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WAR, WARFARE
AND
ENVIRONMENTPresented by:
M.Phil (1st semester)
Usman Arshad (02)
Isma Haq (01)
Mehwish Jameel (04)
Sumaira Roshan (05)
WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION
Any weapon or device that is intended, or has the
capability, to cause death or serious bodily injury
to a significant number of people through the
release, dissemination, or impact of:
Toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors
A disease organism
Radiation or radiactivity
CHEMICAL WARFARE HISTORY:
WORLD WAR I
Large-scale use of CW
1915: Germans deployed
150 tons chlorine gas
15,000 wounded
1,000 deaths
Psychologically devastating
High volatility limited usefulness
CHEMICAL WARFARE: WWI
1917: Germans used
Sulfur mustard
Artillery shells
Many casualties
Overwhelmed system
<5% died
High persistence
Contaminated large areas
CHEMICAL TERRORISM:
IRAQI KURDS
1988: Iraq bombed
their Kurds with mustard,
nerve and cyanide gas
Over 5,000 died
75% women and children
CLASSES OF CHEMICAL AGENTS
Chemical Agents
Lethal Agents
Nerve Agents Blistering Agents
Blood Agents Choking Agents
Riot control or tear gas
POTENTIAL TERRORIST AGENTS
Chlorine (Cl2) First military poison in World War I
Strong oxidizer that forms acids and is especially damaging to respiratory tissue
10-20 ppm: Acute respiratory tract discomfort
1000 ppm: Rapidly fatal
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
Highly toxic gaseous substance with potential for attack through the atmosphere
Cyanide binds with iron in the +3 oxidation state of ferricytochrome oxidase enzyme preventing utilization of O2 leading to rapid death
POTENTIAL TERRORIST AGENTS
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Colorless gas with a foul, rotten-egg odor
As toxic as hydrogen cyanide and may kill even more rapidly
1000 ppm: Rapid death from respiratory system
Paralysis
Nonfatal doses can cause excitement due to damage the central nervous system; headache and dizziness may be symptoms of exposure
CHEMICAL ATTACKS
Chemical-agent types
Nerve agents
Blister agents (vesicants)
Blood agents (cyanide agents)
Choking agents (pulmonary or lung-damaging agents)
Riot control agents (irritants)
Toxic industrial materials (normal hazardous
materials used for terrorist purposes)
CHEMICAL AGENTS:
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Exists as liquid, solid, vapor
Depends upon agent, temperature and pressure
Stored as liquid Dispersed as liquid, gas or aerosol
Aerosol: particles suspended in gas
Persistence: tendency to remain for long time
Volatility: tendency to evaporate
Smell: fruity, almonds, mustard, or no smell
NERVE AGENTS
Attack the nervous system by
affecting the transmission of
impulses
• Inhibit acetylcholinesterase
Routes of entry
Inhalation
Through the skin
Symptoms
Increased production of saliva
Runny nose
Feeling of pressure on the
chest
NERVE AGENTS Tabun: Usually a low-volatility persistent chemical agent
that is taken up through skin contact and inhalation of the substance as a gas or aerosol
Sarin : Usually a volatile nonpersistent chemical agent mainly taken up through inhalation
Soman : Usually a moderately volatile chemical agent that can be taken up by inhalation or skin contact
Cyclohexyl sarin : A low-volatility persistent chemical
agent that is taken up through skin contact and inhalation of
the substance either as a gas or aerosol
V-agent : A low-volatility persistent chemical agent that can
remain on material, equipment, and terrain for long periods
BLISTERING AGENTS: TOXICITY
Burn and blister the skin or any other
part of the body they contact
Local damage:
Easily enters skin, eyes,
respiratory tract
Enhanced: moisture, heat, thin
skin
Protease digestion in skin
Dermal-epidermal junction
vesicles, blister
May be delayed 1-2 days
Fluid does not contain vesicant
Sulfur /Nitrogen mustards, Phosgene oxime, Phenyldichloroarsine etc.
BLOOD AGENTS
Chemical agents that interfere with oxygen utilization at
the cellular level
Types
Arsine
Hydrogen cyanide
Cyanogen chloride
CHOKING AGENTS
Chemicals that attack the lungs causing tissue
damage. These are also known as pulmonary
agents.
Pulmonary agents: organohalides
Phosgene, chlorine, ammonia
Pulmonary agents
Absorbed by inhalation
Readily penetrates respiratory system
Mucous membrane irritation
Immediate eye, nose, airway irritation
Upper Airway
Irritation
Pulmonary
Irritation
Wa
ter
So
lubili
ty
HIGH
LOW
Hydrochloric Acid
Ammonia
Mustard Gas
Chlorine
Phosgene
Nitrogen Oxides
PULMONARY AGENTS: TOXICITY
RIOT CONTROL AGENTS
(IRRITATING AGENTS)
Chemical compounds that temporarily make people unable to function by causing immediate irritation to the eyes, mouth, throat, lungs, and skin
Types
Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (tear gas)
Chloroacetophenone
bromobenzylcyanide
1-bromo-2-propanone
BIOLOGICAL AGENTS AND
BIOTERRORISM
Biological agents can be used as weapons in:
Biocrimes
Bioterrorism
Biowarfare
Definition: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defines a biological weapon as ;
“the provision of any infectious agent or toxin by any means of delivery in order to cause harm to humans, animals, or plants.”
THE FOLLOWING ARE DESIRABLE
CHARACTERISTICS FOR BIOLOGICAL AGENTS TO
BE USED FOR HARMFUL INTENT
Generate high levels of panic among population
Easy to obtain
Inexpensive
Easy to produce in mass quantities
Lack of effective treatment
Result in lengthy illness with prolonged care needed
Long incubation periods
Hard to diagnose
High infectivity
High mortality
Toxins from Biological Sources
Biotoxins
• Some of the most toxic substances known
Botulinum toxin
From Clostridium botulinum bacteria growing in the absence of oxygen and cause the disease BOTULISM
As little as 1 millionth of a gram can be fatal to a human
In principle, millions of people could be killed by the amount of botulinum toxin carried in a terrorist’s pocket
Binds with nerve terminals causing paralysis of the respiratory muscles and death
Not transmitted person to person.
RICIN BIOTOXIN
Ricin
Very stable proteinaceous material extracted from castor beans (Ricinus communis)
Injection of an amount about the size of a pinhead can be fatal
Failure of kidneys, liver, and spleen along with massive blood loss from the digestive tract
INFECTIOUS AGENTSCDC PRIORITY CATEGORIES
June 1999 criteria for categories:
Level of Public health impact
Dissemination potential
Potential to cause public fear and disruption
Need for special public health preparedness
These are divided ino three catagories by CDC
Category A agents
Category B agents
Category C agents
CDC CATEGORY A AGENTS
Agents that would have maximum impact on
population:
Ease of dissemination
Person-to-person transmission
High mortality
Bacteria
Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)
Plague (Yersinia pestis)
Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)
Viruses
Smallpox (Variola major)
Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers (filoviruses, arenaviruses and
flaviviruses)
EXPOLOSIVE SUBSTANCES
Small amount of explosives can
bring down aircraft.
Many kinds of explosives have
been developed for illegal
purposes.
Ammonium nitrate fertilizer
with fuel oil
Types
Gunpowder
Nitroglycerine
TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene)
PETN ( pentaerythritol
tetranitrate)
Nuclear Weapons
“ The nuclear bomb is the most anti- democratic, anti-
human, outright evil thing that man has ever made.”
A nuclear weapon is so powerful that one single
weapon explosives can be capable of destroying or
seriously disabling an entire city., outright evil
thing at man has ever made…
Nuclear Weapons History
The Nuclear weapons were symbols of military and
national powers.
The first nuclear weapon was created by the United
States.
While the first weapons were developed mainly out of
fear that Germany they would first develop them, they
were eventually used against the Japanese cities of
Hiroshima Nagasaki in August 1945.
The Soviet Union developed that tested their first
nuclear weapon in 1949.
History Cont…
The USA and USSR wanted to develop weapons
powered by nuclear fusion during the 1950s.
During the 1960s, it became possible for nuclear
weapons to be delivered anywhere in the world.
Other nations also developed nuclear weapons,
including the United Kingdom, France, and China, india,
south africa, pakistan.
There was a “nuclear club” which wanted to attempt to
limit the spread of nuclear proliferation to other nations.
History Cont…
Nuclear proliferation is still going on, with Pakistan testing their first weapon in 1998, and the state of North Korea claiming to have developed nuclear weapons in 2004.
In 2005, there were at least 29,000 nuclear weapons held by at least seven countries, though 96% of these are in the possession of just two the United States and the Russian Federation.
Nuclear Fission
A nuclear reaction in which an atomic nucleus
splits into fragments.
Fission occurs readily in U-235 and Pu-239
when bombarded with neutrons.
The sum of the product masses is less than the
mass of the original atom.
The lost mass is converted directly into energy.
Nuclear Fusion
The combination of two nuclei to form a single
atom.
The product’s mass is less than the mass of the
original atoms.
Fusion occurs most readily in a combination of
the hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium.
Temperature in the millions of degrees is
required to initiate fusion.
Gun-triggered This is the simplest form of nuclear weapon.
A bullet of U-235 is propelled by explosives into a U-
235 sphere.
This is the type of bomb that destroyed the Japanese
city of Hiroshima.
Implosion-triggered
A sub critical sphere of plutonium is surrounded by
explosives, when the explosives detonate they create a
shockwave which compresses the core.
This method can be used with both U-235 and Pu-239.
To properly compress instead of blowing it apart, it is
necessary to use explosive lenses, which create a concave
shockwave that fits the surface of the core.
Teller-Ulam Bomb
The first true fusion bomb design.
Utilizes a fission weapon to provide the necessary
energy to cause fusion.
The massive amount of X-rays released by the
fission, which travel much faster than the actual
explosion, are contained by a thick tamper and used
to provide the heat to initiate a fusion reaction
before the explosion has a chance to blow apart the
bomb.
The Effects
Standard Nuclear weapons emit approximately 50% of their total energy as blast energy, 35% as thermal energy, and 15% as radiation.
The actual effects of the weapon vary greatly depending on the yield, and the detonation point.
Detonation in the upper atmosphere can create massive EMPs, severely damaging many electronics.
Surface Detonation results in blast and thermal damage, and large amounts of fallout.
Subterranean detonation results in large shockwaves, but minimizes most of the effects, provided the blast does not break the surface
Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki
The United States Army Air Force dropped two atomic
bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
on August 6 and August 9, 1945 during World War II.
At least 120,000 people died immediately from the
attacks.
Thousands of people died years after from the effects of
nuclear radiation.
Hiroshima and Nagasaki Cont…
The role of bombings in Japan’s was to make them surrender.
The U.S. believed that the bombing ended the war sooner.
In Japan, the general public tends to think that the bombings were
needless as the preparation for the surrender was in progress.
The survivors of the bombings are called hibakusha, a Japanese
word that literally translates to “bomb-affected people.”
Aftermath Attack On Japan
The nuclear attacks on Japan occurred during hot weather.
So it was more effected toward the people.
Many people were outside and wearing light clothing's.
This lady's skin is burned in a patterns corresponding to the dark patterns of her kimono.
The dark sections of clothing absorbed more heat and burnt her to her flash.
So basically darker cloths would make it worst.
Aftermath Cont…
This was the effect of Nagasaki it left a heavy destruction at high blast.
This bomb created a smoke that would basically harm people.
The smokestacks happen from the open at the top.
The blast was so powerful it ruin almost most of the country.
GREEN CHEMISTRYIt has become obvious that, to the extent possible , systems are
needed that are inherently non-polluting and sustainable.
Starting in 1990s this need have been approached through a
system known as green chemistry.
So we can define green chemistry as,
The sustainable, safe, non-polluting practice of chemical science
and manufacturing in a manner that consumes minimum
amounts of materials and energy while producing little or no
waste material.
The single best way that chemical science can avoid the terrorist
threats is to follow the percepts of green chemistry. This is so
because green chemistry is safe chemistry and sustainable
chemistry.
Need of Green Chemistry
Green chemistry to mitigate terrorist threats
• Uses the safest possible chemicals as safely as possible
• Minimizes the accumulation of hazardous chemicals and eliminates hazardous chemical wastes
• Better detection of hazardous materials
Need of Green Chemistry
• Effective substitute materials to reduce potential for “resource blackmail”
• Sustainable energy sources to reduce “energy blackmail” such as supplies of petroleum and natural gas
• Biochemistry and recombinant DNA science to enable the development of better vaccines against pathogenic biological warfare agents and antidotes to chemical and biological toxins
Safest possible chemicals
The use of alternative reaction conditions for
green chemistry such as
Use of solvents that have a reduced impact on
human health and the environment.
Increase the selectivity and reduced wastes
and emission.
Use of green catalysts that permit the use of
less toxic reagents.
DETECTING HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
• Residues of TNT, RDX, and PETN explosives detected by sophisticated instruments including ion mobility spectrometers and chemiluminecence sensors
• Nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) may be useful to detect explosives because it responds to nitrogen, which all major explosives contain
• Canine olfactory detection (dog’s nose). It is most sensitive method, and consist of use of dogs to sniff odors of substances at very low levels.
Detecting threats
Immunological methods
Biochemical and nucleic acid based methods
Cell culture and tissue based methods
Stand alone detectors
Immunological Methods
These methods are based upon powerful and specific
immune responses of animals towards foreign agents.
These are used for the detection of
Microbial cells and spores
Viruses and toxins
Chemical agents
Nucleic acid detection
This involves the production of multiple copies of DNA
from biological agents can be very sensitive and specific
for detecting infectious agents such as;
Bacillus anthracis
Cryptosporidium parvum
Cell culture and tissue based methods
These techniques have long been used to quantify
bacteria such as;
Fecal coliform bacteria in water.
These techniques combined with biochemical,
microscopy and staining can be used to reliably identify
bacteria.
Stand alone detectors
Mass spectrometry is the most well established and
suitable of the purely instrumental techniques.
Mass spectra is very useful in identifying specific
chemical species, such as those used in chemical attacks.
GREEN CHEMISTRY TO COMBAT TERRORISMSafe and sustainable green chemistry can help combat terrorism
• Hazardous substances that might be stolen or diverted for use in attacks are not made or used in large quantities
• Materials and processes that are likely to result in violent reactions, fires, high pressures, and other extreme conditions are avoided
• Potentially hazardous auxiliary substances and flammable materials are avoided
• Minimizes energy consumption, thereby reducing energetic, high-temperature processes that might be susceptible to sabotage