What leaves and violins say about the evolutionary forces that shape us and our culture

1. Dan Chitwood Donald Danforth Plant Science Center Science on Tap Schlafly Bottleworks May 27, 2015 What beer bottles & violins say about the evolutionary forces that shape us & our culture leaves

2. What shapes can tell us: The evolution of violin shape Leaves as composites of hidden shapes A framework for quantifying lifes complexity Outline Claes et al., 2014

3. How to put a number on shape? An example, using violins

4. Photos from auction: >9,000 instruments >400 violin makers >400 years of history Chitwood (2014) Imitation, genetic lineages, and time influenced the morphological evolution of the violin. PLOS ONE

5. How to measure shape:

6. Shape = { xn, yn } How to measure shape: Coordinates, landmarks, pseudo-landmarks

7. How to measure shape: Chain code

10. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

13. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0

14. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0

15. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7

16. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0

17. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6

18. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0

19. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6

20. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6

21. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6

22. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6

23. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6

24. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6

25. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

26. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4

27. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6

28. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6

29. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6

30. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6

31. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6

32. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0

33. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0

34. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6

35. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6

36. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6

37. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7

38. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6

39. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6

40. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5

41. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6

42. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6

43. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4

44. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6

45. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4

46. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4

47. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6

48. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4

49. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4

50. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4

51. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4

52. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4

53. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4

54. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3

55. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4

56. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3

57. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3

58. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3

59. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2

60. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2

61. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2

62. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2

63. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0

64. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2

65. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2

66. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2

67. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0

68. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0

69. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2

70. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2

71. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2

72. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2

73. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2

74. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3

75. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2

76. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2

77. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2

78. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2

79. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2

80. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2

81. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 0

82. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2

83. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0

84. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 1

85. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 1 0

86. How to measure shape: Chain code 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 1 0 Shape = { } Chain code is lossless: perfect reconstruction from compressed data

87. How to measure shape: Chain code + Fourier = Elliptical Fourier Descriptors Graphic: Christine Daniloff

88. How to measure shape: Chain code + Fourier = Elliptical Fourier Descriptors Graphic: Christine Daniloff Graphic: Cardiff University Graphic: Workshop Mizzotti

89. How to measure shape: Chain code + Fourier = Elliptical Fourier Descriptors Kuhl and Giardina Computer Graphics & Image Processing (1982)

90. How to measure shape: Chain code + Fourier = Elliptical Fourier Descriptors Kuhl and Giardina Computer Graphics & Image Processing (1982)

91. How to measure shape: Chain code + Fourier = Elliptical Fourier Descriptors 0 0 0 7 0 6 0 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 0 0 6 6 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 6 4 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 1 0 Shape = { }

92. How to measure shape: Chain code + Fourier = Elliptical Fourier Descriptors a1, a2, a3 an b1, b2, b3 bn c1, c2, c3 cn d1, d2, d3 dn Shape = { } Harmonic coefficients:

93. -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 z4941_1 # harmonics 2 4 8 16 32 64 How to measure shape: Chain code + Fourier = Elliptical Fourier Descriptors

94. Deviations along the outline Points sampled along the outline Deviation(in%ofthecentroidsize) 30 60 90 120 0.050.100.150.200.25 # harmonics 2 4 8 16 32 64 How to measure shape: Chain code + Fourier = Elliptical Fourier Descriptors

95. An aside about beer bottles . . .

96. brahma caney chymay corona deusventrue duvel franziskaner grimbergen guiness hoegardeen jupiler kingfisher latrappe lindemanskriek nicechouffe pecheresse sierranevada tanglefoot tauro westmalle amrut ballantines bushmills chivas dalmore famousgrouse glendronach glenmorangie highlandpark jackdaniels jb johnniewalker magallan makersmark oban oldpotrero redbreast tamdhu wildturkey yoichi An aside, appropriate for tonight: a shape is a shape Differentiating beer from whiskey bottles Momocs, Vincent Bonhomme

97. An aside, appropriate for tonight: a shape is a shape Differentiating beer from whiskey bottles Momocs, Vincent Bonhomme

98. An aside, appropriate for tonight: a shape is a shape Differentiating beer from whiskey bottles Momocs, Vincent Bonhomme

99. Back to violins . . .

100. The morphological evolution of violins: The effects of time, space, & people on violin shape

101. The morphological evolution of violins: The effects of time, space, & people on violin shape

102. The morphological evolution of violins: Why does shape correlate with time? Violin makers?

103. The New York Times

104. But the Stradivarius shape doesnt necessarily produce a superior instrument. Is shape just a viral meme? Fritz et al. PNAS (2012, 2014)

105. Sometimes shapes are functional, but can still vary in non-functional ways Nia et al., Royal Society Proc A (2015)

106. Sometimes shapes are functional, but can still vary in non-functional ways Nia et al., Royal Society Proc A (2015)

107. The morphological evolution of violins: Does violin shape have a genetic basis?

108. House Gagliano: Giuseppe (Joseph) Gennaro (Januarius) Nicol Ferdinando ** * *

109. * House Testore: Carlo Giuseppe Carlo Antonio *

110. House Degani: Giulio Eugenio **

111. House Guarneri: Giuseppe (del Ges) Giuseppe (filius Andrea) Pietro (of Venice) Pietro (of Mantua) Andrea * * * * *

113. foodgps.com Fantasia, Disney

114. Landmark-based Procrustes analysis: Superimposed homologous coordinates

115. Landmark-based Procrustes analysis: Superimposed homologous coordinates Kerschbaumer and Sturmbauer (2011) International Journal of Evol. Biol.

116. Landmark-based Procrustes analysis: Superimposed homologous coordinates Kerschbaumer and Sturmbauer (2011) International Journal of Evol. Biol. Translate

117. Landmark-based Procrustes analysis: Superimposed homologous coordinates Kerschbaumer and Sturmbauer (2011) International Journal of Evol. Biol. Translate Scale

118. Landmark-based Procrustes analysis: Superimposed homologous coordinates Kerschbaumer and Sturmbauer (2011) International Journal of Evol. Biol. Translate Scale Rotate

119. Species effects

120. Husbands et al., 2009 Developmental stage: Unequal expansion

121. Stephen Hales, Vegetable staticks, 1727 Developmental stage: Unequal expansion

125. Chitwood and Sinha, 2015 Leaf number: Plants produce different leaf types

126. Chitwood and Sinha, 2015 Leaf number: Plants produce different leaf types While walking in the Public Gardens of Palermo, it came to me in a flash that in the organ of the plant which we are accustomed to call the leaf lies the true Proteus who can hide or reveal himself in vegetal forms. From first to last, the plant is nothing but leaf. Goethe

127. Forster and Bonser, Ann Bot 2009 Leaf number: Plants produce different leaf types Acacia

128. Forster and Bonser, Ann Bot 2009 Leaf number: Plants produce different leaf types Lancewood

129. Species, developmental stage, & leaf number effects

130. Species, developmental stage, & leaf number effects

131. Species, developmental stage, & leaf number effects Shoot base Shoot tip

132. Species, developmental stage, & leaf number effects L1 L2 L1 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 Shoot base Shoot tip Leaf Number, different leaf types

133. Species, developmental stage, & leaf number effects S1S2S9S10 S3S4S5S6S7S8 L1 L2 L1 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 Developmental Stage, unequal expansion Leaf Number, different leaf types Shoot base Shoot tip

134. Species, developmental stage, & leaf number effects Shoot base Shoot tip Leaf number Developmental stage Unequal expansion Different leaf types

137. http://www.joyofdata.de/public/pca-3d/ Dealing with multivariate information Principal Component Analysis

138. Evolutionary vs. developmental paths in the Vitis leaf morphospace Species effects

139. Evolutionary vs. developmental paths in the Vitis leaf morphospace Developmental stage Unequal expansion

140. Evolutionary vs. developmental paths in the Vitis leaf morphospace Leaf number Different leaf types

141. Heterochrony (changes in timing) underlies our own evolutionary past as well finstofeet.com

143. Complex phenotypes are challenging, but are likely the most meaningful Klingenberg Lab There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. Darwin

144. Complex phenotypes are challenging, but are likely the most meaningful Schmieder et al., (2015) PLOS ONE There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. Darwin

145. Complex phenotypes are challenging, but are likely the most meaningful Schmieder et al., (2015) PLOS ONE There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. Darwin

146. Complex phenotypes are challenging, but are likely the most meaningful Wiley et al. (2005) virtual-anthropology.com There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. Darwin

147. Complex phenotypes are challenging, but are likely the most meaningful Claes et al., (2014) PLOS Genet There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved. Darwin

148. St. Louis University Laura Klein Allison Miller USDA Geneva, NY Jason Londo Beth Takacs Bruce Reisch

149. Thanks! Margaret Frank Viktoriya Coneva Donald Danforth Plant Science Center