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Principle of plant physiology, The process of Photosynthesis
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BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 1
Physical nature of light To understand photosynthesis one should understand
the physical nature of light
Light : is a form of radiant energy , a narrow band of
energy with in the continuous electromagnetic
spectrum of radiation emitted by the sun
The term ‘light’ describes that portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that cause the physiological
sensation of vision in human
Light is defined by the range of wavelengths between
400-700 nm.
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 2
Electromagnetic spectrum
Visible radiation (light) 400-700 nm
Infrared radiation - >700 nm
Ultraviolet radiation 100-400 nm
Colour is determined by wavelength of the radiation
ATRIBUTES OF LIGHT
Wave length
Particle property
Important in understanding the biological functions of light
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 3
Wave propertyo Characterized by wave length or frequency
Wavelength ()–the distance between successive
crests
Frequency ()- number of wave crests passing a
point in one second
Frequency is related to wave length as:
Frequency =speed of light /wavelength = = C/
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 4
Particle property
Light behaves as if its energy is divided in to
particles called photons when it is emitted
Photons carry energy termed quantum and is
related to frequency and wave length.
Thus,
Eq = hc/=h
h=planck’s constant=6.62*10-14 Js photon -1
Quantum energy is inversely proportional to its
wavelength
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Photons of violet end of the spectrum have
highest energy while photons of infrared have
lowest energy
Eg.
Light >1200 nm
low energy content
Too low to mediate chemical reaction
Energy absorbed is converted to heat
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 6
2oo-1200 nm
Sufficient to produce a chemical change
PAR is found with in this range
Photosynthetically active radiation
400 nm(blue end)-700 nm(red end)
Optimum wavelength for driving
photosynthesis
Other regions of the spectrum are
absorbed by molecule in the atmosphere
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ABSORPTION SPECTRA Not all the wavelength of
light can be absorbed by the
plant pigment
The chlorophyll can absorb
waves of certain length with
in the range of visible light
Different chlorophylls show
different absorption peaks
on different region of the
band
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PHOTOSYNTHETIC MOLECULES Plants posses pigment molecules that absorb
physiologically useful radiations
Called photoreceptors
Process the energy and information content of
light into a form that can be used by the plant
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Principal molecules
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Chlorophyll Is primarily responsible for harvesting light energy used in
photosynthesis
Chlorophyll structure : has two parts
I. Porphyrin head
Cyclic tetrapyrrole
Made up of four nitrogen containing pyrrole rings
arranged in cyclic fashion
Magnesium ion is chelated to the four nitrogen atoms
in the center of the ring
Loss of Mg ion leads to formation of pheophytin
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Requires light for their synthesis
Yellow appearance of etiolated leaves is
due to lack of light
The reduction of proto chlorophyll to
chlorophyll is accomplished at the expense
of light absorbed by the protochlorophyll
The reduction of the bond is catalysed by the
enzyme NADPH: protochlorophyll
oxidoreductase
Light sensitive part in angiosperm BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 13
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II. Phytol tail
Long, lipid-soluble hydrocarbon tail (20 C
alcohol)
Makes the molecule very hydrophobic
Important for orientation and anchoring of
chlorophyll molecule in the chlorophyll
membrane
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Difference in chemical structure
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Carotenoids Comprises a family of orange and yellow pigments of
most photosynthetic organisms
When chlorophyll pigments are degraded carotenoids
account for the brilliant orange and yellow colour
Found in
Carrot roots
Tomato fruit
Green leaves
They are dominantly hydrocarbon s thus are lipid
soluble and located either in the chloroplast
membrane or in chromoplasts
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Significance
1. Protect against the photoxidation of
chlorophyll molecule by absorbing excess
blue light Acts as preferred substrate in the photosynthesised oxidation
Combine with oxygen (highly reactive form of O2 )to form
violaxanthin
2. Absorb and transfer light energy to
chlorophyll a
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 19
Phycoblins
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 20
All the study of these came from the study about
pigment–protein complex
They are classified as accessory pigments
The energy harvested by these pigments is
transferred to chlorophyll a similar to
carotenoids before it is active in photosynthesis
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 21
Site of photosynthesis The light–driven metabolism of CO2
In plants photosynthesis takes place primarily in
leaves
The process occurs from start to completion in
the chloroplast
Chloroplast is highly ordered complex structure
that floats free in the cytoplasm of green plants
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Chemical composition of chloroplast
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Chloroplast structure Chloroplast is composed of several compartments
with its own set of metabolic functions :
1. Outer envelop
The ‘skin’ that holds every thing in.
The external membrane , which is permeable to
most substances
Smooth, composed of 2 lipid molecules
2. Inner envelop
The inner membrane, impermeable to most molecules
Contains transport proteins that control the movement
of substance in to and out of the chloroplast
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 26
3. Thylakoid
System of internal membranes that contain the
photosystems and components of the electron
transport chain
Site of light reaction of photosynthesis
Organized in to
Compactly arranged regions -most important part
Loosely arranged – grana amellas
Thylakoid enclose a continuous fluid space known
as the lumen
Contains ATP synthase , but ATP is not generatedBEIRA HAILU [email protected] 27
4. Stroma
Forms the matrix of the chloroplast- a protein filled gel that
contains soluble enzymes and metabolites
Lamellae in this portion are loosely arranged called stroma
lamella
Consists of ribosomes serving as site of protein synthesis
Site for dark reaction of photosynthesis
The major protein in the stroma is the carboxilating enzyme
RUBISCO
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The photosynthetic processPhoto= light , synthesis = putting together
CO2 and water are combined using light
energy from sun light to form glucose
An extremely complex process
Oxygen is given off as waste product
Source of oxygen in the atm
Occurs in higher plants, algae, some
bacteria
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 29
Consists of two key process
1. Removal of H from water
2. Reduction of CO2 by these H atoms to form
organic molecules
Photosynthesis is a two-way stage process in the
chloroplast
1. Light reaction (light dependent rxn) hill
reaction
2. Dark reaction (light independent rxn)
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Phases of photosynthesis
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NADPH
ATP
NADP+
ADP+
H2O
ADP
NADP+
CO2
GLUCOSE
Light reaction Dark Reaction
LIGHT
Events of over all photosynthetic
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hv
hv
2e
NADPH +H+
NADP+ +2H+
H2O
1/2O2 + 2H+
Fig. Linear representation of light rxn
Chloroplasts contain a system of thylakoid
membranes.
Embeds six different complexes of
integral membrane proteins
1. Photosystem I
2. Photosystem II
3. Light harvesting complexes I
4. Light harvesting complexes II5. Cytochrome b6 and f complex6. ATP synthase
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 37
I. Photosystems They are multicellular complex
Two photosystems PS I and PS II
Each photosystem is consist of
a. Antennae Light harvesting system Chlorophyll a, b and carotenoids Light travels from antennae to inner
antennae and to reaction center
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 38
b. Reaction center
Reaction center consists of special chlorophyll
involved in:
Charge separation
Electron transfer
In PS II the reaction center chlorophyll is P680
In PS II the reaction center chlorophyll is P700
Subscripts – absorption maxima
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 39
PS I PS II12 protein molecules
96 molecules of chll a
2 molecules of rxn
center chll P700
4 accessory molecules
90 molecules that serve
as antenna pigments
22 carotenoids molecule
4 lipids molecules
3 cluster of Fe4S4
2 phylloquinones
>20 different protein molecules
50 chlorophyll a molecule
2 molecules of the rxn center
chll P680
2 accessory molecules close
to them
2 molecules of pheophytin
Antenna pigments
Half dozen carotenoids
molecule
2 molecules of plastoquinone
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 40
II. Light harvesting complex
These are chlorophyll-protein complexes
Function extended antenna systems for
harvesting additional light energy
Important Role
Dynamic regulation of energy
distribution and Electron transport BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 41
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III. Cytochrome b/f complexes are
uniformly distributed through out both
regions
IV. ATP synthase
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 43
PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATIONLight-driven production of ATP by
chloroplast:
a. Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
b. Cyclic Photophosphorylation
c. Pseudocyclic Photophosphorylation
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Noncyclic Photophosphorylation(Z-scheme)
Oxidation of water as the primary source of
electrons
The reduction of the final electron acceptor NADP+
Photophosphorylation (ATP synthesis)
Electrons flow from water to NADP+
Large vertical arrows represent the input of light
energy into the system
NADP+ is reduced to NADPH on the stroma side of
the membrane BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 47
Organization of the photosynthetic electron transport system in the thylakoid membrane involves:
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Pseudocyclic Photophosphorylation
This path requires both photosystems
the ferredoxin passes the electrons to molecular oxygen
which act as the electron accepter thereby forming
hydrogen peroxide
Is called Mehler reaction
By the action of hydrogen peroxide the reduced oxygen is
graded thus giving rise to superoxide radical
molecular hydrogen which reacts with superoxide radical
and give rise to very dangerous hydrogen peroxide BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 52
There is no net oxygen exchange (take-up & evolved)
So, here electrons come from water to oxygen and
back to water but the same electrons are not recycled
like the cyclic flow do and for this reason that is why is
also not referred to as cyclic flow.
This flow takes place when oxygen concentrations are
very high or when carbon dioxide fixation is very low
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Overall light reaction
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 55
The reactions catalyzing the reduction of CO2 to
carbohydrate are coupled to the consumption of
NADPH & ATP by enzymes in the stroma
Stroma reactions are long to be independent of light
(dark reactions)
But this reaction depend on the products of the
photochemical processes
• Directly regulated by light
• Properly referred to as carbon reactions of
photosynthesis BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 57
Cyclic reactions that accomplish fixation and
reduction of CO2
There are three types of photosynthesis
1. Calvin cycle (C3)
2. Hatch –slack cycle (C4)
3. Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 58
I. The Calvin cycle All photosynthetic eukaryotes reduce CO2 to
carbohydrate via the same basic mechanism:
The photosynthetic carbon reduction (PCR) cycle
Calvin cycle
Reductive pentose phosphate (RPP) cycle
C3 cycle
C3 photosynthesis is the typical photosynthesis that
most plants use
The other cycles are auxiliary to or dependent on the
basic Calvin cycle
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2. Reduction
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3. Regeneration
The continued uptake CO2 requires the
availability CO2 acceptor, ribulose -1,5
bisphosphate
Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor RuBP fromG-
3-P
Three molecules of RuBP (15 C total) are
formed by reactions that reshuffle the carbons
from the five molecules of trios sugar
65BEIRA HAILU [email protected]
The reshuffling reaction consists 1. Conversion of one G3P to dihydroyaceton-3-phpsphate (DHAP)
2. DHAP undergoes aldol condensation with second molecule of G3P
to give fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
3. FBP is hydrolyzed to fructose -6-phosphate
4. F6P is transferred transketolase to a third G3P to give Erythrose-4-
phosphate (E-4-P) and xylulose-5- phosphate (X-5-P)
5. E-4-P combines vial aldolase with a fourth molecule of G3P to give
a seven-carbon sugar sedoheptulose-1,7-bisphosphate (SBP)
6.
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6. SBP is then hydrolyzed to give sedoheptulose -7-phosphate
(S-7-P)
7. S7P donates a two-carbon unit to the fifth(last) molecule
G3P and produce ribose-5-phosphate and xylulose-5-
phosphate
8. The two xylulose-5-phosphate are converted to 2 molecules
of ribulose-5-phosphate (Ru-5-P) sugar by ribulose-5-
phosphate epimerase ; the third Ru-5-P is formed from
ribose-5-phosphate by ribose-5-phosphate isomerase
9. Phosphorylation of Ru-5-P with ATP to generate RUBPBEIRA HAILU [email protected] 68
Fig. C3 cycle
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 69
Summery Called C3 because the CO2 is first incorporated into a 3-
carbon compound.
Stomata are open during the day.
The net product is one molecule of trios sugar per 3CO2
taken
9 ATP & 6 NADPH are consumed per 3CO2
RUBISCO, the enzyme involved in photosynthesis, is also
the enzyme involved in the uptake of CO2.
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 70
Adaptive Value:
more efficient than C4 and CAM plants under cool
and moist conditions and under normal light
because requires less machinery (fewer enzymes
and no specialized anatomy).
Most plants are C3.
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 71
II. Hatch –slack cycle (C4)
There is difference in leaf anatomy between pants
that have a C4 carbon cycle(C4 plants) and those
that photosynthesis solely via Calvin
photosynthetic cycle (3 plants)
The cross section of C3 leaf reveals one major cell
type that has chloroplast , the mesophyll .
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 72
In contrast C4 leaf has two distinct chloroplast-
containing cell types:
Mesophyll cells
Bundle sheath cells
Such distinction is called Kranz anatomy
Both are connected by an extensive net work of
plasmodesmata , thus providing a pathway for the
flow of metabolites between the cell types
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 73
The C4 cycle concentrates CO2 in bundle sheath
cell
The basic c4 cycle consists of four stages:
1. Fixation of CO2
Carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate in the
mesophyll cells to form a C4 acid (malate or
asparate)
Catalyzed by enzyme called
phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEP case)
2. Transport of the C4 acid (pyruvate or alanine)
from mesophyll cells to the bundle sheath cells
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3. Decarboxylation
C4 acid is decarboxylated with in the bundle
sheath cell
Generation of CO2
CO2 released is reduced to carbohydrate via C3
cycle
4. Regeneration
Transport of C3 acid (pyruvate) formed by
decarboxylation back to mesophyll cell
Phosphorylation of pyruvate using ATP to generate
CO2 acceptor PEP
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Fig. Hatch-slack path way
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Three variations of basic C4 cycleVariation
1.In the c4 acid transported into the bundle sheath cell
(asparate or malate)
The 3-carbon acid pyruvate or alanine returned to
the mesophyll cell
2.The nature of enzyme that catalyzes the
decarboxylation step
Thus their name is after the enzyme that catalyzes their
decarboxylation reaction
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a. NADP-ME type This is NADP dependent
malic enzyme
Found in the chloroplast
of bundle sheath Malate is transported
bundle sheath cell
Pyruvate is transported
to mesophyll cell
Example: corn,
sugarcane, sorghum
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b. NAD-ME type
NAD dependent malic
enzyme
Decarboxylation occurs in the
mitochondria
Asparate is transported
bundle sheath cell
Alanine is transported to
mesophyll cell
Examples : millet,
pigweed
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c. PEP-CK type
Phosphoenol-pyruvate
dependent carboxykinase
Decarboxylation occurs in
the cytosol of chloroplast
Asparate to bundle
sheath cell
Alanine to mesophyll cell
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 80
SummeryCalled C4 because the CO2 is first incorporated into a 4-
carbon compound.
Stomata are open during the day.
Uses PEP Carboxylase for the enzyme involved in the uptake
of CO2 (HCO3 as substrate )
This enzyme allows CO2 to be taken into the plant very
quickly, and then it "delivers" the CO2 directly to RUBISCO
for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis takes place in inner cells (requires special
anatomy called Kranz Anatomy)
The concentration of CO2 in bundle sheath has an energy
cost ; 5ATP and 2NADPH per 1 CO2 consumed BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 81
Adaptive Value:
Photosynthesizes faster than C3 plants under high light
intensity and high temperatures because the CO2 is
delivered directly to RUBISCO, not allowing it to grab
oxygen and undergo photorespiration.
Has better Water Use Efficiency because PEP Carboxylase
brings in CO2 faster and so does not need to keep stomata
open as much (less water lost by transpiration) for the
same amount of CO2 gain for photosynthesis.
C4 plants include several thousand species in at least 19
plant families.
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 82
III. Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
Called CAM after the plant family in which it was first
found (Crassulaceae) and because the CO2 is stored in
the form of an acid before use in photosynthesis
The type of photosynthesis is similar to C4 cycle in
many respects but different in two important features:
1. Formation of c4 acid is both temporally and spatially
separated (PEP case and decarboxylase located in the cytosol
function at different time
2. A specialized anatomy is not needed
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 83
During Night
Stomata open for uptake of CO2
At night CO2 is captured by PEP carboxylase in
the cytosol
Fixation of CO2 as malic acid temporally and is
stored in the vacuole
• Acidification of leaf when malic acid is stored in the
vacuole
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During Day
Stomata are closed for reducing water loss
Transportation of malate from vacuole to
chloroplast
Decarboxylation (deacidification) occurs , the
released CO2 is fixed by the Calvin cycle
Refixation of internally released CO2 by C3 cycle
Since stomata are closed ,internally released can
not escape from the leaf
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86
HCO3
Phosphoenol
pyruvate
Pi
OAA malate
NADHNAD+
Malate
CO2
C3 cycl
e
Pyruvate
starch
Trios phosphat
e
Chloroplast
NADP+ malic dehydogenase
PEP case
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 87
Stomata open at night (when rates of water loss
are usually lower) and are usually closed during
the day.
The CO2 is converted to an acid and stored
during the night.
During the day, the acid is broken down and the
CO2 is released to RUBISCO for photosynthesis
CAM plants include many succulents such as
cactuses and agaves and also some orchids and
bromeliads
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 88
Adaptive Value:
Better Water Use Efficiency than C3 plants under arid
conditions due to opening stomata at night when
transpiration rates are lower
When conditions are extremely arid, CAM plants can just
leave their stomata closed night and day.
Oxygen given off in photosynthesis is used for respiration
and CO2 given off in respiration is used for photosynthesis.
CAM-idling does allow the plant to survive dry spells, and
it allows the plant to recover very quickly when water is
available again (unlike plants that drop their leaves and
twigs and go dormant during dry spells).
BEIRA HAILU [email protected] 89
Photorespiration Many land plants take up oxygen and release CO2 in the
light.
This process is called photorespiration
However, it is normally masked by photosynthesis,
which is even faster.
Photorespiration differs from true respiration.
Plants do respire normally with mitochondria that
produces ATP and NADH, and occurs mostly in the dark.
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In contrast, photorespiration is wasteful and occurs
mostly in the light (produces no ATP)
Photorespiration appears to serve no useful purpose.
Its main effect is to reduce the apparent rate of
photosynthesis.
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Phosphoglycolate +
phosphoglycerate
Not all plants photorespirePlants that photorespire
1. Typically show light saturation point (LSP)
Point at which increasing light yields a
constant amount of photosynthesis
2. have higher light compensation point (LCP)
Light at which the amount of photosynthesis
just equals the amount of respiration
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Oxygen inhibition of photosynthesis in plants that
photorespire is called Warburg effect
Oxygen acts as antagonistic in photosynthesis and acts
in a competitive manner
This is due to the fact that rubisco is not a substrate
specific enzyme
i.e. also has an oxygenase function, thus binds oxygen
to RuBP although higher affinity for CO2
Favoured by low CO2/O2 ratio
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Involves three cellular organelles
Reading assignment
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