveloped in this process are similar to those needed for healthy, satisfying interperson-al relationships. In a like manner, creating a group dance, musical composition, or visu-al art installation can serve as a laboratory for the development of group social skills.

Whether the participant is creating alone or in a group, the form of the work beingcreated always serves as the reference point for the developing physical or emotionalskills. It is a basic tenet of all expressive arts therapies and creative arts practices thatthe form of a work of art reflects the inner feelings of the creator or creators. Whetherthe feelings are conscious or unconscious, expressive and creative arts practitionersbelieve we can perceive, describe, and share those feelings more effectively by givingthem expression in an aesthetic form and then reflecting on that form and ourprocess in creating it. Both the form itself and the process of creating it becomemetaphors for how we live our life.

Reflecting on the WorkThe process of reflecting on the work of art will vary depending on the orientation

of the therapist, counselor, or group leader. Therapists who adhere to the Freudiantherapeutic model will observe and discuss the content of the work of art, interpretingit symbolically in relation to seven psychosexual stages of development of the child in

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relation to its parents. Therapists with a Jungian orientation will compare the contentto characters and themes from world mythology, sensing in them the unfolding of anindividual human consciousness in relation to “the collective unconscious,” a sort ofworld library of human experience. Followers of transpersonal or humanist psychol-ogy, founded by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers respectively, will probably notengage in the process of interpretation at all, trusting entirely in the ability of the indi-vidual or the group to direct their own psycho-spiritual healing through the process ofmaking art.

Experiencing Expressive Arts Therapies and Creative Arts PracticesWhile the formalized use of expressive arts therapies began in institutional settings

and remains an important part of healing and education in hospitals, prisons, shel-ters, and schools, it is also possible to explore these practices, individually or in agroup, in private counseling or growth centers throughout the United States today. Nospecial talent is required, simply an enjoyment of an art form and a desire to exploreand grow. Many creative arts leaders advertise workshops in magazines and newspa-pers. Expressive arts therapists practicing privately can be located through theirnational organizations.

Each therapist or group leader will have his or her own approach to working withindividuals, groups, and the specific art form. Some therapists or group leaders willfocus on spontaneous creation, or improvisation, as the major activity of a session orworkshop. For others the main activity may be the practice of specific movements, orplaying or listening to particular pieces of music, or reading particular poems. Herethe emphasis is not so much on the ability of art to capture and reflect unconsciouscontent but on the power of a previously created form or the experience of a particu-lar element of artistic technique to effect a desired change in the body and mind of thepractitioner. Many therapists or group leaders will combine both approaches in theircreative arts sessions.

In group work the role of observer can be as important as the role of creator. Par-ticipants often observe group members in the act of creating, or view others’ com-pleted works of art. Just as the ancients recognized the value of creating art, activeobserving has long been recognized for its cathartic and therapeutic effects on ourmind and body, too. Responding verbally to a work of art can also help us learn tounderstand our emotions and their effects on others. And by sharing our responseswith the creator we complete a loop of communication, allowing the creator to learnhow others experience his or her creation/emotional expression.

A Method with Physical, Mental, and Emotional BenefitsWhether approached in group or individual modes, expressive art therapies and

creative arts practices offer great possibilities for developing a deeper understandingand appreciation of our physical, mental, and emotional coping strategies and learn-ing new living and communication skills. With an open heart, willing mind, and ded-ication to the process, the arts offer an unlimited opportunity to explore and share theunfolding of our essential humanity.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

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Resources:

Expressive Arts Program

California Institute of Integral Studies

9 Peter Yorke Way

San Francisco, CA 94109

Tel: (415) 674-5500

Offers a master’s degree in counseling psychology

with a specialization in expressive arts therapy.

Expressive Therapies Program

Lesley College

29 Everett Street

Cambridge, MA 02138

Tel: (617) 349-8425

Offers a comprehensive graduate program in

multi-modal expressive arts therapy.

International Expressive Arts Therapy Association

P.O. Box 64126

San Francisco, CA 94164

Tel: (415) 522-8959

A professional organization dedicated to multi-

modal expressive arts therapy.

Further Reading:

Arnheim, Rudolf. Towards a Psychology of Art.

Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966.

Berger, John. Ways of Seeing. Magnolia, MA: Peter

Smith, 1977.

Dewey, John. Art as Experience. New York: Peri-

gree Books, 1959.

McNiff, Shaun. The Arts in Psychotherapy. Spring-

field, IL: Charles C. Thomas Pub. Ltd., 1981.

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ART THERAPY

Art therapy is a method used tohelp people release innerthoughts and emotions by mak-

ing visual art. The process of creativeexpression, through forms of visual artsuch as drawing, painting, sculpture, orcollage, is thought to aid a person’shealing and recovery. Therapists maywork with a person to decipher symbol-ic representations of his or her feelings,thoughts, or perceptions. This form oftherapy may appeal to people who oth-erwise find it difficult to express orunderstand a problem or emotion. Artis used as an intuitive, physical methodof manifesting hidden feelings andovercoming difficult problems.

The Origins of Art TherapyAlthough the field of art therapy formal-ly emerged in this century, the use ofvisual images to express inner emotionsand master external events extends asfar back as prehistory. Masks, ritual pot-tery, carefully designed costumes, andmusical instruments were all created asouter expressions of powerful spiritualbeliefs and were used in rituals. The useof art in so many rituals suggests twohealing aspects of art: its potential toachieve or restore psychological equi-librium and its ability to alleviate orcontain feelings of trauma, fear, anxiety,and psychological threat to the self andthe community.

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, agrowing number of European psycholo-gists were becoming interested in study-ing visual art made by patients withmental illnesses. In 1912, psychiatristsEmil Kraeplin and Eugen Bleuler wereamong the earliest therapists to try todiagnose psychopathologies by interpret-ing their patients’ drawings. Later, Sig-mund Freud reported that patients of hiswho were unable to describe their dreamsin words would frequently say that theycould draw the images from their dreams.This observation encouraged the belief

that artistic expression could reveal theinner world of the human psyche.

Psychologist Carl Jung’s work alsoinfluenced the development of art ther-apy. Jung was particularly interested inthe psychological meanings and uses ofart expressions, including his owndrawings and those of his patients.Unlike Freud, who never asked hispatients to draw their dream images,Jung often encouraged his patients todraw. “To paint what we see before us,”he said, “is a different art from paintingwhat we see within.” Jung believed thatthere was an important connectionbetween the images that people madeand their inner thoughts. Jung studiedart created around the world and notedrecurring and seemingly universal sym-bols he called archetypes. These arche-types are cultural images that representbasic elements of unconscious thoughtand human development. Jung’s theoryof archetypes became a foundation forunderstanding how symbolic imageryreveals meaning in artworks, and is stillused by many therapists today.

In the 1940s, art therapy became aprofession in the United States largelydue to the work of Margaret Naumburg.She founded the Walden School in 1915,where she used students’ artworks inpsychological counseling. She agreedwith the predominant psychologicalviewpoint that art expression is a wayto manifest unconscious imagery. In Naumburg’s view, art could providethe client a form of spontaneous expres-sion and communication. She consid-ered these images a form of symbolicspeech.

Through the 1950s and 1960s EdithKramer, an artist, educator, and pioneerin the field of art therapy, pointed toanother important benefit of art mak-ing. She was a European artist whomoved to the United States, where shebegan teaching art to children. Whileother therapists sought to decodepatients’ artworks, Kramer was interest-ed in the value of the act of art making.She believed that there were therapeu-tic benefits to the creative process itself.

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Art making allows people to release their emotions without verbalizing them.

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Art therapists who practice in the United States are trained at the graduate level andreceive a master’s degree; a strong background in visual art and psychology is generallyrequired to enter a graduate program.

She stressed creativity, in addition tothe communication of visual symbols,as the key to the art therapy process.

How It WorksArt therapy attempts to introduce visualart making as an accessible method ofcommunicating feelings, thoughts, andexperiences. This creative process isused to aid a person’s healing and recov-ery. An art therapist will work with his orher patients to help them understandtheir art expressions. To accomplish this,the therapist and client will review theartworks and discuss possible meaningsor emotions expressed in the work. Withthe help of the art therapist, the patientinterprets the images by trying to recog-nize aspects of his or her self in artexpressions. For those clients who can-not verbally articulate the content oftheir images, such as children, the arttherapist may look for repetition ofthemes over time to provide clues topossible meanings. A therapist will try tounderstand and clarify the meanings ofimages while respecting the client as acreative individual capable of contribut-ing to his or her own healing process.

Art as TherapyAn art therapist uses visual art media(such as drawing materials, paints, col-lage/mixed media, and clay sculpture)and the creative process to help apatient explore issues, interests, con-cerns, and conflicts through art expres-sion. Art therapists work in a variety ofways and with many different popula-tions. For example, an art therapist in ahospital setting might work individuallywith psychiatric patients to help themuse art to explore emotional conflicts ordevelop social skills. With a child who

has been traumatized by physical abuse,an art therapist might use art activities tohelp the child explore feelings about thetrauma and to reduce feelings of anxiety,fear, or depression. Art therapists oftenwork as part of a treatment team includ-ing doctors, nurses, psychologists, socialworkers, and counselors.

Who Benefits from Art TherapyAn art therapist may work with adults in apsychiatric hospital, an addictions treat-ment center, a shelter for battered womenand their children, a school for the men-tally retarded or disabled, a day-care cen-ter for the elderly, a rehabilitation hospital,or in a medical facility with physically illpatients. They work with children, adults,families, and groups, and with a variety ofpatient populations. Some art therapistswork as private practitioners, while othersare employed by schools, hospitals, clin-ics, or community agencies.

Art therapy uses art making toenhance communication between ther-apist and client. The artworks are usedas a common language through whichclients and therapists can explore feel-ings, thoughts, and experiences. Thismakes art therapy a significant contri-bution to the field of mental health withenhanced promise in the growth ofhuman understanding.

—Cathy Malchiodi, M.A., ATR, LPAT,LPCC

Resources

American Art Therapy Association, Inc. (AATA)

1202 Allanson Road

Chicago, IL 60060

Tel: (847) 949–6064

Fax: (847) 566–4580

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Web site: www.louisville.edu/groups/aata.www

A list of approved training programs, membership

information, and resources for books, tapes, and

videos is available from the AATA. This organiza-

tion also publishes Art Therapy: Journal of the

American Art Therapy Association.

The Arts in Psychotherapy

Elsevier Science

660 White Plains Road

Tarrytown, NY 10591–5153

e-mail: esuk.usa@elsevier.com

This journal features articles by experts in the cre-

ative arts therapies about the therapeutic use of

various forms of art. It reports on national and

international art therapy conferences and features

book reviews.

Further Reading

Case, C., and T. Dalley. The Handbook of Art Ther-

apy. London: Tavistock. 1992.

Kramer, E. Art as Therapy with Children. Chicago:

Magnolia Street Publishers. 1994.

Malchiodi, C. A. Breaking the Silence: Art Therapy

with Children. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1997.

McNiff, S. The Arts in Psychotherapy. Springfield,

IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1981.

Ulman, E., and P. Dachinger, eds. Art Therapy in

Theory and Practice. Chicago: Magnolia Street

Publishers, 1996.

AUTHENTIC MOVEMENT

Authentic movement is a dance-movement process practiced byindividuals and groups as a way to

learn from the body’s own experience,insights, and imagination. It is an out-wardly simple but profound processwhere subjects follow their impulses formovement or stillness in an acceptingrather than judgmental way. Rather thanconsciously choosing what movements

to do, they allow their bodies to initiatethe movement, thereby making roomfor the unconscious to participate aswell. This process leads to a deepenedrespect for the body’s wisdom and ispracticed for diverse purposes such aspersonal enrichment, spiritual insight,artistic renewal, psychotherapy, or com-munity ritual.

A Different Approach to MovementMary Whitehouse, the pioneeringdancer, teacher, and dance therapist,began developing this approach tomovement in the 1950s and 1960s. Shewas a modern dancer who had trainedwith Mary Wigman and Martha Gra-ham. Wigman’s emphasis on individualcreativity and Whitehouse’s interest inthe psychological theories of Carl Jungprovided a foundation for what is nowknown as authentic movement.

Whitehouse described “authentic”movement as that which was sponta-neous and genuine to that person,rather than learned movement. It aroseout of the “self,” and occurred when theego relinquished control over the move-ment. Throughout her life Mary White-house continued to experiment withthis approach to movement, and withvarious names for it; for example, shecalled it the “Tao of the body,” and“movement in depth.”

Janet Adler, a dance therapist wellknown for her work with autistic chil-dren, studied with Whitehouse in1969–70. She brought her own interestin Freudian psychological theory and adeep interest in shamanism and mysti-cism. In the late 1970s she began to for-malize a set practice and call itauthentic movement. She establishedthe Mary Starks Whitehouse Institute inwestern Massachusetts in 1981, twoyears after Whitehouse’s death, as aplace to study and teach this form ofmovement.

Core Elements of Authentic MovementThe core element of the process sharedby most practitioners is the relationship

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“The witness, especially in the beginning, carries a larger responsibility for conscious-ness, as she sits to the side of the movement space. She is not ‘looking at’ the personmoving, she is witnessing, listening—bringing a specific quality of attention or pres-ence to—the experience of the mover.”

“The mover works with eyes closed in order to expand her experience of listening tothe deeper levels of her kinesthetic reality. Her task is to respond to a sensation, to aninner impulse, to energy coming from the personal unconscious, the collective uncon-scious, or the superconscious. . .The mover and witness usually speak together aboutthe material that has emerged during the movement time, thus bringing formerlyunconscious processes into consciousness.”

Authentic Movement

between the mover and the witness.With eyes closed or inwardly focused,the mover responds to his or her innerimpulses while the witness watchesnonjudgmentally from the sidelines.After a set time of moving, usually with-out musical accompaniment, there isusually a dialogue between mover andwitness. The heart of the process is tohonor the expression of the mover’sinner experience without judgment.

There are several core values sharedby most authentic movement practi-tioners. The first is that one’s body con-tains wisdom and can be used as asource of insight, healing, and guid-ance. A second is that the mover’s expe-rience during the session—when onespends time in the body, paying atten-tion to how the body moves—is ofprime importance. The third is thatauthority for an individual’s experiencerests with the individual and not withanyone who moved with that person oran observer.

Authentic movement offers anopportunity for deep rest and recupera-tion of both body and soul. It cultivatesthe integration of one’s physical, psy-chological, and spiritual aspects, and itinvites the safe inclusion of the fullrange of healthy human expression—beit playful or somber, solitary or shared.Authentic movement is practiced bypeople varied in age, physical skill,dance or movement training, and reli-gious belief, and for diverse purposes

such as for personal enrichment, spiri-tual insight, artistic renewal, psy-chotherapy, or community ritual.

Although the name authentic move-ment is widely used to identify theprocess, other names are also used—such as contemplative dance, or themoving imagination. Currently, there isno central organization overseeingpractitioners, although steps towardmore communication between practi-tioners is under way.

Experiencing Authentic MovementDuring a session, people move in atremendous variety of ways, fromextended periods of complete stillness tovigorous activity. The movement mightbe minute—even imperceptible—orlarge and highly stylized. It can be idio-syncratic, mundane, or formal; rhythmicor dancelike or not; familiar or foreign;homely and awkward or graceful andelegant. No movement is inherentlyunacceptable unless it harms the moveror others. This very broad acceptance ofmovement possibilities distinguishesthis practice from other forms of openimprovisation. Unlike most forms ofdance, there is no need to please orimpress viewers or fellow movers.

In order to establish a safe environ-ment both physically and interpersonally,rules about safety and confidentiality areregularly reinforced and refined. Individ-uals must be responsible for not hurtingthemselves or fellow movers (by opening

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their eyes when necessary, for example, ormoving away from unwelcome contact),and are not to share others’ experiencesoutside of the group. These structures andrules allow for significant privacy—bothfrom the outer world and/or from one’sfellow movers—considerable intimacy,trust, and an unusually broad freedom inmovement possibilities.

Just as important to the authenticmovement process is the “sharing aftermoving” phase that allows the partici-pants to integrate what they have expe-rienced. Depending on the goals of theparticipants, there might be analyticaldialogue in a therapeutic setting, discus-sion of artistic ideas or images in anartistic working group or rehearsal, per-sonal sharing in a peer group, or no dis-cussion at all in a group practicing forspiritual purposes. This phase mighttake different forms for people in thesame group, or different forms for oneperson on different days.

In choosing a facilitator one shouldbe conscientious and sensible. Ques-tions about the person’s background,training, and goals are appropriate. Oneshould ask for references. It is importantto feel intuitively comfortable with theteacher and that the goals for workingtogether are shared.

BenefitsAuthentic movement is a contemporarymovement practice that provides peoplefrom a wide variety of backgrounds andabilities a structure within which theycan recuperate their bodies and souls.This process can lead to an enhancedawareness of one’s whole self, and pro-vide insights to fundamental issues andquestions relevant to one’s life.

—Daphne Lowell

Resources:

The Authentic Movement Community Directory

Editor: Michael Gardos Reid

2219 Taft Street

NE Minneapolis, MN 55418

Tel: (612) 788–1822

e-mail: 76232.1634@Compuserve.com

Lists practitioners of authentic movement.

Further Reading:

Books:

Pallaro, Patrizia, editor. Authentic Movement:

Essays by Mary Whitehouse, Janet Adler, and

Joan Chodorow. Volume 1. London: Jessica

Kingsley Publishers, 1998.

—— Authentic Movement: Moving the Body, Mov-

ing the Self. A Collection of Essays. Volume 2.

London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 1999.

Journals:

A Moving Journal: Ongoing Expressions of Authentic

Movement. Editors: Annie Geissinger, Joan Webb.

DANCE THERAPY

Dance therapy is founded on theprinciple that a vital connectionexists between personality and

the way in which one moves, and thatchanges in movement behavior canaffect the emotional, intellectual, andphysical health of an individual. It isused to help people attain healthy,expressive functioning, individually orin group situations. It is especially use-ful with people for whom verbal therapyis ineffective or overwhelming. Whilethe roots of dance therapy are ancient, ithas been recognized as an establishedform of therapy only since the 1940s.

Dance: An Ancient Form of Self-ExpressionThe rhythmic movements of dance haveappealed to people throughout theages. Dance is found in nearly every cul-ture and civilization, serving a variety ofpurposes. In many cultures, dance wasand still is used as a cathartic healingtool. Primitive societies used dance inrituals, such as rites of passage and

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other religious ceremonies. Dance ritu-als marked life transitions, helping tointegrate individuals with the largersociety. Many societies still use dance insimilar ways. Experts agree that in earlycivilizations dancing, religion, music,and medicine were often connected.

Dance Therapy EvolvesIn the early part of the twentieth centu-ry radical changes in dance movementand expression resulted in what is nowcalled “modern” dance. Up to that timeWestern theatrical dance had been ahighly structured and regimented artform. Modern dance focuses on spon-taneity, awareness of natural move-ment, and more freedom for personalexpression. During the first half of thetwentieth century there were also newdevelopments in psychiatry thatexplored nonverbal aspects of psychol-ogy and psychopathology. EugenBleuler in Switzerland, Jean-MartinCharcot in France, and Henry Maudsley

in England were examining the uniquemovement behavior of people withmental illness. The field of dance thera-py emerged in the 1940s and 1950samid these innovations in dance and inpsychological treatment.

The earliest dance therapists weredancers and dance teachers who wereencouraged by psychiatrists to usedance as a method of communicatingwith withdrawn patients. Marian Chace(1896–1970) is considered an importantpioneering force in the establishmentof dance therapy in the United States.Chace’s dance education includeddance from many cultures, danceimprovisation, and music theory, andcultivated in Chace an openness tomany forms of dance expression. Later,she established her own school inWashington, D.C., where her dancetechnique, which stressed improvisa-tion and individual expression, gaineda reputation for having therapeuticeffects.

Mirroring another person’s movement, a basic technique used in dance therapy, is often the first step inestablishing interpersonal communication.

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Communication Through MovementIn 1942, Chace was invited by psychia-trists at St. Elizabeth’s Hospital to initi-ate a dance program for World War IIveterans suffering mentally and emo-tionally from their wartime experiences.Chace was influenced by the ideas ofAmerican psychiatrist Harry Stack Sulli-van, among others, who stressed thatpersonality is formed through relation-ships, and that relationships requirecommunication. She believed thatschizophrenics and others with mentalillness who were isolated in the backwards of psychiatric hospitals could behelped through direct contact and thatthrough movement she could openlines of communication and establishrelationships with these patients. Whereothers had seen only bizarre, randommovements, Chace saw a valuable, ifdistorted, form of communication.Through a technique she called “mirror-ing” movement, Chace established aconnection with an individual by re-creating his or her movement behaviorwith her own body. Mirroring, as Chaceconceptualized, is not an imitation or amimicry of a patient’s movement.Rather the therapist is trying to take onthe quality of the patient’s movement,to move in tune with the patient inorder to better understand what he orshe is trying to communicate and to beable to respond in kind. Through thisprocess, Chace discovered that sym-bols, imagery, and metaphor arose frommovement that could be given verbalexpression, thus providing a healingcatharsis. Chace worked with individu-als and groups using dance and move-ment as a means of communication;she took the expressive and symbolicelements of dance and merged theminto a powerful form of therapy.

Other pioneers in the field of dancetherapy include Francizka Boas, LiljanEspenak, Blanch Evan, Alma Hawkins,Trudi Schoop, and Mary Whitehouse. Allof these early founders of dance therapywere grounded in a modern dance tradi-tion that stressed authentic expression of

the self. Each worked independentlyand developed her own method thatstudied, interpreted, and supportedmovement exploration, using the dancetherapy session as the “container” ofemotional experience. These individu-als and others helped develop a broadrange of styles and clinical applicationswith which contemporary dance thera-pists continue to work today.

In 1966, a group of therapists formedthe American Dance Therapy Associa-tion (ADTA) in order to set professionalstandards and establish channels ofcommunication among dance thera-pists, who were working mostly inde-pendently in hospitals and clinicsthroughout the country. Today, ADTAhas more than 1,000 members national-ly and internationally. The associationpublishes the American Journal ofDance Therapy, holds an annual confer-ence, and maintains a registry of dancetherapists who have met educationaland clinical requirements.

The Guiding Principles of DanceTherapyDance therapy relies on several theoret-ical tenets. First and foremost is thatdance is an expressive art and as suchfulfills the human being’s basic need forcommunication. Believing that eachperson has a desire to communicate,the dance therapist engages those partsof the person’s personality that areexpressive, however subtle they may be.Dance therapists believe that the bodyand mind are in constant reciprocalinteraction, therefore changes thatoccur on the movement level can affectone’s total functioning.

Dance therapists also believe thatmovement reflects personality. Dancetherapy utilizes the nonverbal dimen-sion of personality by using the tech-nique of “mirroring,” which re-createsthe early experiences of the nonverbalmother-infant interaction. The relation-ship between the therapist and patientis central to the effectiveness of dancetherapy. The dance therapist responds

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In 1966, a group of therapists formed the American Dance Therapy Association (ADTA)in order to set professional standards and establish channels of communication amongdance therapists who were working mostly in isolation in hospitals and clinics through-out the country. Today, ADTA has over 1,000 members nationally and internationally.The association publishes the American Journal of Dance Therapy, holds an annual con-ference, and maintains a registry of dance therapists who have met educational andclinical requirements. The professional training of a dance therapist takes place on agraduate level. Dance therapists in training study dance/movement therapy theory andpractice, psychopathology, human development, observation and research skills, andcomplete a supervised internship in a clinical setting. The title dance therapist regis-tered (DTR) indicates that the therapist has completed professional education and train-ing as indicated by the ADTA. Academy of Dance Therapists Registered (ADTR) is a titlethat means qualified to teach, provide supervision to other dance therapists, and prac-tice privately.

to the patient on a body level by mirror-ing, synchronizing, and interacting withthe patient’s movement, thus creating astrong therapeutic relationship. Thishelps explain why dance therapy is par-ticularly effective with patients who areso regressed that verbal therapy is inef-fective. Empathy is an important heal-ing agent in dance therapy. By movingwith the individual, in similar patterns,the patient feels accepted on an emo-tional level.

Movement, like dreams and theprocess of free association, can be sym-bolic of the underlying unconsciousprocess. Therefore, ideas and feelings thatare outside conscious awareness mayemerge in movement behavior as sym-bols. Interpretation of these symbols canhelp in the process of therapeutic change.

Finally, the act of creating a move-ment through improvisation is inher-ently therapeutic since it generates newways of moving, which generate newexperiences of being in the world withother people. Individuals often experi-ence highly charged emotional statesduring a dance therapy session. Thetherapist creates a safe and trustingenvironment in which feelings areexplored through dance and wordstogether, working with the individual toassess and interpret his or her move-ment verbally. Verbal processing helpsto connect action, thought, and feeling,

enabling the individual to experiencegreater feelings of personal integrationand effectiveness.

Experiencing Dance TherapyDance therapy sessions are usually con-ducted in groups but can also be prac-ticed one on one. Generally, theparticipants meet in a spacious, emptyroom where they feel free to move. Nospecial dance clothing is worn. Thestructure of the session will varydepending on the participants involvedand the orientation of the therapist. Asession might begin with a warm-up,led by the therapist, and designed toreflect the mood of the patient or groupin the moment. The therapist will betrained to pick up subtle movementcues and extend them through the mir-roring technique rather than teachingdance steps or choreographed move-ments. Depending on the orientation ofthe therapist, he or she will continue topick up movement and themes from thegroup based on improvisation or “dancein the moment.” The goal of the sessionis not to perform or to exercise. Insteadthe therapist creates an environmentwhere any and all movement behavioris valuable. After the development ofmovement themes and imagery, alongwith free verbal associations, the ses-sion ends with some sort of structuredclosing.

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Benefits and RisksThe goals of dance therapy includehelping people achieve body-level rein-tegration. It helps individuals improvetheir communication skills and teachesnew ways to interact with others. Dancetherapy also provides a safe environ-ment in which to address emotionalissues. Dance therapy can help individ-uals with serious psychological andsocial difficulties, eating disorders, sub-stance-abuse problems, Alzheimer’sdisease, and posttraumatic stress disor-ders. It can also be helpful in dealingwith everyday stress and emotional andrelationship issues. The elderly, adults,adolescents, children, and infants haveall been helped by dance therapy.

—Anne. L Wennerstrad

Resources:

The American Dance Therapy Association

2000 Century Plaza, Suite 108

Columbia, MD 21044

Tel: (410) 997–4040

Fax: (410)997–4048

e-mail: ADTA@aol.com

listserv: adta@list.ab.umd.edu

Founded in 1966, this membership and advocacy

group sets dance therapy eligibility standards,

holds annual national conferences, provides infor-

mation about graduate training programs, and

publishes the American Journal of Dance Therapy.

Further Reading:

Levy, F. Dance Movement Therapy: A Healing Art.

Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Phys-

ical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 1992.

Payne, H. Dance Movement Therapy: Theory and

Practice. London: Routledge, 1992.

Sandel, S., S. Chaiklin, and A. Lohn, eds. Founda-

tions of Dance/Movement Therapy: The Life and

Work of Marian Chace. Columbia, MD: The

Marian Chace Memorial Fund of the American

Dance Therapy Association, 1993.

Stanton-Jones, K. Dance Movement Therapy in

Psychiatry. London: Routledge, 1992.

DRAMA THERAPY

D rama therapy combines tech-niques from drama and theaterwith techniques from psy-

chotherapy in an action-based methodthat helps people find solutions forsocial and emotional problems. Thiscreative arts therapy helps peopleimprove their sense of self-worth by dis-covering their own inner resources andby learning how to function better ingroups. In its most well known form,drama therapy uses role play to helpparticipants learn healthier behaviorpatterns. Drama therapists also usetechniques such as improvisation, the-ater games, concentration exercises,mime, masks, and puppetry, scripteddramatizations, and open-endedscripts to further emotional growth andpsychological integration. Drama ther-apy can offer individuals a vision ofsomething outside the self and beyonda personal, subjective view of the worldto expand their universe.

The Origins of Drama Therapy Drama has been with us since the firstcave people came home from a huntand acted out their daring adventuresfor an assembled group. Formal theatercame much later with dramas that pro-vided moral and ethical lessons for peo-ple, as well as comedies to entertainand lighten their burdens. Religiousleaders recognized the power of dramaas a method of teaching their beliefs topeople and added theatrical elementsto their rituals. Theater practitionershave long been aware of the therapeuticvalue of drama.

It took a little longer for the actionmethod of treatment combining psy-chology, process-drama and theater to

Drama Therapy

be formalized. Although drama therapyhas been practiced in Europe, especiallyin England, for many years, the NationalAssociation for Drama Therapy (NADT)was not established in this country untilJune 1979 at Yale University. The firstannual conference was held in July 1980,which makes drama therapy the newestof the creative arts therapies. As of July1997, there were approximately 300members of the National Association forDrama Therapy.

How Drama Therapy Helps People Drama therapy is defined by the Nation-al Association for Drama Therapy as“the intentional use of drama/theaterprocess to achieve the therapeutic goalsof symptom relief, emotional and phys-ical integration, and personal growth.This creative arts therapy is used tomaintain health as well as to treat suchdysfunctions as emotional disorders,learning difficulties, geriatric problems,and social maladjustments. Dramatherapy, as a primary or an adjunctivemodality, is used in evaluation, treat-ment, and research with individuals,groups, and families.”

Put more simply, drama therapyoffers practice for living and helpsclients discover their own innerresources and promotes their ability toexpress their feelings. It enhances sen-sory awareness and helps people learnto use the imagination as a problem-solving tool. It allows clients to play arole different from themselves or to playthemselves with a new set of behaviors.For example, many people havedifficulty saying no to others. A role playscene could be set up in which the per-son plays a character who will not givein—who can say no. In effect, he or sherehearses for a real-life situation, prac-ticing in role what he or she wishes todo in reality.

Drama therapy helps people get intouch with their feelings and under-stand how feelings affect their bodies.For example, when angry, the body canbecome a tightly coiled spring. Individ-

uals may find it difficult to expressanger without violence. Exploration ofsuch emotions and practice in dealingwith life situations in a drama therapysession can help a person learn to han-dle powerful emotions better in reallife.

A drama therapy session is a safeplace to try out new behaviors or dealwith existing situations in a differentway without the fear of real conse-quences. It offers the opportunity todiscuss feelings in a judgment-freeenvironment. Perhaps one of its great-est assets is to help clients learn to iden-tify their feelings and verbalize them.Many people think they are the onlyones who have a particular problem,but they soon learn that they are notalone. Through sharing and interaction,clients realize their problems are not sodifferent from those of others.

Drama Therapy TechniquesDrama therapists use many differenttechniques, from full-fledged theaterperformances to simple sensory-aware-ness exercises, depending on the personor people with whom they are working.A sensory-awareness exercise mayinvolve simply passing around anunusual piece of fabric and asking,“What does it remind you of?” On theother hand, a theater performance maystimulate the whole audience tobecome emotionally involved with aproblem and to offer alternative solu-tions. Some theater groups ask mem-bers of the audience to come up andplay the role the way they think itshould be done, involving the audiencein solving the situation being examined.Some therapists use clients as the actorsin a play, which teaches many levels ofcooperation.

Role plays are enacted to give peopleexperience in dealing with difficult situa-tions. Frequently, when a patient iswarmed up to an issue, he or shebecomes fully involved in the role playand has the same feelings and reactionsthat occur in the real-life situation. Some

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How to Become a Registered Drama Therapist

RDT, registered drama therapist, is the only valid credential for drama therapists. RDTsare registered through the National Association for Drama Therapy. Standards for regis-tration include expertise in dramatic, theatrical, and performance media; an under-standing of psychotherapeutic process with different populations in a variety of settings;integration of the artistic and psychological aspects of drama therapy; and professionalexpertise in the field of mental health and/or special education. An RDT/BC is boardcertified to give training in drama therapy.

comments heard after a good role playare, “Now I know how my mother feels!”Or “I never thought of it that way before.”The experience of being in someoneelse’s shoes can be very insightful.

In group drama therapy most thera-pists structure their sessions similarlywith a warm-up first to help the clientsfeel comfortable and safe. When every-one is ready, the main action, where roleplay is often used, comes next. Lastlycomes the sharing or processing of thesession, which is equally if not moreimportant than the action section.

In the processing or sharing part ofthe session, the players talk about thefeelings they had in their role during thescene. If there is an audience, they areencouraged to express their feelings andresponses also. Other possibilities arediscussed. How else might the scene havegone, or what else could the person say?Everyone is encouraged to make somecontribution. The processing discussionis as important as the action, helpingpeople realize that there is always morethan one solution to a problem.

Other types of group drama therapyinclude theater performances dealingwith specific problem issues. These aremost popular in community and schoolsettings and usually address the kindsof life choices facing students today,e.g., drug and alcohol use, sexual con-duct, violence, and problems with par-ents, teachers, and peers. Other groupspresent a production that offers infor-mation and/or education on a specificsubject such as AIDS, drug abuse, illit-eracy, dealing with violence, etc. Some

performers stay in role to answer ques-tions, and others offer workshops afterthe performance.

Who Uses Drama Therapy?Since there are many techniques andvariations of drama therapy, it is suit-able for all age groups and populations.Most often it is practiced in groups andcan be done in a variety of settings. Cur-rently drama therapists are workingwith every population that can benefitfrom any of the creative arts therapies,including special education classes,psychiatric patients, persons recoveringfrom substance abuse, trauma victims,dysfunctional families, developmental-ly and physically disabled persons,prison and correctional facility inmates,anorexic and bulimic patients, AIDSpatients, the homeless, the elderly, chil-dren, and adolescents. These therapistsprovide services to individuals, groups,and families in addition to conductingclinical research.

With some groups the drama therapistis brought in to deal with a certain issue oroffer training to deal with specific needsof the group. For example, a drama thera-pist may be contracted to work with agroup of managers dealing with sexualharassment. All the exercises, role plays,and explorations will deal with bringingabout a greater understanding and sensi-tivity to that subject.

Choosing a Drama TherapistWhen choosing a drama therapist, veri-fy that the person is an RDT, a registereddrama therapist. This is the only valid

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One drama therapist explains her work with substance abuse groups: “I begin by sayingthat drama therapy is an exploration of our strengths. I work with the imagination, help-ing my patients learn how to use it as a problem-solving tool.” She goes on to say, “Often-times patients who are invited to attend a drama therapy session will say, ‘I’m no actor’or ‘I don’t know how to act.’ My answer to that is, ‘It’s not acting. It’s human behavior andeverybody does that.’” The ultimate compliment she hears about the benefits of dramatherapy after a session with this population is, “I never knew you could have so much funwithout being high!”

credential for drama therapists. RDTsare registered through the NationalAssociation for Drama Therapy andhave met rigorous standards for theircredentials. Standards of registration forRDTs include the following: expertise indramatic, theatrical, and performancemedia; an understanding of psy-chotherapeutic process with differentpopulations in a variety of settings; inte-gration of the artistic and psychologicalaspects of drama therapy; and profes-sional expertise in the field of mentalhealth and/or special education.

—Patricia Sternberg, RDT/BCT

Resources:

NADT National Office

15245 Shady Grove Road, Suite 130

Rockville, MD 20850

Tel: (301) 258–9210

The national office keeps an updated list of all

RDTs, all registered drama therapists/board

certified trainers (RDT/BCTs), and other members

of the National Association of Drama Therapy. The

RDT Registry is available and may be requested

from the national office as well as further informa-

tion on the organization.

Further Reading:

Bailey, Sally. Wings to Fly: Bringing Theatre Arts to

Students with Special Needs. Rockville, MD:

Woodbine House, 1993.

Emunah, Renee. Acting for Real: Drama Therapy

Process, Technique, and Performance. New York:

Brunner/Mazel, 1994.

Gersie, Alida. Dramatic Approaches to Brief Thera-

py. London: Jessica Kingsley, 1995.

Grainger, Roger. Drama and Healing: The Roots of

Drama Therapy. London: Jessica Kingsley, 1990.

Landy, Robert. Drama Therapy: Concepts, Theories

and Practices. Second edition. Springfield, IL:

Charles C. Thomas, 1994.

Salas, Jo. Improvising Real Life: Personal Story in

Playback Theatre. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt

Pub. Co., 1993.

Schatner, Gertrude, and Richard Courtney. Drama

Therapy Vol. I and Vol. II. New York: Drama

Book Specialists, 1981.

Sternberg, Patricia, and Antonina Garcia. Socio-

drama: Who’s in Your Shoes? New York: Praeger

Press, 1989.

HALPRIN LIFE/ART PROCESS

The Halprin life/art process is anintegrative approach to move-ment, the expressive and the thera-

peutic arts. It is used to evoke thecreative development and expression ofthe whole person, and to foster person-al, interpersonal, and social transfor-mation. The discipline is based on thebelief that dance and the expressivearts, when connected with life con-cerns, can have a creative and healingrole for an individual, the community,and the environment.

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The Halprin life/art process wasoriginated by dance pioneer Anna Hal-prin in the 1950s at the San FranciscoDancer’s Workshop Company, a collab-orating collective of dancers, musicians,and visual artists. Halprin tried to devel-op a form of modern dance that couldfoster the organic and authentic expres-sion of the body, and integrate the emo-tions and imagination of the dancer.Beginning in the 1960s, Anna Halprinand her company worked with leadersin humanistic psychology, exploringrelationships between art and therapy.Upon being diagnosed with cancer in1972, Halprin devoted her research andteaching to the use of dance as a healingart, working with people challengingcancer, and later challenging AIDS.

Daria Halprin, Anna Halprin’s daugh-ter, was an original member of theDancer’s Workshop Company. Shedeveloped applications of the Halprinlife/art process as a therapeutic andeducational model to advance personaltransformation. In 1978, Anna and DariaHalprin founded the Tamalpa Instituteto teach the Halprin life/art process intraining programs, workshops, andclasses, all of which incorporate theapplication of the expressive arts to psy-chology, education, and health.

The Halprin life/art process addressesthree dimensions of human experience:the physical, emotional, and mental. Thephysical is addressed through the studyand practice of basic principles of somat-ic awareness, movement, and dance. Theemotional is addressed through the studyand practice of movement, drawing, andother therapeutic processes. The mentalis addressed through the study and prac-tice of group facilitation methods, collec-tive creativity, communication skills,creative writing, and the presentation oftheory. Each of these three aspects is stud-ied and explored from the point of view ofhow it interrelates with all the otheraspects.

In the Halprin life/art process,expressive art activities follow themodel: move/draw/dialogue. Thismodel evokes the physical, emotional,

and mental aspects of the individual,often focusing on an identified lifetheme. For example, working with thetheme balance/off balance, a class ses-sion might start with an exploration inmovement of the physical experience ofbeing in balance and off balance. Thestudent or client would then draw twoimages inspired by the movement expe-rience, which may be consciously orunconsciously connected with a lifeexperience. The drawings are giventitles that serve as a basis for a writtenpiece: prose, poetry, or a dialoguebetween the two drawings. The themebalance/off balance is then reencoun-tered as the student creates an expres-sive movement piece, which isconsciously connected with the draw-ings and written script.

According to this discipline, an inte-grated and healthy life includes andhonors creative expression. The Hal-prin life/art process is interested inhow we can live artfully in our worldtoday, and how we can bring the trans-formative power of art into our dailyand community life. Practitioners applytheir work as performance artists,teachers, and therapists. As leaders incommunity settings, they work withpeople and groups facing life-threaten-ing issues, including cancer, AIDS, eat-ing disorders, physical and sexualabuse, homelessness, addictions, andphysical disabilities. Students haveapplied their work to environmentaland cross-cultural issues.

—Daria Halprin-Khalighi, M.A., CET

Resources:

Tamalpa Institute

P.O. Box 794

Kentfield, CA 94914

Tel: (415) 457–8555

Fax: (415) 457–7190

e-mail: tamalpa@igc.apc.org

Offers training programs, workshops, and classes in

the Halprin life/art process. Upon completion of the

Practitioner Training Program, graduates are eligible

Journal Therapy

to apply for certification as an expressive arts thera-

pist through the National Expressive Arts Associa-

tion (NETA) and as a movement therapist through

the International Somatic Movement Education

and Therapy Association (ISMETA). The institute

publishes a yearly newsletter, and distributes arti-

cles and books representing the Halprin life/art

work.

Further Reading:

Halprin, Anna. Movement Ritual. Illustrated by

Charlene Koonce. Kentfield, CA: Dancer’s Work-

shop/Tamalpa Institute, 1990.

——. Moving Toward Life: Five Decades of Trans-

formational Dance. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan

University Press, 1995.

Halprin, Daria. Coming Alive: The Creative Expres-

sion Method. Kentfield, CA: Tamalpa Institute,

1990.

JOURNAL THERAPY

Journal therapy is the act of writingdown thoughts and feelings to sortthrough problems and come to

deeper understandings of oneself or theissues in one’s life. Unlike traditionaldiary writing, where daily events andhappenings are recorded from an exte-rior point of view, journal therapyfocuses on the writer’s internal experi-ences, reactions, and perceptions.Through this act of literally reading hisor her own mind, the writer is able toperceive his or her own problems moreclearly and thus feel a relief of emotion-al and mental tension that has also beenshown to improve the immune systemfunctioning of individuals.

The Development of Journal Writingfor Well-BeingAlthough people have written diariesand journals for centuries, the thera-peutic potential of reflective writing

didn’t come into public awareness untilthe 1960s, when Dr. Ira Progoff, a psy-chologist in New York City, began offer-ing workshops and classes in the use ofwhat he called the intensive journalmethod. Dr. Progoff had been using a“psychological notebook” with his ther-apy clients for several years. His inten-sive journal is a three-ring notebookwith many color-coded sections for dif-ferent aspects of the writer’s psycholog-ical healing. The Progoff method ofjournal keeping quickly became popu-lar, and today the method has beentaught to more than 250,000 peoplethrough a network of “journal consul-tants” trained by Dr. Progoff and hisstaff.

In the late 1970s journal writing forpersonal growth and emotional well-ness was introduced to a wider audi-ence through the publication of threebooks. Dr. Progoff’s At a Journal Work-shop (1978) detailed his intensive jour-nal process and gave instructions onhow to set up an intensive journal forthose who could not attend a journalworkshop in person. In 1977 a youngwriter and teacher named ChristinaBaldwin published her first book, One toOne: Self-Understanding Through Jour-nal Writing, based on the adult educa-tion journal classes she had beenteaching. And in 1978 Tristine Rainerpublished The New Diary, a compre-hensive guidebook that for many yearswas the most complete and accessiblesource of information on how to use ajournal for self-discovery and self-exploration.

The Philosophy of Journal TherapyIn the 1980s many public school sys-tems began formally using journals inboth English classes and other curricu-la as well. These journals, often called“dialogue” or “response” journals,offered a way for students to developindependent thinking skills and gaveteachers a method for respondingdirectly to students with individualfeedback. Although the intention for

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classroom journals was educationalrather than therapeutic, teachersnoticed that a simple assignment toreflect on an academic question orproblem often revealed importantinformation about the student’s emo-tional life. Students often reported feel-ing a relief of pressure and tensionwhen they could write down troublingevents or confusing thoughts or feel-ings.

Probably one of the most commonreports from people who write journalsis that the act of putting thoughts andfeelings on paper helps give usefulemotional and mental clarity. However,there is scientific evidence that therelief from writing things down is morethan just psychological. Dr. James Pen-nebaker, a researcher in Texas, has con-ducted studies that show that whenpeople write about emotionally difficultevents or feelings for just twenty min-utes at a time over three or four days,their immune system functioningincreases. Dr. Pennebaker’s studiesindicate that the release offered by writ-ing has a direct impact on the body’scapacity to withstand stress and fightoff infection and disease.

After the publication of the Pen-nebaker studies, the medical and ther-apeutic communities began taking acloser look at journal writing as a holis-tic, nonmedicinal method for wellness.In 1985, Kathleen Adams, a psychother-apist in Colorado and thefounder/director of the Center for Jour-nal Therapy, began teaching journalworkshops designed to give the generalpublic tools that could be used for self-discovery, creative expression and lifeenhancement. Her “journal toolbox” ofwriting techniques offers a way tomatch a specific life issue with aspecific writing device to address it.Her first book, Journal to the Self: 22Paths to Personal Growth, was pub-lished in 1990. Through a network ofcertified instructors, the Journal to theSelf workshop is available throughoutthe United States, Canada, and severalother countries.

Journal Therapy in PracticeAlthough there are many psychothera-pists who incorporate journal therapy intotheir sessions by assigning written “home-work,” there are relatively few who spe-cialize in journal therapy. Therapists whoutilize journal writing in a session oftenbegin by asking the client to write a short“check-in” paragraph or two on “what’sgoing on”—how the client is feeling, whathe or she wants to work on in the session,and what’s happening in his or her life thatimpacts the therapeutic work at hand.This writing is usually shared with thetherapist and an “agenda” for the sessionis set. The therapist then guides the clientthrough a writing exercise designed toaddress the therapeutic issues or tasksthat the client has brought forward in thecheck-in or warm-up writing or exercise.The second writing usually takes aboutten minutes, and the remainder of the ses-sion is spent with the client and therapisttalking about the information revealed inthe longer writing. The session generallyconcludes with the therapist offering sev-eral suggestions for journal “homework”to be completed between sessions.

Journal therapy is also very effectivein groups, and it is common for groupmembers to establish a sense of deepcommunity as writings representingauthentic expressions of self are shared.

At present, there is one graduateeducational program in poetry therapyat Vermont College of Norwich. Thisprogram teaches techniques in journaltherapy. Generally, journal therapistsfirst obtain an advanced degree in psy-chology, counseling, social work, or arelated field. They may then enter a cre-dentialing program such as that offeredby the National Association for PoetryTherapy, or an independent-study pro-gram such as that offered through Kath-leen Adams’ Center for Journal Therapyor through Dr. Progoff’s Dialogue House.

Benefits of Journal TherapyIt is believed that by recording anddescribing the salient issues in one’s life,one can better understand these issues

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and eventually diagnose problems thatstem from them. Journal therapy hasbeen used effectively for grief and loss;coping with life-threatening or chronicillness; recovery from addictions, eatingdisorders and trauma; repairing troubledmarriages and family relationships;increasing communication skills; devel-oping a healthier sense of self-identity;getting a better perspective on life; andclarifying life goals.

—Kathleen Adams, M.A., LPC

Resources:

The Center for Journal Therapy

P. O. Box 963

Arvada, CO 80001

Tel: (303) 421-2298

Organization dedicated to the instruction and

practice of journal therapy.

The Dialogue House

80 E. 11th Street

New York, NY 10009

Tel: (212) 673-5880

Fax: (212) 673-0582

Provides several intensive workshops that utilize

the journal therapy method.

The National Association of Poetry Therapy

P.O. Box 551

Port Washington, NY 11050

Tel: (516) 944-9794

Web site: www.poetrytherapy.org.

Multidisciplinary professional organization for

students and practitioners of journal therapy.

Further Reading:

Adams, Kathleen. Journal to the Self: 22 Paths to

Personal Growth. New York: Warner Books, 1990.

——. The Way of the Journal: A Journal Therapy

Workbook for Healing. Lutherville, MD: Sidran

Press, 1993.

——. Mightier than the Sword: The Journal as a

Path to Men’s Self-Discovery. New York: Warner

Books, 1994.

Baldwin, Christina. One to One: Self-Understand-

ing Through Journal Writing. New York: Evans

& Co., 1977.

——. Life’s Companion: Journal Writing as Spiritu-

al Quest. New York: Bantam Books, 1990.

Oshinsky, James. The Discovery Journal. 2nd ed.

Odessa, MD: Psychological Assessment

Resources, 1994.

Progoff, Ira. At a Journal Workshop. New York:

Dialogue House, 1978.

Rainer, Tristine. The New Diary. Los Angeles: J. P.

Tarcher, 1978.

MULTI-MODAL EXPRESSIVEARTS THERAPY

Multi-modal expressive arts thera-py integrates various forms ofarts into a therapeutic relation-

ship to foster awareness, encourageemotional growth, and enhance rela-tionships with others. It promotes heal-ing through the transformative power ofboth the arts and psychotherapy. Byactivating the imagination, this therapyenables self-exploration and self-understanding; by working within morethan one medium, it amplifies andclarifies self-discoveries; and byexpressing these discoveries throughimages, sound, movement, and words,it expands communication.

The History of Multi-Modal Expressive Arts TherapyThe arts have been brought together toshape and express human experiencesince the dawn of civilization. Pale-olithic cave paintings indicate thatearly humans used art as a means forpassing spiritual, social, and huntingskills from generation to generation. Inancient Greece, dramas incorporatingmusic, dance, and storytelling brought

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crowds to amphitheaters for a collectiveexperience of the tragic and comedicdimensions of life. Intricate hierarchiesof religious and sociopolitical beliefwere woven into the art and architectureof medieval Europe. Today, many formsof theater, dance, performance art, andmultimedia installation art are used inconcert to bring people together to par-ticipate in cathartic release from life’ssorrows and gain a better understandingof individual and communal identity.

While multi-modal expressive artstherapy draws on this entire body of thearts, it is a development of the last halfcentury. After World War II, American vet-erans’ hospitals integrated music, dance,and drama into an alternative method oftreatment for veterans struggling to recu-perate from the ordeal of battle. InEurope during the 1950s, innovative edu-cators formulated an approach thatengaged children in multiple art forms,which they believed would help foster fullsensory development. Then, in the 1960s,versatile European and American perfor-mance artists began combining variousforms of art to convey their messages andtouch their audiences.

Changes in education, the fine arts,and medical treatment of traumaopened the way for the gradual emer-gence of therapy programs that take aholistic approach to both art and heal-ing. By 1969 there was a graduate train-ing program in expressive arts therapyat the University of Louisville in Ken-tucky. A decade later, expressive artstherapy had become a widely recog-nized mode of treatment for childrenand adults with special needs, had itsown professional organization, theAmerican Association of Artist-Thera-pists (later called the National Expres-sive Therapy Association), and anemergent nascent scholarly literature.

The Theory of Multi-Modal Expressive Arts TherapyIn a doctoral dissertation of 1978, Inter-modal Learning in Education and Therapy,Paolo Knill postulated that multi-modal

expressive arts therapy is not simply aloose gathering of the arts under theumbrella of therapy, but rather a highlysophisticated way of bringing the imagi-nation into the work of healing. Unlikeexclusively verbal therapies, it centersupon the embodiment and transforma-tion of emotions. They are expressed inone medium, then translated into others.As one is led through a series of creativearts experiences, the imagination growsmore active, and at the same time emo-tions are explored, clarified, and trans-formed, helping people to connect withthemselves, with others, and with a greatersense of purpose and meaning in life.

Experiencing Multi-Modal ExpressiveArts TherapyMulti-modal expressive arts therapy isgenerally experienced as a type of grouptherapy in a school, nursing home, orsome other institutional setting. Thelength and structure of sessions willvary, based on the specific method of thetherapist and the needs of the group orindividual participant. Children mayhave a half-hour session, adult outpa-tients’ sessions may last over an hour,and intensive workshops may go on forseveral days. The range of structure is noless broad, from sessions with a prede-termined format and topic to sessionsthat encourage spontaneous engage-ment with the arts and dynamic interac-tion between participants.

Activity in all but the most looselystructured sessions is usually divided intothree phases. A short “warm-up” thathelps participants overcome inhibitionsand start to tap their imaginations is fol-lowed by a longer phase devoted to aseries of art activities designed to uncover,explore, and transform the participants’feelings. In the third phase, participantsreflect on the sounds, movements,images, or words they have created, aswell as the process of forming them.

A multi-modal expressive arts therapysession might begin by having partici-pants stand in a circle and take turns mak-ing a movement that expresses their

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Advanced art-making skills or expensive equipment is not needed to take part inmulti-modal expressive arts therapy.

immediate feelings. In the second phaseof the session, they might use oilcrayons, pastels, or a felt-tipped penfirst to transfer that movement onto alarge piece of drawing paper, then toelaborate the graphic mark into a pic-ture. Other transformations will proba-bly follow. The therapist might suggestthat the participants look at one anoth-er’s pictures and leave a writtenresponse on a nearby piece of paper.Each participant then uses the wordsand phrases to compose a poem thatshe or he recites to the group. Thesequential unfolding of expression,from physical gesture to recited poem,becomes the basis for a concluding dis-cussion that might consider the inter-play of emotion, bodily movement, andverbal expression or the insights gainedthrough group interaction.

The Benefits of Multi-Modal Expressive Arts TherapyBy engaging the imagination, multi-modal expressive arts therapy pro-motes the creative release of emotionsand stimulates the development of self-esteem and a capacity for self-healing.Since it integrates many aspects of per-sonal growth from the sensory to theemotional to the social, multi-modalexpressive arts therapy is often used byindividuals who are coping with physi-cal or mental disabilities, as well as theeffects of aging, loss, and isolation.

Susan Spaniol, Ed.D., ATRPhilip Speiser, Ph.D., CET

Mariagnese Cattaneo, Ph.D., ATR

Resources:

European Foundation for Interdisciplinary Stud-

ies (EGIS)

Forchstrasse, 106

CH 8032 Zurich

Switzerland

Fax: 382 33 07

An international professional organization for

expressive therapists.

Expressive Arts Program

California Institute of Integral Studies

9 Peter Yorke Way

San Francisco, CA 94109

Tel: (415) 674-5500

Offers a master’s degree in counseling psychology

with a specialization in expressive arts therapy.

Expressive Therapies Program

Lesley College

29 Everett Street

Cambridge, MA 02138

Tel: (617) 349-8425

Offers a comprehensive graduate program in

multi-modal expressive arts therapy.

International Expressive Arts Therapy Association

P.O. Box 64126

San Francisco, CA 94164

Tel: (415) 522-8959

A professional organization dedicated to multi-

modal expressive arts therapy.

International School for Interdisciplinary Studies

(ISIS)

Forchstrasse, 106

CH 8032 Zurich

Switzerland

Fax: 382 33 09

A training institute in multi-modal expressive arts

therapy.

Further Reading:

Books:

Knill, P. J., H. N. Barba, and M. N. Fuchs. Min-

strels of Soul: Intermodal Expressive Therapy.

Toronto: Palmerston Press, 1993.

Levine, S. K. Poiesis: The Language of Psychology

and the Speech of the Soul. Toronto: Palmerston

Press, 1992.

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Rogers, N. The Creative Connection: Expressive

Arts as Healing. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behav-

ior Books. 1993.

Journals:

Lusebrink, V. “A Systems-Oriented Approach to

the Expressive Therapies: The Expressive Ther-

apies Continuum.” The Arts in Psychotherapy 5

(1991): 395–403.

MUSIC THERAPY

Music therapy is a profession thatbelieves in the therapeuticpotential inherent in music.

Qualified music therapists use musicand/or musical elements such assound, rhythm, melody, and harmonywith individuals or groups to help peo-ple improve, change, or better integratedifferent aspects of their selves. Listen-ing to, moving to, and creating musicare used to help resolve emotional,social, familial, cognitive, physiological,and developmental problems. Whilerecognition of the therapeutic powers ofmusic is ancient and widespread, for-mally, it became a type of therapy in the1950s.

Connecting the Basic Elements ofMusic to Human DevelopmentThe fundamental elements of music—sound, rhythm, hearing, and move-ment—and people’s prenatal andprimary experience with these elementsare paramount to music therapists.They consider music’s basic elementsessential in the development of humanbeings and deeply rooted in the verybeginning of a human life. Researchshows that the human fetus can hear atfour months of fetal life. A developingfetus hears voices, noises, and thesounds of its own and its mother’sheartbeat and digestive system. Afterbirth, a baby continues experiencingrhythm and beat in the sound of its

mother’s heartbeat and breathing, and inits mother’s rocking motions. The baby’svery first sign of life at birth, crying, isseen by music therapists as combiningthe primary elements of music—rhythm,movement, and sound—in the service ofself-expression and communicationwith other people.

Music’s Therapeutic NatureOne can find references to the thera-peutic powers of music in philosophy,art, and literature throughout the ages.In the Bible, young David, known for hismusical talents, is brought to play thelyre before King Saul, in the hope thatthis would alleviate the King’s ill humor(Samuel I, 16, 14–23). Greek mythologyascribed a divine origin to music. In themythological world, music had magicalpowers; people believed it could healsickness and purify the body and themind. Among the Greeks, music wasthought to be an activity related to thepursuit of truth and beauty.

The therapeutic power of musicplays an important role in the healingceremonies of early cultures throughoutthe world. Healers and shamans usechants, incantations, rhythmic playingof drums and rattles, clapping, andstomping to induce hypnotic or ecstaticstates. When in this altered state of con-sciousness they communicate with thespirit world, which helps them exorcisebad spirits, cure illnesses, and sootheand relax patients.

Everyday experience also points tothe psychological effect that music canhave on us. Most would agree that evengiven varying musical tastes, certaintypes of music create specific moods. Awedding march creates a differentmood than does a funeral dirge. Scarymovies use ominous music to createsuspense. Bands play lively music atsporting events to excite the crowd. Adoctor may play quiet easy-listening orclassical music in his waiting room tohelp soothe patients. Mothers sing toand rock their babies in times of dis-tress.

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The Development of Music Therapyas a ProfessionMusic therapy was established as a pro-fession in the United States in the 1950s.Professionals from various disciplines,such as music, education, medicine,and psychology, had been using musicwhile working with various populationsand found, through their clinical expe-rience, that music yielded remarkabletherapeutic results. In their experience,individuals suffering from severeimpairments, be they sensory, motor,mental, or emotional, seemed to showstartling improvement when workingwith music. By 1950, the National Asso-ciation for Music Therapy (NAMT) wascreated, and training programs formusic therapists were initiated in sever-al colleges and universities. Around thistime, methodical research expanded, aswell as the formulation of theories, clin-ical models, and professional publica-tions. In 1998 the American Associationof Music Therapy (AAMT) and NAMTmerged into one association called theAmerican Music Therapy Association(AMTA).

Today, music therapy is practicedworldwide. It is an extremely varied andflexible profession, found within suchdisciplines as special education, reha-bilitation, psychiatry, psychotherapy,and geriatrics. It is practiced in hospi-tals, clinics, rehabilitation centers,schools, and private settings.

The Principles of Music TherapyAll models of music therapy encouragean individual to find and express his orher uniqueness through music. Becauseit focuses on the process of self-discov-ery and not on the end product, oneneed not have any musical skills or tal-ent in order to utilize or benefit frommusic therapy. The music that is pro-duced is not judged as good or bad.

The therapeutic agents of musictherapy are dual: on one hand there ismusic, and on the other, the relation-ship between client and therapist.Because music is deeply rooted in the

early physio-psychological develop-ment of an individual, making musictouches upon the unconscious in adirect, unmediated way. This enablesindividuals to connect themselves direct-ly to repressed material, forgotten ormasked memories, or to enter intoregressive emotional states, which allowfurther exploration of issues central tothe self.

The other therapeutic agent is therelationship between client and thera-pist. In order for music activity to betherapeutic, it must take place withinthe framework of a reliable relationshipwith a therapist, a relationship that ischaracterized by trust, respect, and aserious commitment to the process. Asthis relationship becomes more mean-ingful, so does the musical activity thattakes place within its framework.

Some Techniques of Music TherapyMusic therapists use varied techniquesand models for their work, which theyadapt to their clients’ needs and ages aswell as the setting of each session (indi-vidual vs. group, for example). Never-theless, all types of music therapysearch for the individuality of the clientas expressed through music. This searchis carried out with active help and sup-port from the therapist.

Many clinical models in music ther-apy use instrumental or vocal improvi-sation. Because of its spontaneous andexpressive qualities, musical improvisa-tion is a particularly potent method ofshedding light on aspects of the self thatare many times obscured or blocked byone’s conscious thinking or behavior.Music therapists are trained to under-stand improvised music as a uniquepersonal language. In music therapy,both client and therapist set out toexplore and reveal the form and mean-ing of this special language.

For an adult client with emotionalproblems, a session might begin with averbal discussion of a current issue. Then,client and therapist find a way to investi-gate issues through sound in various

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ways. For example, one might choose toplay an instrument, sing, or write wordsto a song. This musical experienceoccurs in the “here and now” but laterbecomes material for discussion andthe development of better self-under-standing.

Another type of music therapy usesrecorded music as a stimulus for explor-ing the self. Clients are induced to a stateof relaxation through breathing and sug-gestive imagery. Music carefully selectedby the therapist is played, and the clientis invited to explore images, sensations,

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memories, and visions prompted by themusic. Sometimes the client achieves analtered state of consciousness, which isusually extremely positive and relaxingand can lead to self-discovery. After thelistening experience, the client is broughtout of the relaxed state and is invited todiscuss the experience with the therapist.In some models the client is invited tochoose preferred selections and listen,move, or paint to that music.

Music is also used in family and grouptherapy. Special techniques have beendeveloped to utilize music’s inherentsocial character. One outstanding featureof the art of music is the possibility toproduce and perceive several soundssimultaneously as with orchestras,ensembles, and choirs. Although some-thing of this sort takes place in all of theperforming arts, its effect is most dramat-ic in music. For example: members of afamily in therapy may be asked to choosea musical instrument and then improvisea performance. The “music of the family”proves to be enormously indicative inshowing who is “in harmony” with whomin the family, who gets the role of making“disturbing noises” or “clashing sounds,”who picks a very loud instrument thatprevents everybody else from beingheard, or who gives up playing theirfavorite instrument because someoneelse demanded it. Group or family musi-cal improvisations often reveal hiddenagendas, tensions and dilemmas, self-defeating communication patterns, andother problems. These problems aresometimes easier to perceive, express,and deal with when manifested in music.

The Benefits of Music TherapyMusic therapy is suitable for individualsof all ages, even young babies. Musictherapy is used to help autistic childrenacquire communication skills. It hasbeen shown to improve the skills of indi-viduals with learning disabilities, and tohelp people deal with emotional, social,and familial problems. Music therapy isutilized in individual, family, and groupsettings, as well as with couples. It has

been used by therapists to help peoplerecovering from accidents, includingindividuals recovering from cerebro-vas-cular accidents and major surgery.

—Adva Frank-Schwebel

Resources:

American Association for Music Therapy (AAMT)

P.O. Box 27177

Philadelphia, PA 19118

Tel: (215) 265-4006

Association for professional music therapists that

publishes the journal Music Therapy and also

holds conferences. It also determines credentials for

certified music therapists (CMTs).

National Association of Music Therapy (NAMT)

8455 Colesville Road, Suite 930

Silver Spring, MD 20910

Tel: (301) 589-3300

Association of professional music therapists that

provides registered music therapist (RMT) creden-

tials. It also publishes the Journal of Music Thera-

py and holds music therapy conferences.

Further Reading:

Books:

Bonny, H., and L. Savary. Music and Your Mind:

Listening with a New Consciousness. New York:

Harper and Row, 1973.

Bruscia, K. E. Improvisational Models of Music Ther-

apy. Springfield, IL: C. Thomas Charles, 1987.

Feder, S., R. L. Karmel and G. H. Pollock, eds. Psy-

choanalytic Exploration in Music. Madison, CT:

International Universities Press, 1990.

Maranto, Cheryl Dielo, ed. Perspectives on Music

Therapy Education and Training. Philadelphia,

PA: Temple University, 1987.

Nordoff, Paul, and Clive Robbins. Creative Music

Therapy. New York: John Day Co., 1977.

Priestley, Mary. Music Therapy in Action. St. Louis:

MMB Music, 1985.

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Sekeles, Charles. Music, Motion and Emotion: The

Developmental-Integrative Model in Music

Therapy. St. Louis: MMB Music, 1996.

Verney, T., and G. Kelly. The Secret Life of the

Unborn Child. London: Sphere Books, 1981.

Journals:

Noy, P. “The Psychodynamic Meaning of

Music–Part II.” Journal of Music Therapy, 4 (1):

7–23.

POETRY THERAPY

Poetry therapy involves reading,writing, reciting, and/or creatingpoetry as well as other language

arts to cope with emotions related topsychological, physical, and social prob-lems. Poetry therapy uses the imagina-tive and emotional qualities of all typesof literature and is therefore not limitedto the specific genre of poetry—metaphor, poetry reading, journal writ-ing, song lyrics, storytelling, and prosewriting may be used. It should be notedthat bibliotherapy, the use of reading tohelp individuals, has an extensive histo-ry and is now considered a part of poetrytherapy. For all practical purposes, theterms are now synonymous. Many pro-fessionals such as social workers, psychol-ogists, nurses, physicians, counselors, andspecial education teachers use poetrytherapy as a tool in their work. Otherprofessionals have received advancedtraining in poetry therapy methods anddeveloped it as their primary method ofpractice.

Poetry: An Ancient Form of TherapyThe notion of poetry as therapeutic hasancient roots. For ages poetry has been amethod through which people have pon-dered the human condition andexpressed their sorrows, joys, and epipha-nies. The ancient Greeks made Apollo thegod of both poetry and healing. In theearly eighteenth century psychiatrists

started using the various expressive artsin order to soothe patients’ anguish andas a medium to encourage dialogue andsocial interaction. The general populationhas also used poetry and literature as aform of catharsis. For example, one mightbe cheered by a limerick, or be comfortedby an eloquent expression of grief that aperson feels speaks to his or her ownemotions. Robert Haven Schauffler wrotea prescriptive book called The PoetryCure: A Pocket Medicine Chest of Verse,which was published in 1925. The bookcontains numerous poems that are cate-gorized for use with specific life prob-lems.

The formal development of poetrytherapy as a discipline begins with JackJ. Leedy, a psychiatrist, who in 1969founded the Association for PoetryTherapy (APT) in New York. In 1973,Arthur Lerner, a psychologist and poet,founded the Poetry Therapy Institute inCalifornia. In 1981, APT became formal-ly incorporated as the National Associa-tion for Poetry Therapy (NAPT). TheNAPT sponsors annual conventionsand has helped set standards and pro-cedures for certification and registra-tion of poetry therapists.

Human Experience Captured in Symbols and ImagesLanguage and feelings are central toboth poetry and therapy. Similar toother arts therapies such as music anddance, poetry therapy concerns itselfwith symbolism, verbal and nonverbalexpression, rhythm, order, and balance.Psychotherapy, for example, oftenaddresses an individual’s interpretationof certain past events and/or fearsabout the present and future. Poetry hasthe capacity to capture similar humanexperiences through symbols andimages. Also, the rhythm of certainpoems can affect the reader’s mood.Some poems might be used for a calm-ing effect, while others might be used toenergize clients.

Poetry therapy provides a vehicle forindividuals to express what might be

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Sharing emotions through poetry can help people break through feelings of isolation.

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difficult to express under ordinary cir-cumstances. By talking about a poem,one can relate personal material. Oftenan emotional identification can bemade with a poem that reflects a per-son’s thoughts or feelings on a particu-lar matter. The poem can also help the person to feel that he or she is not alone.Writing a poem (or letter, story, or jour-nal entry) can be empowering by pro-viding a sense of order and control to anindividual. The act of writing integratesone’s thinking, feeling, and behaving.The sharing of reactions to poetry or thesharing of one’s own work also has thepotential to build interpersonal rela-tionships and communication skills.

The Techniques of Poetry TherapyThere are a variety of techniques thatcan be used depending upon the pro-fessional’s education and training. Forexample, a social worker might use apoem to validate a feeling or promoteinsight with a depressed individual in atherapy session. In this situation the

poetry is part of the therapy. A poetmight start a writing program in a run-away shelter. In this case, the purposemight be educational or life enrichingrather than therapeutic; however, thetherapeutic aspects of writing are rec-ognized. Following are a number ofways in which poetry is used to helppeople:

• Introduce an existing poem to anindividual, group, or family andinvite reactions. The theme of thepoem should relate to the issues ofthe individual or group. If a person ishaving a hard time making an impor-tant decision, then a poem such asRobert Frost’s “The Road Not Taken”could be connected to the struggle ofthe individual. A discussion of possi-ble “roads” that the person mighttake could follow.

• Collaborative poems. Sometimescommunication breaks down in fami-lies and conflicts develop. Each mem-ber of a family is invited to contribute

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one or more lines to a family orgroup poem, thereby valuing eachperson’s view. The task also allowsthe family to engage in problem solv-ing (constructing the poem) andworking together rather than point-ing blame at each other.

• Creative writing. The writing couldbe free writing— that is, covering anytopic and using any form—or itcould consist of structured exercises.For example, an acrostic—whereeach line of the poem begins with aletter from a particular word, or theuse of sentence stems like “If youknew me . . .”—could provide astructure to facilitate self-expression.

• Journal writing. Provides anotheroutlet for an individual to expressand sort out a variety of thoughtsand feelings.

• Letter writing. Sometimes it is difficultor impossible to say things to impor-tant people in our life. Writing a letterto a deceased friend or family member

can be helpful in working throughgrief, anger, and frustration. It couldalso serve as a very positive memorialfor a loved one.

• Recommending specific readings for aparticular problem. In the traditionof bibliotherapy, certain fiction andnonfiction could be used for lifeguidance. For example, JudithViorst’s “The Tenth Good ThingAbout Barney” might be a good storyto read to a child whose pet died.

Limitations of Poetry TherapyLike any therapeutic tool, anything thathas the power to heal also has thepower to harm. Poetry therapy shouldbe used by professionals with trainingin psychology and a good understand-ing of literature. It is very importantthat the individual using it stay withinthe boundaries of his or her profession.Care must be given to the selection andtiming of a poem. Sharing a poem orsong may bring up feelings one is notready to deal with at the time. If a par-ticular poem or song is not fully dis-cussed, a destructive or unhealthyconclusion could be reached. Thera-pists should be sure to choose worksthat, while empathizing with theclient’s problem, ultimately expresshope. The therapist should also knowthe problems and limitations of theclients. The use of poetry may beinsulting, especially if there is a literacyproblem and the person is asked toread. Sometimes, the poem may serveas a distraction for a client. A personmight spend a great deal of time intel-lectualizing rather than dealing with apressing problem. If a person focuseson journal writing at the exclusion ofinterpersonal relationships, his or herfear and isolation could increase, orconclusions could be reached withoutbenefit of healthy discussion.

AdvantagesPoetry therapy can serve as a non-threatening means for people toexpress their thoughts, feelings, and

The National Association for Poetry Therapysponsors a journal, in addition to annual con-

ventions.

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behaviors. It is respectful of differentcultures and genders by trying tounderstand the personalized meaningsof each person’s language and story.Increasingly, more research is indicat-ing that writing has a healing effect andcan help people gain emotionalstrength. It has also been shown that ingroup counseling, the use of poetrytherapy increases cohesion.

Poetry therapy is being used acrossthe United States and around the world.It is used in a variety of settings, includ-ing hospitals, hospice facilities, correc-tional settings, homeless shelters,schools, runaway shelters, and mentalhealth centers. In a time of pervasivesocial problems and rapidly increasingtechnology, poetry therapy touches andaffirms our humanity.

—Nicholas Mazza, Ph.D.

Resources:

The Journal of Poetry Therapy

Human Sciences Press

233 Spring Street

New York, NY 10013-1578

The Journal of Poetry Therapy is the official quar-

terly journal of the National Association for Poetry

Therapy and is a membership benefit. The journal

offers a wide variety of original articles, brief

reports, dissertation abstracts, and poetry.

The National Association for Poetry Therapy

(NAPT)

P.O. Box 551

Port Washington, NY 11050

Tel: (516) 944-9791

The National Association for Poetry Therapy

(NAPT) is an organization open to all persons

interested in the healing capacities of the language

arts. There are various levels of membership,

including professional, regular, student, and

retired. NAPT confers professional credentials—

certified poetry therapist (CPT) and registered

poetry therapist (RPT). It maintains a registry of

practitioners and information regarding training.

Further Reading:

Hynes, Arleen McCarty, and Mary Hynes-Berry.

Biblio/Poetry Therapy–The Interactive Process: A

Handbook. St. Cloud, MN: North Star Press of

St. Cloud, Inc., 1994.

PROBLEM

Decision Making

Anxiety

Stress

Family

Grief

Anger

Despair

Alienation

Communication

Identity

POEM

“The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost

“If I Should Cast. . .” by Stephen Crane

“Can’t Do It All” by Natasha Josefowitz

Nikki Rosa” by Nikki Giovanni

“Good Night, Willie Lee. . .” by Alice Walker

“A Just Anger” by Marge Piercy

“Hope Is a Thing with Feathers” by EmilyDickinson

“Alone/December night” by Victor Cruz

“Two Friends” by David Ignatow

“I’m nobody” by Emily Dickinson

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Leedy, Jack J., ed. Poetry as Healer: Mending the

Troubled Mind. New York: Vanguard Press,

1985. [Note: This book is a combination of two

previous classics edited by Leedy, Poetry Thera-

py (1969) and Poetry the Healer (1973).]

Lerner, Arthur, ed. Poetry in the Therapeutic Expe-

rience. St. Louis: MMB Music, Inc., 1994.

Lerner, Arthur, and Ursula Mahlendorf, eds. Life

Guidance Through Literature. Chicago: Ameri-

can Library Association, 1992.

Web Sites:

Internet Poetry Archive Home Page

www.sunsite.unc.edu/dykki/poetry/home.html

National Association for Poetry Therapy (NAPT)

www.poetrytherapy.org

National Coalition of Arts Therapies Associations

(NCATA)

www.membrane.com/ncata

SANDPLAY THERAPY

Sandplay therapy is a form ofpsychological treatment that cen-ters upon play with a vast collec-

tion of miniature figures and twosandboxes, one that contains dampsand, the other one dry. Unlike verbaltherapies that deal directly with innermemories, sandplay involves the con-struction of scenes in which self-expression can be indirect andnonverbal. This therapeutic approachis considered particularly appropriatefor children because it provides a safeway to act out troubling feelings thatmay be at the root of behavioral prob-lems. Furthermore, the scenes them-selves are thought to be a sensitiveapproach to determine the way mindand body come together in the totalityof personal development. Sandplaytherapy’s most widely used theoreticalmodel makes use of symbols andarchetypes derived from the theories

propounded by Swiss psychotherapistC. G. Jung. Though children are theusual clients of sandplay therapy, it isalso used effectively with adults ontheir spiritual path to individuation.

The History of Sandplay TherapySandplay therapy began with theresearch of Margaret Lowenfeld, a childpsychiatrist active in England duringthe 1920s and 1930s—decades when therole of objects in child developmentattracted general interest among ana-lysts who were working with children.The particular focus of Lowenfeld’swork was the inner drama revealed in achild’s use of his or her toys. The worldtechnique, devised by Lowenfeld, trans-posed such play into structures that lentthemselves to observation and analysis,yet did not force the child to adapt toadult logic. Lowenfeld asked the child tomake pictures in the sandbox using theavailable miniatures. She found that achild would fashion intricate scenesthat Lowenfeld regarded as representations of the child’s world.Interpreting the pictures, she acknowl-edged, was difficult, in large partbecause of the ever-present danger ofimposing adult norms on childhoodexperiences. Nonetheless, she believedthat the world technique offered ameans of gaining privileged access tothe world of the child for both diagnos-tic and therapeutic purposes.

Dora Kalff, a Swiss therapist, broughtLowenfeld’s work into the second half ofthe twentieth century, and she neverdoubted the healing powers of this tech-nique. Kalff’s training at the Jung Insti-tute in Zurich led her to view theminiatures as a counterpart to Jungianarchetypes. Kalff was influenced by Ger-man Jungian analyst Erich Neumann’sstudies of child development; she wasable to correlate her observations ofsandplay constructions with Neumann’stheories. According to Kalff, the healingpowers of sandplay therapy, as shetermed her variant of world technique,are explained by its capacity to help

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Lois Carey with her vast collection of miniature archetypal figures used to create sandplay pictures.

Sandplay Therapy

traumatized children in their struggletoward internal ego support and fullautonomy.

An understanding of Jungian arche-types and the archetypal level of the psy-che is what differentiates this approachto sandplay from other theories. Jung’sstructure of the psyche proposes thatthe psyche is made up of three levels: theconscious, the personal unconscious,and the collective unconscious, which isthe area wherein the archetypes arefound. An archetype is simply a modelor prototype of an idea, such as the“Great Mother,” the “Wise Old Man,” the“Hero,” the “Anima/Animus,” or the“Ego/Self.” Archetypes are two-sided,having both positive and negativeaspects. They are believed to be in thepsyches of all people in all cultures.Knowledge of the archetypes allows theanalyst to transmit his or her under-standing of the client’s struggle, mostoften nonverbally, in the interactive

field. For instance, the analyst is awarethat a child’s mother has died. It is to beassumed that the child in therapy willseek to connect with the lost mother insome way. If the analyst is aware of thearchetypal level of the psyche, he or shewill be able to observe, for example,when the Great Mother archetype (inboth her positive and negative forms)emerges. This can enhance the analyst’sunspoken understanding of this child’sstruggle and deepen the connectionbetween child and therapist.

A System of RepresentationAs taught by Kalff, sandplay therapy isbased on the belief that symbols andmyth constitute a world history of, andpsychological “guidebook” to, the waysby which human beings come to anunderstanding of themselves and theirculture. By providing ready access tothis system of representation, sandplaytherapy enables clients to explore and

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Despite Dora Kalff’s book Sandplay and many lectures, training in sandplay therapy hasnever been widely available. While some advocates remain committed to the Kalff-Junglegacy and offer a pure form of sandplay, a growing number of analysts and educatorsapproach it on a pragmatic basis as a natural form of healing with strong affinities to artand play therapy.

expand their awareness of the domi-nant issues in their lives. TheKalffian/Jungian therapist approachesthe child as a unique, complex beingwith an innate capacity for symboliclogic as revealed through an archetypalstruggle witnessed in sandplay.

Making PicturesSandplay therapy employs sandboxesthat are shallow, rectangular, and of asize (twenty by twenty-eight by fourinches) that permits rapid, easy assem-bly of a picture. Two boxes—one withdry, the other with wet sand—are madeavailable. The small size of the sandboxis important because it gives the client asense of security and, at the same time,forces him or her to make choices sinceit can accommodate only a portion ofthe miniatures displayed on shelvesaround the sandplay room. After sug-gesting that the client make a picture,the therapist becomes more or less asilent observer of the process and hasbeen taught to withhold interpretationsuntil the therapy has progressed to thepoint where the ego is solid enough toaccept interpretations. Premature inter-pretations usually impact the therapyquite negatively. In this technique, thereis strong emphasis on the nonverbalability of the psyche to seek its ownhealing, given the proper milieu.

The Benefits and Risks of SandplayTherapyWhile sandplay therapy poses nounusual risks to clients, it does requirethe help of a skilled analyst if the full

range of its benefits is to be attained.One cautionary note: If there is anyovert resistance to using sandplay, it isnever pushed because the resistancemay be serving a protective psychicfunction and must always be honored.

—Lois Carey

Resources:

Association for Play Therapy

California School of Professional Psychology

1350 M Street

Fresno, CA 93721

Holds conferences that include presentations on

recent work with sandplay therapy.

Center for Sandplay Studies

252 South Boulevard

Upper Grandview, NY 10960

Tel: (914) 358-2318

Offers beginning and advanced courses in sand-

play therapy.

Sandplay Therapists of America

P.O. Box 4847

Walnut Creek, CA 94596

Tel: (310) 607-8535

Organization that holds conferences and publishes

a journal on sandplay therapy.

Further Reading:

Books:

Carey, Lois. Sandplay with Children and Families.

Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, Inc., 1998.

Friedman, Harriet, and R. Mitchell. Sandplay: Past,

Present and Future. London: Routledge, 1994.

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Jung, C. G. The Archetypes and the Collective Uncon-

scious. Princeton, NJ: Bollingen Paperback, 1980.

Kalff, Dora. Sandplay: A Psychotherapeutic

Approach to the Psyche. Santa Monica: Sigo

Press, 1980.

Lowenfeld, Margaret.The World Technique. Lon-

don: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1979.

Neumann, Erich. The Child. Boston: Shambhala,

1990.

Stevens, Anthony. Archetypes. New York: Quill,

1982.

Wilmer, Harry. Practical Jung. Wilmette, IL: Chi-

ron, 1991.

Journals:

Carey, Lois. “Sandplay Therapy with a Troubled

Child.” Arts in Psychotherapy 17, No. 3 (1990):

197–209.

——. “Family Sandplay Therapy.” Arts in Psy-

chotherapy 18 (1991): 231–39.

——. “A Child-Centered Approach to Family

Sandplay Therapy.” Quaternio: Journal of the

Brazilian Society of Jungian Psychotherapy 1,

No. 3 (1992): 6–11.

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PART XVI: BODY-ORIENTED

PSYCHOTHERAPIES

Bioenergetics • Bodynamic Analysis • Core Energetics • coreSomatics® • Emotional-Kinesthetic Psychotherapy • Focusing • Gestalt Therapy • Hakomi Integrative Somatics • Holotropic BreathworkTM • Medical OrgoneTherapy • Organismic Body Psychotherapy • Pesso Boyden System Psy-chomotor • Process Oriented Psychology • Psychodrama • Psychosynthe-sis • Radix • Rebirthing • Rubenfeld Synergy Method • Unergi

Body-oriented psy-chotherapies are healingmodalities that use thebody to help solve emo-tional problems. The term“body oriented psy-chotherapy”traditionallyrefers only to methods inwhich physical body pos-tures or types and physicalbehavior patterns are usedto diagnose and treat emo-tional disorders. However,this volume expands thatdefinition to include manyother methods that rely ona variety of physical activi-ties to affect mental andemotional health. Althoughsome people mistrust theirunusual methods, manyothers credit a body-orient-ed psychotherapy as theonly way they were able tochange painful, limitingmental and emotional pat-terns and begin living ahealthy and fulfilling life.

The Development of Body-Oriented PsychotherapyMost body-oriented psychotherapies can trace their origins to the groundbreaking

work of the Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud(1856–1939).Through his work as a neurologist, Freud became aware that many of his

Body-oriented psychotherapies combine physical activities with ver-bal analysis.

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neurotic patients’ symptoms, including paralysis, headaches, fainting spells, andheart palpitations, were caused by something other than the physical working of theirmuscles, bones, and nerves. Working in tandem with his friend the physiologist JosefBreuer, Freud discovered that releasing repressed memories of childhood experiencesor emotional conflicts, while in a hypnotic trance, alleviated his patients’ physicalsymptoms. By combining clinical experience with deep insight into the nature ofhuman behavior, Freud created a new model of the human mind that changed West-ern medical discourse forever.

Contrary to the popular belief that human beings are totally rational creatures,always aware of the causes of their actions, Freud saw the human mind as two parts—the conscious mind, which controls aspects of memory, speech, and logical thinking;and the unconscious mind, which contains the somatic reflexes such as breathing andheart rate, basic biological drives, dream imagery, and many other memories. Freudbelieved that when a memory or conflict was too painful for an individual to hold inhis or her conscious mind, it would be repressed by a variety of defense mechanismsinto the unconscious mind, where it affects the physical body and many aspects ofbehavior. Freud believed that many of these anxiety-producing conflicts were inher-ent to the human condition, especially in Victorian Europe, where one’s basic biolog-ical drives contradicted the demands of civilized society.

Freud developed techniques to bring repressed memories to consciousness with-out the aid of hypnosis. This became the basis of psychoanalysis, a particularapproach to psychotherapy consisting of many scheduled verbal encounters betweenthe therapist and patient over a long period of time. The therapist guides the patientin dredging up and sorting through the repressed memories, emotions, impulses, ordesires.

Although Freud’s theories and practices were controversial, he drew many of thebrightest doctors in Europe into his circle. However, as Freud became increasinglyinflexible in his methods, and his theories about human nature became increasinglypessimistic, many of his students eventually departed. Among this group, the Austri-an Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957) was the most influential in developing a body orienta-tion to psychotherapy. Reich broke with Freud by asserting the primacy of the bodyand biological processes in the cause and treatment of physical and emotional symp-toms. In his book The Function of the Orgasm (1942) Reich presented the idea that apsycho-physical energy exists that, if not released through sexual orgasm, becomeslocked in muscular tensions in the body. From this basic premise he developed anentire model of human psychology in which conflicts were not only stored in the sub-conscious mind but were present in the physical body as a complex of muscular ten-sions he called “muscular armoring” and a complex of behavior patterns he called“character armoring.” Reich’s model of treatment, known today as medical orgonomy,uses hands-on manipulation of the body and breathing patterns to release the chron-ically tight muscles and repressed energy. It became the basis of many forms of body-oriented psychotherapies including bioenergetics, core energetics, hakomiintegrative somatics, organismic body psychotherapy, and Radix.

Both Carl Jung (1875–1961) from Switzerland and Roberto Assagioli (1888–1974) fromItaly departed from Freud because they believed he placed too much emphasis on thesexual drive in interpreting human behavior. The two approaches to psychotherapy they

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developed—analytical psychology and psychosynthesis, respectively—extended therange of Freud’s model of human personality to include spiritual drives and goals. Theyintroduced the West to the connection between spirituality and psychology, a connec-tion that had dominated non-Western art, religion, and health practices for centuries.Jung and Assagioli’s concepts of motivational drives had a huge impact on the develop-ment of techniques used in body-oriented psychotherapies, including core energetics,coreSomatics, emotional kinesthetic psychotherapy, Holotropic Breathwork, organismicbody psychotherapy, and process oriented psychology.

As the twentieth century unfolded, psychotherapists continued to develop newmodels of personality and treatment methods. In the 1960s many approaches to psy-chotherapy , known collectively as humanistic psychology, developed by people suchas Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, were based on observations of healthy peopleinstead of neurotic ones, and on the human potential for growth and change. Espe-cially important to the development of body-oriented psychotherapies was gestalttherapy, developed by Fritz and Laura Perls. In gestalt therapy many techniques, someborrowed from Jacob Moreno’s psychodrama, are used to physically enact painfulexperiences and difficult relationships. Gestalt therapy, as well as all Humanistic psy-chology approaches, emphasizes developing a sense of wholeness, authenticity, andself-esteem through the conscious awareness of feelings and bodily expression in thepresent rather than by dredging up the past.

At the same time a new wave of spiritual teachers from non-Western religionscame to the United States, filling the burgeoning “growth centers” across the countrywith the wisdom of ancient teachings regarding the connections between body, mind,and spirit. As a result, new approaches to psychotherapy evolved, including LeonardOrr’s rebirthing, Stanislav Grof’s Holotropic Breathwork, and Ilana Rubenfeld’s Syner-gy. These psychotherapies offered new methods to discover psychic wholeness bycombining physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects of humanness in vary-ing ways. Today literally hundreds of different body-oriented approaches to psy-chotherapy influenced by science, religion, or the arts offer individuals a choice froma plethora of paths of psychological healing or self-discovery.

Theories and Practices of Body-Oriented PsychotherapiesAll body-oriented psychotherapies are based on the belief that the body, mind, and

spirit are interdependent aspects of humanness. While Freud observed the mind’sinfluence over the body, these disciplines reverse this relationship and study how thebody affects the mind.They claim that creating a healthy, balanced body will helprestore mental and emotional harmony. Body-oriented psychotherapists believe thatthe emotional and mental experiences of life, which in some methods include pre-natal (before birth) or after-death experiences, are imprinted in the body as clearly asthe words you are reading are printed on this page. To effect a real and lasting changein a human psyche, they believe, you must work through the physical body.

Unlike Freudian psychoanalysis, which relies exclusively on verbal exchange betweentherapist and patient, body-oriented psychotherapists believe the body to be primary inboth reflecting emotional problems and working toward their cure. Therapists direct thepatient’s attention to the physical sensations of the body and the relationship of thesesensations to other aspects of the whole self. The techniques used in body-oriented

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psychotherapies range from the direct, sometimes violent physical manipulation ofReichian–based methods to the barely physical guided imagery sessions of psy-chosynthesis. In some methods, such as Holotropic Breathwork, two patients willwork together in a therapeutic process without the direct aid of the therapist. In oth-ers, such as Pesso Boyden system psychomotor, a group of people are needed toembody the healing process. Despite the differences in technique, all types of body-oriented psychotherapies use the body, rather than another individual, as the moni-tor of psychological well-being, the gauge of emotional truth.

Some Benefits and Limitations of Body-Oriented PsychotherapiesBody-oriented psychotherapies aim to give greater freedom and integration to the

physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects of human life. Most of the methodsincluded here are based on a theoretical foundation that states that an individual’spsychic development will ultimately lead to a spiritual unfolding, evidenced by agrowing concern for and action toward the good of the entire community. Body-ori-ented psychotherapies have helped many people break painful physical or emotionaladdictions. Others report experiencing more pleasure, optimism, spontaneity, and agreater sense of participation in the process of living. Still others describe a strongerfeeling of connection to other people and a clearer sense of purpose and value in theirlives, as well as life in general.

These rewards are not easily gained. Body-oriented psychotherapies generally requirea long-term commitment to a process that can require painful physical and emotionalwork. In addition, because these methods regard each individual as intrinsically whole,they are generally not appropriate for people suffering from psychoses or people whoseself-esteem is so severely damaged that it cannot confront the truth of the body.

—Nancy Allison, CMA

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Resources:

The United States Association for Body Psy-

chotherapy

111 Bonifant Street, Suite 201

Silver Spring, MD 20910

Tel: (301) 587- 4011

Web site: www.usabp.com

Established in 1998, the USABP is a professional

association of body psychotherapy professionals and

students that holds conferences and publishes pro-

fessional journals and newsletters that track

research and development in the field of body psy-

chotherapy.

Further Reading:

Brown, Dennis, and Jonathan Pedder. An Intro-

duction to Psychotherapy: An Outline of Psycho-

dynamic Principles and Practice. London and

New York: Tavistock/Routledge. 1979.

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BIOENERGETICS

Bioenergetics is a form of body-oriented psychotherapy developedby American doctor Alexander

Lowen during the mid-twentieth centu-ry. Based on the groundbreaking workof Austrian psychotherapist WilhelmReich, bioenergetics views body, mind,and spirit as interdependent andreflective of each other. By combiningactive bodywork exercises with verbaltherapy, Bioenergetics therapists aim toliberate both body and mind fromrestrictive holding patterns, helpingpeople to live freer, more pleasurable,fulfilling lives.

Origins of BioenergeticsBioenergetics was developed by Alexan-der Lowen, M.D. (1910– ), a student ofWilhelm Reich, M.D. (1897–1957). Reich,the founder of medical orgonomy and acolleague of the seminal psychoanalystSigmund Freud, is generally credited asthe first person in modern Western psy-chotherapy to incorporate workingdirectly with the body in psychothera-peutic treatment. He explored the body’sinvoluntary responses to emotional situ-ations to arrive at his own theoreticalconstruct of human personality.

Reich believed that neuroses, or per-sonality problems, are anchored in thebody as chronic muscular tensions. Heobserved that chronic muscular tensionsdecreased a person’s general energy leveland ability to feel all emotions, particu-larly pleasurable ones. Reich believedthat deepening a person’s involuntarybreathing process was key to releasingchronic muscular tension and openingmuscular tissue to the full streaming ofpsychological and physical energy.

As a young man, Alexander Lowennoted that regular physical activityimproved his physical and emotionalstate. He became interested in tech-niques that developed the body-mindrelationship, such as Emile Jacques Dal-croze’s eurythmics, Edmund Jacobson’s

progressive relaxation, and yoga. But itwas not until 1940, when he heard Dr.Reich lecture at the New School for SocialResearch in New York, that he felt hefound an answer to his own questionsabout the nature of the relationshipbetween body and mind. Lowen studiedwith Reich from 1940 to 1952 and under-went therapy with him from 1942 to 1945.During these exciting and inspiring yearshe finished premedical studies andtrained to become a Reichian therapist.Lowen saw his first patient in 1945. Dis-appointed with his progress with his earlypatients, Lowen spent the years from Sep-tember 1947 to June 1951 studying medi-cine and earning his M.D. degree fromGeneva University in Switzerland.

Although Lowen believed he hadmade substantial progress in his owntherapy with Reich, he felt that many ofhis own conflicts had not been fullyresolved. He perceived that the physicaland emotional freedom gained in histherapy with Reich did not necessarilytransfer to real-life situations. After hisreturn from Europe, Lowen spoke withseveral other former patients of Reich,most notably John Pierrakos, M.D., whofelt the same way.

In 1953, working together with Pier-rakos, Lowen set out to develop thetechniques of Reichian therapy so thatdeeper, more pervasive improvementcould result. He believed a more activephysical approach, as well as a deeperanalytical approach, was needed. Forthree years Lowen experimented withReich’s bodywork techniques, usingPierrakos to apply pressure directly onLowen’s chronically tensed muscles.The exercises he developed form thebasis of bioenergetics. During this timeLowen and Pierrakos met regularly withanother Reichian associate, Dr. WilliamWalling, M.D., in clinical seminars thatenriched Lowen’s theoretical under-standing of Reich’s approach as well.

Breaking Down Body ArmorBioenergetics is based on a model ofthe human personality as comprised of

Bioenergetics

biological impulses and consciousthought or will. According to Lowen, ahealthy person follows his or her biolog-ical impulses completely, suppressingthem only in response to a personalsense of desire. He believes neurosesdevelop when biological impulses aresuppressed through conscious, willfulcontrol in response to fear.

Lowen believes this process beginsvery early in human development, forexample, when a child consciously con-trols his or her impulse to cry in responseto parental disapproval. According toLowen, the child stops crying because itperceives his or her parents’ disapprovalas a threat to survival. The reflexive, phys-ical act of restricting breathing that stopshis or her crying is spontaneously devel-oped, Lowen believes, as a survival mech-anism. The child ceases to cry andparental affection and protection aresecured. When a child alters its physicalimpulses by responding, as in this situa-tion, to fear rather than pleasure, it cre-ates a sense of personal power over itsenvironment based on willful control ofbiological impulses. Lowen calls this psy-chological pattern the “neurotic charac-ter structure.”

Lowen, like Reich, believes the neu-rotic character structure to be a survivaldefense, but it is also an imprisonmentfor the true nature of the human being.Following Reich, Lowen believes theneurotic character structure can beobserved in the body, as well as the psy-che, as a form of armor. Bioenergetictherapy strives to break down physicaland emotional armoring by looseningrigid muscles and promoting the flowof psycho-physical energy, whichLowen calls bioenergy, through thebody.

According to Lowen, “In Bioener-getic Therapy the breakdown of theneurotic character structure does nothappen as a single event, but as a seriesof breakthroughs, each of which is expe-rienced as an energetic release andtransformation. With each release thepatient begins to feel more alive and

more open and has an awareness of aninner strength and force that he or shehad not felt before.” As the bodybecomes more alive, the will loosens itsgrip on feelings that come throughmore easily as physical sensations thatact as catalysts for new responses to andinteractions with others.

Throughout this process bioener-getic therapy includes talking aboutone’s history and current life situation,relationships, and dreams. The verbaltherapy enables the patient to integratethe new emotions and physical sensa-tions into his or her whole personality.Without this conscious integrationLowen believes that muscular tensionwill simply recur because the mind hasnot incorporated the physical experi-ences into a new balanced personalitystructure.

Grounding ExercisesIndividual bioenergetic therapy, whichis the most common format, may beginwith some initial conversation betweentherapist and client, but will generallyproceed quickly to bodywork exercises.In all formats, group or individual,clients work in leotards, bathing suits, ormore commonly their underwear, whichallows the bioenergetic therapist to seethe body and its changes more easily.

Most of the exercises involve lying,sitting, or standing in positions thatactually increase the tension of chroni-cally stressed muscles. It is believed thatbreathing deeply while in these posi-tions pulls so much bioenergy into themuscles that it forces the client torelease his or her willful hold on them,thereby allowing an involuntary streamof energy and sensation to flow throughthem. This stream of energy is experi-enced by the patient as a current, simi-lar to an electrical current passingthrough a wire, and can be seen by ther-apist and client alike as actual physicalvibrations in the muscle.

One of the most common series ofpostures used in bioenergetic therapy iscalled “grounding positions.” These

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Lowen’s Therapy with Reich

Reich had his patients lie on a bed and do deep-breathing exercises. He applied pressureto chronically held muscles to help a person feel the pain of holding them tense andrelease the holding. He would direct a person to change the position of the body in somesubtle way that allowed the energy and the feeling to flow out in an open channel. Lowendescribes in his book Bioenergetics (1975) his first therapy session with Reich. Lowen layon a bed in bathing trunks and began to breathe deeply; at the point he began to relax,Reich asked him to drop his head back and open his eyes wide. When he did this hescreamed involuntarily, thus releasing a feeling he had unconsciously blocked for manyyears as well as freeing up the energy that had been used to hold it back.

standing postures were developed byLowen to help clients who feel out oftouch with reality develop a firm senseof the connection between their feetand the ground. Practitioners of bioen-ergetics believe that allowing thebreathing process to deepen whilestanding in the grounding positionshelps pull bioenergy downwardthrough the pelvis and legs. It increasesa sense of rootedness and the ability tostand on one’s own two feet, as well asliterally being able to “stand” theincrease in the amount of energy andemotion experienced.

Whichever body posture the clientmaintains, the bioenergetic therapistmay use massage, forceful pressure, orgentle touch to encourage the release ofcontracted muscles. The client will alsobe advised to release sounds whileholding the postures. The use of thevoice increases vibration, sending morebioenergy through the system, therebyforcing the patient to surrender his orher hold on the body more quickly.

The breathing stool is anotherdevice, designed by Lowen to speed thereleasing process, also called the sur-render to the body. It is a padded wood-en structure over which the client restsin a backward bending position. Sup-ported by the stool in this position,clients may experience their currentshallow breathing process and its con-nection to their fears. This position also stretches the torso, opening the entirepelvis and thorax to encourage deep

involuntary breathing, the catalyst forreleasing chronic muscular tension.

As the therapy progresses, “expressiveexercises” will be added to the stationarylying, sitting, or standing poses. In theseexercises clients perform actions such askicking the legs alternately up and downwhile lying on a bed, or hitting a bed withfists or a tennis racket while standing inorder to express anger and aggressive feel-ings. Bioenergetic therapists believe thatexperiencing aggression allows a patientto feel that he or she can defend (or standup for) oneself. Releasing these aggressivefeelings also means no longer having tokeep them under conscious willful con-trol, thereby releasing muscular tissue toexperience pleasurable sensations.

Throughout the course of the therapybodywork, sessions are interspersed withverbal therapy, allowing the patient tointegrate the new sensations and emo-tions into his or her life with the supportof the therapist. Over the course of anindividual therapy, clients may alsochoose to participate in group intensivesessions that may last a weekend orlonger. Bioenergetic group therapy ses-sions utilize many of the same exercisesas individual therapy and may involveworking with a partner to increase physi-cal resistance in the positions.

A Long-Term TherapyBioenergetic therapy is not short-termtherapy. It requires a commitment oftime and energy to resolve deep conflictsand to free the body and mind from

Bodynamic Analysis

neurotic, unproductive patterns. How-ever, the bodywork seems to allow thisdeep healing process to proceed fasterthan it does with only verbal therapy.Bioenergetics seeks to integrate bodyand mind as it aims to help a person feelmore relaxed, connected, spontaneous,and alive.

—Nancy Allison, CMA, with consultationby Nina Robinson, CMA

Resources:

International Institute for Bioenergetic Analysis

144 East 36th Street

New York, NY 10016

Tel: (212) 532-7742

Offers information about the discipline as well as

qualified practitioners.

Further Reading:

Lowen, Alexander. Bioenergetics. New York: Pen-

guin Books, 1975.

Lowen, Alexander, and Leslie Lowen. The Way to

Vibrant Health: A Manual of Bioenergetic Exer-

cises. New York: Harper & Row, 1977.

——. Pleasure: A Creative Approach to Life. New

York: Penguin, 1987.

BODYNAMIC ANALYSIS

B odynamic analysis helps people resolve life problems by building new coping skills, also known as

“resources,” in the body and psyche.Bodynamic analysis describes resourcesas the normal physical and psychologi-cal abilities that are learned duringhealthy childhood development. Devel-oped principally by Scandinavian phys-ical educator Lisbeth Marcher in the1970s, bodynamic analysis is based onan intricate theory that links specific

muscular actions to psychological abili-ties. Using Marcher’s BodymapTM as aguide, bodynamic analysis strives tohelp people develop retarded resources,empowering them to have new experi-ences and make new life choices.

The Development of BodynamicAnalysisBodynamic analysis was developed byLisbeth Marcher and her colleagues inDenmark. It derived from the rich tradi-tion of body therapy systems thatemerged in Scandinavia early in thetwentieth century. Bodynamic analysishas arrived recently in the UnitedStates, with the first U.S. programfounded in Berkeley, California, in 1990.

Marcher was originally trained in the“relaxation method,” an in-depth body education training system well knownin Scandinavia. Dissatisfied with thetreatment of psychological issues with-in the relaxation method, Marcherbegan to study theories of body-mindintegration. Influenced by LillimorJohnsen, a Norwegian physiotherapist,Marcher developed a theory connectingeach muscle action to specific psycho-logical issues. She also noticed howmotor patterns and psychological abili-ties seem to develop according to a veryspecific timetable during childhood.For example, the muscle associatedwith saying no is the triceps, a musclethat extends the arm out in a pushing-away motion. The triceps first begins its“no” motion very early, before the childcan even say no. Later, as the childbegins to say no, the action and theword go together. Finally the no move-ment lessens or disappears and theword “no” stays. In this way Marcherbelieved the timetables for the evolu-tion of motor patterns and psychologi-cal and social patterns are intimatelylinked.

Theory of Bodynamic AnalysisBodynamic analysis is based on a funda-mental way of thinking about the role thebody plays in shaping who people are and

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Bodymap™

In bodynamic analysis, there is a way to see our body profile in a muscle test called theBodymap™. This is a process in which each muscle is tested for four degrees of hyper- andfour degrees of hypo-response as well as a healthy response. This is then charted visuallyon a map of the body, which becomes available for detailed interpretation of a person’searly history. Therapists then look to see at what ages and in what ego aspects individualsmay be most held or blocked, and in what areas they are the most developed andresourced. This information helps clients understand themselves and guides therapy.

how they think, feel, love, play, work,and grow. By observing the unfoldingpattern of motor development in chil-dren, bodynamic analysts see how thechild’s motor system is intimately linkedto core self-development. By linking aperson’s spontaneous movements to theunderlying psychological expression,bodynamic analysts believe they areable to pinpoint the origins of thedifficulties that people experience intheir present lives.

Bodynamic analysis is based on theconcept of seven overlapping stages ofchild development named by Marcher.These seven stages are related to thepsychological characteristics of eachparticular stage. They are the existencestage (second trimester–3 months),when the child first develops a sense ofsecure existence; the need stage (0–18months), when physical bonding andcontact are established and core bodyrhythms of eating, sleeping, etc., areset; the autonomy stage (8–30 months),when the child begins to move directlyout into the world through crawling,walking, and grasping; the will stage(2–4 years), when the child learns tomanage power and master loving andangry feelings and begins to develop astructuring of the world through plan-ning and role formation; the love/sexu-ality stage (3–5 years), when loving andsexual feelings emerge more intensely;the opinion stage (5–8 years), when thechild learns to express ideas and com-pare them with the world around her orhim; and finally the solidarity/perfor-mance stage (7–12 years), when the

child masters her or his own abilitieswithin the context of peer group activi-ty. By determining the stage or age atwhich a person feels stuck, bodynamicanalysis is able to help that personresolve past traumas and move him orher toward gaining new resources.

Bodynamic analysts believe that thethread that runs through all these stagesis the child’s intense desire and drivetoward establishing deep, powerfulconnections to the outside world. Body-namic analysts call this drive mutualconnection, and believe it informs thebasic movement of life energy. Ulti-mately what is most traumatic to thegrowing child is when the bondbetween the child and others is dis-turbed or broken.

What a Typical Session Is LikeA typical session of bodynamic analysisoften begins with an agreement to focuson a specific issue, such as the ability toestablish and maintain fulfilling rela-tionships, or with an ongoing develop-mental issue or stage. Sessions mayfocus on body sensations, paying atten-tion to any impulses, movements,images, or memories that emerge. Theperson’s posture, movements, and lan-guage begin to tell a story. The story isdeveloped by expanding the move-ments, and through supportive touch,role playing, or working with early his-torical experiences. Most healing isaccomplished by an integration of sens-ing, experiencing, moving, and think-ing, in the context of the supportiverelationship with the practitioner.

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To return to the earlier example oflearning to say no, a person might havehad difficulty during the will stage (2–4years) with expressing her or his power.Therapy with such a person includesnot only a verbal exploration of theexperiences that led to this difficulty,but also teaching the body how toexpress no. Practitioners help the per-son by teaching the muscles to expressno in a new way. In some situations thismay be fairly straightforward, but oftenthis teaching needs to engage the per-son in a deep and subtle, physical andverbal conversation.

Throughout the process the practi-tioner and recipient explore sensationsand experiences located in the body, thefears and beliefs that hold back theexpression of the no. There is a recogni-tion that each person’s defense systemis unique and deserves respect andunderstanding before it can change. It isimportant to engage the person’s senso-ry-motor system and wake up the devel-opmental movements slowly and gently. Practitioner and recipient staywith a movement and the accompany-ing thoughts and feelings until it has achance to resolve. A person is thenready to explore a new movement andits accompanying psychological state.

Benefits and RisksWhat makes bodynamic analysisunique among body-oriented psy-chotherapies is its ability to work onspecific developmental issues. With thiscapacity to work in sharp focus, peopleseem to achieve a more complete reso-lution in the body, developing whatbodynamic therapists call a “newimprint.” People typically report form-ing deeper, more intimate relationshipsafter experiencing bodynamic analysis.

Because therapist and recipient areable to focus on specific issues, body-namic analysis often works well as ashort-term intensive therapy; however,it is more often seen as a long-termcommitment. While bodynamic ana-lysts try to work from people’s innate

strengths to help them build newresources, therapy can pose a personalchallenge as deeper issues emerge andmore profound changes are indicated.

—Peter Bernhardt

Resources:

Bodynamic Institute

PO Box 6008

Albany, CA 94706

Tel: (510) 524-8090

Offers information on national and international

activities. The Bodynamic Institute provides a

foundation training, a two-year practitioner train-

ing, and a two-year analytic training.

Further Reading:

Bernhardt, Peter. Individuation: Mutual Connec-

tion and the Body’s Resources. An interview with

Lisbeth Marcher. Alberta, Canada: Bodynamic

Institute Monograph, 1992.

——. The Art of Following Structure: An Interview

with Lisbeth Marcher Exploring the Roots of the

Bodynamic System. Alberta, Canada: Bodynam-

ic Institute Monograph, 1995.

Bernhardt, Peter, M. Bentzen, and J. Isaacs. Wak-

ing the Body Ego: An Introduction to Lisbeth

Marcher’s Somatic Developmental Psychology, I

and II. Alberta, Canada: Bodynamics Institute

Monograph, 1995.

CORE ENERGETICS

Core energetics is a mode of healingthat combines bodywork, psy-chotherapy, and a spiritual process

called the pathwork to activate the greaterconsciousness dwelling within everyhuman soul to release and strengthenhuman energy at all levels—physical,

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The core energetics model of the five levels of human existence.

emotional, mental, and spiritual. Unlikeconventional psychiatric or medicaltherapies, core energetics views thespiritual dimension of life as an essen-tial component in the process of recov-ery and growth. In fact, core energeticstherapists believe that illness is a blockin the life force said to be at the core ofevery individual. The core is calledalternatively energy, love, or soul.According to core energetics theory, theunblocking of emotion promotes self-healing and benefits a variety of mental and physical disorders from depressionto chronic fatigue syndrome.

The History of Core EnergeticsCore energetics, sometimes called thecore energetic evolutionary process,was developed by John Pierrakos, aGreek-American doctor who started hiscareer as a follower of the innovativeAustrian psychiatrist Wilhelm Reich.Reich had come to America after theNazi rise to power and soon began tostir controversy in American medical

circles because of his unorthodox viewson the fundamental nature of thehuman organism. He maintained thatthe body is infused with an invisibleenergy known as orgone, which alsoinfuses all material aspects of the cos-mos. What happens in the body affectswhat happens emotionally and mental-ly, therefore illness is to be understoodas a dual body-mind phenomenon—anotion that was alien to a medical pro-fession then organized around the sep-aration of psychological and physicalhealing. Reich gave Pierrakos theframework for his life’s work as a holis-tic physician committed to a search foreffective body-mind treatments.

In the 1950s he and another physi-cian, Alexander Lowen, made Reich’steachings the basis for bioenergetics, abody-oriented psychotherapy that usesthe body to diagnose and heal emotion-al illness. Impressed by the parallelsbetween Reich’s notion of orgone andancient Eastern ideas of human energy,Pierrakos began researching the nature

WILL

MIND

EMOTIONS

BODY

SPIRIT

Core Energetics

of energy and human energy fields. Bythe early 1970s he had formulated a theory of the human organism, stillReichian in broad outline, but incorpo-rating the conception of chakras (orenergy centers). He developed an inno-vative system that looked at the chakrasand correlated what he found to betheir normal or abnormal functioningto the person’s psychological and phys-ical traits. Pierrakos became proficientat viewing the human energy field andchakras. He observed the energy ofpeople in a medical setting and wasable to tell what other physicians need-ed complex laboratory tests to show.

Eva Broch, a spiritual medium andeventually Pierrakos’s wife, helped himcomplete his synthesis of Western andEastern medical teachings. Herconfidence in the existence of the spiri-tual, together with clinical observationthat spiritual belief enhances patients’recuperative powers, inspired Pierrakosto risk going beyond the bounds ofWestern scientific reason in hisdefinition of human energy. It is ulti-mately spiritual in nature, he conclud-ed, and cannot be fully understoodunless its relationship to the humancapacity for love is recognized. The spir-itual dimension, love, and the life forcebecame synonymous in Pierrakos’sthought during the late 1970s. He builtcore energetics on his work in bioener-getic analysis and the inspiration heobtained from the spiritual teachings ofthe pathwork, a spiritual process thatconsists of learning to activate thegreater consciousness dwelling withinevery human soul.

In 1980 he founded an institute inNew York City for study and training inthe approach he called core energeticsand regarded it as the culmination ofhis career. Most forms of body psy-chotherapy and transpersonal work inthis country are informed by Dr. Pier-rakos’s work in bioenergetic analysisand core energetics. His work is uniquebecause “the love force” is “the sub-stance and movement of life.” During thelast decade interest in core energetics

has grown rapidly in the United Statesand abroad. There are now branches ofthe Institute of Core Energetics in theUnited States, Canada, Mexico, Brazil,Germany, Switzerland, and Italy.

The Theory of Core EnergeticsCore energetics is based on the beliefthat the individual has an innate capac-ity for love and a need to evolve and thatthese together constitute a life force ofvirtually unlimited creative potential.Further, it is believed that health is adynamic state found only when theindividual realizes his or her creativepotential in a process of personalgrowth and change. Though the move-ment receives its impetus from the lifeforce, it occurs in the body, the vehiclethrough which emotion, thought, andspirit are expressed.

Pierrakos is the first modern Westernphysician to connect the ancient knowl-edge of energy and spirituality to thescience of new physics and to the cur-rent medical practice of psychiatry. Hehas created a holistic approach by com-bining work with all five levels of humanexistence in the human entity. Thesefive levels are the physical body, feelingsand emotions, mind and thought, will,and spirit.

Core energetics therapists believethat we are made up of layers of energy.At our center is the pulsing, movingenergy of life that Pierrakos calls thecore. This is our life force, which, fol-lowing the laws of physics, seeks toexpand and grow. When people are intouch with their life force, they feel lovefor themselves and their fellow crea-tures. The next layer is the lower self,which contains our wounded child andthe dark side, or shadow part, of ournature. Core energetics theory con-tends that we block our life force whenwe are not allowed to express our emo-tional pain or negative emotions. Thisenergy becomes stagnant and will pro-duce a layer of defense, which becomesthe physical armoring. Next we put on asocial mask designed to protect our-selves. This mask, or false self, dampens

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Core Energetics Training

Training in core energetics requires four years of course work and extensive personaltherapy at an Institute of Core Energetics. Generally prior involvement in another formof therapy such as chiropractic or osteopathy is required for admission. The curriculumfeatures courses on anatomy, physiology, human energy theory, Reichian theory, bioen-ergetics, and pathwork spirituality. One year of postgraduate study is required for thosewho wish to become trainers of other core energetics therapists.

the vibrancy and buoyancy of the lifecenter—the core.

The process of this evolutionarywork, therefore, is to unblock ourdefenses, move the stuck energy to cre-ate healthy flow, and transform the neg-ative, distorted emotions back to thecore self. This is done by first penetrat-ing the mask, which uncovers the falseself; second, by working with the physi-cal body, the body armoring; third, bytransforming the negative emotions ofthe dark side and allowing the primalwounds to be expressed; fourth, sup-porting the core to be experienced asloving, joyful, and connected to all life;and finally, this work organically leadsto a deep understanding of a person’stask and purpose in life.

According to core energetic theory,it is of primary importance to teachpeople to use their positive will, the willof the heart, to live in the present, andto be aware that people have choice ineach moment to create their own lives.

Experiencing Core EnergeticsA typical session in core energetics lastsapproximately an hour. The receivermay wear a leotard or bathing suit sothat the therapist can easily assess andtreat the defenses built into the body.Initial work often involves breathingexercises to charge the system, bringawareness to the receiver, and start theprocess of release and transformation.There is always intensive work withbodily movement and exercise andemotional expression that unblock theflow of the life force. The therapist may

use hands-on touch to help the receivermobilize and direct energy through thebody. All levels of the human entity—physical, emotional, mental, and spiri-tual—are addressed as appropriate forthe individual.

Treatment will be adjusted to theparticular needs of the receiver and bedifferent at each stage of therapy, but isalways approached as an evolutionaryprocess that leads from unmasking ofthe shadow self to expression andtransformation of pain to understand-ing and acceptance that opening theheart and feeling love is the healingagent. Transformation occurs when theclient unmasks and expresses the ener-gy of the wounded and lower self,which then allows connection to thecore/spirit.

The Benefits of Core EnergeticsCore energetics should not be confusedwith conventional psychotherapy. Itteaches receivers about their capacityfor self-healing and launches them on aprocess of transformation that is ulti-mately spiritual in nature. Proponentsof core energetics credit it with provid-ing a sense of well-being at all levels ofhuman existence. It is also regarded ashelpful for weight problems, panicattacks, unresolved anger, posttraumat-ic stress, sexual dysfunction, repairingtroubled marital and familial relation-ships, making major personal and pro-fessional changes, and expandingspiritual awareness.

—Pamela L. Chubbuck, Ph.D.

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Resources:

Institute of Core Energetics International

115 East 23rd Street, 12th Floor

New York, NY 10010

Tel: (212) 982-9637

Fax: (212) 673-5939

Web site: www.core-energetics.org

A training and treatment center that organizes

workshops and lectures, publishes a newsletter,

and gives referrals to therapists trained in core

energetics.

Institute of Core Energetics South

8733 Lake Drive

Lithonia, GA 30058

Tel: (770) 388-0086

Fax: (770) 388-0806

A training and treatment center for core energetics,

organizes workshops, lectures, and publishes a

newsletter.

Institute of Core Energetics West

P.O. Box 806

Mendocino, CA 95160

Tel: (707) 937-1825

Fax: (707) 937-3052

e-mail: lisycee@mcn.org

Offers treatment and training in core energetics.

Further Reading:

Books:

Pierrakos, Eva. The Pathwork of Self-Transforma-

tion. New York: Bantam, 1990.

Pierrakos, John. Core Energetics: Developing the

Capacity to Love and Heal. Mendocino, CA: Life

Rhythm, 1990.

——. Eros, Love, and Sexuality. Mendocino, CA:

Life Rhythm, 1997.

Journals:

Energy and Consciousness: International Journal of

Core Energetics. Jacqueline Carlton, Ph.D., ed.

Videotapes:

Chubbuck, Pamela. Say Yes to Life: Grounding and

Loving Your Body. Lithonia, GA: The Institute of

Core Energetics South, ND.

——. Say Yes to Life: Expressing Your Emotions and

Opening to Your Core. Lithonia, GA: The Insti-

tute of Core Energetics South, ND.

CORESOMATICS®

C oreSomatics® is a disciplinedesigned to increase awareness ofthe ways our childhood, emo-

tions, and experiences influence theposture and alignment of our bodies. IncoreSomatics, the habitual use of thebody is seen as a mirror, reflecting allpersonal experience, creating a dynam-ic interdependence between the bodyand the mind. In the nonjudgmentalenvironment of coreSomatics, individu-als identify and change limiting habitu-al physical behaviors, leading to animproved state of mind and self-image.The discipline combines the FeldenkraisMethod® and the Alexander techniquewith gestalt therapy, Jungian psychology,and the expressive arts therapies.

coreSomatics was developed in the1970s by Kay Miller. During the earlypart of that decade, Miller createdcountless theater games and sound andmovement exercises for the improvisa-tional theater company she had foundedin 1974. The exercises gained recogni-tion for their success with at-risk youngadults. By the late 1970s, Miller began touse theater exercises with the physicalprocess therapies of the FeldenkraisMethod and the Alexander technique.Integrating these with Jungian psycholo-gy and gestalt therapy, Kay Miller creat-ed coreSomatics. In 1983, the SomaticInstitute, Pittsburgh, was founded as anot-for-profit organization to provideresearch and education in coreSomatics.

coreSomatics is founded on thepremise that what the individual seeks, inorder to bring about personal improve-ment and change, already exists in theunconscious. Negative aspects such asinsecurity, self-doubt, fear, rigidity, andtension are seen as resulting from early

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trauma. coreSomatics practitionersbelieve that these early traumatizingexperiences negatively impact an indi-vidual’s nervous system, shaping theactions and postures used in adult life.Thus, a seemingly ineffectual or poor useof the body may actually be a highly com-plex reaction to childhood experience, alimiting muscular memory, that oncebrought into awareness can be released.

The first objective of the coreSomat-ics practitioner is to provide a safe envi-ronment in which the client is free toexpress past and current experiences.Having established trust, the coreSo-matics practitioner employs touch, usesverbal expression, movement exercises,and works with breathing patterns andexisting posture. Body tensions and painare explored through imagery, sound,humor, and intuition.

In the process of the hands-on physi-cal interventions and verbal expressions,individuals discover that their physicalhabits are connected to emotional andpsychological memories, which are expe-rienced as muscular armor, rigidity, ten-sion, and pain. coreSomatics practitionersbelieve that it is through the physical andemotional releases of this process thatindividuals find more effective ways tomanage their lives and experience theexuberance of having reclaimed theirfluidity, flexibility, and spontaneity.

coreSomatics has been used to reducestress, relieve tension, and allow individ-uals to experience their lives more fully.People have experienced significantimprovements in intelligence, sensoryacuity, memory, and concentration.Improvements in mood, interpersonalrelationships, productivity, and generalhealth and wellness follow naturally.

—Kay Miller

Resources:

Somatic Institute, Pittsburgh

8600 West Barkhurst Drive

Pittsburgh, PA 15237

Tel: (412) 366-5580

Fax: (412) 367-1026

Offers coreSomatics training through its two-year

certification program, a mastery-level program, an

associates program, and a variety of postgraduate

internships. It sponsors research and education in

coreSomatics and publishes a variety of materials,

including the institute’s journal, Touch®.

EMOTIONAL-KINESTHETIC

PSYCHOTHERAPY

Emotional-kinesthetic psychothera-py (EKP) is a discipline that incor-porates the body in psychotherapy,

seeking to help clients integrate thephysical, emotional, and spiritualaspects of their selves. It incorporates avariety of techniques, including touch,to facilitate this integrative process.Therapists attempt to create an envi-ronment of emotional safety andrespect to allow clients to access andreveal their mind, body, heart, andsoul.

EKP believes that there exist threelevels of human intelligence: cognitive(consisting of knowledge), emotional,and somatic (consisting of body sensa-tions). According to EKP, the heart is theplace where somatic and emotionalintelligence meet. Any life difficulty orbody sensation can be accessed andexplored by asking, “What’s happeningin your heart?” at a moment in time.Emotional and somatic sensations con-tain information and experience thatinform a person’s thought process, andwithout which a person often cannotmove forward in his or her life.

Linda Marks developed EKP fromher experience as a trauma survivor,which led her to study approaches topsychotherapy that study the body. EKPdraws extensively from Ron Kurtz’sHakomi and incorporates aspects ofRobert Assagioli’s psychosynthesis andEugene Gendlin’s focusing. EKPresponds to clients’ particular needs by

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using character typology, the model ofhuman personality conceived by Wil-helm Reich and developed by AlexanderLowen and John Pierrakos in Bioener-getics. Marks founded the Institute forEmotional-Kinesthetic Psychotherapyin 1990, but the principles of EKP hadbeen applied in her private therapypractice and personal growth work-shops since 1985.

An EKP therapist’s goal is to helpclients achieve a sense of integrationthat allows them to live meaningful andproductive lives. The work aims to allowclients to heal their most woundedparts, meet their simplest unmet needs,and reclaim the deepest part of theirselves. A typical session may include thefollowing:

1. Leading the clients through a guidedmeditation, which EKP calls a heartmeditation. In this process, clientsexplore the emotional and physicalsensations they experience in theirheart in relation to what is happen-ing in important parts of their life,such as work, personal relation-ships, and self-esteem. A heart med-itation begins each EKP session tohelp the client center himself or her-self and create a safe, spirituallyinclusive environment in which todo therapy.

2. Sharing aspects of the client’s life to create a context for an ongoing ther-apy.

3. Calling attention to what is happen-ing in the heart and body in the pre-sent moment, to help the clientfollow emotional and somaticprocesses.

4. Touching, when appropriate andwith permission, to facilitate emo-tional processes.

5. Guiding a client toward perceptionof sensations, such as jitteriness,numbness, or tightness. These sen-sations, referred to as the emotional-kinesthetic charge, are consideredthe embodiment of the client’sinner state. The EKP therapist helpsthe client follow the emotional-

kinesthetic charge to its source,which may be a traumatic experi-ence or unmet needs. This guiding isknown as EKP process work.

6. Closing a session by calling atten-tion to the emotions and somaticexperiences that have emerged.This is often done with closed eyesso that the client can assimilate hisor her inner experiences of the ses-sion. Finally, the client returns toan outer, open-eyed state of con-sciousness.

EKP has many benefits, the most simpleof which can include stress reduction,developing a stronger sense of self, andalleviating pain. At a deeper level, EKPoffers a healing context for trauma andneglect, allowing clients to bridge thesplit between body and mind that oftenfollows traumatic experience. EKP canbe used to help one find his or her voice,develop appropriate work and personalrelationships from the core of one’sbeing, and connect with a sense of spir-itual purpose. For borderline clients andothers in the midst of a serious psychot-ic crisis, other therapeutic approacheswould be indicated.

—Linda Marks

Resources:

Institute for EKP

3 Central Avenue

Newton, MA 02160

Tel: (617) 965-7846

Fax and Office Line (617) 332-7262

Provides numerous seminars, workshops, and

extended group therapeutic programs, in addition

to running a three-year training program.

Further Reading:

Liedloff, Jean. The Continuum Concept. Reading,

MA: Addison-Wesley, 1977.

Marks, Linda. Living With Vision: Reclaiming the

Power of the Heart. Skokie, IL Knowledge Sys-

tems, Inc., 1989.

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——. The Emotional-Kinesthetic Study Guide

Newton, MA: Institute for EKP, 1991.

Small, Jacquelyn. Becoming Naturally Therapeu-

tic. New York: Bantam, 1990.

FOCUSING

Focusing, developed by Dr. EugeneGendlin, is a process that allowsand encourages the mind and body

to communicate in order to heed thewisdom that comes from our bodies.The focusing process can be used byitself, and it also makes all types of psy-chotherapy and counseling more effec-tive. It facilitates problem solving,creative endeavors, stress reduction,and spirituality. The six steps of focus-ing invite people to unlock doors andmove into dimensions that cannot beentered through intellect alone.

The Development of FocusingDr. Gendlin, a professor who is both aphilosopher and psychologist, devel-oped focusing while at the University ofChicago. The concepts of focusingevolved from his work in existentialphilosophy, which he wrote about inThe Creation of Meaning (1962) andfrom his research in psychotherapy,which is described in an article entitled“Focusing” in Psychotherapy: Theory,Research and Practice (Vol. 6., No. 1,1969).

Since 1969 Dr. Gendlin has beenteaching focusing all over the worldand writing about it in numerous arti-cles and three books. There are certifiedfocusing trainers located throughoutNorth America, as well as in SouthAmerica, Europe, and Asia. Trainingprograms are available worldwide forthose who want to become certifiedfocusing trainers in order to teach or toapply it toward other disciplines.

The Basic Theory of Focusing In his research on psychotherapy, Dr.Gendlin posed the question, “Why issome psychotherapy successful andsome not?” From analyzing a largenumber of therapy sessions, he and hiscoworkers discovered that it is not whatthe client talks about, but rather howthe client talks about an issue thatdetermines whether a person gets bet-ter in therapy. Successful clients get intouch with what feels like a vague bodi-ly experience, and then they keep theirattention on it while it comes intofocus. In essence, they attend to whatthey don’t yet fully understand.

In the realm of focusing, the “body”means not only the physiological self,but also the storehouse of experiencethat is carried there. Dr. Gendlin calledthe body’s version a “felt sense.” Bylearning to tune in to the bodily “feltsense” of different experiences ordifficulties, we can more easily resolvelife issues and problems.

Another important assumption isthat every problem has within it somewisdom about its next step, and somepositive life energy that wants to moveforward or to be released. When weaccurately name how the body is carry-ing an experience, not only do we getnew information and insights, but weget a physical release that feels good.

Currently, exciting work is beingdone to bring focusing into education,into the healing and creative arts, intomedicine, and into spirituality. Thepotential of this simple yet powerfultool continues to unfold. As Dr. Gendlinsays, “One step in the body is worth athousand steps in the mind.”

How to Practice FocusingFocusing can be learned from a book, butis best learned from a person who guidesone through the process. Many peoplebegin by learning it in a class or workshopor from a focusing teacher, and then con-tinue to practice with a focusing partner.Partners take turns so that each one has achance to be the guide and the focuser.

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Focusing Instructions

1. CLEAR A SPACEHow are you? What’s between you and feeling fine? Don’t answer; let what comes in your body do the answering.Don’t go into anything.Greet each concern that comes. Put each aside for a while, next to you.Except for that, are you fine?

2. USE FELT SENSEPick one problem to focus on.Don’t go into the problem. What do you sense in your body when you recall

the whole of that problem?Sense all of that, the sense of the whole thing, the murky discomfort or the

unclear body-sense of it.

3. GET A HANDLEWhat is the quality of the felt sense?What one word, phrase, or image comes out of this felt sense?What quality-word would fit it best?

4. RESONATEGo back and forth between word (or image) and the felt sense. Is that right?If they match, have the sensation of matching several times.If the felt sense changes, follow it with your attention.

When you get a perfect match, the words (or images) being just right for this feeling, let yourself feel that for a minute.

5. ASK“What is it, about the whole problem, that makes me so__________?”

When stuck, ask questions:What is the worst of this feeling?What’s really so bad about this?What does it need?What should happen?Don’t answer; wait for the feeling to stir and give you an answer.

What would it feel like if it was all OK?Let the body answer:What is in the way of that?

6. RECEIVEWelcome what came. Be glad it spoke.It is only one step on this problem, not the last.Now that you know where it is, you can leave it and come back to it later.Protect it from critical voices that interrupt.

Does your body want another round of focusing, or is this a good stopping place?

Focusing

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The focusing process involves sixsteps. In the first step, the Focuser isinvited to “clear a space,” whichinvolves taking an inventory of the con-cerns or issues that the person canlocate in his or her body at that timeand placing each “down” or outside thebody. After the simple act of putting theproblems down, the person often feels adistinct release. Clearing a space oftenreleases stress and creates a safe dis-tance from the issues or feelings thatare being carried around.

Next the focuser is asked to choose aproblem that needs attention right nowand to ask in a friendly way, “How doesthis whole issue feel in my body rightnow?” After a pause, the focuser checksto see if a word, phrase, or, perhaps, animage comes that feels like it matchesthe sensations inside. If there is amatch, the focuser usually feels a “yes”inside, which is followed by a sense ofbodily release. He or she then proceedsto the next step. If there isn’t a match,the focuser tries other words or imagesuntil a good fit is found. Then thefocuser sits with this body sense, just“keeping it company,” or asking it open-ended questions such as “What’s thecrux of this?”, “What does this problemneed?”, or “What’s a step in the rightdirection?” In the pause after eachquestion, the focuser is invited to let afresh answer arise from the body sense.There is usually some physical relief or“felt shift,” as well as new insight thatresults.

For example, a focuser might find ona given day that she is aware of three dif-ferent and distinct unsettled feelings inher body: one from an uncomfortableconversation with her mother, one froman argument with her boyfriend, andone from worry about a test. After settingthem all aside on an imaginary bench fora few moments, she chooses to work onthe argument with her boyfriend. At firstshe thinks the word that best describesthe tight feeling in her chest is “angry,”but that doesn’t quite fit. She finds that“hurt” better captures how she feels aftertheir argument. When she says the word

“hurt” she heaves a sigh of acknowledg-ment. “Yes, that’s how I really felt whenI hung up the phone.” She then sensesinto the whole thing about being “hurt,”and finds that it has to do with feelingunrecognized and unseen. When sheasks what this feeling of “hurt” needs, itbecomes clear that the right step is totalk to her boyfriend about her hurt anddisappointment, not about the anger,which has by now shifted.

Benefits of FocusingThe benefits of focusing includebecoming aware that there is a realm ofinner knowing that can be found in thebody, reducing stress or tension in thebody-mind, and increasing one’s lifeenergy. Focusing also offers a way towork through blocks, it facilitates effec-tive problem solving and decision-mak-ing, it promotes creativity, it improvesthe effectiveness of psychotherapy, andit deepens spirituality.

—Joan Klagsbrun, Ph.D.

Resources:

The Focusing Institute

34 East Lane

Spring Valley, NY 10977

Tel: (914) 362-5222 or (800) 799-7418

e-mail: info@focusing.org

Web site: www.focusing.org

Provides training tapes, articles, and information

about teachers and focusing-oriented psychothera-

pists around the world. Publishes the journal

Focusing Folio.

Further Reading:

Boukydis, C. F. Z. “Client-Centered/Experiential

Practice with Parents and Infants.” In Client-

Centered and Experiential Psychotherapy in the

Nineties, edited by Lietar, G., et. al. Belgium:

Leuven University Press, 1990.

Campbell, P., and G. McMahon. Biospirituality:

Focusing as a Way to Grow. Chicago: Loyola

University Press, 1985.

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Cornell, A. Weiser. The Power of Focusing. San

Francisco: New Harbinger, 1996.

Friedman, Neil. On Focusing: How to Access Your

Own and Other People’s Direct Experience. Self-

Published (259 Massachusetts Ave., Arlington,

MA, 02174).

Gendlin, E. T. “A Theory of Personality Change.” In

Personality Change, edited by Worchel and

Byrne. New York: Wiley, 1964.

——. Focusing. New York: Bantam, 1981.

——. Let Your Body Interpret Your Dreams. Wil-

mette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1986.

——. Focusing Oriented Psychotherapy: A Manual

of the Experiential Method. New York: Guilford

Publications, 1996.

GESTALT THERAPY

G estalt therapy is a form of humanistic psychology thatattempts to help participants

develop awareness of their unresolvedneeds and emotions. Gestalt therapy’snotion of the mind is based on psycho-analysis, gestalt psychology, existential-ism, and the theories of Wilhelm Reich.A person is thought to be psychological-ly healthy when he or she is aware of hisor her needs and is able to resolve themin an effective way. Gestalt therapists tryto identify when their clients are block-ing emotions by observing their move-ments and postures. Instead ofinvestigating the past, gestalt therapistsaddress clients’ problems and emotionsas they manifest in the presentmoment, often using techniques thatrequire the client to act out his or heremotions. By urging people to confronttheir emotions, gestalt therapy seeks tohelp them make choices, interact withothers, and relieve the physical symp-toms of anxiety and stress.

The History of Gestalt TherapyThe original theories and techniques ofgestalt therapy were formed by Lauraand Frederick “Fritz” Perls from the sci-entific and intellectual atmosphere ofGermany in the 1920s. After receivinghis medical training, Fritz Perls beganworking with brain-damaged soldiers atFrankfurt-am-Main in 1926. During thistime he became interested in new theo-ries of the mind conceived by the exis-tential philosophy of Martin Heidiggerand Martin Buber and gestalt psycholo-gy, developed by Max Wertheimer andKurt Koffa. He became a psychoanalyst,studying with people such as KarenHorney and Wilhelm Reich, who wereexpanding Sigmund Freud’s methods.In the 1930s Fritz Perls went into thera-py with Reich, who led him to believethat the body was a critical aspect ofpsychological therapy. Laura Perls stud-ied with the influential thinkers MartinBuber and Paul Tillich at the Universityof Frankfurt. Often writing under herhusband’s name, she incorporated theprinciples of existential philosophy andtheology into a framework of psycho-logical therapy.

In 1934 Fritz and Laura Perls fledNazi Germany for South Africa, wherethey established the South AfricanInstitute for Psychoanalysis. Ego,Hunger, and Aggression, published in1942, outlined the principles that wereto become the foundation of gestalttherapy. In 1946 they moved to NewYork City, where they began conductinggestalt group therapy sessions in theirapartment. The Gestalt Therapy Associ-ation of New York was established in1952, followed by the Gestalt Instituteof Cleveland in 1954. Through the1960s, gestalt therapy’s popularity grew.Fritz and Laura Perls moved to Califor-nia in 1960 and conducted workshopsthroughout the West Coast. In his work-shops, Fritz Perls established himself asa leader and a guru. Many participantsaccused him of abusing his power. Hecontinued to promote gestalt therapyuntil his death in 1970. The variety oftechniques developed throughout the

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history of gestalt therapy have becomea resource for therapists in many otherdisciplines. At least sixty-two GestaltTherapy Institutes currently existthroughout the world.

Gestalt TheoryThe theory of gestalt therapy wasinspired by the insights into human con-sciousness developed by gestalt psychol-ogy. This theory of mind originated in1920s Berlin in reaction to the prevailingatomistic and analytical approaches tounderstanding perception. At that time,theorists believed that a person identifiesa perceived object by mentally assem-bling each part. Gestalt psychologyasserted that this model must bereversed. Instead, a person grasps thewhole form of the object first. This whole,or gestalt, then determines the way thatone recognizes the component parts.Thus, one’s experiences are organizedaccording to basic mental patterns, orgestalts. As gestalt psychologists believethat each person possesses a set of gestaltimages, gestalt therapists claim that basicneeds, drives, and beliefs are alsogestalts. These gestalts impart value tothe objects or people in a person’s envi-ronment, affecting his or her view of a sit-uation and motivating him or her tomake certain choices. Like existentialphilosophy, this view emphasizes per-sonal responsibility. To feel more in con-trol of and satisfaction with one’s choices,one must become aware of one’s freedominstead of blaming external influences.The gestalt therapist’s role is to helpclients identify how their needs andbeliefs shape the ways they see them-selves and others.

According to this model, a healthyindividual is able to manage his or herneeds by acknowledging what he or shedesires and identifying how to obtain it.Unfortunately, human needs are notalways met, and gestalt therapy claimsthat these unfulfilled needs manifest asanxiety, frustration, muscular tension,and other disturbances. A person’s needsmay not be met because he or she is

unaware of the needs or is unable toexpress or fulfill them. Adopting theessential framework of psychoanalysis,gestalt therapy seeks to reveal unex-plored parts of a client’s personality andallow him or her to resolve unfulfilleddesires responsibly. However, gestalttherapy deviates from traditional Freudi-an psychoanalysis by replacing the thera-pist’s search into a client’s past with adialogue and enactment techniques thatreveal the client’s feelings and opinionsin the present moment. Gestalt therapyemphasizes the here-and-now to illumi-nate the ways that a person’s currentbehaviors and attitudes influence thechoices he or she makes. Despite thisemphasis on the present, the client’s pastremains an important aspect of gestalttherapy. Since unresolved needs from thepast are thought to persist in a person’smind, affecting his or her everyday func-tioning, important aspects of a client’shistory will directly or indirectly presentthemselves during the session. With thisapproach, the course of a session will bedifferent for each person.

A Gestalt Therapy SessionThroughout a gestalt therapy session, aperson’s attention is always directed tothe present. At any moment, a clientmay be asked to describe what he or sheis feeling. The client and therapist mustalways speak in the first person anddescribe events in the present tense. Forexample, instead of telling the therapist“my back is tense” or “my father makesme angry,” a client will be urged todescribe his or her current feelings andbehavior with a statement such as “I amtensing my back” or “I feel angry at myfather.” These statements are phrasedto emphasize the person’s responsibili-ty. Gestalt therapy techniques aredesigned to force a client to confrontand express his or her needs and emo-tions during the session. They are oftenintense emotional experiences. In onecommon technique, the client is askedto isolate an emotion or a part of his orher personality and address it as if it

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were sitting in an empty chair in theroom. A client also may conduct animaginary dialogue with a person froma dream or from his or her past.

Gestalt therapy is often practiced ingroups, usually consisting of ten people,for two hours. The therapist attempts tocreate an environment in which each per-son must express what he or she feels andlisten to others. For example, a personwho has trouble expressing criticism maybe instructed to make a critical statementabout each other member of the group.Then the therapist may ask each person todescribe his or her emotional reaction tothis confrontation. Through this process, aperson can identify and overcome his orher barriers to self-expression. The thera-pist mediates the group, giving instruc-tions and setting boundaries. Through theprocess, participants investigate how theirproblems manifest in their interactionswith the group.

Therapists ask their clients to monitorhow they feel during each exercise, help-ing them to become aware of the differentemotions that may surface. Therapistsalso will be able to observe how a clientmay be blocking emotions. Borrowingconcepts from Reich, gestalt therapyclaims that the body may be affected byblocked emotions. Thus, a therapist willlook for signs of blocked emotion in a per-son’s movement or posture. The therapistseeks to make clients more aware of howtheir bodies are affected by their blockedemotions. The goal of therapy is to equipan individual with the self-awareness tofind effective and authentic ways toresolve his or her needs.

BenefitsMany individuals choose gestalt therapyto become more emotionally expressiveand more confident in their ability tomake decisions, and to develop greaterself-awareness. An individual mayattend a group session to improve theway he or she relates to others. Or agroup of family members or coworkersmay attend together to develop moresuccessful ways of interacting. Gestalt

therapy traditionally appeals to peopleseeking help with anxiety, depression, orstress. Gestalt therapy is not designed totreat individuals with more severe psycho-logical conditions, such as psychoses orschizophrenia. Since a typical session ingestalt therapy will require confrontingone’s emotions, it is possible that a partic-ipant will encounter a severe emotionalexperience. For this reason, people whoare extremely unstable or vulnerable maychoose to avoid gestalt therapy.

Resources:

Gestalt Center for Psychotherapy and Training

510 East 89th Street

New York, NY 10128

Tel: (212) 879-3669

Offers training and resources for those interested in

gestalt therapy.

Gestalt Therapy Institute of Los Angeles

1460 Seventh Street

Suite 301

Santa Monica, CA 90410

Tel: (909) 629- 9935

Promotes the study of gestalt therapy.

Further Reading:

Kogan, Gerald. Gestalt Therapy Resources. Berke-

ley, CA: Transformations Press, 1980.

O’ Connell, Vincent, ed. Gestalt Therapy Primer:

Introductory Readings in Gestalt Therapy.

Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1975.

Van de Riet, Vernon. Gestalt Therapy: An Introduc-

tion. New York: Pergamon Press, 1980.

HAKOMI INTEGRATIVE

SOMATICS

Hakomi integrative somatics is a formof therapy that combines bodyworkwith elements of psychological

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counseling. It grew out of the hakomimethod of body-centered psychotherapy,founded by Ron Kurtz. Both forms ofhakomi view the mind and body as a sin-gle integrated organism, in which pasttraumas, both mental and physical, are“somaticized,” that is, manifested in thebody as habitual tension and strain.Fixed attitudes and patterns of behaviorare similarly formed. Hakomi integra-tive somatics seeks to teach students tobring these unconscious habits to con-scious awareness, understand them,and change them.

The History of HakomiKurtz based his original techniques ofhakomi psychotherapy on his knowl-edge of Taoism, Buddhism, and variousbody-mind disciplines, includingReichian therapy and bioenergetics. Hisstudies in these areas led him toobserve that a person’s psychologicaldefenses arise from a desire to avoidpain; thus, Kurtz believed, they aremore readily overcome when they aregently supported rather than opposed.He developed hakomi into a method ofpsychotherapy that strives to evoke andprocess inner experiences throughtechniques of “mindfulness,” an East-ern meditative technique for becomingaware of one’s feelings and sensationsin the present moment.

In the mid-1970s, Pat Ogden, anapprentice to Kurtz and a student ofvarious bodywork therapies, becameintrigued with the pervasive pattern inher patients’ dissociation of the mindfrom the body. She also noticed thatbodywork therapies and psychotherapywere generally practiced independentlyof each other. Wanting to forge the twoapproaches into a tool for treatingbody-mind dissociation, Ogden beganto include bodywork in psychotherapysessions. She found that her patientsnegotiated the healing process in amore integrated way and with morelasting results. In addition, she foundthat by incorporating the psychologicalprocessing of emotional material dur-ing a bodywork session, a patient’s

physical changes were more enduring.Ogden’s efforts to join hands-on body-work and movement work with psy-chotherapy resulted in the formation ofHakomi Integrative Somatics.

Increasing Self-AwarenessHakomi is founded on the premise thathuman beings are self-organizing; wecontinually and creatively adapt ourperceptions and behaviors in accor-dance with our environment. Eventual-ly, however, we may form fixed attitudesabout ourselves and these may becomeunconscious attitudes, or “core organiz-ers,” that can limit us to habitual, auto-matic styles of being and relating to theworld. Further, they can restrict ourcreativity and capacity for personalfulfillment. Core organizers are heldand expressed in belief systems andemotional habits, as well as in bodystructure and movement patterns.Hakomi recognizes two distinct types ofwounds that affect the formation ofcore organizers: developmental andtraumatic. Developmental woundsarise from the unsatisfactory comple-tion of learning tasks. Such tasksinclude learning to get one’s needs metand learning to be autonomous. Trau-matic wounds occur in overwhelmingsituations in which actual survival isthreatened, such as abuse, accidents,surgery, and war. When we suffer fromeither kind of wound, we may becomehabitually dissociated from one or moreof our core organizers.

In hakomi integrative somatics, a heal-ing relationship between therapist andpatient is established, providing a crucialelement in the creation of a context inwhich the cooperation of the patient’sunconscious may be gained. Then, bymeans of exercises combining bodyworkwith verbalizations by the patient, coreorganizers are brought to consciousnessand new information about thembecomes available. In this experiential,rather than cognitive (analytical, think-ing-based), process, the patient canexplore new options—both physicaland psychological—and spontaneously

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reorganize toward health. The patientalso learns ways to deepen his or herawareness of the connection betweenthe body and the mind. He or shebecomes more attuned to the ever-changing flow of wordless information

that is the language of the body. Thisawareness becomes a powerful healingtool for it naturally expands thepatient’s sense of a physical self—anessential step in correcting the dissocia-tion of the mind from the body.

Pat Ogden, developer of hakomi integrative somatics, building a healing relationshipthrough gentle touch.

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Achieving MindfulnessThe practitioner begins a session bytalking with the patient to assess his orher situation and to establish a healingrelationship in which the client feelssafe and accepted. The client is helpedto access a state of consciousness calledmindfulness, a self-reflective state culti-vated by gently focusing one’s attentioninward. Through mindfulness the clientobserves and describes present innerexperience—specifically body patterns,emotions, images, memories, orthoughts. These facets of inner experi-ence reflect basic attitudes such as “I’mnot good enough,” or “I am alwaysalone.” Core organizers are accessiblethrough either body or mind; one leveleasily accesses the other. By means ofverbal and physical experiments, aclient begins to re-associate with previ-ously dissociated core organizers. Forexample, a client is asked to attend towhat happens as hands-on bodywork isperformed on her shoulders. He or shemay notice that a feeling of sadnessarises as he or she is reminded of beingalone as a child. The practitioner con-tinues using such exercises to explorethe places in the body that contain pat-terns of core organization—in this case,the one involved with feelings of loneli-ness. Throughout the process, the clientactively participates and verbalizes hisor her inner experiences and emotions.

A session also includes supporting aclient’s inner resources by developingan awareness of the strengths andpotentials an individual already pos-sesses. The therapist approaches theclient in a manner that acknowledgesthat client’s abilities, rather than adopt-ing a stance that focuses exclusively onproblems and supposed deficiencies.

Integrating the Body and MindHakomi integrative somatics can enhancephysical, psychological, and spiritual well-being. By working simultaneously withthe body and the mind, Hakomi can oftenuncover information that remains uncon-scious in conventional therapies and can

effect physical changes that are morelasting. Participants consistently reportgreater integration of the body andmind. While specific outcomes vary,results can include the reduction ofpain and posttraumatic stress symp-toms; improved physical alignment,capacity for intimacy, and creativity;and an overall feeling of being more intune with oneself.

—Pat Ogden, M.A.

Resources:

Hakomi Integrative Somatics

P.O. Box 19438

Boulder, CO 80308

Tel: (303) 447-3290

e-mail: hakomisoma@aol.com

Offers workshops in Hakomi Integrative Somatics

and training of practitioners.

Further Reading:

Kurtz, Ron. Body-Centered Psychotherapy: The

Hakomi Method. Mendocino, CA: Life Rhythm,

1986.

HOLOTROPIC

BREATHWORKTM

Holotropic BreathworkTM is arecently developed method ofself-exploration that combines

rapid, deep breathing, evocative music,and focused bodywork. The term“holotropic” is derived from the Greekholos, meaning “whole” and trepin,meaning “to move in the direction of.”Holotropic Breathwork aims to bringthe mind and body together in a trancestate, which furnishes access to buriedmemories and aspects of consciousnesshidden under ordinary conditions.

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While Holotropic Breathwork can be aneffective treatment for mental andphysical disorders, it is more oftenapproached as shamanic activity forrecovery of the deep past and entry intothe spiritual realm.

The History of Holotropic BreathworkTM

Holotropic Breathwork was developedby Stanislav Grof, a Czech psychiatristtrained in Prague during the 1950s, andhis wife, Christine. A study of Jung’s the-ories of the collective unconscious con-vinced Grof that faith in reason had ledmodern science to espouse a mechanis-tic model of the mind, incapable ofassessing or utilizing its true range ofpowers. He was particularly interestedin determining the scope and nature ofexperiences such as visions generallyrelegated to the category of parapsycho-logical phenomena.

A breakthrough in the manufactureof psychedelic drugs gave Grof a way toexperiment with altered states of con-sciousness. By his own account he soonrealized that there were broad similari-ties between certain drug-inducedstates of mind and the experiencesattained through meditative, mystic,and shamanic activity.

After emigrating to the United Statesin the early 1960s, Grof continued hisresearch into altered consciousness andparapsychology at the Maryland Psychi-atric Research Center, Johns HopkinsUniversity, and eventually the EsalenInstitute in Big Sur, California.

During the 1970s the Grofs emergedas leaders in the New Age healing andspiritual movement but kept strong tieswith psychiatric theory and scholarship.Along with Kenneth Wilber, they areregarded as key figures in the formationof transpersonal psychology, a systemintegrating Jungian theory with contem-porary physiological research and multi-cultural study of religion. Transpersonalpsychology is sometimes the true basisfor clinical treatment of mental disorders.

The Grofs incorporated its principlesinto Holotropic Breathwork, which they

began to offer in workshop and trainingprograms in 1976. Several books, mostnotably Stanislav Grof’s Realms of theHuman Unconscious of 1975 and TheHolotropic Mind of 1992, have con-tributed to the steady rise of interest inthe Holotropic Breathwork techniqueand transpersonal psychology.

A Transpersonal Theory of the MindHolotropic Breathwork is based on thepremise that the psyche is a field ofcommingled personal and cosmic, or“transpersonal,” energy. Breath is morethan a metaphor of the fluid continuumof personal and transpersonal energy.According to the Grofs, breath acts as aconduit for the energy, sustaining themind as well as the body. In ordinary“hylotropic” consciousness, one isaware of only a limited portion of thevast spectrum of energies beingexchanged. The technique of Holotrop-ic Breathwork is designed to acceleratebreathing and at the same time greatlyexpand awareness of the transcendentforces pervading each moment ofhuman life.

Faster and deeper breathing andmusic are used to bring about a trancestate comparable to the state reached inSufi dancing or Native American sweat-lodge rituals. The Grofs maintain that inthis state it is possible to get access tokinds of consciousness experiences:sensory, biographical, perinatal (cen-tered around the time of birth), andtranspersonal.

In the sensory experience, sight andsound become richer and more com-pelling. In biographical experiences, theindividual accesses buried memoriesand feeling known as coex systems.Coex systems are systems of condensedexperience that have been stored upsince childhood and are regarded bysome alternative health care profes-sionals as the source of many healthproblems. In perinatal experiences, the individual relives her or his birth. This isconsidered the doorway to the fourth,or transpersonal, category of experience,

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Training

Certification at the Grof Transpersonal Training center requires 150 hours of general expe-rience in Holotropic Breathwork, 350 hours of training combining theory and practice,and a final two-week seminar. The instruction focuses upon breathwork techniques andcorrelated issues ranging from childhood sexual abuse to paranormal psychology andshamanism. The certification program takes at least two years to complete.

which corresponds to Jung’s collectiveunconscious. Numinous experiencefloods the individual, boundaries ofspace and time are crossed, past lifeexperiences reclaimed, myths and sym-bols may assume enhanced vitality, andvisions of the future sometimes appear.

Grof refers to Holotropic Breathworkas “an adventure in self-discovery”rather than as a therapy or mystic rite.The therapeutic value of HolotropicBreathwork is thought to issue from theunblocking of conflicts and traumasstored in coex systems and from theenhancement of the individual’s senseof inner potential.

Experiencing Holotropic BreathworkTM

Holotropic Breathwork is presented attwo-day workshops by facilitatorscertified by the Grofs. Participants areinterviewed, then taught the principlesand techniques of Breathwork. The ses-sions, which last from two to four hours,take place in a dimly lit room.

Participants work in pairs, alternat-ing the roles of breather and sitter. Assitters, they watch over their compan-ion, providing a sense of shelter andsupport and attending to any needs sheor he may have. As breathers, they lieflat on the floor and undergo a processthat leads from relaxation exercises toan extended period of accelerated, deepbreathing. Music is played at a high vol-ume throughout the session and gener-ally features little-known classicalpieces, film scores, New Age music, Gre-gorian chants, aboriginal drumming,and other types of music associatedwith ritual and trance experience. Ifrequested or required, the facilitators

provide hands-on touch for thebreather, applying pressure to areas ofresistance and tension in order to aid intheir release.

The breathers soon enter a trance inwhich consciousness is altered, not lost.The effects vary from individual to indi-vidual. Some grow still as if in deepmeditation. Others see vivid images andbecome active, rocking, moaning,weeping, crying out in anger, expressinga sensation or feeling. There may be abroad range of emotion from ecstaticrapture to abysmal despair within a sin-gle session. A breather does not neces-sarily experience all four categories ofexperience, and the experiences do notalways progress in sequence from thesensory to the transpersonal. Each timethe role of breather is assumed, a differ-ent response is likely to occur. Usuallyparticipants breathe and sit twice dur-ing the course of a workshop.

At the end of the session participantsand facilitators work together, to releaseunresolved tensions. Mandala drawing,which involves graphic and symbolicfigures, brings the session to conclu-sion. The typical workshop in Holotrop-ic Breathwork includes meditation,lectures, and group sharing.

Benefits and Risks of HolotropicBreathworkTM

Holotropic Breathwork is a highlycharged, sometimes strenuous experi-ence precluded during pregnancy andfor anyone with glaucoma, heart dis-ease, or a severe emotional disorder.

Participants in Holotropic Breath-work report that they receive intuitiveinsights and clarify troublesome areas

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of their lives. Practitioners of the disci-pline believe that the technique pro-motes self-healing through the releaseof accumulated stress and trauma andgreater connection with physical, emo-tional, and spiritual parts of oneself.

—Kylea Taylor, M.S.

Resources:

Association for Holotropic Breathwork Interna-

tional

P.O. Box 7169

Santa Cruz, CA 95061-7169

Web site: www.breathwork.com

Membership group that organizes conferences and

publishes a quarterly newsletter, The Inner Door,

with articles on Holotropic Breathwork research

and practice.

East-West Retreats

P.O. Box 12

Philo, CA 95466

Tel: (707) 895-2856

Organizes Buddhist Vipassana/Holotropic Breath-

work workshops.

Grof Transpersonal Training

20 Sunnyside, Suite A-253

Mill Valley, CA 94941

Tel: (415) 383-8779

Web site: www.holotropic.com

Trains and certifies practitioners of Holotropic

Breathwork, provides referrals to certified

practitioners, and publishes the Grofs’ lecture and

conference schedule.

Further Reading:

Grof, Christina. The Thirst for Wholeness. San

Francisco: HarperCollins Publishers, 1993.

Grof, Stanislav. The Adventure of Self-Discovery:

Dimensions of Consciousness and New Perspec-

tives in Psychotherapy and Inner Exploration.

Stonybrook: SUNY Press, 1988.

——. Realms of the Human Unconscious. London:

Souvenir Press Ltd., 1975.

Grof, Stanislav, and Hal Bennett. The Holotropic

Mind. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco,

1992.

Scotton, Bruce, Allan Chinen, and John Battista,

eds. Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and

Psychology. New York: HarperCollins Publishers,

1996.

Taylor, Kylea. The Breathwork Experience. Santa

Cruz, CA: Hanford Mead Publishers, 1994.

——.The Ethics of Caring. Santa Cruz, CA: Han-

ford Mead Publishers, 1995.

Wilber, Kenneth. The Spectrum of Consciousness.

Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Publications, 1977.

MEDICAL ORGONE THERAPY

Medical orgone therapy is aunique approach to treatingemotional and physical illness

by reducing or eliminating those barri-ers that block the natural expression ofemotion and healthy sexual feeling.Thismethod of treatment was developed byAustrian psychiatrist and scientist Wil-helm Reich, M.D. (1897–1957). Afteryears of clinical and experimental labo-ratory research, Reich concluded thatemotions, sexual feelings, and all lifeprocesses are expressions of a biologicalenergy in the body. He further concludedthat this life energy is related to bioelec-tricity but is fundamentally different. Hecalled this energy “orgone energy.” Reichtheorized that orgone energy fills theuniverse and pulsates in all livingthings. He believed that deep, genuinelove and the ability to experience a grat-ifying orgasm mutually with one’s part-ner are the fullest and deepestexpressions of our being and are centralto maintaining optimal health.

Reich contended that in almost allindividuals, the flow and release oforgone energy are blocked by chronic

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Austrian psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich is often referred to as the father of body-oriented psychotherapies.

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muscle contractions in various areas ofthe body and by emotional attitudesadopted early in life. The “nice littlegirl” who never gets angry, and the“strong, brave boy” who never showsfear and sadness are but two examplesof such attitudes that prevent the fulland rational expression of natural emo-tions. Blocked emotions interfere withpleasure in life and cause sexual feel-ings to become disconnected from ten-der emotions of love. Withoutemotional release, anxiety develops,which further increases physical andemotional contraction. This cycleresults in a range of problems such asfeelings of emptiness, depression, irra-tional fears, and self-destructive behav-ior. Medical orgone therapy employsdirect work on the body, especially onspastic muscles, with verbal therapy tobring about a healthy state accompa-nied by satisfaction in one’s work andlove life.

The History of Medical Orgone TherapyDr. Wilhelm Reich began his career as astudent and colleague of SigmundFreud (1856–1939), the founder of psy-choanalysis.During his work as a psy-choanalyst, Reich discovered that theindividual’s deep emotions were boundup in defensive character attitudes,which he called “character armor.” Totreat these problems Reich developed ahighly effective technique of characteranalysis, still used today by other psy-chotherapies, which focuses on theindividual’s attitudes and present-dayconcerns and less so on past relation-ships within the family.

While working with patients, Reichobserved that only those who developeda satisfactory, healthy sexual life fullyresolved their neurotic symptoms. Satis-faction was not determined by the merepresence of sexual activity. Rather, itrequired the ability to give in to bothdeep, tender love feelings and theintense sexual sensations that are expe-rienced with a total body orgasm. Reichasserted that this all-encompassing

experience is possible only with a partnerof the opposite sex, and concluded thatonly such a complete orgasm could reg-ulate the energy metabolism.

Reich observed that defensive emo-tional attitudes are not just “in themind” but are held in the body’s mus-cles, and he called this the “musculararmor.” He also found that inhibitedfeelings were accompanied by restric-tions in respiration. These realizationsled him to the groundbreaking conclu-sion that the successful treatment ofemotional problems requires work onthe body combined with verbal therapy.

Reich’s theories about the linkbetween sex, emotions, and the body,and his experimental work with orgoneenergy were very controversial. Legalaction was taken against him by theUnited States Food and Drug Adminis-tration. He refused to defend his scien-tific work in a courtroom, believing theproper venue to challenge his researchwas the laboratory. He was found guiltyof failing to obey an injunction and wasjailed. He died in prison in 1957.

Reich’s ideas about sexuality haveoften been misunderstood. This wasespecially true during the “sexual revo-lution” of the 1960s and 1970s, when hisname and ideas were associated withthe idea that one can become “free” byhaving sex. In fact, Reich clearly statedthat loveless sexuality was neurotic andwhen harsh or mechanical wasunhealthy.

Elsworth F. Baker, M.D. (1903–1985),Reich’s associate, continued Reich’swork in the late 1950s, overseeing thetraining of medical orgonomists andorgone research. He founded the Jour-nal of Orgonomy in 1967 and estab-lished the American College ofOrgonomy in 1968. The college activelycontinues the development of the sci-ence of orgonomy, and its journal pub-lishes clinical and scientific research.

The Theory of Medical Orgone TherapyMedical orgone therapy is based on Wil-helm Reich’s theory of armoring. The

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method of treatment developed fromobservations on the movement andblockage of energy in the body. Infantsand children naturally feel pleasure andreach out to the world. If these impuls-es are frustrated, the child contractsand develops methods to adapt to thestress. If frustrations continue, thesedefensive reactions become chronicand extend into adult life even whenthey are no longer needed. For example,a child may develop a submissive man-ner to deal with an angry parent andthen as an adult react submissively toall authority figures, even when it wouldbe better to be assertive. Other com-mon examples of “character armor” arefound in individuals who present them-selves as aloof, superior, “cool,” sophis-ticated, cute, or special. Medicalorgonomists consider these characterattitudes to be manifested in actualmuscular rigidities (muscular armor),which hold back intolerable or unac-ceptable emotions such as anger, fear,or sadness. Individuals are usuallyunaware of their muscular armor orthat their physical problems, such asheadaches, stiff neck, or back pain, areoften rooted in repressed emotions.

Armoring forms in infancy and earlychildhood as a defense against painfulfeelings, but it is not a satisfactory solu-tion because it later interferes withhealthy emotional life and energy dis-charge. Medical orgone therapy strivesto eliminate chronic armor to restorethe individual to more natural function-ing in all aspects of his or her life.

Medical Orgone Therapy in PracticeThe medical orgonomist is trained tounderstand the patient in all respects anddiagnose the patterns of character andphysical armor. Because all medicalorgone therapists are physicians who alsohave specialized training in psychiatry,they are equipped to diagnose physicalconditions and work directly on theirpatients. Treatment includes characteranalysis and the release of buried emo-tions facilitated by breathing and directwork on spastic muscles. The therapy

does not focus much on psychologicalcauses or delve deeply into past relation-ships with parents. Therapy is also used totreat infants and children. The removal ofearly armoring allows the child to developwith a natural energy flow, emotionalaliveness, and a sense of well-being.Treat-ment helps to prevent the developmentof chronic character and muscular armorin adult life.

It is important to note that the tech-niques used in this therapy are not thesame as those in some other methodsused to address physical tension suchas acupressure, massage, and deepbreathing. Character analysis also hasits own specific techniques, whichshould not be confused with positiveaffirmations, guided self-examination,and similar therapeutic approaches.

In the Journal of Orgonomy (vol. 28,no. 1), Dr. Charles Konia describes a rep-resentative course of orgone therapy:“Inmedical orgone therapy, armor is inten-tionally dissolved. This invariably bringsabout anxiety, because the very functionof the armor is to prevent the [individual]from experiencing such painful feelings.The medical orgonomist encourages theindividual to experience and tolerate anx-iety so that the underlying, containedemotions can be felt and then expressed.This brings about the desired, positive,therapeutic effect: anxiety is eliminatedand replaced by a sense of pleasurablewell-being.”

The Benefits of Medical Orgone TherapyMedical orgone therapy is a uniqueapproach to the prevention and treat-ment of a wide range of mental and phys-ical conditions. Medical orgonomistsreport successful treatment of the fullrange of emotional symptoms and rela-tionship problems. Serious conditionssuch as depression, schizophrenia, panicdisorder, and ADHD can often be treatedwithout resorting to medications. Reichconcluded—and present-day physicianswho practice medical orgone therapyconcur—that the elimination of armor-ing, in and of itself, restores natural,healthy functioning. Patients regain

Organismic Body Psychotherapy

their natural capacities to enjoy satis-faction in love, work, and the pursuit ofknowledge.

—Peter A. Crist, M.D.,and Richard Schwartzman, D.O.

Resources:

The American College of Orgonomy

P.O. Box 490

Princeton, NJ 08542

Tel:(732) 821-1144

Fax:(732) 821-0174

Web site: www.orgonomy.org

Trains and certifies medical orgonomists. Provides

referrals and offers seminars, conferences, and lab-

oratory courses that are open to the general public.

Orgonomic Publications, a division of the Ameri-

can College of Orgonomy, sells numerous in-print

and out-of-print books on the subject of orgonomy

and publishes the biannual Journal of Orgonomy.

Further Reading:

Books:

Baker, Elsworth F. Man in the Trap. New York: The

Macmillan Co., 1967.

Reich, Wilhelm. Character Analysis. Translated by

Theodore P. Wolfe. Third enlarged edition. New

York: Noonday Press, 1949.

——.Children of the Future: On the Prevention of

Sexual Pathology. New York: Farrar, Straus and

Giroux, 1983.

——. Cosmic Superimposition: Man’s Orgonotic

Roots in Nature. Rangeley, ME: Wilhelm Reich

Foundation, 1951.

——. The Discovery of the Orgone:Vol. 1, The Func-

tion of the Orgasm: Sex-Economic Problems of

Biological Energy. Translated by Theodore P.

Wolfe. 2nd edition. New York: Orgone Institute

Press, 1948.

——.The Discovery of the Orgone: Vol. 2, The Can-

cer Biopathy. Translated by Theodore P. Wolfe.

New York: Orgone Institute Press, 1948.

——. The Emotional Plague of Mankind: Vol. 1.

The Murder of Christ. New York: Orgone Insti-

tute Press, 1953.

——. Reich Speaks of Freud. New York: Farrar,

Straus and Giroux, 1967.

——. Selected Writings: An Introduction to

Orgonomy. New York: Farrar, Straus and Cud-

ahy, 1960.

Sharaf, Myron. Fury on Earth: A Biography of Wil-

helm Reich. New York: St. Martin’s Press/Marek,

1983.

Journals:

Konia, Charles. “Anxiety: Curse or Blessing?” Jour-

nal of Orgonomy, 28, No.1, 1994:1–3.

Numerous clinical and theoretical articles on

medical orgone therapy have been published

by various authors in the Journal of Orgonomy

from 1967 to the present. A detailed and com-

plete listing of these articles is available from

the American College of Orgonomy.

ORGANISMIC BODYPSYCHOTHERAPY

Organismic body psychotherapy is aform of psychotherapy developedby Malcolm and Katherine Brown

based on their belief that the body, mind,and spirit are interconnected, and thatlife-enhancing benefits can be realizedusing techniques that involve the body aswell as the mind. Organismic body psy-chotherapy is termed neo-Reichianbecause it incorporates ideas put forth byWilhelm Reich, such as the concept ofbody armoring, but makes significantmodifications to Reich’s ideas. One of themost important modifications is thebelief that releasing body armor does nothave to be strong and highly emotional;rather, organismic body psychotherapytheory recognizes the possibility of a

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gradual, quiet release. Physical exercise,verbal dialogue, and touch are com-bined to bring about release and even-tual physical, emotional, and spiritualwell-being.

The Development of OrganismicBody PsychotherapyOrganismic body psychotherapy wascreated by Malcolm and KatherineBrown. Malcolm Brown is a clinical psy-chologist who has been stronglyinfluenced by a variety of therapeuticmodels, including Fritz Perls and KurtGoldstein’s writings on gestalt therapy,Abraham Maslow’s humanistic psychol-ogy, Carl Roger’s client-centered thera-py, and Jungian psychology asdeveloped by Carl Jung and Erich Neu-mann. The writings of Alexander Lowenin biogenetics introduced Brown to theideas of Wilhelm Reich and other body-oriented psychotherapists. Brown hasworked with Alexander Lowen andEuropean neo-Reichian psychothera-pists, including Gerda Boyesan andDavid Boadella, who are known fordeveloping a more subtle approach toReich’s work.

Katherine Brown is a therapist with abackground in gestalt therapy, sensoryawareness, and massage therapy. In1972 she attended a lecture given byMalcolm Brown. She became very inter-ested in his theories and eventuallybegan collaborating with him. Theysubsequently married and startedworking as cotherapists with some oftheir respective clients. They found thatpracticing as a male-female therapistteam was very effective. They coinedthe term organismic body psychothera-py for their work, and devoted theremainder of their professional pursuitsexclusively to training psychotherapistsin their methods. The Browns are nowsemi-retired.

A Body-Mind DisciplineOrganismic body psychotherapy isdesigned to facilitate an increasing self-reliance on the human faculties, such as

the abilities to sense, feel, think, andintuit that lie within a person’s body.The internal flowering of these facultiesenables a client to become relativelyself-trusting and to lead a rich life. Toawaken these self-healing resources,organismic body psychotherapy tech-niques seek to engage the mental, emo-tional, and spiritual aspects of a client.

A key tenet of organismic body psy-chotherapy is that the body as well as themind must be engaged in the therapeuticprocess because a client’s psychologicaldefenses are also manifested at the bodylevel. This physical manifestation of aclient’s defenses is called armoring andconsists of physical tensions that blockemotion, feeling, and the ability to satisfyfundamental emotional needs. Accordingto organismic body psychotherapy, theseneeds include the ability to connect withothers, the ability to connect to one’s innerself, the ability to see the outer world andone’s inner self objectively and makemeaning of both, and the ability to fulfillpersonal goals.

According to the theoretical founda-tion of organismic body psychotherapy,there are three stages of growth in thetherapeutic process. They are: loosen-ing the armoring; resolving psychologi-cal conflicts; and finally, growthcombined with self-actualization.Using these stages as a guide, the thera-pist attempts to identify a client’s cur-rent state and to adjust the therapeuticmodality accordingly. The processbegins with more of a therapist-direct-ed style and gradually becomes morepatient-directed. Because organismicbody psychotherapy is based on thebelief that each individual is unique, itis believed that the unfolding and dura-tion of each of these stages will be dif-ferent for each individual.

Mobilization ExercisesAmong the techniques used to dissolvethe armoring are mobilization exercisesand direct touch. Mobilization exercisesare done with a client standing or lyingon a padded mat. They are designed torelease chronic armoring patterns,

Pesso Boyden System Psychomotor

which consist primarily of tense mus-cles. Direct touch is given by the thera-pist in two forms: nurturing andcatalytic. Nurturing is a very soft form oftouch used to soften armoring by mobi-lizing energy within the body, causingthe release of armoring. Catalytic touchis a harder, more aggressive form oftouch that releases the armoring. Whiledoing the exercises or receiving directtouch, the client may experienceexpressive emotional releases, such ascrying or screaming, which are a resultof loosening of the armoring.

While working with the body is an elemental aspect of organismic body psy-chotherapy, sessions are not entirely non-verbal. Verbal work, such as a discussion ofemotional releases, dreams, or insight,also plays an important role in the organ-ismic body psychotherapy process.

Feeling ConnectedWhen applied properly, direct touchseems to increase a client’s awareness ofhis or her primary need to feel connect-ed and related that often has beenunsatisfied since early childhood. More-over, direct touch seems to accomplishthis without creating overwhelminganxiety or hardening a client’s defenses.Once the armoring has been loosenedand healing has occurred through theresolution of psychological conflicts,practitioners of organismic body psy-chotherapy believe that a person’sresources and faculties are accessiblefor development of the soul.

—Elliot Greene

Resources:

Washington Institute for Body Psychotherapy

Elliot Greene and Barbara Goodrich-Dunn, Direc-

tors

8830 Cameron Street, Suite 206

Silver Spring, MD 20910

Tel: (301) 588-9341

Offers a four-year training program in body psy-

chotherapy and workshops on subjects related to

body psychotherapy.

Further Reading:

Brown, Malcolm, Ph.D. The Healing Touch. Men-

docino, CA: Life Rhythm Press.

PESSO BOYDEN SYSTEMPSYCHOMOTOR

Pesso Boyden system psychomotor(PBSP) therapy uses group therapyto help patients recall, encounter,

and ultimately rebuild in a positive waytheir reactions to past events. The “psy-cho” in psychomotor refers to the psy-che, or the mind. “Motor” refers tobodily sensations and movements,which include actions that may beblocked in the body by trauma. Throughgroup role-playing activities called“structures,” PBSP patients relive long-past memories and emotions that havesaddled the patient with traumatizingfeelings of dissatisfaction. With theguidance of the therapist and the assis-tance of the group, the patient under-goes emotional “reeducation”: thetruthful recollection of a painful eventwith a convincing reenactment of ahappier conclusion.

An Innovative Movement ProgramPBSP is based on the studies of AlbertPesso and Diane Boyden-Pesso, classi-cally trained dancers and choreogra-phers who, in the late 1950s, developedtheir own style of expressive dance.Much of their new style focused on thedevelopment of emotional and physicaltools that could convincingly commu-nicate internal feelings, visions, andideas to an audience.

This research led Albert Pesso, in theearly 1960s, to publish an essay thatplaced all movement into three categories:reflex, voluntary, and emotional. Reflexmotion includes the reflex to keep ourbodies upright. Voluntary movement isoriented to our environment, that is,

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those movements that we consciouslyinitiate in order to manipulate andmove through the world around us. Bycontrast, emotional movementincludes any movement initiated by ourreaction to our inner feelings and howwe feel about the environment aroundus.

These three types of movement areinextricably interwoven. We can volun-tarily alter or stop many reflex actionsfor a short period of time. Similarly,strong emotions can have a markedimpact on our voluntary and reflexmotions.

Albert and Diane were not the firstresearchers to envision such a break-down of the patterns of movement.Their work built on the established sys-tem of French acting and singingteacher François Delsarte (1811–1871),who formulated specific principles ofaesthetics based on a set of rules coor-dinating the voice with body gestures.As Albert and Diane continued to devel-op their style of expressive dance, theybegan to incorporate more and moreexercises aimed at sharpening aware-ness of the three types of movementinto their dance training programs.They found that a dance student, oncemade sensitive to these three types ofmovement, could eliminate unwantedand unpredictable motions from his orher performance by giving it its properand therapeutic expression. Further-more, the students reported that havingfull mastery of all three types of move-ment seemed to allow a more open andhealthy expression of their needs intheir everyday lives.

Recognizing Your FeelingsDiane and Albert soon theorized thatthese same exercises could help emo-tionally troubled people overcome theirproblems. To them, a person’s emotionsstored in the body represent the nearestthing to a true self. Most psychologicalproblems, they believe, can be attrib-uted to the absence and repression ofthe body’s interactive needs that had

not been met by the participant’s par-ents. These needs and hungers changethe way people look at the world.Depending on the nature of theunfulfilled need, the effect from theseunconscious hungers can range fromoccasional depression to total physicaland emotional debilitation on the partof the sufferer.

PBSP tracks down clues to these hid-den feelings and seeks to bring expres-sion and healing to the damage theyhave caused. A patient first meets with apsychotherapist for an observation ses-sion, during which the therapist formu-lates some idea of what might be theunderlying root cause of the patient’sneuroses or problems. Diane Boyden-Pesso describes the agenda of the ther-apist at the meeting in this way: “Mygoal as a therapist is to make sure thatthe client works in [PBSP] from wherehe really is, what is really important andreal, and not work on something that heor she may have decided in advanceintellectually that it would be good towork on. We have to work on what isvalid and spontaneous at the moment.”

StructuresThe primary tool of PBSP is a grouprole-playing activity, called “struc-tures,”comprised of a seamless series ofsteps (individually known as “a struc-ture”) within the total structure. Withina carefully controlled group session thetherapist encourages the patient toshare what is upsetting him or her inthe present.

To this scene, however, two importantcharacters are added: the “truth stater”and the “witness.” The truth stater is usedto eternalize and illustrate the partici-pant’s spoken thoughts and beliefs bystating out loud the “truths” by which theparticipant lives. If the participant says, “Ihave to take care of myself because thereis no one in the world who will do that forme,” the truth stater is instructed toannounce, “You have to take care of your-self because there is no one in the worldwho will do that for you.”

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In a safe, respectful setting, the PBSP therapist supplies the natural, comprehensive, andcarefully crafted technology—discovered by Albert Pesso and Diane Boyden Pesso—which uses the resources of the body, mind, and soul to help people complete the fivecrucial life tasks necessary for intellectual, psychological, emotional, and spiritual well-being.

Those life tasks are:1. Satisfy the basic developmental needs for:

placenurturesupportprotectionlimitsexperience needed by our human nature to fully mature and bear fruit.

2. Integrate and unify the polarities of our biological and psychological being—to own all parts of our body and mind.

3. Develop our consciousness—know that and why we are alive.4. Develop our self-organizing center, or “pilot”—be in command of our own life.5. Realize our personal uniqueness and potentiality—find our calling and become who

we truly can be.

Pesso Boyden System Psychomotor

Meanwhile, the witness is used totrack the emotional reactions of theparticipant as the therapist queries theparticipant on what they think they arefeeling. Witnesses also validate the par-ticipant’s emotional expressions, nam-ing each emotion and the context of theemotion in a compassionate, acceptingmanner. A typical statement might be, “I see how bitter you feel as you hearthat statement.”

The input of the two special accom-modators induces a participant to rec-ognizing these current feelings as partof a pattern of behavior from his or herpast. Participants can then see thesepatterns of dysfunction as a result ofpast life-shaping events. Memoriesevoked by these structures are powerfuland experienced almost as if they werehappening in the present. The partici-pant is thus in the dual position of“reliving” a vivid memory while at thesame time becoming aware of her- orhimself from a therapeutic perspective.Finally, the patient can express thelong-suppressed longings that were leftunfulfilled, such as the isolation andself-loathing that can arise from deser-tion by a parent. Although absorbed

with this memory, the participant isnonetheless able to use his or her new-found awareness of emotions, bodysensations, and impulses to expresswhat he or she is experiencing.

Once the patient feels thoroughly re-immersed in the recollection, he orshe instructs the other members of thegroup, called accommodators, to posi-tions and roles that reenact the event asit occurred. Accommodators play theantithesis role of whichever person hasdenied the patient his or her specificneed. They are meant to provide theideal role or figure in order for partici-pants to meet the needs that were notmet by history. In the above example,the ideal figure would play the role of anew, alternative parent who has desert-ed the patient. In this scenario, howev-er, the new “ideal parent” offers clear,positive accommodation to the person,such as “If I had been there, I would nothave left you.”

Albert and Diane believe thatalthough the activity occurs in thegroup session, the final and most mean-ingful locus of reconstruction takesplace in the inner theater of the mind.Through this emotional reeducation,

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the participant has gotten in contactwith his or her needs, feeling themagain, and then has these needs met bythis new positive figure in a way thatleaves an imprint in the body-mindmemory of the participant. The memo-ry can then be recalled at will by theparticipant to reinforce the positiveexperience. This is a step toward finalmaturity. Through this, the participanthas abandoned the hope of having hisor her needs redressed by the originalperson. Instead, they have the needsatisfied while they are in touch withthe right age by someone representingthe ideal mother or father, whichever isneeded. The participant has taken animportant step toward healing.

PBSP is considered a psychoanalyticprocess, a behavior modificationprocess, a reparenting process, a gestaltprocess, a body therapy process, a fam-ily therapy process (without the fami-ly), and more. It contains so much thatis fundamental to all forms of psy-chotherapy that it relates easily to allmajor techniques used to treat emo-tional and mental problems.

The Benefits of Emotional MaturationPBSP gives participants a positive lensthrough which to see and experience theworld. Following PBSP therapy they areless likely to be ruled by habitual, emo-tional reactions such as displaced anger,anxiety, depression, and emotionallyimmature desires. Through PBSP, clientscan function more productively in thereality of present-day settings.

Therapists use PBSP, in groups andone-on-one, with a wide variety of pop-ulations. It is successfully used in psy-chiatric settings, drug and alcoholtreatment centers, pain clinics, andobesity treatment programs. It is effec-tive with victims of abuse, incest, andadolescents having trouble with theiremotions, the law, and drugs. It hassignificant value in application to mar-riage and family problems and is nowbeing used to alleviate executive stress

and to deal with other organizationalproblems.

PBSP is a safe procedure that puts ahigh emphasis on the comfort of itspatients. Nevertheless, PBSP involvescomplex psychological evaluation thatis best handled by professionals. Any-one interested in PBSP therapy shouldconsult a trained PBSP psychotherapistor PBSP institution.

—Albert Pesso

Resources:

Pesso Boyden System/Psychomotor

Strolling Woods

Lake Shore Drive

Franklin, NH 03235

Tel: (603) 934-9809

Web site: www.pbsp.com

Provides information on practitioners as well as

the discipline.

Further Reading:

Books:

Napier, Augustus Y., Ph.D. The Fragile Bond: In

Search of an Equal, Intimate and Enduring

Marriage. New York: HarperCollins, 1990.

Pesso, Albert. Experience in Action. New York:

New York University Press, 1973.

——. Movement in Psychotherapy. New York: New

York University Press, 1969.

——. Moving Psychotherapy . Cambridge, MA:

Brookline Books, 1991.

Journals:

Foulds, Melvin, and Patricia S. Hannigan. “Effects

of Psychomotor Group Therapy on Ratings of

Self and Others.” Psychotherapy: Theory,

Research and Practice, Volume II, no. 4 (Winter

1974).

——. “Effects of Psychomotor Group Therapy on

Locus of Control and Social Desirability,”

Humanistic Psychology 16, No. 2 (Spring 1975).

Process Oriented Psychology

PROCESS ORIENTEDPSYCHOLOGY

Process oriented psychology, or sim-ply “process work,” is a form of psy-chotherapy used to help a person

become aware of and embrace allaspects of his or her experience, eventhose that at first seem too disturbing,strange, or socially unacceptable.According to process oriented psycholo-gy, the disturbing or traumatic experi-ences that we cannot accept tend toreappear as dreams, physical symptoms,relationship difficulties, or conflicts withsociety. A process oriented psychologist,believing that all experience is meaning-ful, helps a client approach the disturb-ing experience and explore itsconnection to current physical andemotional problems. Treating a disturb-ing experience with love and under-standing may help one find a solution.

Process oriented psychology wasdeveloped by the American Jungian ana-lyst Arnold Mindell. He developed meth-ods to help couples and families exploredisturbing experiences and worked witha wide variety of individuals not usuallytreated with psychotherapy. These tech-niques later became a part of Mindell’swork with groups and organizations thatwere troubled by conflict. He found thatgroups, when faced with situations andindividuals that challenge their purposeand unity, behave much like troubledindividuals. By encouraging silent voicesto speak, and allowing other members toexperience what it feels like to occupyunpopular roles, he helped the majorityof the group assimilate new points ofview, often leading to unique solutions tothe group’s problems. Mindell developedthese methods into “world work,” a bodyof theory and practice for working withgroups in conflict, even when they con-tain people from many ethnic and racialgroups, socioeconomic classes, sexualorientations, and spiritual affiliations.

At the heart of Mindell’s work is thebelief that a mysterious, often irrational,and nonverbal current of subjective expe-rience, which he calls “the dreamingprocess,” flows alongside each person’sconscious, objective, intentional activitiesof everyday life, often leading the personto experience things that conflict with hisor her self-image. When a person putsaside such a disturbing experience, thedreaming process continues to expressitself as physical symptoms, relationshipdifficulties, or conflicts with society. Min-dell believes that the experiences withwhich a person least identifies conscious-ly have the most power to produce changeand restore the flow of the dreamingprocess. Because these experiences chal-lenge our personal or collective identity,he believes that we stop them from com-pleting themselves, fearing the inner orouter conflict they might produce. Byfocusing awareness on these experiencesand encouraging them to unfold, processoriented psychology aims to help peoplefind solutions to current problems and totap into a source for continued personalgrowth.

Process work is most frequently prac-ticed as a form of individual psychothera-py. A client typically visits his or hertherapist for an hour-long session. Acourse of therapy may consist of one ses-sion, or may last for many years. The clientmay present a dream, a relationshipdifficulty, a physical symptom, or anyother experience that he or she would liketo explore. The process worker focuses onthe client’s subjective experiences of his orher concerns and problems, observingmovement, body posture, and language.To help identify, clarify, and learn fromaspects of the client’s subjective experi-ence, the process worker employs a widearray of techniques, some of which aredrawn from psychodrama and art anddance therapy. A therapist may alsoemploy bodywork techniques, includingmassaging or gently vibrating the client’sbody to help raise awareness of his or herphysical sensations.

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While process workers deal with abroad spectrum of human experiences,it is an adjunct, not a substitute, formedical or psychiatric treatment by aqualified physician or psychiatrist.

—Dr. Joseph Goodbread

Resources:

Process Work Center of Portland

2049 NW Hoyt

Portland, OR 97209

Tel: (503) 223 8188

Fax: (503) 227-7003

e-mail: pwcp@igc.apc.org

Web site: www.processwork.org

Provides information on process work therapy,

seminars, and training.

Further Reading:

Books:

Goodbread, Joseph, The Dreambody Toolkit: A

Practical Introduction to the Philosophy, Goals

and Practice of Process-Oriented Psychology.

Portland: Lao Tse Press, 1997.

Mindell, Arnold, and Amy Mindell. Riding the

Horse Backwards: Process Work in Theory and

Practice. London: Penguin Arkana, 1992.

Journals:

The Journal of Process Oriented Psychology, pub-

lished since 1992 by the Lao Tse Press (Web

site: www.lao-tse-press.com), keeps the reader

up to date on the latest research and develop-

ments in process work.

PSYCHODRAMA

Psychodrama is a method for explor-ing problems by improvisationallyenacting them as if in a play. In addi-

tion to its being a form of psychothera-py—the process of treating patients by

psychological means—psychodrama isoften applied in “role playing,” one of psy-chodrama’s derivatives, to deal with awide range of situations in education,business, or community relations.

Psychodrama’s BeginningsPsychodrama was developed by psychia-trist Jacob Levi Moreno, M.D. (1889–1974).Moreno saw a need for spontaneity andcreativity in social relations and begandeveloping practical methods to addressthis need. In 1921, as an avocational inter-est, aside from his work as a family physi-cian, he formed perhaps the first modernimprovisational dramatic troupe, calledthe Theatre of Spontaneity. Through thisgroup, Moreno discovered that theprocess of improvised role playingseemed to help the actors deal with per-sonal problems; this was the beginnings ofpsychodrama. Moreno then emigrated tothe United States in 1925, and later, in1936, established a psychiatric sanitariumabout sixty miles north of New York City.For the rest of his life, in addition to devel-oping his method of psychodrama,Moreno was also a major pioneer of grouppsychotherapy, as well as of social roletheory, and “sociometry,” a method forapplied social psychology.

The Theory of PsychodramaAll of Moreno’s approaches to under-standing and helping people are aimedat the goal of furthering people’s creativ-ity. Moreno believed that many ofhumanity’s social and psychologicalproblems arose out of people’s tenden-cies to rely excessively on what othershad previously created instead of them-selves taking on the challenge of creatinganew, to meet the needs of the presentsituation. He also declared that a trulyholistic learning and experimentalprocess required involvement throughaction, similar to the training of astro-nauts through the use of simulators. Inhis emphasis on dramatic, physicalaction, he ran counter to those tenden-cies in psychotherapy that constrain theprocess to verbal modes of interaction.

Psychodrama

One of Moreno’s major insightsabout creativity is that it emerges mosteffectively through spontaneity. Accord-ing to Moreno, spontaneity isn’t mereimpulsivity, but rather improvisationwhere one gets gradually more involvedand allows the insights to emerge. Itinvolves some aim at finding a newsolution or a fresh approach to prob-lems, and includes a measure of ratio-nality associated with intuition andfeeling. Related to this was Moreno’sview—based on his observations—thatthe best way to promote spontaneityand creativity in interpersonal prob-lem-solving was through the use ofimprovised drama. Instead of engagingin the type of theater that requiresactors to memorize and rehearsescripts, psychodrama involves the par-ticipants improvising scenes based onthemes that they themselves feel are rel-evant to their lives.

At times, the term psychodrama hasbeen used inaccurately to describe anypsychologically laden piece of theater,literature, or news event. But people inthose situations generally play out theirparts without exploring other alterna-tives to the situation being enacted.Psychodrama involves consciously andintentionally pausing and reflecting onone’s attitudes and behaviors towardsituations or people rather than merelyplunging ahead without reflection,which could compound the problem. Itmay be thought of as a kind of laborato-ry for examining psychological andsocial issues in depth. The primary goalof psychodrama is to help peoplebecome more creative in their lives. Psy-chodrama achieves this through struc-tured improvisation, and by having theperson whose problem is being enactedplay the role not only of the main char-acter, but also of other characters in thedrama or of the director, to participatein discovering new understandings andmore effective coping strategies.

Psychodrama offers a rich variety oftechniques, many of which have beenintegrated into other forms of therapy.For example, the idea of talking to

someone imagined to be sitting in anempty chair has been used in FritzPerls’s gestalt therapy. Family therapytransformed a psychodramatic tech-nique of setting up family members as ifthey were a diorama representing theemotional relationships into what isknown as “family sculpture.” Role play-ing is now commonly used in assertive-ness training or social skills classes.Other psychodrama warm-up tech-niques, with names such as “structuredexperiences,” “action techniques,” and“nonverbal games,” have come to beused widely in group psychotherapy,personal-growth programs, and self-help groups.

How Does Psychodrama Work?Psychodramas involve five elements:

1. The director (who often is also thetherapist) who facilitates theprocess

2. The protagonist, the person whoseproblem is being explored

3. Auxiliaries, members of the groupwho play supporting roles in theenactment

4. The stage, a special area in whichthe scene is enacted

5. The audience, composed of the restof the group.

The procedure begins with a warm-up,a five- to fifteen-minute general discus-sion in which issues are brought intofocus and the level of trust in the groupis strengthened. Sometimes structuredexercises, like theater games, are used tostimulate the imagination, promoteself-disclosure, and allow everyone toshare an experience.

The protagonist is chosen and theproblem is then presented, usually byhaving the protagonist show instead ofexplain the situation. The protagonist’sunderlying assumptions, which in partcause the problem, are brought intomore explicit awareness using variousdramatic devices, such as doubling,asides, or soliloquies. Also, in order to

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To become a certified director, a psychodramatist must obtain both professional train-ing as a psychotherapist and subspecialty training involving hundreds of hours ofsupervised personal involvement.

Psychodrama as a subspecialty of psychotherapy should be differentiated from “dramatherapy.” The latter is one of the creative arts therapies and involves more the use of the-ater itself as an aid to healing. However, in the last decade there have been increasingareas of overlap.

appreciate the predicament of the otherroles in the enactment, the director hasthe protagonist change parts and thentake on the challenge of responding tothe interpersonal tension from thatother person’s viewpoint. This tech-nique of role reversal is one of the mostpowerful ways to expand the imagina-tion, cultivate empathy, and reduce ten-dencies toward egocentricity. The actionproceeds often through a series of sever-al scenes, including sub-scenes, inwhich the protagonist can step out ofrole and reflect on his or her attitudesand behavior. This phase generallyrequires about twenty to forty-five min-utes.

Finally, the session closes with aperiod of “sharing,” in which the mem-bers of the audience say how the enact-ment relates to their own lives. Becausepsychodramas are at times very emo-tional, the sharing itself often involvesan opportunity for the expression of theevoked feelings in the audience, acatharsis that further supports andencourages the protagonist. A groupthat experiences a series of these psy-chodramas seems to build a trust thatallows more unconscious material toemerge and be processed.

The Benefits and Limitations of PsychodramaThe benefits of psychodrama are mani-fold: shifting roles seem to help todevelop empathy and greater flexibility

in thinking. Improvisation appears tofoster a trust of the healthy parts of themind, especially the creative imageryflowing from the subconscious. Thephysical movement and directencounter in enactments bypasses themind’s language-based avoidances andthus leads to a deep form of insight.

Psychodramatic methods seem tohelp improve participants’ communica-tion and problem-solving skills andenhance self-awareness. Thus, they maybe applied in non-therapeutic contexts,such as schools, professional training,business, religious education, commu-nity building, and other settings.

However, the participants in apsychodrama must have some degreeof mental coherency; they cannot be instates of intoxication, delirium, or psy-chotic confusion. But, in modifiedform, and applied with reasonablejudgment, role-playing methods havebeen used with patients who are men-tally retarded, suffering from delusions,and others who might be inaccessibleto ordinary “talk” methods of therapy.

—Adam Blatner, M.D.

Resources:

The American Board of Examiners in Psychodra-

ma, Sociometry, and Group Psychotherapy

P.O. Box 15572

Washington, DC 20003-0572

Tel: (202) 483-0514

Psychosynthesis

Information about training and names and

addresses of certified directors may be obtained

upon written request.

The American Society for Group Psychotherapy

and Psychodrama (ASGPP)

301 North Harrison Street, Suite 508

Princeton, NJ 08540

Tel: (609) 452-1339

Fax: (609) 936-1659

Information about regional and national confer-

ences, newsletters, and professional journals may

be obtained upon written request.

National Coalition of Arts Therapies Association

(NCATA)

2000 Century Plaza, Ste. 108

Columbia, MD 21044

Tel: (410) 997-4040

Fax: (410) 997-4048

This is an alliance of professional associations that

promote the therapeutic nature of the arts.

Further Reading:

Books:

Blatner, Adam. Acting-In: Practical Applications of

Psychodramatic Methods. 3rd ed. New York:

Springer, 1996.

——. “Psychodrama.” in Current Psychotherapies.

R. J. Corsini and D. Wedding, eds. 5th ed. Itasca,

IL: Peacock, 1995.

——. , and Allee Blatner. The Art of Play: An

Adult’s Guide to Reclaiming Imagination and

Spontaneity. Bristol, PA: Brunner/Mazel, 1997.

——. , and Allee Blatner. Foundations of Psy-

chodrama: History, Theory, and Practice. New

York: Springer, 1988.

Corey, G. “Psychodrama.” In Theory and Practice

of Group Counseling. 4th ed. Pacific Grove, CA:

Brooks/Cole, 1994.

Fox, J., ed. The Essential Moreno: Writings on Psy-

chodrama, Group Method, and Spontaneity.

New York: Springer, 1987.

Holmes, P., M. Karp, and M. Watson, eds. Psy-

chodrama Since Moreno: Innovations in Theory

and Practice. New York: Tavistock/Routledge,

1994.

Moreno, J. L. Psychodrama, Beacon, NY: Beacon

House, Vol. 1., 1946, and, with Zerka T. Moreno,

Vol. 2, 1959, and Vol. 3, 1969.

Journals:

Blatner, A. “Psychodrama: The State of the Art.”

The Arts in Psychotherapy 24, No. 1 (1997):

23–30.

Journal of Group Psychotherapy, Psychodrama and

Sociometry. Heldref, 1318 18th St, Washington,

DC 20006.

PSYCHOSYNTHESIS

Psychosynthesis is a theory of mind used to help a person realize his or her inner wisdom. According to

this theory, there exists within each per-son a “higher self” that is a source ofguidance, value, and creativity. It is thebasis of a form of therapy that, throughvarious methods, attempts to bring par-ticipants to a greater understanding ofthemselves. They are encouraged toaccess their higher selves to help solveproblems and make decisions.

The Foundations of PsychosynthesisPsychosynthesis was first developed byRoberto Assagioli (1888–1974). A col-league of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung,Assagioli was the first person to practicepsychoanalysis in Italy. In 1910, he leftthe psychoanalytic movement becausehe felt its view of human nature was toolimited. He objected to the standardiza-tion of ideas and techniques, believingthat there should be an individualmethod for each person.

He began to develop his own spiritu-al model of human development andopened an institute in 1927 in Rome. Hechose the term “psychosynthesis” to givea name to the impulse in each person to

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develop, learn, and evolve. His earlywork ended in 1940, when he wasarrested as a pacifist and jailed by Mus-solini’s fascist government. After hisrelease, he lived under police surveil-lance. In 1943, he was persecuted by theNazis and was forced into hiding. Hisinstitute was reopened in 1951 at hishome in Florence. There he sawpatients and trained professionals untilhis death in 1974. His work is now con-tinued at more than 100 psychosynthe-sis institutes around the world.

What Is the Higher Self?Assagioli’s theory of the unconsciousdeviated from many of his contempo-raries in psychoanalysis. While otherssaw unconscious motivation as a col-lection of base, biological needs, Assagi-oli claimed that the unconscious alsoencompasses nobler impulses, such aslove, ethics, and creativity. He believedthat repressing either impulse could beharmful. In his view, therapy shouldhelp foster these higher instincts.

The hidden source of wisdom andguidance within each person is consid-ered his or her “higher self.” The higherself, although part of a person’s nature,is different from one’s personality. Whilean individual’s personality makes himor her unique, the higher self is con-cerned with universal values, such ascompassion, truth, and life purpose.The higher self may be considered apart of the brain or mind, although it isjust as often experienced in the body.The goal of psychosynthesis is toexplore and utilize the concealedresources of human thought.

Psychosynthesis TherapyA person may experience psychosyn-thesis therapy individually or within agroup. At the start of each session, par-ticipants are encouraged to talk abouttheir problems with a therapist or withthe group. As a person proceeds toexpress his or her thoughts or emotions,the therapist may intervene to help aperson clarify a particular image or

memory. According to psychosynthesis,people can overcome conventionalways of viewing their problems whenthey are able to access the insight with-in their imaginations. A therapist maydraw from a variety of techniques tohelp a person enter his or her imagina-tion. The therapist begins by helping aperson to relax and withdraw his or herattention from the outer environmentand concentrate inward. A therapist willthen use guided imagery techniques tohelp a client enter his or her imagina-tion and focus on a particular thought,feeling, or sensation. Finally the thera-pist will ask this person to express theseimages. Depending on what methodworks best, a therapist may help evokethese images through visual art, move-ment, music, analysis, personalitystudy, traditional psychotherapeutictechniques, maps of consciousness,and many other methods. In accor-dance with Assagioli’s theory, the tech-niques that a therapist may use in asession will vary with each person.

Benefits of PsychosynthesisThe higher self is a crucial part of psy-chosynthesis therapy. Therapy is notintended to develop the higher self,because it is thought to already exist ineach person. Psychosynthesis therapy isused to acquaint people with theresources of their higher selves andequip them with the ability to approachproblems imaginatively and to betterunderstand themselves. The therapist’srole is to help a person gain the innerskills to become aware of his of herhigher self.

—Richard Schaub, Ph.D.

Resources:

International Association for Managerial and

Organizational Psychosynthesis

3308 Radcliffe Road

Thousand Oaks, CA 91360

Tel: (805) 942-4815

Disseminates information on psychosynthesis.

Radix

New York Psychosynthesis Institute

2 Murray Court

Huntington, NY 11743

Tel: (516) 673-0293

Provides information and promotes the practice of

psychosynthesis in the New York area.

Synthesis Center for Psychosynthesis Distribu-

tions

P.O. Box 575

Amherst, MA 01004

Tel: (413) 256-0772

Offers resources and information regarding

psychosynthesis.

Further Reading:

Assagioli, Roberto. Psychosynthesis: A Manual of

Principles and Techniques. New York: The

Viking Press, 1971.

——. Transpersonal Development. New York:

HarperCollins, 1991.

Ferrucci, Piero. What We May Be. Los Angeles:

Tarcher, 1982.

Schaub, B., and R. Schaub. Healing Addictions.

Albany, NY: Delmar, 1997.

Whitmore, Diana. Psychosynthesis Counseling in

Action. London: SAGE Publications, 1991.

RADIX

Radix teaches students to becomeconscious of an invisible life force (“radix”) and to restore its natural

pulsation in their bodies. This requiresconfronting and changing acquired pat-terns of breathing and muscular tensionthat block a person’s emotions. By gettingin touch with the physical sensationsflowing through their bodies and the emo-tions linked to those sensations, Radix stu-dents seek to gain better control over theirlife forces and physical defenses and todevelop greater capacity for choice.

Dr. Charles R. (Chuck) Kelley foundedthe Interscience Research Institute in1960. He changed its name to the RadixInstitute in 1974 after he coined the term“radix” to describe his unique concept ofthe life force. He reserved the capitalizedterm “Radix” for the personal growth pro-gram that he developed with the help ofhis wife, Erica. He and Erica began theirfirst bodywork programs in 1970 and ranworldwide training and teaching facilitiesfrom southern California until 1987, whenDr. Kelley retired and separated from theRadix Institute. The Kelleys now practicein Vancouver, Washington, and Dr. Kelleyoffers training tutorials and supervision byarrangement. Others now use the Radixname worldwide for their own work andtraining. They are not associated with Dr.Kelley or endorsed by him unless they dis-play a certificate signed by him.

Dr. Kelley was influenced by the psy-choanalyst and founder of medicalorgonomy, Dr. Wilhelm Reich, whobelieved that people develop physicaldefenses against emotions they considerunacceptable. People build defensesearly in life by selectively tighteningmuscles and holding their breath in dif-ferent ways to inhibit the expression ofparticular emotions. This graduallyforms the patterns of tension Reichcalled muscular armor. Over time, theseinhibiting behaviors become anchoredin the bodily structure. They block feel-ings, interfere with thinking, and maycontribute to chronic disease and emo-tional difficulties. Nevertheless, Kelleybelieves that the muscular armor is not anegative attribute, because it is themechanism of voluntary attention andbasis of the will. We need it in order tofunction effectively as human beings.Radix work aims to help people learnhow to use their muscular armor with-out unconsciously becoming its victim.

Radix teachers work with inhibitionsto breathing, with the muscular armor,and with the mental attitudes that sup-port them. They use suggestions, directbody contact, and exercises for loosen-ing tensions and freeing feelings. Clientslearn to develop a structure of muscular

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tensions that contain emotions andform personal boundaries. This resultsin a more effective, flexible type ofmuscular armor. Most sessions includework with the student lying supine on amat, lightly clad in shorts or bathingsuit, with the teacher kneeling along-side. This enables the teacher toobserve skin color—an indicator of thedegree of radix charge and flow in thebody—and to observe breathing andpatterns of muscle tension or flaccidity.A student may stand up for “ground-ing” exercises that are used to develop asense of the relationship between thefeet and the ground. A student may alsostand to perform exercises that helphim or her release anger. A student mayalso sit face-to-face with the teacher todiscuss a problem or emotional issue.

There are a variety of Radix pro-grams, reflecting the style of theteacher and needs of the student. Manystudents choose a mix of individualand group sessions. Group sessions areusually small and include periods ofindividual interaction with the teacher. A typical individual program lasts forfifty minutes on a weekly basis, butother arrangements are often made,including concentrated programs of upto ten sessions within five days.

—Erica Kelley

Resources:

Kelley/Radix

Chuck and Erica Kelley

13715 SE 36th Street

Vancouver, WA 98683-7770

Tel. & Fax: (360) 896-4004

e-mail: Kelley6@ix.netcom.com

Provides information on Radix, as well as promot-

ing the practice.

Further Reading:

Bar-Levav, Reuven. Thinking in the Shadow of

Feelings. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988.

Branden, Nathaniel. Taking Responsibility: Self-

Reliance and the Accountable Life. New York:

Simon & Schuster, 1996.

Kelley, Charles R. The Radix, Vol. I: Personal

Growth Work, and Vol. II: The Science of Radix

Processes. (Compilation of articles from the

1960s to the 1990s. Also published in Spanish.

Vancouver, WA: K/R Publications, 1992.)

Reich, Wilhelm, “The Expressive Language of Liv-

ing in Orgone Therapy.” Chapter 15 in Charac-

ter Analysis. 3rd ed. New York: Orgone Institute

Press, 1949. Reissued by Farrar, Straus &

Giroux.

REBIRTHING

R ebirthing is a gentle, meditative breathing technique. Advocates ofthis therapy believe that it enables

an individual to become more aware ofthought and behavior patterns that mayprevent him or her from enjoying life tothe fullest. In this way, those who prac-tice rebirthing reduce limiting psycho-logical and emotional conditions,increase the vital transfer of oxygen tothe organs and cells, and release deep-seated tensions from the body, therebyincreasing physical comfort.

The Phenomenon of RebirthingLeonard Orr developed the process inCalifornia in the 1970s. Submerginghimself in a hot tub, he achieved arelaxed mental and physical state that,he said, stimulated memories of beingin the womb, prior to birth. Orr viewedrebirthing as a therapy for releasing thetrauma associated with the birthprocess and our first breaths as infants.He believes that coming to terms withthat trauma is the first step in resolvingburied emotional and psychologicalissues. After a few years of introducing

Rebirthing

others to rebirthing, Orr observed thatthe pattern and quality of breathingattained during the sessions, character-ized by a continuous cycle of inhalationand exhalation flowing deeply andfluidly through the mouth, remainedconstant, regardless of who participat-ed. By comparison, normal breathinghas a pause between one breath and thenext. Orr also noted that the same qual-ity of breathing could remain effectivefor individuals even out of the water.Currently, the most popular version ofrebirthing is the “dry” method, whichdoes not require being submerged inwater.

The Importance of BreathingProper breathing can produce changes ina person’s clarity of thinking and physicalstate. Controlled breathing has been usedfor centuries—often in conjunction withmeditation—to achieve high levels ofcalmness and peace. Deep, even breath-ing has the natural tendency to slow theheartbeat as well as the flow of thoughts.Proper breathing also increases the flowof oxygen throughout the body, which isessential to the smooth function of cellsand organs and the body as a whole. Infact, the body rids itself of 70 percent ofits toxins and other body wastes throughrespiration.

Rebirthing utilizes breathing tech-niques to achieve maximum physicaland emotional health. Rebirthers(rebirthing practitioners) use thesetechniques to shed tensions and foster atranquil mental state. This in turnallows the body rest and recuperationand the mind a period of clear thinkingto sort through complex or long-buriedemotional issues. Rebirthing also relieson the use of positive affirmation, theplanting of new thoughts in a person’sconsciousness to replace negativethought patterns that affect behavior.Rebirthing theory views many destruc-tive patterns as stemming from thebirth trauma and from later life experi-ences, all of which can be locked into

the tissues/cells of the body and canprove harmful if not released. Rebirthingseeks to release trauma from the bodyand support increased well-being.

Rebirthing in PracticeIndividuals are advised to seek the guid-ance of a rebirther who has enoughrebirthing training and experience toprovide safety and support during thefirst several sessions. A person shouldask a prospective rebirther about theextent of his or her training and theirnumber of rebirthing experiences. Aseries of ten sessions with the samerebirther is recommended. The conti-nuity and trust generated by this rela-tionship is believed to accelerate theprogress of healing.

The rebirther begins by asking theindividual about his or her life. Togetherthey look for patterns and habits thatthe client seeks to change, or eliminate.They jointly identify positive thoughtsthat will help begin this change. Thisperiod of discussion is followed by aperiod of physical relaxation andbreathing exercises, guided by therebirther. The individual lies on a mat orpad on the floor. During this stage thebreath slows, allowing tension to dis-solve from the body. This results in astate of relaxation during which theindividual consciously or subcon-sciously addresses his or her concerns.Review of traumatic life experiencesmay result in discomfort when feelingsand long-suppressed thoughts resur-face. At the end of a session, thoughtsand feelings as well as questions can beshared with the rebirther. The rebirthermay also offer some suggestions oraffirmations to focus on until the nextappointment. The recommended ses-sion length is one to two hours.

A Greater Quality of LifePeople develop stress, frustration, anger,and worry, which, if not dispersed, canaffect their physical and emotionalhealth. Advocates of rebirthing say that

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their therapy allows the body to recuper-ate by teaching individuals to breathe in away that promotes physical and emo-tional well-being. In addition, rebirthersassert that by upgrading the quality ofthoughts while in a deep-breathingmode, quality of life also improves, thusproducing greater health, improved rela-tionships, self-esteem, and prosperity.Furthermore, by devoting time to theexamination of buried emotional andpsychological matters while in a relaxedphysical and mental state, people areable to address deep-seated issues thataffect behavior and thought patterns andmake positive changes in their lives.

—Maureen Malone

Resources:

Inspiration University

P.O. Box 1026

Staunton, VA 24402

Source of rebirthing books, audio tapes, and videos.

Loving Relationships Training (LRT) International

c/o Clarity Productions

P.O. Box 160

Manhattan Beach, CA 90267

Tel: (800) 468-5578

Offers rebirthing seminars, training, certification,

and books on related subjects.

The New York Rebirthing Center

205 East 95th Street, 23A

New York, NY 10128

Tel:(212) 534-2969

Fax: (212) 534-2969

Coordinates rebirthing seminars, group rebirths,

and similar activities and provides a list of

rebirthers in your area.

The Philadelphia Rebirthing Center

1027 69th Avenue

Philadelphia, PA 19126

Tel: (215) 424-4444

e-mail: tlomas@netreach.net

Web site: www.philadelphiarebirthing.com

Coordinates rebirthing seminars, group rebirths, and

similar activities and provides a list of rebirthers in

the area.

A rebirther and client discuss the patterns and habits that he or she wishes to change.

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Further Reading:

Morningstar, Jim. Breathing in Light and Love.

Milwaukee, WI: Transformations, 1994.

Orr, Leonard, and Sondra Ray. Rebirthing in the

New Age. Berkeley, CA: Celestial Arts, 1977.

Ray, Sondra. Celebration of Breath. Berkeley, CA:

Celestial Arts, 1983.

——. Loving Relationships. Berkeley, CA: Celestial

Arts, 1983.

Sisson, Colin. Rebirthing Made Easy. New

Zealand: Total Press, 1989.

RUBENFELD SYNERGYMETHOD

The Rubenfeld synergy method is a holistic healing system for theintegration of the body, mind,

emotions, and spirit. It was developedin the 1960s by Ilana Rubenfeld, a psy-chotherapist and bodyworker whosought to teach people how to recog-nize, express, understand, and managetheir emotions, feelings, and sensa-tions. By combining gentle touch andverbalization, the Rubenfeld synergymethod reportedly brings aboutbeneficial changes in self-image,health, personal and family relation-ships, and spirit.

Rubenfeld’s VisionIn the 1950s Rubenfeld was a conduct-ing student at the Juilliard School ofMusic when she suffered a debilitatingback spasm. Seeking help, she discov-ered Judith Leibowitz, a teacher of theAlexander technique, who taught herhow to use her body efficiently andavoid re-injury. During these Alexanderlessons, Rubenfeld sometimes expressedintense emotional feelings, but Lei-bowitz, untrained in treating emotions,

suggested that she see a psychoanalyst.The analyst talked but wouldn’t touch,and her feelings did not emerge.

Rubenfeld realized that the Alexan-der technique’s specific methods ofphysical touch helped her access hermemories, while verbal processinghelped her understand them. Sheresolved to create a way of simultane-ously integrating bodywork with psy-chotherapy. She became a masterteacher of the Alexander technique andtrained extensively with MosheFeldenkrais in the Feldenkrais Method®,a technique for improving both physicaland mental functioning through thelearning of new body movements. Foryears, she taught these body-mindmodalities but found that they missedwhat for her was the most vital element:processing the emotional material thatemerged during lessons. She longed toknow the emotional history, stresses,and life problems that created physicaldysfunctions in the first place.

Rubenfeld’s curiosity led her to trainand collaborate with psychiatrist Dr.Peter Hogan and with Fritz and LauraPerls, cofounders of gestalt therapy, andto further combine body-orientedmethods with psychotherapy. The addi-tion of appropriate verbal processing tobody-mind disciplines practiced in asafe, trusting, and nonjudgmental envi-ronment seemed to make the variousmodalities function synergistically, andremarkable results occurred in a shorttime.

Rubenfeld began the first profes-sional Rubenfeld synergy training pro-gram in 1977 in New York City. This1,600-hour, four-year training programincludes lectures, demonstrations, dis-cussion, and a great deal of supervisedpractice. Trainees learn self-care, main-tain high standards of integrity andcompetency, and seek supervision,therapy, and continued education forthemselves. The code of ethics forRubenfeld synergists includes demon-strating respect for people, preservingtheir confidentiality, showing sensitivi-ty to the difference in power between

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A certified synergist demonstrates movement techniques used to unlock emotions from the body.

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practitioners and help seekers, theavoidance of personal relationshipswith help seekers, and the maintainingof clear boundaries.

The Many Techniques of the MethodThe goals of the Rubenfeld synergymethod are to enhance people’s naturalcapacity for self-healing and self-regula-tion, to teach them to recognize andlearn from the truths their bodies tell,and to teach them to use their ownresources for change, choice, and self-care. Synergists accomplish these goalsby teaching people how to becomeaware of the messages, memories, andemotions locked in their bodies, causingenergy blocks and imbalances.

Using a variety of techniques andelements—including verbal dialogue,movement training, imagination exer-cises, breathing techniques, and non-sexual, caring touch—synergists assistpeople in exploring the relationshipbetween posture and emotions; discov-ering how body metaphors reveal life

patterns; healing their “inner child”;exploring somatic (regarding the body)dreams; and developing a sense ofhumor. Synergists believe that thecombination of these techniques worksto engage the help seeker in under-standing the causes of discomfort andenables them to instruct the help seek-er on how to alleviate physical pain andresolve emotional issues.

The establishment of a therapeuticrelationship of safety and trust is essen-tial, so that each person can journeyinward, recognize and release traumasand dysfunctional memories, andreclaim his or her body, mind, and soul.

Rubenfeld Synergy SessionsA typical session lasts about forty-fiveminutes and is conducted privately or in agroup, with both synergist and help seek-er(s) fully clothed. Help seekers are usual-ly invited to lie on a padded table, butsessions may also be conducted withthem sitting, standing, or moving. Ses-sions begin in the “here and now,” then

Rubenfeld Synergy Method

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move into the past and future within thecontext of each person’s needs. No diag-noses are made, nor cures promised. Helpseekers are in charge of the pace anddirection of the sessions, and they maystop at any time. People interested in prac-ticing the method may learn Rubenfeldbodymind exercises, which ease tensions,foster flexibility, develop strength, andteach “inner listening.” These can be prac-ticed anywhere. Although Rubenfeld syn-ergy may bring insights in a short time,weekly sessions for a period of at least sev-eral months to several years are advisedfor fully integrated and lasting benefits.

Positive Aspects of Rubenfeld SynergySessionsPeople who experience Rubenfeld syn-ergy sessions often report greater self-esteem and self-acceptance; a sense of

clarity and purpose; increased energy,body awareness and body image; deeprelaxation; and relief from pain.Trainees conduct pilot studies on suchtopics as body image, posttraumaticstress disorder, recovery from addictivebehaviors, incest and abuse, and stress-related illnesses. There are no knowncontraindications to receiving Ruben-feld synergy sessions. Synergists aretrained to recognize conditions requir-ing medical supervision and referclients to appropriate professionalswhen necessary.

—Ilana Rubenfeld

Resources:

The Rubenfeld Synergy Center

115 Waverly Place

Ilana Rubenfeld, founder of the Rubenfeld synergy method.

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New York, NY 10011

Tel: (800) 747-6897

e-mail: rubenfeld@aol.com

Offers an introductory workshop.

National Association of Rubenfeld Synergists

1000 River Road, Suite 8H

Belmar, NJ 07719

Tel: (800) 484-3250, code 8516

Provides referrals to certified Rubenfeld synergists

and distributes information about the synergists’

code of ethics.

Canadian Association of Rubenfeld Synergists

112 Lund Street

Richmond Hill, ON L4C 5V9

Canada

Tel: (905) 883-3158

e-mail: aturner@yorku.ca

Supports members’ professional growth and pro-

motes high standards of professional ethics. Also

seeks to educate the public about the Rubenfeld

synergy method.

Further Reading:

Books:

Caldwell, Christine. Getting in Touch: The Guide

to New Body-Centered Therapies. Wheaton IL:

Quest Books, 1997.

Claire, Thomas. Bodywork: What Type of Massage

to Get—And How to Make the Most of It. New

York: William Morrow and Company, 1995.

——. “Gestalt Therapy and the Bodymind: An

Overview of the Rubenfeld Synergy Method.”

In Gestalt Therapy: Perspectives and Applica-

tions. Edwin C. Nevis, ed. New York: Gardner

Press, 1990.

Journals:

Lerkin, Jan Marie. “Sing the Body Electric.”

Changes June 1995.

Markowitz, Laura. “Therapists Explore Mind-

Body Alternatives.” Family Therapy 1996.

Rubenfeld, Ilana. “Ushering in a Century of Inte-

gration.” Somatics Autumn-Winter 1990–91.

——. “Beginner’s Hands: Twenty-Five Years of Sim-

ple Rubenfeld Synergy—The Birth of a Therapy.”

Somatics Spring-Summer 1988.

Simon, Richard. “Listening Hands.” Family Thera-

py Networker September-October 1997.

UNERGI

Unergi is a holistic therapy method that aims to help participantsintegrate body, mind, emotions,

spirit, creativity, and the healing forcesof nature. Unergi was developed by UteArnold, combining healing formsderived from gestalt therapy, theFeldenkrais Method®, the Alexandertechnique, and Rubenfeld synergy.

Unergi combines the words unityand energy, reflecting Arnold’s beliefthat all people originate in a state ofunity and can restore their energy andprevent disease through self-care, self-expression, participation in communi-ty, and active involvement with theorganic rhythms of nature. Accordingto unergi there exists a vibrationalenergy, radiating from our natural envi-ronment, that is able to heal by restor-ing one’s internal energy. Like all of thehealing methods from which it draws,unergi considers physical and emo-tional problems to be a result of psy-chological patterns developed in earlychildhood. These patterns censor vari-ous aspects of our inner life and self-expression. When a person’s body andpsyche have been denied expressionfor a long time, unergi practitionersbelieve that his or her whole being willstart to feel more and more ill at ease.One may feel this as aches, pains, ornumbness, which over time becomemore acute. Healing is seen as a releaseof old ways of being and a return towholeness.

Unergi

During a unergi session, a client lies,sits, or moves on a bodywork table, fullyclothed. The practitioner employs tech-niques such as body awareness, touch,movement exercises to balance theenergy through the Hindu chakra sys-tem, creative expression, visualization,and dreamwork. The practitioner’s tech-niques are used to invite a dialoguebetween a client’s body and mind toaccess his or her deeply buried memo-ries and emotions. They aim to allow agreater freedom of movement and cre-ate a safe environment for the expres-sion and healing of a person’s hiddenqualities.

—Ute Arnold

Resources:

Unergi Training

P.O. Box 335

Point Pleasant, PA 18950

Tel: (215) 297-8006

Offers a three-year certification program in the

unergi method. The training is conducted at

retreat centers on the East Coast of the United

States and in Europe.

429

430

A AAMT. See American Association of Music

Therapy AAPB. See Association for Applied

Psychophysiology and Biofeedback Abe-ryu, 293 absolute self, 319 abuse, 251, 400, 414

recovery from, 139, 172, 190, 360, 427 academic performance, 248 Academy for Guided Imagery, 78 Academy of Science, 73 accidents, 6, 67, 111, 112, 149, 209, 221, 369, 400

See also injury; trauma Acorrido, 283 acrobatics, 297 action profiling, 338-339 actors, 211, 212, 216 acupoints, 178, 180, 182 acupressure, 24, 117, 118, 119, 126, 143, 144, 178,

180-183See also Jin Shin DoTM; process acupressure

acupuncture, 9, 17, 23, 24, 81, 82, 119, 124, 126,142, 143, 144, 163, 177-180, 183-187, 193 colorpuncture and, 107 See also traditional Chinese medicine

Acu-yoga, 182 Adams, Kathleen, 362 ADD. See Attention deficit disorder addictions, 35, 39, 66, 358

treatments for, 21, 65, 67, 70, 83, 99, 101, 103,105, 106, 107, 139, 156, 172, 178, 184, 187, 311,326, 356, 360, 363, 414, 427 See also alcohol; drugs; smoking

adhesions, 42 Adler, Janet, 350 adrenal glands, 101 ADTA. See American Dance Therapy

Association AEDE. See Association des Eleves de Dr.

Ehrenfried et des Practiciens enGymnastique Holistique

affirmations, 423 See also visualizations

Africa, 142, 275, 276, 280-281, 342 Age of Reason, 2 aggression, 276

See also anger; emotions aging, 365 agoraphobia, 270 AIDS, 66, 101, 146, 323, 358, 360 aiki-bujutsu, 278 aikido, 118, 250, 276, 278-280, 284, 293 Ainu people, 293 Akhilananda, Swami, 317 akiyama, 284

alcohol effect on health, 8, 46, 59, 139, 178, 184, 196 See also addictions

Alexander, F.M., 157, 201, 204 Alexander the Great, 143 Alexander technique, 89, 157, 201, 204-207, 266,

391, 425, 428 alienation, 365, 371 alignment, 214, 237, 260, 264, 267, 391, 402 allergies, 97

treatments for, 65, 101, 188, 194 allopathic medicine

compared to alternative medicine, 1, 3, 46, 66 costs and risks of, 57, 62 naturopathy and, 17 nutrition and, 61 See also pharmaceutical drugs

aloe (Aloe vera), 59-60 alpha state, 68, 320 alternative health models, 1-4 Alzheimer's disease, 106, 356 American Association of Artist-Therapists, 364 American Association of Music Therapy

(AAMT), 367 American Association of Professional

Hypnotherapists, 76 American College of Orgonomy, 407 American Dance Therapy Association (ADTA),

354, 355 American Institute of Homeopathy, 12 American Journal of Dance Therapy, 354, 355 American Medical Association (AMA), 2, 47 American Music Therapy Association (AMTA),

367 American Polarity Therapy Association, 127,

128 American School of Osteopathy, 47 American Society of Clinical Hypnosis, 74, 76 AMMA, 180, 195 AMTA. See American Music Therapy

Association Anatomy of an Illness as Perceived by the Patient,

80 anesthesia, 73, 184 aneurysm, 162 anger, 96, 137, 226, 390, 414

See also emotions Angola, 281-282 animal magnetism, 73 ankylosing spondylitis, 79 anmo, 143, 198 anorexia

treatments, 83, 139, 270, 358 See also eating disorders

anthropology, 332, 337 Anthroposophical Society, 254

Index

antibiotics, 2, 17, 54, 84, 104 See also pharmaceutical drugs anti-inflam-matories, 87, 102

anxiety, 21, 95, 98, 152, 232, 379, 398, 399, 414 effect on health, 8, 95 treatments for, 14, 65, 67, 70, 73, 76, 106, 141,155, 187, 326 See also emotions; stress

AOBTA. See American Oriental BodyworkTherapy Association

A-P. See Aston-Patterning APP. See Audio-Psycho-Phonology appendicitis, 14 appetite control, 19 APT. See Association for Poetry Therapy archery, 284, 301 archetypes, 374, 375 Aristotle, 2, 65, 143 Armenia, 256 armoring, 189, 379, 382-383, 389-390, 407-408,

409-411, 421 Arnold, Ute, 428-429 aromatherapy, 83, 85, 86-88 arrhythimia, 323

See also heart conditions arthritis, treatments for, 8, 14, 39, 67, 76, 86, 101,

124, 125, 129, 151, 174, 182, 187, 199, 264artists, 343 art sport, 249 art therapy, 347-350 asanas, 306, 314 ashokh, 256-257 ashrams, 309 Asia, 259, 317, 342 Asian bodywork, 34, 82, 143, 163, 177-180, 195Assagioli, Roberto, 193, 379-380, 392, 419-421assembly line work, 211 Association des Eleves de Dr. Ehrenfried et des

Practiciens en Gymnastique Holistique(AEDE), 234

Association for Applied Psychophysiology andBiofeedback (AAPB), 68

Association for Poetry Therapy (APT), 370 asthma, 35, 260

treatments for, 14, 37, 39, 67, 104, 129, 178,199, 344 See also breathing difficulties

astigmatism, 231 Aston, Judith, 207-209, 222 Aston-Patterning® (A-P), 207-210, 222astrology, 120 astronauts, 81 At a Journal Workshop, 361 athletics, 143, 153, 204, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211,

216, 231, 317 See also sports

at-risk youth, 391 atman, 319

attention deficit disorder (ADD), treatments for,67, 70, 93, 106, 113, 248, 408

attitude effect on health, 8, 67, 79, 226 See also emotions

attunement, 135, 136 audio-psycho-phonology (APP), 111 aura, 48 Australia, 342 authentic movement, 350-352 autism, 113 Autobiography of a Yogi, 306 awareness through movement, 217-218 ayurvedic medicine, 2, 5-7, 54, 55, 116, 117, 126,

143

B Babylonia, 99 Bach, Dr. Edward, 83, 96-98 back pain, 204, 265-266

treatment for, 39, 42, 125, 158, 159, 162, 164,182, 187, 194, 196, 209, 221, 262

bacteria, 54, 103 ba-gua, 122-123 Baker, Elsworth F., M.D., 407 balance, 270, 272 Baldwin, Christina, 361 balms, 86 Barnes, John F., PT, 158 Bartenieff Fundamentals, 210-212 Bartenieff, Irmgard, 201, 210-211, 336 “the basic six,” 212Bates method, 88-90, 229 Bates, William, 88-90 baths, 83, 99, 102, 143, 422

See also hydrotherapy Battle Creek Sanitorium, 100 Beatles, The 324 beauty, 366 bed sores, 125 bedwetting, 68 behavior

effect on health, 204, 228 See also lifestyle

behavioral vision therapy, 83, 90-93 behavior modification, 414 benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), 59 Benjamin, Dr. Ben, 157 Benjamin system of muscular therapy, 157 Benson, Dr. Herbert, 319, 322 beri-beri, 61 berimbau, 283 Berlowe, Dr. Jay, 332 Bernheim, Hyppolyte, 74 beta carotene, 55 Better Eyesight Without Glasses, 88-89 bhakti yoga, 309, 313Bible, 116, 143, 366

431

Bimba, Mestre, 281 binde, 150bindegewebsmassage, 150 bioenergetics, 382-385, 388-389, 393, 400, 410 biofeedback, 65, 66, 68-70, 72, 80, 89, 92Biofeedback Research Society, 68 biofield, 137, 138 biomagnetic therapy, 125 biomorphism, 253 birth injury, 159 black diphtheria, 47 Black Plague, 144 bladder infection, 38 Bleuler, Eugen, 347, 353 blockages, 115-117, 174, 179, 191, 266, 269, 388,

396, 407-408 See also emotions; memories

blood, 35, 48, 107, 173, 174 TCM view of, 26

blood clots, 147 treatment cautions, 175, 242

blood flow enhancement, 174, 182 bloodletting, 10, 34, 46 blood pressure, 72, 85, 87, 311, 320, 322

See also high blood pressure Boadella, David, 410 Boas, Francizka, 354 Bodhidharma, 275, 289, 298 Bodies in Revolt: A Primer in Somatic Thinking,

219 bodybuilding, 231, 260 body fluids, 26, 179 BodymapTM, 385, 386 body-memory, 169 Body-Mind Centering®, 212-215 bodynamic analysis, 385-387 body-oriented psychotherapies, 82, 378-381 body space, 269 bodywork, 55, 84, 177

defined, 33, 115 Oriental, 27, 177 See also movement therapy

Bolesky, Karen L., 237 bone fracture, treatment cautions, 175 Bonnie Pruden School for Physical Fitness and

Myotherapy, 160 botanical medicines, 15 Bothmer gymnastics, 268 boundaries, 399, 426 Bowen technique, 148-149 Bowen, Thomas A., 148-149 bowing, 278, 295, 303 boxing, 240, 260 Boyden-Pesso, Diane, 411, 412 Boyesan, Gerda, 410 BPH. See benign prostatic hyperplasia Braid, James, 73 Braille, 228

brain, 41, 43, 48, 71, 94, 105, 169 three-brain model, 237 See also mind

Brain Gym®, 245, 247-249 brain waves, 320 Brazil, 275, 276, 280, 281 breast cancer, 55, 81 breathing, diaphragmatic, 264, 295 breathing difficulties, 35, 231, 408, 421, 423

treatments for, 70, 218 See also asthma

breathing exercises, 6, 118, 119, 168, 231, 253,298, 300, 311, 368, 382

breathing rate, 72, 85, 87, 320, 403 Bresler, David E., 77-78 Breuer, Josef, 379 brief strobic phototherapy (BSP), 106, 108 bright light therapy, 105, 106-107

See also light therapy British Columbia, 146 Broch, Eva, 389 Brockett, Sally, 91 bronchitis, 35

treatments for, 14, 129, 187 Brooks, Peter, 259 Brown, Malcolm and Katherine, 409-411 bruises, 147

treatments for, 88, 125 BSP. See brief strobic phototherapy Buber, Martin, 397 Buddhism, 133, 134, 135, 275, 289, 298, 299, 301,

306, 308, 317, 319, 400 Buelte, Dr. Arnhilte, 332 bulimia

treatments, 83, 139, 270, 358 See also eating disorders

Burmeister, Mary, 188, 191-192 burns, treatments for, 60, 88, 124, 125 bursitis, 39 bushi, 293 bushido, 295

C Caesar, Julius, 143 caffeine, 8 Campbell, Don, 109 Canada, 146 cancer, 360

conditions affecting, 55, 66, 147 treatment cautions, 147, 175, 196 treatments for, 14-15, 55, 61, 62, 71, 107, 129,264, 323

capoeira, 275, 276, 280-283 Capoeira Foundation, 282 capoeiristas, 281 cardiovascular disease, 58, 104 carpal tunnel syndrome, 125, 162 Cartesian Principle, 29

432

catalepsy, 75 cataracts, 228

treatment cautions, 90 “cat stretch,” 221Center for Children and Parents, 333 Center for Enneagram Studies, 331 Center for Integral Studies, 330 Center for Journal Therapy, 362 Center for Self-Healing, 230 cerebral cortex, 105 cerebral palsy, 159, 344 certified infant massage instructor (CIMI), 153,

155, 156 certified Laban movement analysts (CMAs),

211 Chace, Marian, 353, 354 chakras, 127, 193, 389, 429 chamomile (Matricaria recutita), 54, 58, 60 Chang San-Feng, 270 Charcot, Jean-Martin, 353 Charing Cross Hospital, 83 chi, 23, 116, 120-123, 127, 177-178, 180, 183, 300 chi kung, 118 childbirth, 76 child care, 234 children, 102, 211 chills, 180 China, 7, 34, 37, 65, 83, 99, 118, 120, 124, 129,

142, 143, 144, 163, 180, 187, 195, 244, 245, 275,284, 297, 319, 342

Chi Po, 118 chiropractic, 9, 33, 34, 36, 37-40, 48, 55, 126, 172,

252, 261, 270See also network chiropractic

chit, 319 Cho Hong Hi, Gen., 301 cholecystitis, 14 cholera, 12, 104

treatments for, 14, 104 cholesterol, 58-59 Christ, 116, 134, 171 Christianity, 65, 116, 134, 143, 245, 309, 317, 329,

342 Chronic Disease: Their Peculiar Nature and Their

Homeopathic Treatment, 12 chronic fatigue syndrome, 14, 42, 106, 159 Cicero, 143 CIMI. See certified infant massage instructorcinchona, 10 circulatory system, 152, 162, 163, 164, 175, 196,

270, 311 cirrhosis, 59 Clark, Barbara, 225 Classic of Difficult Issues (Nan Jing), 24 claustrophobia, 270 cleansing, 21 Cleveland Homeopathic College, 14 clinical guided imagery, 78

coex systems, 403-404 Cohen, Bonnie Bainbridge, 213, 214 colds, 57, 58, 61, 86, 88, 96, 194, 197 colon cancer, 55 colonics, 102 colors, feng shui and, 122 colorpuncture, 107-108 comedy, 79-80 communication, 338, 344, 356, 363, 418 complementation, 282 Complete Book of Yoga, The, 306 compresses, 99, 102 concentration, 111, 261, 263, 293, 300, 317, 320,

325, 356, 392 Confucianism, 23, 24 congestion, 101 Connective Tissue TherapySM, 145, 150-152, 166,

167Conrad-Da'oud, Emilie, 245, 252-253 Conscious Ear, The, 111 consciousness, 324, 325, 326, 369, 379, 398, 402-

403 See also mind; unconscious

constipation, 196 constitution, 5 contact improvisation, 245, 246,249-252 Contact Newsletter/Quarterly, 249 contemplative dance, 350 continuum, 245, 246, 252-253 contraria contraris, 10 contrology, 245, 261 coordination, 344 core energetics, 380, 387-391 CORE structural integrative therapy, 152-153 coreSomatics, 380, 391-392 coronary artery disease, 55

See also heart conditions correctives, 211 cortisone, 146, 196 Coué, Émile, 74, 76 counseling, 126 Cousins, Norman, 79, 80 cranial osteopathy, 40 CranioSacral therapy, 34, 36, 40-42, 48Creation of Meaning, The, 394 creative writing, 372 creativity, 84, 105, 111, 214, 237, 248, 326, 396,

402, 417, 429 See also expressive and creative arts thera-pies; imagination

cross-eye, 90 crying, 383 Cullen, Dr. William, 10 Cunningham, Merce, 249, 265 Cyriax, Dr. James, 157

D Dalcroze, Emile Jacques, 258, 382

433

Damballah, 252, 253 dance, 119, 210, 212, 216, 226, 227, 234, 249-252,

254, 260, 263, 266, 281, 342, 343, 344 DanceAbility, 250 dance education, 201 dance therapy, 209, 210, 247, 328, 332, 350, 352-

356 Dancer's Workshop Company, 360 dao-yin, 130 dar, 297 Darwin, Charles, 48 DC. See doctor of chiropractic de Hartmann, Thomas, 258, 259 de Montgrillard, Guy, 287 de Salzmann, Alexandre, 258 de Salzmann, Jean, 258 deafness, 38 death, 98, 269 decision making, 338, 396 degenerative disorders, 151 Deguchi, Onisaburo, 278 dehydration, 102 Delsarte, François, 412 delta waves, 306 delusions, 124 Dennison, Gail, 245, 247 Dennison, Paul E., Ph.D., 245, 247 depression, 35, 399, 407, 414

treatments for, 37, 55, 59, 61, 67, 70, 83, 103,104, 106, 124, 139, 187, 326, 371, 408 See also emotions

Desai, Amrit, 315 Descartes, René, 29, 65, 71 developmental disabilities, 42 Dharmapala, Anagarika, 317 diabetes, 55, 162

treatment cautions, 60, 176 treatments for, 125

Diagnostic Survey Manual (DSM), 329 Dialogue House, 362 diaphragmatic breathing, 264 diarrhea, 46 Dicke, Elizabeth, 150, 152 Dictionary of the Martial Arts, 293 dietary and nutritional practices, 53-56 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act

of 1994 (DSHEA), 57 diet, effect on health, 6, 8, 35, 36, 84, 100, 118,

126, 127, 128, 178, 196, 300 digestion, 72, 194

See also indigestion digestion aids, 57, 58 disabilities, 250, 358, 360, 365 disease

homeopathic view of, 13 osteopathic view of, 48

dissociative identity disorder, 106 D.O. See doctor of osteopathy

doctor of chiropractic (DC), 34, 39, 63, 162 doctor of naturopathy (ND), 15, 63 doctor of osteopathy (D.O.), 34, 48, 63, 162 do-in, 117, 118-119 dojang, 302 dojo, 278, 285-286, 287, 291, 295 dor-mor, 298 dos Reis Machado, Manoel, 281 doshas, 5-7 double gate theory of pain, 187 double vision, 92, 93 Downing, Dr. John, 105 drama, 417 drama therapy, 356-359 dreaming process, 415 dreams, 139, 429

shamanism and, 19, 21 drugs

effect on health, 8, 10, 34, 40, 46, 146, 344 etymology of term, 57 See also pharmaceutical drugs

drumming, 21 drumming circle, shamanism and, 22 DSM. See Diagnostic Survey ManualDuncan, Isadora, 343 Durham, Else Henscke, 234 dynamis, homeopathic, 13 dyslexia, 113, 248

E ear disorders, 111, 112 Ear and Language, The, 111 ear lavage, 102 eating disorders, 66, 76, 83, 106, 137, 139, 172,

215, 270, 356, 358, 360, 363, 380, 414 See also anorexia; bulimia

echinacea (Echinacea spp.), 58, 60, 102 ecumenism, 313 eczema, 14 edema, 162 Edson, Dr. Susan, 14 education, 109, 258, 418 Education and Dyslexia, 111 Educational Kinesiology Foundation, 247 EEG. See electroencephalograph effleurage, 174 effort phrasing, 338 Ego, Hunger, and Aggression, 397 Egypt, 34, 83, 86, 99, 124, 143, 163, 342 Ehrenfried, Dr. Lily, 234 Einstein, Albert, 268, 308 EKP. See Emotional Kinesthetic Psychotherapy elderly, treatment cautions for, 102 electricity, feng shui and, 122 electroencephalograph (EEG), 68 electromagnetic energy, 103-109, 117 electromagnetism, 324 electronic ear, 111, 112, 113

434

Eliade, Mircea, 306, 307 Elizabeth Dicke Society, 152 Ellon, Inc., 98 EMDR. See Eye Movement Desensitization and

Reprocessing Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 317 emotional difficulties

treatments for, 42, 44, 76, 81, 164, 378, 404,414 vision problems and, 89

emotional kaleidoscope, 188 emotional kinesthetic psychotherapy (EKP),

380, 392-394 emotional well-being, 289, 356, 357, 370

defined, 29-31 emotions

effect on health, 35, 48, 65, 67, 72, 73, 78-79,96, 137, 139, 157, 204, 207, 343 repressed, 8, 72, 106, 169, 189, 347, 398-399,407 shamanism and, 19, 21 See also attitude; depression; memories

empathy, 355 emphysema, 8 endocrine system, 85, 101, 105, 196 endorphins, 66, 182 enema, 102 energetic forces, 2, 388-389 energy

TCM view of, 26 wellness and, 29, 263, 267 Zero Balancing and, 50, 51

energy flows, 25, 35, 139, 224 energy vortex, 193 Enlightenment, the, 65 enneagram, 329-332 environment

arrangement of, 119-124 effect on health, 8, 207, 213, 221, 386, 392 effect on vision, 90 See also lifestyle, effect on health

ephedra (Ephedra sinia), 60 epilepsy, 143 Epsom salts, 102 Epstein, Dr. Donald, 43, 44, 238, 239 ergonomics, defined, 207 Erickson, Milton H., 74, 76 Esalen Institute, 209, 234, 240, 343, 403 Espenak, Liljan, 354 essence, TCM view of, 26 essential oils, 86, 87 etiquette, role of, 278, 280, 285, 291 eucalyptus, 87 Europe, 343 eurythmics, 258, 382 eurythmy, 245, 254-256 Evan, Blanch, 354 evolution, 48

exercise, 118, 126, 127, 128, 162, 225, 264 effect on health, 36, 100, 178 relation to wellness, 8, 16, 126, 196

expressive and creative arts therapies, 82, 341-346

eye disorders, 228-230 treatments for, 42, 83, 93, 164, 188

eye exercises, 231, 295 eye gym, 91-93 eye movement desensitization and reprocess-

ing (EMDR), 94-96 eye therapies

Bates method, 88-90 behavioral vision therapy, 90-93 eye movement desensitization and reprocess-ing, 94-96

F far-sightedness, 231 farming, 120 fascia, 150-151, 158-159, 165, 222, 223, 235-236 fasting, 53 fatigue

treatments for, 97, 103, 106, 164, 172, 188, 226 See also chronic fatigue syndrome

fats, 55 FDA. See Food and Drug Administration fear, 67, 76, 96, 98, 137, 169, 231, 235, 286, 384,

391, 407 coping mechanisms for, 14

Fehmi, Les, 68 Feldenkrais, Dr. Moshe, 201, 216, 219, 425 Feldenkrais Method®, 215-218, 391, 425, 428fencing, 268 feng shui, 115-116, 117, 119-124 Fenichel, Clare, 234 fever, 145, 146, 196

treatments for, 99 feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), 58 fibromyalgia, 125, 159, 162, 264 Field, Tiffany, 155 fight-or-flight response, 247, 322 Finsen, Dr. Niels R., 103 fitness training, 207, 210 Fitsgerald, 163 five elements, 26, 184, 186 flexibility, enhancement of, 162, 206, 218, 224,

237, 240, 242, 263, 264, 267, 280, 291, 296 flower remedies, 84, 85, 96-99 flu, treatments, 57, 58, 88, 194 flushes, 99, 102 flying, 251 foam wedges, 208 focusing, 394-397 folk dancing, 211 folk medicine, 143, 195, 198 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 57, 407 food, as medicine, 54, 62

435

foundation joints, 36 four methods of evaluation, 199 France, 258, 293 frankincense, 86 Franklin, Benjamin, 73 Frederic, Louis, 293 Freud, Sigmund, 66, 71, 74, 116, 343, 344, 347,

378-379, 382, 397, 398, 407, 419 friction, 174, 175 friction treatment, 157 Frigerio, Alejandro, 282 Fritz, Sandy, 143 Fromm, Erich, 234 Frost, Robert, 371 fulcra, 51 Fuller, Betty, 240 Function of the Orgasm, The, 379 Functional Integration®, 217-218 Fundamentals of Therapeutic Massage, 143

G Gach, Michael Reed, 182 gait, 172, 173 Gandhi, Mahatma, 309 Gao Fu, Madame, 130 garlic (Allium sativum), 54, 58-59 gastrointestinal disorders, 204

treatments for, 39, 67, 107, 164, 178, 199 See also indigestion

Gattefosse, René Maurice, 86 Gautama, Siddhartha, 306 gekken, 293 gender equality, 251, 373 Gendlin, Dr. Eugene, 392, 394-397 genetic predispositions, effect on health, 6, 8,

16, 35, 39 geomancy, 120 geriatric problems, 159, 264 germ theory of disease, 7, 54 Gesell Institute of Child Development, 93 gestalt, homeopathic, 14 gestalt therapy, 234, 380, 391, 397-399, 410, 414,

417, 425, 428Gi, 278, 291 Gichin, Funakoshi, 290, 291, 292 Gindler, Elsa, 169, 201, 226, 231, 232, 234 ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), 59 glandular disorders, 164 glaucoma, treatment cautions, 60, 90, 404 Gnosticism, 116 goals, 363 God, 48, 65 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 11 goldenseal, 102 Goldstein, Kurt, 410 golgi tendon reflex, 148 gonorrhea, 14 gout, 104, 125

Graham, Martha, 265, 350 Graham, Sylvester, 54 grave sites, 120 gravity, 165, 167, 219, 223, 231, 269, 272, 314,

324 Greece, 2, 37, 54, 65, 71, 83, 86, 99, 116, 143, 145,

163, 275, 329, 342, 363, 366, 370 Green, Drs. Elmer and Alyce, 66, 68 grief, effect on health, 79, 137, 139, 164, 363 Grof, Christine, 403 Grof, Stanislav, 380, 403 groundedness, 164, 383-384, 422 groups, 338, 399, 411-414, 415 Guest, Anne Hutchinson, 336 guided imagery, 65, 67, 71-73, 74, 80, 225

ROM dance and, 265-267 shamanism and, 21, 65

guilt, 137, 189 Gurdjieff Foundation, 258 Gurdjieff, George Ivanovitch, 245, 256-260, 257,

317, 329 Gurdjieff movements, 256-260 guruji, 314 gymnastics, 143, 260 gymnastik, 232 Gymnastique Holistique, 234

H habits, 231, 259 Hahnemann, Samuel, 2, 10-12, 11, 116 Haiti, 252 hakama, 278, 295 hakomi integrative somatics, 392, 399-402 hakuda, 284 Hall, Edward T., 268 hallucinations, 124 Halprin, Anna, 360 Halprin life/art process, 359-361 hand therapy, 264 hands

use in therapy, 37, 119, 128, 133 See also touch

Hanna Somatic Education® (HSE), 218-222 Hanna Somatic educator, 221 Hanna, Thomas, 219, 220, 244 happiness, 326 hara, 295 Harlowe, Diane, M.S., 245, 263 hatha yoga, 65, 245, 305, 307-308 Hawkins, Alma, 354 Hayashi, Chijuro, 135 head, 204 Head, Henry, 150 head zones, 150 headaches, 97, 204

treatments for, 70, 72, 93, 124, 129, 159, 162, 164,178, 182, 187, 194, 199, 215, 221 See also migraine headaches

436

healing crisis, alternative methods and, 4 Healing Massage Techniques, 142 healing process

natural, 3, 9, 72, 349 participation in, 17, 69, 141, 352 self-healing, 3, 35, 38, 41, 88, 129, 140, 388,405

health behavioral model of, 89 factors affecting, 8

Health Building, 126 health maintenance, compared to disease treat-

ment, 3 Heard, Gerald, 317 hearing, defined, 112 hearing loss, 83 heart, 392 heart conditions, 35, 137, 404

treatments for, 39, 61, 62, 67, 70, 175, 323 heart rate, 72, 85, 87, 311, 320, 322 Heidigger, Martin, 397 heiho, 293 Heller, Joseph, 202, 222 Hellerwork, 202, 222-224 hemorrhages

treatment cautions, 175 treatments for, 99

hepatitis, 14, 59 herbal medicine, 2, 17, 23, 25, 27, 53-54, 55, 57-

60, 86, 126, 180types of herbs, 59

herpes, 86, 88 Herschel, John, 103 Hewitt, James, 306 Heyer, Lucy, 169 Hidden You, The, 225 high blood pressure, 55

treatment cautions, 60, 196 treatments for, 39, 67, 70, 129, 187, 215, 320,322, 323, 326 See also blood pressure

higher self, 419, 420 Himalayan Institute, 306 Hinduism, 5, 135, 193, 305, 307, 308, 309 Hindu Vedanta, 317, 318, 319 hippies, 145 Hippocrates, 34, 37, 54, 62, 71, 83, 99, 116, 143 hip replacement, 264 Hisamaro, Takenouchi, 284 histiopathology, 39 Hoffer, Abram, 61, 63 Hogan, Dr. Peter, 425 holdings, 168, 170, 221 holism, 7, 29 holistic health, 3, 7-9, 46 Holotropic BreathworkTM, 380, 402-405 Holotropic Mind, The, 403 homelessness, 358, 360, 373

homeopathy, 2, 5, 9, 10-15, 16, 116 homeostasis, 13, 173, 226 homeplay, 248 hormone levels, 85, 87, 105 Horney, Karen, 317, 397 hospices, 373 hospitals, 373 HSE. See Hanna Somatic Education Hua Tuo, 129 Huang-ti Nei Jing (Yellow Emperor's Internal

Classic), 24, 118, 143, 184, 198, 297 Hull, Clark, 74 human beings, 154

non-material aspects, 3, 213 relation to environment, 25

Human Movement Potential, 225 human potential, 232 humanistic psychology, 380 Humanistic Psychology Institute, 219 Hunt, Dr. Valerie, 252 Huxley, Aldous, 89, 317 Hwarang, Code of, 301, 303 hydrotherapy, 15, 16, 83, 85, 99-103 hyodo, 293 hyperactivity, treatments for, 42 Hypericum perforatum (St. John's wort), 55 hypertension. See High blood pressure hypnosis, 73, 322 Hypnosis and Suggestibility, 74 hypnotherapy, 19, 65, 66, 73-77

self-hypnosis, 71 hysteria, 71 hyung, 303

I IAIM. See International Association for Infant

Massage Ichazo, Oscar, 329 ideas, 355 ideokinesis, 201, 224-226 imagination, 71, 73, 78, 344, 350, 363, 370, 420

See also creativity immune system

factors affecting, 78-81, 83, 88, 362 strengthening, 99, 129, 136, 146, 196

immunity, 72 Imperial College of Medicine, 198 improvisation, 355 incense, 86 incest, 414, 427

See also abuse; sexual dysfunction incontinence, treatments for, 67 India, 5, 7, 73, 83, 118, 124, 126, 143, 153, 245,

275, 298, 306, 317, 342 indigestion, 97, 128

treatments for, 88, 139, 164, 188 See also gastrointestinal disorders

infant, music therapy for, 366-370

437

Infant Massage: Handbook for Loving Parents, 153 infant massage, 153-157 infections, 79, 81, 97, 111, 112, 162

treatment cautions, 175, 199 treatments, 54, 73, 86, 104, 107, 141

infertility, 323 treatment for, 164, 323

inflammation, treatment cautions, 175 influenza, 14, 146 infrared energy, 103 Ingham, Eunice, 163 inhibition, 169 injury

See also accidents effect on health, 39, 111 treatment for, 124, 151, 157, 172, 194, 199, 207,212, 225, 337

innate intelligence, 38 inner child, 426 inner elixir qigong, 132 insect bites, 88, 125 insomnia, treatments for, 58, 67, 69, 70, 76, 103,

106-107, 124, 139, 178, 187, 188, 199, 323, 326 instincts, shamanism and, 19 Institute for Music, Health, and Education, 109 Institute for the Harmonious Development of

Man, 258, 329 Institute of Noetic Sciences, 117 integral yoga, 313-314 Integral Yoga Institutes (IYIs), 313 integrated movement, 339 intelligence, 392 Interactive Guided Imagery, 72, 77-78 Intermodal Learning in Education and Therapy,

364 International Association for Infant Massage

(IAIM), 153 International Kendo Federation, 293 International Medical and Dental

Hypnotherapy Association, 76 International Somatic Movement Therapy and

Education Association (ISMTEA), 202 Interscience Research Institute, 421 intimacy, 402 intuition, shamanism and, 19 irrigations, 99, 102 irritable bowel syndrome, 69, 70 ischemic compression, 160 Islam, 124, 144, 306 ISMTEA. See International Somatic Movement

Therapy and Education Association Iyengar, B.K.S., 314-315 Iyengar yoga, 314-315 IYIs. See Integral Yoga Institutes

J Jacobson, Edmund, 382 Jacoby, Heinrich, 201, 232, 234

jam sessions, 249 James, William, 306 Japan, 118, 143, 163, 178, 191, 195, 285 Japanese Karate Association, 291 jaundice

treatment cautions, 175 treatments for, 103, 104, 107

Javal, Dr. Emile, 83, 90jaw pain

treatment for, 158, 159 See also temporomandibular joint

jealousy, 96, 98 jet lag, 105, 106 jhana yoga, 308, 313Jigoro, Kano, 216, 287, 288 Jin Shin Do®, 178, 180, 187-190 Jin Shin Jyutsu®, 180, 188, 190, 191-192 jin ye, 26 jing, 26 jogo, 282 jogo-de-capoeira, 283 Johnsen, Lillimor, 385 Johnsen, Linda, 306 Johnson, Lyndon B., 160 joint pain, treatments for, 188 jojoba, 88 Journal of Orgonomy, 407, 408 Journal of Practical Medicine, 10 Journal to the Self, 362 journal therapy, 361-363 journaling, 237, 372 journey, shamanistic, 21 Joy, Dr. Brugh, 222 joza, 295 ju-jutsu, 278, 283-286, 286, 287 Judaism, 116, 124, 143, 245, 329, 342 judo, 118, 216, 278, 284, 285, 286-289 judogi, 288 Judson Church Group, 249 Jung, Carl Gustav, 126, 169, 193, 343, 347, 350,

374, 379-380, 391, 404, 410, 419

K Kabat-Zinn, Jon, 319 Kagan, Alfred, 157 Kalff, Dora, 374-377 Kamiya, Joe, 68 Kammertanzbuhne Laban, 335 Kanemon, Terada, 287 kapha, 5-7 karate, 118, 285, 289-292, 301Karate/Kung-Fu Illustrated, 282 karateka, 289, 290, 291 karma yoga, 309, 313 kata, 292 keiko, 296 Kellogg, Dr. John Harvey, 100 Kelly, Dr. Charles R., 421-422

438

ken-jutsu, 293 kendo, 278, 293-297 kendoka, 293 Kennedy, John F., 144, 160 Kestenberg, Dr. Judith S., 332, 336 Kestenberg movement profile (KMP), 213, 328,

332-335 ki, 23, 116, 278, 286, 293, 295 ki-ai, 295, 296 kicking, 275, 276 kidney disorders, 152 kikentai-no-ichi, 296 kinesiopathology, 39 kinesphere, 251, 336 kinesthetic sense, 82, 231, 266 kinetic awareness, 226-228 Kinetography Laban, 335 kirlian photograph, 107 KMP. See Kestenberg Movement Profiler Kneipp, Father Sebastian, 2, 15-16, 83, 99-100 Knill, Paolo, 364 Kodokan, 287 Koffa, Kurt, 397 Kogusoku, 284 kokodan judo, 278 Konia, Dr. Charles, 408 Korea, 118, 301, 319 Korean Taekwondo Federation, 301 Kousaleos, George P., 152 Kraeplin, Emil, 347 Kramer, Edith, 347 Krieger, Dolores, Ph.D., 140 kripalu yoga, 315-316 kripalvananda, 315 Krishna Consciousness Movement, 309 Krishnamacharya, Shree T., 314 Krishnamurti, Jidhu, 317 kriyas, 308 Kübler-Ross, Dr. Elizabeth, 29-30 kundalini yoga, 308, 315, 320 kung fu, 118 kung fu wu su, 297-301 kuntao, 275 Kunz, Dora, 140 Kurtz, Ron, 392, 400 Kushi, Michio, 54, 118

L Laban Institute of Movement Studies, 211 Laban Lawrence industrial rhythm, 338 Laban movement analysis (LMA), 211, 213, 327,

328, 335-340 Laban personal effort assessment, 338 Laban, Rudolf, 210, 327, 333, 335, 338 Labanotation, 335 ladainha, 283 Lamb, Warren, 333, 336

Landau reflex, 219 Lao-tzu, 186 law of cure, 12 Lawrence, F. C., 338 lazy eye, 90, 93, 231 leadership, 329 learning, 84, 105, 329 learning disabilities, treatments for, 67, 70, 93,

103, 113, 215, 216, 247, 248, 369 Lee, Bruce, 285 Leedy, Jack J., 370 Leibowitz, Judith, 425 Lepkoff, Daniel, 249 Lerner, Arthur, 370 levity, 269 Lewis, Penny, 332 Liberman, Dr. Jacob, 106 licensing, 145-146 licking, 154 Liebault, Auguste Ambroise, 73-74 lifestyle, effect on health, 6, 7, 8, 16, 35, 36, 111,

112, 178, 196, 344 lifestyle counseling, 15 light, feng shui and, 122 light therapy, 83, 84, 85, 103-109, 320 Light of Truth Universal Services, 313 Light of Truth Universal Shrine (LOTUS), 313 limbic system, 85, 86-87, 105 Ling, Per Henrik, 144, 174 Ling System, the, 174 listening, 111, 248, 250

defined, 111-112 Sounding and, 109-111

liver disorders, 59, 147 LMA. See Laban Movement Analysis lodestone, 124 logic, 2 Loman, Susan, 332 longevity, 118, 263 LOTUS. See Light of Truth Universal Shrine love, 74, 407 love force, 389 Lowen, Dr. Alexander, 382-385, 388, 393, 410Lowenfeld, Margaret, 374 lupus, 264 Lust, Benedict, 15-17, 83 lymphatic drainage, 148, 174 lymphocytes, 79

M ma huang (Ephedra sinia), 60 MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 290 macrobiotics, 54, 118 magic, 118, 257 magnesium, 249 magnet therapy, 115-116, 117, 124-126 magnetotherapy. See magnet therapy makiwara, 302

439

malicia, 282 management, 329, 332 Mandel, Peter, 107 mandingas, 282 mantra yoga, 308, 313mantras, 309, 326 manual lymph drainage, 145 Marcher, Lisbeth, 385-387 Marcus, Dr. Hershey, 332 Marks, Linda, 392-393 martial arts, 82, 118, 226, 249, 251, 274-277, 317martial arts qigong, 131 Mary Starks Whitehouse Institute, 350 Maslow, Abraham, 345, 380, 410 massage therapy, 6, 9, 23, 74, 82, 84, 88, 118,

119, 136, 142-147, 173, 174, 178, 195, 197-198,229, 231, 268, 328

materialism, 317 Maudsley, Henry, 353 Maury, Marguerite, 86 McClure, Vimala, 153-157 McMillan, Jaimen, 245, 268 M.D. See medical doctor measles, 146

treatments for, 14, 104 mechanistic paradigm, compared to wellness

paradigm, 29 medical doctor (M.D.), 63, 162 medical orgone therapy, 405-409 medical orgonomy, 116, 382 medical qiqong, 131 medicine men. See shamanism medicine wheel, 22 meditation, 6, 64, 68, 69, 74, 117, 119, 131, 251, 298,

300, 303, 315, 317-321, 403, 423 meditation in motion, 315-316 Meetings with Remarkable Men, 256, 257, 259 Meir Schneider's Miracle Eyesight Method, 230 Meir Schneider self-healing method, 228-231 melatonin, 105 Melzack and Wall, 187 memories

effect on health, 79, 214 emotional, 85, 106, 152, 169, 194, 248, 326,367, 379, 392, 402, 426 vision and, 89, 94 See also emotions

Menninger Foundation, 117 menopausal difficulties, 188 menstrual difficulties, 106, 139, 164, 188 mental disorders, 124, 187, 194, 403 mental health, 373 mental rejuvenation, 260 mental well-being, 276, 286, 289, 302, 311

defined, 29-31 mentastics, 242 mercury, 40, 46 meridians, 24, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 189, 193, 195

Mesmer, Franz Anton, 64, 73 Mesmerism, 37, 48 miasms, 12 Middle Ages, the, 144 migraine headaches, 8

treatments, 14, 39, 42, 58, 67, 70, 76, 139, 187 See also headaches

milk thistle (Silybum marianum), 59 Miller, Kay, 391 Milton H. Erickson Institutes, 76 mime, 254, 356 mind

effect on health, 65, 71, 77, 270, 325, 343, 379 influence on health, 3 See also brain; consciousness; unconscious

mind/body medicine, 64-67, 82Mindanao, 275 Mindell, Arnold, 193, 415-416 mindfulness, 400, 402 mirroring, 354 mirrors, 207 Miss Sarah Farmer's Greenacre School of

Comparative Religions, 317 mobility junction, 250 Modern Educational Dance, 336 monasticism, 143 Montague, Ashley, 154 Moreno, Jacob Levi, M.D., 380, 416 morphine, 46 Moshou, 198 motivation, 67, 84, 105, 113, 230, 332 motor-coordination, 42, 113, 226, 386-387 Mount Kuriyama, 135 movement, universal, 245-246 movement coaching, 207, 328 movement in depth, 350 movement dysfunction, 159, 207 movement pattern analysis, 328, 338-340 movement therapy, 82, 200-203, 247, 268, 270,

332 See also bodywork

moving imagination, 350 Mowrer, Hobart G., 68 moxibustion, 24, 186 Mrs. Ole Bull's Cambridge Conferences on

Comparative Religions, 317 MTPT. See Myofascial Trigger Point Therapy Mucope people, 281 mudras, 191 mugwort (Artemesia vulgaris), 186 Muktananda, Swami, 50 multi-modal expressive arts therapy, 363-366 multiple sclerosis, 14, 229 mummification, 86 Murai, Jiro, 180, 188, 189, 191 muscular dystrophy, 230, 240, 344 muscular pain, treatments for, 69, 86, 102, 124,

125, 146, 148, 157, 182, 196, 236

440

muscular system, 36, 262, 311, 408 muscular therapy, 157-158 musculoskeletal system, 152-153, 204, 224, 225,

227 music, 72, 234, 254-255, 259, 280, 282-283, 403 music therapy, 366-370 musicians, 206, 211, 212, 216, 231, 267, 343 Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction, 160 myofascial release, 145, 158-160, 236 myofascial trigger point therapy (MTPT), 160-

163 myopathology, 39 myrrh, 86 mysticism, 317, 403 My Water Cure, 100

N nagi, 278, 280 NAMT. See National Association of Music

Therapy Nan Jing (Classic of Difficult Issues), 24 NAPT. See National Association for Poetry

Therapy Naranjo, Claudio, 329 NASA, 105, 222 National Association for Drama Therapy

(NADT), 357, 359 National Association of Music Therapy

(NAMT), 367 National Association for Poetry Therapy

(NAPT), 362, 370 National Cancer Institute, 55 National Institutes of Health (NIH), 55, 57, 140 National Institute of Mental Health, 105 National Learning Foundation (NLF), 247 National Socialist Party, 335 Native Americans, 46, 83, 99, 142, 163, 342, 403natural childbirth, 17 natural law, relation to health, 8, 118, 131 Natural Law Party, 324 nature, human beings and, 84, 245 naturopathic medicine, 15-17 naturopathy, 2, 9, 83 Naumburg, Margaret, 347 Nazism, 335, 397, 420 NCCAOM (National Commission for

Certification of Acupuncture and OrientalMedicine), 28

ND. See doctor of naturopathy nearsightedness, 83, 91, 231 neck, 204 neck pain, treatment for, 39, 42, 158, 159, 162,

206, 209, 236, 264 necromancy, 118 needs, 398, 412 nervous system, 35, 41, 42, 43, 48, 85, 99, 100,

102, 104-105, 146, 150, 152, 163, 172, 173-174,175, 196, 203, 219, 392

autonomic, 148, 169 disorders of, 164 immune system and, 79 parasympathetic, 150

network chiropractic, 34-35, 43-45, 239 network spinal analysis. See network chiro-

practic Neumann, Erich, 374, 410 neuralgia, treatment for, 125 neuro-hypnosis, 73 neurological disorders, 42, 216, 225 neurology, 173, 264 neuromuscular facilitation, 145, 150, 231 neuropathology, 39 neurosensory development, 105-106, 108 neurosis, 74, 116 neurotic character structure, 383 New Diary, The, 361 New School for Social Research, 234, 382 New York Academy of Science, 62 New Zealand, 248 Newton, Sir Isaac, 103 n'golo, 281 niacin, 55, 61 nibanna, 319 NIH. See National Institutes of Health nine-pointed star, 329-330 nirvana, 319 Nixon, Richard, 144 NLF. See National Learning Foundation Nolte, Marcia, 237 nonviolence, 313 norepinephrine, 105 Novato Institute for Somatic Research and

Training, 219, 222 Nugent, John J., 37 numbness, 180 numerology, 120 nutrition, clinical, 15 nutritional counseling, 37 nutritional and dietary practices, 53-56 nutritional supplements, 16

O O Sensei, 278-280 OAM. See Office of Alternative Medicine obi, 288, 291 obsessive compulsive disorder, 106, 139 occupational health, 231 occupational therapy, 213, 245, 263 OEP. See Optometric Extension Program Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM), 57 Ogden, Pat, 400, 401 Ohashi Institute, 195 Ohashi, Wataru, 195 Ohashiatsu, 195 Okinawa, 290 oM, 309

441

Omega Institute, 343 Omoto-Kyo, 278 On Vital Reserves, 306 oncology, 264 One to One: Self-Understanding Through Journal

Writing, 361 opium, 46 Optiks (Newton), 103 Optometric Extension Program (OEP), 91 organismic body psychotherapy, 380, 409-411Organon of Rational Medicine, 10 orgone, 388

See also medical orgone therapy Oriental medicine, 15, 17, 23

See also traditional Chinese medicine Orr, Leonard, 380, 422-425 orthomolecular medicine, 55, 56, 60-63 orthopedic disorders, 42 orthoptics, 90 Osmond, Humphrey, 61 osteoarthritis, 226 osteopathy, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 45-50, 55osteoporosis, 221 otitis, 14 Ottenbacker, K. J., 154 Ouspensky, P. D., 258 overeating, 6

See also eating disorders

P PA. See Process Acupressure PACE (Positive, Active, Clear, Energetic), 248 pain

effect on health, 79, 133 principles of, 173-174 treatments for, 21, 33, 42, 57, 65, 67, 70, 72, 73,76, 124, 129, 141, 145, 146, 158, 159, 160, 172-173, 182, 194, 196, 206, 209, 216, 218, 223, 227,228, 229, 235, 240, 263, 264, 267, 323, 428

palliative treatment, homeopathic, 10 Palmer, Bartlett Joshua, 37 Palmer, Daniel David, 34, 35, 37, 38 Panchakarma, 6 pancreatitis, 14 panic attacks, 106, 139, 408 Paracelsus, 71 paralysis, 253 paranoia, 329 Paré, Ambroise, 144 parent-child interactions

before/after birth, 334 infant massage, 153-157

Parkinson's disease, 264 Parnell, Devakanya G., 315 Pasteur, Louis, 54 Pasteurization, 54 Pastinha, Mestre, 281 Pastinha, Vincente Ferreira, 281

Patanjali, 306 pathophysiology, 39 pathwork, 387-391 Pauling, Linus, 54-55, 61 Pavek, Dr. Richard R., 137, 138 Paxton, Steve, 245, 249, 250 pediatric problems, 159 pellagra, 61 penicillin, 2, 84 Pennebaker, Dr. James, 362 perceptual difficulties, 214 performing artists, 204, 206, 211, 227, 260, 267 perfumes, 86 Perls, Fritz, 234, 380, 397-399, 410, 417, 425 Perls, Laura, 380, 425 personal growth, 329, 357 personal kinesphere, 336 personality, 72, 96, 109, 330, 354, 359, 393, 398

homeopathic view of, 14 Pesso, Albert, 411-414 Pesso Boyden system psychomotor (PBSP), 381,

411-414 petrissage, 174pharmaceutical drugs, 2, 7, 16, 38, 54, 84, 144

herbal medicine and, 57, 58 See also Allopathic medicine

pharmacopiae, 27 Philippines, 275 phlebitis, 147 phobias, 35, 67, 73, 76, 270 photoluminesence, 107 photoreceptors, 105 photron ocular light stimulator, 105 phrenology, 48 physical education, 261, 268 physical fitness, 252, 276, 289 physical medicine, 15 physical reeducation, 234 physical therapy, 169, 210, 252, 261, 263, 268,

270 physical well-being, defined, 29-31 physiology, 144, 145-146 physiotherapy, 268 Picasso, Pablo, 343 Pierrakos, Dr. John, 382, 388-389, 393 Pilates, Joseph H., 245, 260, 261 Pilates Method of Body Conditioning®, 245,

246, 260-263pitta, 5-7 placebo, 66-67 plantar fascitis, 162 plants, medicinal, 53-54, 119

See also herbal medicine Plato, 143, 342 playing, 261 pleasure, 195, 239, 240-242 PMS. See premenstrual syndrome pneumonia, 46

442

treatments for, 14, 104 PNI. See psychoneuroimmunology Poetry Cure, The, 370 poetry therapy, 370-374 Poetry Therapy Institute, 370 polarity therapy, 5, 116, 126-129, 145Polarity Therapy, 126 polio, 210-211, 344

treatments for, 14, 210-211 Polynesia, 342 poomse, 303positive thinking, 79-80 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

treatments for, 83, 94-95, 139, 194, 290, 356,402, 427 See also stress; trauma

postural alignment, 264 posture, 113, 173, 174, 207, 209, 226, 231, 240,

242, 262, 269, 306, 391 Power of Imagination Conference, 78 Practice of Aromatherapy, The, 86 prana, 116, 127, 311 pranayama, 308, 309, 310, 311, 314, 315 prayer, 74, 342 pregnancy, 267

cautions in, 190, 196, 242, 404 premenstrual syndrome (PMS), treatments for,

103, 139, 187, 196, 320 PressureStat Model, 41 preventative treatment

homeopathic, 10 naturopathic, 16 physical, 172, 194 spiritual, 198

Priessnitz, Vincent, 83, 99 primordial qigong, 132 Primum non nocere, 16 prisons, 358, 373 process acupressure (PA), 192-194

See also acupressure process oriented psychology, 380, 415-416 Progoff, Dr. Ida, 361-363 Program Guide for Body-Mind Centering

Certification Program, 213 progressive relaxation, 382 prophesy, 118 prosperity, 424 prostate, 59 proving, homeopathic, 12-13 Prudden, Bonnie, 160, 161 psoriasis, 14, 103, 107, 320

See also skin disorders psyche, 256 psychiatric disorders, 61 psychiatry, 49, 264, 353 psycho-physical evaluation frameworks, 327-

328 psychoactive drugs, 146

psychoanalysis, 343, 379, 398, 414, 419 psychodrama, 380, 416-419 psychology, 19, 111, 235, 332, 337 psychoneuroimmunology (PNI), 29, 65, 66, 67,

78-81 psychopathology, 347, 353 psychosynthesis, 381, 392, 419-421 psychotherapy, 84, 95, 104, 106, 169, 172, 188,

234, 317, 356 See also body-oriented psychotherapies

pulses, 24 puppetry, 356 purging, 10, 34, 46 Pythagoras, 245

Q qi, 23, 24, 25, 129, 132, 138, 183, 194, 195, 197,

198 TCM view of, 26, 27

qigong, 117, 129-133, 244-245, 320 quinine, 10

R Radix, 421-422 Raheem, Dr. Aminah, 182, 192, 193 Rainer, Tristine, 361 raja yoga, 306, 307, 309 Rama, Swami, 306 Ramakrishna Vedanta, 317 Ramamani, 314 randori, 285, 288 rape, 94 rapid eye movement (REM), EMDR and, 95 Rational Hydrotherapy, 100 RDAs. See recommended daily allowances RDT. See registered dance therapist reading skills, 248 Realms of the Human Unconscious, 403 rebirthing, 380, 422-425 recommended daily allowances (RDAs), 62-63 recreation therapy, 263 reflexes, 219 reflexology, 163-165 registered dance therapist (RDT), 355, 358 Registered Movement Therapist, 202 rehabilitation medicine, 49 Reich, Dr. Wilhelm, 116, 157, 189, 379, 382, 384,

393, 397, 400, 405-409, 406, 409-410, 421 reiki, 116, 133-137, 145relationships

effect on health, 35, 98, 107, 356, 363, 369,387, 390, 414, 424 See also emotions

relaxation health and, 79, 99, 141, 200, 242, 368 treatments for, 33, 69, 76, 77, 174, 175

relaxation response, 322-324 Relaxation Response Program, 319

443

religious persecution, 144, 317 religious rituals, 342, 353 REM. See rapid eye movement remedy portrait, 14 Renaissance, the, 2, 71, 86, 144, 317, 343 Renaud, Jean-Joseph, 287 Rentsch, Oswald and Elaine, 148 reparenting, 414 resentment, 96, 98 resonance, 26 resources, 385 respiratory conditions, 81, 311

treatments for, 67, 76, 107, 194 restorative observation, 201, 231 Return to Life, 261 rheumatism, treatments for, 101, 125, 144, 174,

182, 264 rhythm, 269 rickets, 260 rigidity, 222, 391 Rilke, Rainer Maria, 343 Rishis, 5 Ritter, Johann, 103 rituals, 352

shamanism and, 18, 19 "Road Not Taken, The", 371 Robin, Dr. Esther, 332 roda, 282 Rogers, Carl, 345, 380, 410 role play, 357-358, 412, 416, 418 Rolf, Dr. Ida, 50, 165-168, 166, 201, 209, 222, 235 Rolf Institute, 223 Rolfing®, 48, 50, 145, 165-168, 209, 222, 223, 235 ROM dance, 245, 263-265

guided imagery and, 265-267 Rome, 83, 86, 143, 275, 342 Rosen, Marion, 169, 170 Rosen method, 168-172 Rosen method of bodywork, 169 Rosenthal, Norman, 105 Rosicrucians, 317 Rossman, Dr. Martin L., 77-78 Royal Gymnastic Central Institute, 144, 174 Rubenfeld, Illana, 380, 425-428, 427 Rubenfeld synergy method, 425-428

S sabumnim, 303 sacred gymnastics, 258 SAD. See seasonal affective disorder safety-energy locks, 190, 191-192 Salinger, J.D., 317 samadhi, 306, 311 samurai, 284-285, 293 sandplay therapy, 374-377 Sands Point Movement Study Group, 332, 333 Sanga, 281 Saraswati, Swami Brahamananda, 324

Saraswati, Swami Sivananda, 313 Satchidananda Ashram-Yogaville, 313 Satchidananda, Swami, 313 Saul, King, 366 saunas, 102 sauntering, 318 saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), 59 Scafifi, F.A., 154 scar tissue, 152 scarlet fever, 14, 104 Schauffler, Robert Haven, 370 schizophrenia, 55, 61, 399, 408 Schneider, Meir, Ph.D, 228 Schoenberg, Arnold, 343 School for Body-Mind Centering, 213 School of Nancy, 73 School for Self-Healing, 230 schools, 373, 418 Schoop, Trudi, 354 sciatica, 39, 162 scientific method, 2 scoliosis, 39, 42, 159, 188, 206 scurvy, 61 seasonal affective disorder (SAD), 105, 106-107 self-awareness, 169-171, 214, 215, 402 self-confidence, 96, 98, 235, 276, 285, 289, 291,

302 self-defense, 260, 274, 300

See also martial arts self-discipline, 276, 286, 289, 293, 302 self-esteem, 8, 204, 218, 248, 326, 356, 363, 424 self-expression, 171, 224, 248, 267 Self-Healing: My Life and Vision, 230 self-image, 415 self-knowledge, 259 self-realization, 319 self-reliance, 203 self-study, 259 Selver, Charlotte, 233, 234 Selye, Hans, 66 Sen-Nin, 118 sensory awareness, 203, 231-235, 410Sensory Awareness Foundation, 234 sensory-motor amnesia (SMA), 221sensory recruitment, 72 sensory therapies, 82-85 sensory-motor amnesia (SMA), 221 sensuality, 195 sequences, 211 serotonin, 105 sexual activity, 309, 379-380

effect on health, 8 sexual arousal, 72 sexual dysfunction, 97, 106, 390 shakti yoga, 50 Shaku, Rev. Soyen, 317 shamanism, 2, 18-23, 81, 65 129, 306, 403

See also trance state

444

shamanistic counseling, 2, 21 shame, 137, 189 Shang Han Lun (Treatise on Harm Caused by

Cold), 25 Shaolin Temple, 275, 289, 298 Shapiro, Francine, Ph.D., 94, 95 sharing, 418 shen, 26 SHEN, 116, 137-139 shiatsu, 117, 145, 146, 178, 180, 194-197 shinai, 293 shingles, 86 Shinto, 278 shoulder pain, 162 Shute, Evan and Wilfred, 61 Siberia, 306 Siegel, Bernie, 71 sign language, 254 similia similibus curentor, 10 Simons, David, M.D., 160 Simonton, Carl, 71 singers, 206 singing, 342 sinusitis, treatments for, 39, 164, 187, 188, 196 Skeffington, Dr. A.M., 91 skeletal manipulation methods, 33-36 skeletal system, 213 skeleton models, 207 skin

hypersensitivity of, 162 treatments for, 59-60, 102, 175

skin disorders treatments for, 88, 101

Skinner, Joan, 245, 265 Skinner releasing technique (SRT), 245, 246,

265-267 skull, 34, 36 slaves, 275, 281 sleep disorders. See insomnia SMA. See sensory-motor amnesia smallpox, treatments for, 104 Smith, Bruce Robertson, 296 Smith, Fritz Frederick, M.D., 50 Smith, Nancy Stark, 249, 250 Smith, William, M.D., 47 smoking, 6, 19, 73, 76, 178, 184

effect on health, 8 See also addictions

smudging ceremony, 21 Smuts, Jan Christiaan, 7 snake bite, 143 Snyder, Gary, 317 Society for Clinical and Experimental

Hypnosis, 76 sociology, 337 sociometry, 416 Socrates, 143 sode, 288

sojutsu, 278 soma, 219, 244 SOMA Institute, 237 soma neuromuscular integration, 202, 235-238 somatic dysfunction, 49 somatic exercises, 221 Somatic Institute, 391 somatic practices, 82 somatics, 253

defined, 219 somato respiratory integration (SRI), 238-239 Soodak, Dr. Martha, 332 Sossin, Mark, 332 soul, 96, 192, 389 sound, 119, 254-255, 308, 403

feng shui and, 122 sounding, 109-111 South African Institute for Psychoanalysis, 397 Spatial DynamicsSM, 245, 246, 268-270 Speads, Carola, 226, 234 Specific Human Energy Nexus. See SHENspeech, 109, 379 Spencer, Herbert, 48 spinal cord, 41, 43 spine

illness and, 34, 38-39, 206, 231 manipulation of, 36, 37, 48, 204, 295

spirits, 2, 3, 18, 19, 26, 65, 71 spiritual nature, 3, 315 spiritual qigong, 131 Spiritual Regeneration Movement, 324 spiritual well-being, 286, 380, 396

defined, 29-31 spiritual world, 254 spiritualism, 48 Spitler, Harry, 84, 104 spontaneity, 417 sports, 73, 226, 247, 268

See also athletics sports injuries, 148, 165 sports training, 71, 328 sprains and strains, 178, 199 SRI. See Somato respiratory integration SRT. See Skinner releasing technique Ssu-ma Chien, 24 stamina, 270, 291 Stanislavsky, Konstantin, 343 startle response, 219, 221 Steiner, Rudolf, 245, 254-256, 268, 269 sterilization, 107 stiffness, 180 Still, Dr. Andrew Taylor, 33, 34, 35, 40, 45-50stimulants, 60 St. John method of neuromuscular therapy,

172-174 St. John Neuromuscular Pain Relief Institute,

173St. John, Paul, 172

445

St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), 55, 59 stomach. See gastrointestinal disorders Stone, Randolph, 126 storytelling, 18, 370 strange flows, 189 strength conditioning, 262-263, 267, 280, 286,

296, 311 See also bodybuilding

stress coping mechanisms for, 14, 70, 77, 152, 155,356 effect on health, 35, 39, 66, 68, 79, 83, 98, 111,112, 172, 221, 230, 427 treatments for, 52, 65, 67, 101, 109, 124, 164,174, 178, 187, 194, 247, 267, 317, 326, 405 See also tension

stress management, 17, 42, 89, 145, 264 Stress Reduction Clinic, 319 stroke, 55, 67

treatment cautions, 176 See also heart; high blood pressure

structural integration, 167 su bak, 301 subconscious, 95 subluxations, 37, 43 substance abuse. See addictions subtle energy practices, 64, 82, 115-117, 163

See also energy Sufism, 306, 329, 403 sugar, 8 suggestive therapeutics, 73 Sullivan, Harry Stack, 354 Summers, Elaine, 226 sumo wrestling, 278 sun cure, 104 sun dance, 22 sun therapy, 6, 83

See also light therapy sunburn, treatments for, 60 sunyata, 319 support groups, 81 surgery, 76, 221, 323, 369, 400

minor, 15, 17 suriashi, 295 Sutherland, Dr. William, 40 Suzuki, Daisetz T., 317 sweat lodge, shamanism and, 22 Swedish massage, 144, 146, 147, 148, 174-176 Sweigard, Lulu, 225 sword dance, 281 swordsmanship, 284, 293-297, 301 symbols, 71, 126, 328, 347, 354, 374 symptoms

alternative vs. allopathic view of, 3, 9, 12, 46 holistic view of, 9, 38 homeopathic view of, 13 naturopathic view of, 17 suppression of, 54

synergy, 380 syntonic optometry, 104, 108 syphilis, 14

T tachi-uchi, 293 tae kyon, 301 taekwondo, 301-304 t'ai chi ch'üan, 117, 118, 119, 211, 244-246, 250,

263-264, 270-273, 276, 293, 297, 298, 320 tai-jutsu, 284 Takata, Hawayo, 135 Takenouchi Ryu, 284 talent, 232, 345 Tamalpa Institute, 360 Tameshiwara, 291 tanden, 295 tantra, 319 tantric yoga, 309 Tanzbuhne Laban, 335 Tao of the Body, 350 Tao Teh Ching, 184-186 Tao-Yin, 118 Taoism, 23, 24, 25, 65, 118, 120-121, 184, 198,

245, 297, 299, 400 Taoist Canon, 131 tapotement, 174, 175taste, 54 Taylor, Charles Faytte, 144 Taylor, George Henry, 144 TCM. See traditional Chinese medicine teacher, shaman as, 18 teaching, 329, 332, 342 tee, 297 Teeguarden, Iona Marsaa, 180, 187-188 telepathy, 118 temperature, 322

disease and, 145 temporomandibular joint (TMJ),

treatments for, 42, 70, 162 See also jaw pain

tendinitis, 162 Tenjin Shrine, 284 tennis elbow, 162 tension, 99, 190, 228, 230, 231, 379, 392, 398

physiological, 46 unconscious, 204 See also stress

tension relief, treatments for, 39, 42, 43, 44, 182,223, 226, 228, 362

"Tenth Good Thing About Barney, The", 372 Teresa, Mother, 81, 309 Thai massage, 146 Theatre of Spontaneity, 416 Theosophical Society, 317 therapeutic touch (TT), 38, 116, 131, 139-141,

145 Thinking Body, The, 225

446

thinking skills, 322 Thoreau, Henry David, 317 three-brain model, 237 thrombosis, treatment cautions, 175 thurmae, 143 thyroid problems, 106 Tibetan monks, 322-324 Tillich, Paul, 397 TM. See Transcendental Meditation TMJ. See temporomandibular joint to-jutsu, 293 Todd, Mabel Elsworth, 201, 225 toho, 293 tolle causam, 16 Tomatis, Dr. Alfred, 84, 111 Tomatis method, 84, 111-114 toning. See sounding toothache, 125 Tori, 288 touch, 27, 115, 425

use in therapy, 35-36, 115, 126, 135, 142, 192 touch communication, 153-154 Touch Research Institute (TRI), 146, 154-155 Touchdown, 250 Touching, 154 toxemia, 150 toxicity, factors affecting, 35, 59 toxins, elimination of, 6, 99, 152, 164, 179, 180,

182 traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), 177-178,

180, 183, 186, 189, 194, 195, 197traditional massage. See Swedish massage Trager, Dr. Milton, 201, 240 Trager Institute, The, 240 Trager psychophysical integration, 239-243 trance state, 21, 65, 73, 74, 106, 402, 404

See also hypnotherapy; shamanism Transcendental Meditation (TM), 308, 319, 324-

326 transcendentalists, 318 transformations, 26, 359 transpersonal psychology, 193, 403 trauma, 42, 133, 153, 159, 172, 174, 224, 251, 253,

343, 358, 363, 392, 405, 423 effect on health, 35, 66, 111, 112, 189-190, 194

trauma reflex, 219, 221 Travell, Dr. Janet, 160 Treatise on Harm Caused by Cold, 25 Treatise of Materia Medica, A, 10 TRI. See Touch Research Institute trigger points, 160, 173trigger-point myotherapy, 145 trust, 249, 250, 426 truth, 313, 366 Tschanpua, 143 tse, 297 tsubos, 194 TT. See Therapeutic Touch

tuberculosis, 14, 83, 100, 104, 201, 231 tui na, 143, 180, 197-199 types, 329, 330-331 typhoid, 46 typhus, 11

U Ueshiba Academy, 278 Ueshiba, Kisshomaru, 280 Ueshiba, Morehei, 278-280 Ueshiba-ryu Aiki-bujutsu, 278 Uke, 278, 280, 288 ulcers, treatments for, 67, 76, 125, 129, 187 ultrasound, 16 ultraviolet energy, 103-104, 107 unconscious, 66, 74, 106, 343, 379

See also consciousness; mind unergi, 428-429 universal reformer, 262 universe, 245 University of California–Irvine, 43, 45 unruffling, 140 Upledger, Dr. John E., 40, 41, 42 Upledger Institute, The, 42 urogenital problems, treatments for, 188 U.S. Centers for Disease Control, 8 Usui, Mikao, 133-134 Usui System of Natural Healing, 135

V valerian root (Valeriana officinalis), 58 Valnet, Jean, 86 varicose veins, 147

treatment cautions, 175 vata, 5-7 Vazquez, Dr. Steven, 106 verbal unwinding, 163 verbalizations, 169 Veselko, Ruth, 234 vibration, 174, 175 Vietnam War, 47, 57, 94 violence, 358 Viorst, Judith, 372 Vis medicatrix naturae, 16 vision quests, shamanism and, 22 visualizations, 19-21, 119, 231, 429

shamanism and, 19-21 vital life force, 34 vitamin B3, 55, 61 vitamin C, 61, 79 vitamin D, 105 vitamin E, 61 vitamin therapy, 55, 60-62 Vivekananda, Swami, 317 vodoun religion, 18 voice, 254-255

therapies for, 109-113, 201, 204-207, 213 vomiting, 10

447

W Walden School, 347 Waldorf School, 245, 254, 269 wall-eye, 90 Walling, Dr. William, 382 water, 83, 99

See also hydrotherapy Watts, Alan, 234, 317 waza, 295 wellness, 3, 5, 8, 29-32Wells, Dr. David, 90-91 Wertheimer, Max, 397 whiplash, treatment for, 39, 162, 209, 221 White House Task Force on Innovative

Learning, 247, 248 Whitehouse, Mary, 350, 354 WHO. See World Health Organization Wigman, Mary, 350 Wilber, Kenneth, 403 Williams, Drs. Bill and Ellen, 202, 235 Williams, Roger, Ph.D., 62 Winternitz, William, 100 wisdom, 258, 419 wisdom qigong, 132women

in homeopathy, 14 in osteopathy, 47

World Health Organization (WHO), 57-58, 62,187

World Parliament of Religions, 317 World Taekwondo Federation, 301 world technique, 374 world work, 415 Worsley, Prof. J.R., 50 wound healing, 81, 104, 124, 141, 144, 152

wounds, 147, 1599 emotional, 400 treatments for, 60

writing skills, 248, 372

X X ray, 323

Y yantra yoga, 308 Yawara, 284 Yellow Emperor's Internal Classic (Huang-ti Nei

Jing), 24, 118, 143, 184, 195, 198 yin and yang, 26-27, 118, 120-121, 186, 272-273,

309 Ying qi, 26 Yoga: Immortality and Freedom , 306 yoga, 64, 66, 82, 117, 118, 128, 250, 251, 305-312,

317, 322, 324, 382 Yoga Journal International, 306 Yoga Sutras, 306 Yogananda, Paramahansa, 306, 317 Yogi, Marahishi Mahesh, 308, 319, 324, 325 Yoshin-Ryu, 284 Yu, Tricia, 263

Z za-zen, 295-296, 319 ZB. See Zero Balancing Zen Buddhism, 135, 285, 289, 291, 317, 319 Zero Balancing® (ZB), 35, 36, 50-52, 145, 192 Zhang Jie-Bin, 27 Zhang Zhong-Jing, 25 zone therapy, 163 zubon, 288

448