The Scientific RevolutionThe Scientific Revolution

Key ConceptsKey Concepts

I. The Aristotelian UniverseI. The Aristotelian Universe

Derived from Ptolemy, Derived from Ptolemy, Aristotle, and PlatoAristotle, and Plato

Classical Writings Classical Writings “Christianized”“Christianized”

Components of Components of Medieval CosmologyMedieval Cosmology

Medieval PhysicsMedieval Physics Belief in “Matter” and Belief in “Matter” and

“Form”“Form” Earth = Living, Earth = Living,

Protected SphereProtected Sphere

II. Scientific II. Scientific “Revolutionaries”“Revolutionaries”

A. Copernicus (1473-1543)A. Copernicus (1473-1543)

Aim to glorify GodAim to glorify God Sun-centered universeSun-centered universe Challenged circular Challenged circular

orbitsorbits Universe of staggering Universe of staggering

sizesize Earth no different than Earth no different than

any other planetany other planet On the Revolutions of On the Revolutions of

the Heavenly Spheresthe Heavenly Spheres (1543)(1543)

B. Tycho Brahe (1546-B. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)1601)

Most sophisticated Most sophisticated observatory of his observatory of his dayday

Arrogant noblemanArrogant nobleman Remained an Remained an

AristotelianAristotelian Discovered comet Discovered comet

shooting right shooting right through crystalline through crystalline spheresspheres

C. Johannes Kepler (1571-C. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)1630)

Student of BraheStudent of Brahe Planetary motion Planetary motion

conforms to conforms to mathematical mathematical formulaformula

Elliptical orbitsElliptical orbits Planets do not move Planets do not move

at uniform speeds in at uniform speeds in their orbitstheir orbits

D. Galileo Galilei (1564-D. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)1642)

Early practitioner of the Early practitioner of the experimental methodexperimental method

Mathematical formula Mathematical formula for acceleration of for acceleration of falling objectsfalling objects

Law of inertiaLaw of inertia His discoveries using His discoveries using

the telescopethe telescope Challenges categories Challenges categories

of “form” and “matter”of “form” and “matter” End of his lifeEnd of his life

E. Isaac Newton (1642-E. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)1727)

Newton far from the Newton far from the perfect rationalistperfect rationalist

A great synthesizerA great synthesizer Blends inductive and Blends inductive and

deductive methodsdeductive methods Argues for a universe Argues for a universe

governed by natural governed by natural lawslaws

Principia; Mathematical Principia; Mathematical Principles of Natural Principles of Natural PhilosophyPhilosophy (1687) (1687)

F. Francis Bacon (1561-F. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)1626)

Father of the Father of the Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution

The Inductive The Inductive MethodMethod

Emphasis on Emphasis on practical, useful practical, useful knowledgeknowledge

New attitude New attitude toward naturetoward nature

G. Rene Descartes (1596-G. Rene Descartes (1596-1650)1650)

Significance of DoubtSignificance of Doubt The Deductive The Deductive

MethodMethod Spatial relationships Spatial relationships

can be expressed in can be expressed in mathematical mathematical formulasformulas

Father of “analytical Father of “analytical geometry”geometry”

III. Causes of the Scientific III. Causes of the Scientific RevolutionRevolution

Medieval Intellectual Medieval Intellectual Life and Medieval Life and Medieval UniversitiesUniversities

The Italian RenaissanceThe Italian Renaissance Renewed emphasis on Renewed emphasis on

mathematicsmathematics Renaissance system of Renaissance system of

patronagepatronage Navigational problems Navigational problems

of long sea voyagesof long sea voyages Better scientific Better scientific

instrumentsinstruments

IV. Consequences of the IV. Consequences of the Scientific RevolutionScientific Revolution

Rise of the “Scientific Rise of the “Scientific Community”Community”

--Royal Society of --Royal Society of London (1662)London (1662)

--Academy of Royal --Academy of Royal Sciences (1666)Sciences (1666)

The modern scientific The modern scientific methodmethod

A universe ordered A universe ordered according to natural according to natural lawslaws

IV. Consequences of the IV. Consequences of the Scientific Revolution (cont)Scientific Revolution (cont)

Laws discovered by Laws discovered by human reasonhuman reason

““De-Spiritualized” and De-Spiritualized” and de-mystified the de-mystified the UniverseUniverse

Mechanical View of Mechanical View of the Universethe Universe

Deistic View of GodDeistic View of God

--God as the cosmic --God as the cosmic capitalistcapitalist

The EnlightenmentThe Enlightenment

““Siecle de Lumiere”Siecle de Lumiere”

““The Century of Light”The Century of Light”

I. What was it?I. What was it?

Progressive, Progressive, Rationalistic, Rationalistic, Humanistic worldviewHumanistic worldview

Emerged out of the Emerged out of the Scientific Revolution Scientific Revolution and culminated in the and culminated in the French RevolutionFrench Revolution

Spokesmen = Rising Spokesmen = Rising Middle ClassMiddle Class

Paris = Center of Paris = Center of EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Optimism about Optimism about mankind’s abilitiesmankind’s abilities

II. Key IdeasII. Key Ideas

Distrust of Tradition Distrust of Tradition and Revealed Religionand Revealed Religion

Scientific method Scientific method could be applied to could be applied to society as wellsociety as well

Society can get better Society can get better as risks are takenas risks are taken

Man is naturally goodMan is naturally good Good life is on earthGood life is on earth

III. An Attack on the Old III. An Attack on the Old RegimeRegime

A. The World of the Old A. The World of the Old RegimeRegime

Built on traditionBuilt on tradition World of hierarchy, World of hierarchy,

privilege and privilege and inequalityinequality

Allied with the Allied with the ChurchChurch

Challenged by the Challenged by the reform impulse of reform impulse of supporters of the supporters of the EnlightenmentEnlightenment

B. Conflict with the Capitalistic B. Conflict with the Capitalistic Middle ClassMiddle Class

Support for the Middle Support for the Middle Class social order Class social order against the traditional against the traditional social ordersocial order

Size and increasing Size and increasing power of the Middle power of the Middle ClassClass

New notion of wealthNew notion of wealth Tension and discord Tension and discord

created by the Middle created by the Middle ClassClass

C. Popularization of ScienceC. Popularization of Science

The popularity of The popularity of science in the 17science in the 17thth and and 1818thth centuries centuries

Conversations on the Conversations on the Plurality of the WorldsPlurality of the Worlds (1686)—Bernard de (1686)—Bernard de FontenelleFontenelle

The Scientific The Scientific Revolution promised Revolution promised the comprehensibility the comprehensibility of the workings of the of the workings of the universeuniverse

D. A New World of D. A New World of UncertaintiesUncertainties

The Idea of ProgressThe Idea of Progress The anti-religious The anti-religious

implications of the implications of the EnlightenmentEnlightenment

The relativity of truth The relativity of truth and moralityand morality

John Locke’s New John Locke’s New PsychologyPsychology----Essay Concerning Essay Concerning Human UnderstandingHuman Understanding (1690)(1690)-- “Tabula Rasa”-- “Tabula Rasa”

IV. The PhilosophesIV. The Philosophes

1818thth century French century French intellectualsintellectuals

Interest in addressing a Interest in addressing a broad audiencebroad audience

Committed to reformCommitted to reform Celebrated the scientific Celebrated the scientific

revolutionrevolution The “Mystique of The “Mystique of

Newton”Newton” Science applied to Science applied to

societysociety

V. The Problem of V. The Problem of CensorshipCensorship

The attempt of the Old The attempt of the Old Regime to control new Regime to control new thinkingthinking

Publishers and writers Publishers and writers hounded by censorshounded by censors

Over 1000 booksellers Over 1000 booksellers and authors and authors imprisoned in the imprisoned in the Bastille in the early Bastille in the early 1700’s1700’s

Battling censorshipBattling censorship

VI. The Role of the SalonVI. The Role of the Salon

Protection and Protection and encouragement encouragement offered by French offered by French aristocratic women aristocratic women in their private in their private drawing roomsdrawing rooms

Feminine influence Feminine influence on the on the EnlightenmentEnlightenment

Madame GeoffrinMadame Geoffrin

VII. Diderot’s VII. Diderot’s EncyclopediaEncyclopedia

Ultimate strength of the Ultimate strength of the philosophes lay in their philosophes lay in their numbers, dedication numbers, dedication and organizationand organization

Written between 1751-Written between 1751-17721772

Attempted to illustrate Attempted to illustrate all human knowledgeall human knowledge

Problems with Problems with publicationpublication

Emphasis on practical Emphasis on practical sciencescience

VII. Diderot’s VII. Diderot’s EncyclopediaEncyclopedia (cont)(cont)

Desire to change the Desire to change the “general way of “general way of thinking”thinking”

Greater knowledge leads Greater knowledge leads to human progressto human progress

Emphasized moderation Emphasized moderation and toleranceand tolerance

Human nature can be Human nature can be moldedmolded

Inalienable rights and Inalienable rights and the social contractthe social contract

Knowledge improves Knowledge improves goodnessgoodness

VIII. Famous Enlightenment VIII. Famous Enlightenment ThinkersThinkers

A. Baron de Montesquieu A. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)(1689-1755)

The Spirit of the Laws The Spirit of the Laws (1748)(1748)

Despotism could be Despotism could be avoided if political power avoided if political power were divided and shared were divided and shared by a diversity of classesby a diversity of classes

Power must check powerPower must check power Admires British Admires British

governmentgovernment French parlements must French parlements must

be defenders of libertybe defenders of liberty Influence in the USInfluence in the US

B. Voltaire (1694-1778)B. Voltaire (1694-1778)

Enthusiasm for Enthusiasm for English institutionsEnglish institutions

Reformer not a Reformer not a revolutionaryrevolutionary

Admirer of Louis Admirer of Louis XIVXIV

Relationship with Relationship with Frederick the GreatFrederick the Great

““Ecrasez l’infame”Ecrasez l’infame”

C. Baron Paul d’Holbach C. Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789)(1723-1789)

Deterministic view of Deterministic view of human beingshuman beings

Free will, God and Free will, God and immortality of the soul immortality of the soul are foolish mythsare foolish myths

His views dealt the unity His views dealt the unity of the Enlightenment a of the Enlightenment a severe blowsevere blow

Other thinkers repelled Other thinkers repelled by this inflexible by this inflexible atheismatheism

D. David Hume (1711-D. David Hume (1711-1776)1776)

Human mind is nothing Human mind is nothing but a bundle of but a bundle of impressionsimpressions

Reason cannot Reason cannot decipher anything decipher anything about the origins of about the origins of the universe or the the universe or the existence of Godexistence of God

Hume’s rationalistic Hume’s rationalistic inquiry results in inquiry results in undermining the undermining the Enlightenment Enlightenment confidence in reason confidence in reason itselfitself

E. Jean-Jacques Rousseau E. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)(1712-1778)

His lifeHis life Turns his withering Turns his withering

critique of the Old critique of the Old Regime increasingly Regime increasingly on the Enlightenment on the Enlightenment itselfitself

Rather than liberation, Rather than liberation, rationalism and rationalism and civilization destroys civilization destroys the individualthe individual

Man by nature was Man by nature was solitary, good and freesolitary, good and free

E. Rousseau (cont)E. Rousseau (cont)

Civilization represents Civilization represents decay, not progressdecay, not progress

EmileEmile—protect children —protect children from too many booksfrom too many books

The Social ContractThe Social Contract (1762) and the (1762) and the “General Will”“General Will”

Civilized man is an Civilized man is an alienated manalienated man

Transitional intellectual Transitional intellectual figurefigure

F. Immanuel Kant (1724-F. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)1804)

One of few philosophes One of few philosophes to live to see the French to live to see the French RevolutionRevolution

Enlightenment was a Enlightenment was a personal process—personal process—release from immaturityrelease from immaturity

More optimistic than More optimistic than RousseauRousseau

““Dare to Know”—Dare to Know”—Enlightenment was an Enlightenment was an act of personal courageact of personal courage

IX. Enlightened DespotismIX. Enlightened Despotism

The manner of political The manner of political reformreform

Frederick the Great of Frederick the Great of PrussiaPrussia

Catherine the Great of Catherine the Great of RussiaRussia

Joseph II of AustriaJoseph II of Austria True reform or a True reform or a

cynical, manipulative cynical, manipulative consolidation of power?consolidation of power?