HISTORY OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Early Beginnings• Quality control as we know it, probably had its

beginnings in the factory system that developed following the English Industrial Revolution of the 1850s’,:

– production methods were rudimentary at best

– products were made from nonstandardizedmaterials using nonstandardized processes, resulting in products of varying quality

– the only standards used were measures of dimensions, weight, and in some instances, purity

Early Beginnings– the most common form of quality control was

inspection by the purchaser under the common law rule of caveat emptor (“let the buyer beware”).16

– the concept of “go–no go” tolerance was introduced, allowing for a less-than-perfect fit between two or more parts (this concept in turn created the concept of upper and lower limits, allowing more freedom in production and lowering costs)

The Pioneers of Scientific Quality Management

1. Frederick Taylor

• Early 20th century , corporations needed experts in production, distribution and labor

• This need led to the advent of management consultant

• His name was synonymous with “scientific management,” a revolutionary movement that proposed the reduction of waste through the careful study of work

Frederick Taylor

- Born in 1856 into a wealthy Philadelphia family• At age 25, earned an engineering degree at the

Stevens Institute of Technology in New Jersey while holding a fulltime job

• Disappointed his parents by working in a metal products factory, first as a machinist and pattern maker at the Enterprise Hydraulic Works

• He became a common laborer at the Midvale Steel Company. He started as a shop clerk and quickly progressed to machinist, foreman, maintenance foreman and chief draftsman.

Frederick Taylor• Within 6 years he advanced to research director, then chief

engineer. Shocked at the factory’s inefficiency and the practice of its skilled workers purposely working slowly, he applied himself to studies in the measurement of industrial productivity

• He developed detailed systems intended to gain maximum efficiency from both workers and machines in the factory

• He studied the time it took each worker to complete a step by rearranging equipment

• He believed he could discover what an average worker could produce in optimum conditions and that

• the secret of productivity was finding the right challenge for each person, and then paying him well for increased output

Frederick Taylor• The promise of higher wages, he figured, would create added

incentive for workers to exceed this “average” level. Taylor’s core values were the rule of reason, improved quality, lower costs, higher wages, higher output, labor–management cooperation, experimentation, clear tasks and goals, feedback, training, mutual help and support, stress reduction, and the careful selection and development of people

• He did not actually use their time studies as the sole basis for setting normative output. He was the first to present a systematic study of interactions among job requirements, tools, methods, and human skills, to fitpeople to jobs both psychologically and physically, and to let data and facts do the talking rather than prejudice, opinions

Walter A. Shewhart• Born in New Canton, IL on March 18, 1891.

• Worked at the Western Electric Company, a manufacturer of telephone hardware for Bell Telephone

• He stresses that bringing a production process into a state of statistical control, where there is only chance–cause variation was necessary to predict future output and to manage a process economically

• The control limits on Shewhart’s control chart provide a ready guide for acting on a process to eliminate assignable causes of variation by allowing management to focus on future production through the use of statistical probability.

• This approach caused the emphasis to shift from costly correction to prevention of problems and to process improvement

Walter A. Shewhart• He published a series of papers in the Bell System Technical

Journal. His monumental work, Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product, published in 1931 regarded as a complete and thorough exposition of the basic principles of quality control

• Shewhart received many awards, including the Holley Medal of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Statistical Society and American Society for Quality

• For 20 years he was editor of the Wiley Series in Mathematical Statistics. During the 1990s, Shewhart’s genius was rediscovered by a third generation of managers, naming it the “Six Sigma” approach

Walter A. Shewhart• He successfully brought together the disciplines of

statistics, engineering, and economics and became known as the father of modern quality control

• The lasting and tangible evidence of that union for which he is most widely known is the control chart, a simple but highly effective tool that represented an initial step toward what Shewhart called “the formulation of a scientific basis for securing economic control

• Shewhart’s influence on ASQ runs deep. Shortly before his death, he remarked to members that they “extended the field beyond my early visions and saw areas of

• service that pleased and amazed me. I hope that you continue.”

• He died at Troy Hills, NJ, on March 11, 1967

W. Edwards Deming• Born on October 14, 1900 and earned his Ph.D. in

mathematical physics in 1927. He then worked in the U.S. Government Service for many years, particularly in statistical sampling techniques

• He became particularly interested in the works of Walter Shewhart, whom he had met while working at the Bell Laboratories in New Jersey

• He was impressed by Shewhart’s work and believed that his principles could be equally applied to nonmanufacturing processes. He applied Shewhart’sconcepts of statistical process control to his work at the National Bureau of the Census during the preparation for the 1940 population census. This led to six-fold productivity improvements

W. Edwards Deming• He believed that the special causes of variation in a

product, process, or service were those that prevented its performance from remaining constant in a statistical sense. Example are changes of operator, shift, or procedure and sometimes local operators can solve them

• Common causes are those that remain once the special causes have been eliminated. They are due to design or operation of the process or system. The

• operators may identify them, but only managementauthority can eliminate these common causes.

W. Edwards Deming• After the war Deming was sent to Japan as an advisor to the

Japanese Census.• He established quality control tools and techniques as the

approach to affect the turnaround of Japanese industry and became involved with the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) after its formation.

• Deming’s name became known and JUSE invited him to lecture to the Japanese on statistical methods. In the early 1950s he lectured to engineers and senior managers on the “Elementary Principles of Statistical Control of Quality,” including concepts now regarded as part of TQM or company-wide quality

• In 1956 Deming was awarded the Shewhart medal by the American Society for Quality Control. Four years later, his teachings were widely known in Japan and the Emperor awarded him the Second Order of the Sacred Treasure.

W. Edwards Deming• Deming’s philosophy begins with top management but

maintains that a company must adopt the 14 points of his system at all levels. He believed that quality must be built into the product at all stages in order to achieve a high level of excellence. He developed what is known as the Deming Total Quality Management chain reaction: as quality improves, costs will decrease and productivity will increase, resulting in more jobs, greater market share, and long-term survival.

• Although it is the worker who will ultimately produce quality products, he stressed the worker pride and satisfaction rather than the establishment of quantifiable goals. His overall approach focused on improvement of the process, in that the SYSTEM, rather than the worker, is the CAUSE of process variation.

W. Edwards Deming• He produced his 14 Points for Management in

order to help people understand and implement the necessary transformation.

• They apply to small or large organizations and to service industries as well as to manufacturing.

• However, the 14 points should not be seen as the whole of his philosophy, or as a recipe for improvement. They need careful discussion in the context of one’s own organization.

W. Edwards Deming14 Points for Management are summarized as follows:

1. Create consistency of purpose with a plan

2. Adopt the new philosophy of quality

3. Cease dependence on mass inspection

4. End the practice of choosing suppliers based solely on price

5. Identify problems and work continuously to improve the system

6. Adopt modern methods of training on the job

7. Change the focus from production numbers (quantity) to quality

8. Drive out fear

9. Break down barriers between departments

W. Edwards Deming10. Stop requesting improved productivity without providing methods to achieve it

11. Eliminate work standards that prescribe numerical quotas

12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship

13. Institute vigorous education and retraining

14. Create a structure in top management that will emphasize the preceding 13 points every day

• W. Edwards Deming died at the age of 93.

Joseph M. Juran• Born in 1904, the son of an immigrant from Romania,

started out professionally as an engineer in 1924. He initiated his industrial career at Western Electric’s Hawthorne plant before World War II and later worked at Bell Laboratories in the area of quality assurance.

• He established his own consulting firm, the JuranInstitute

• In 1951 his first book The Quality Control Handbook was published and led to his international eminence. Chapter 1 of the book was titled “The Economics of Quality” and contained his now-famous analogy to the costs of quality: “there is gold in the mine.”

Joseph M. Juran• He, like Deming, believed that management and the

SYSTEM are responsible for quality. Large companies started internal training, courses for foremen were offered on national radio, and booklets were even made available at newspaper kiosks.

• He has published 12 books, which have collectively been translated into some 13 languages. He has received more than 30 medals, honorary fellowships, etc. in 12 countries.

• Like Deming, these include the highest decoration presented to a non- Japanese citizen, the Second Order of the Sacred Treasure.

Joseph M. Juran• He defines quality as “fitness for use” in terms of

design, conformance, availability, safety, and field use, more specifically and in his own words as “fitness for use as perceived by the customer.”

• Attainment of quality according to Juran is described as a perpetual spiral of progress or continuous striving.

• Steps on this spiral are, in ascending order, research, development, design, specification, planning, purchasing, instrumentation, production, process control, inspection, testing, sale, service, and then back to research again. Each time the steps are completed, products or services increase in quality.

Joseph M. Juran• Unlike Deming, Juran focuses on top-down

management and technical methods rather than worker pride and satisfaction.

• He sees quality planning as part of the trilogy of quality planning, quality control, and quality improvement.

Juran’s 10 steps to quality improvement are:

1. Build awareness of opportunities to improve

2. Set goals for improvement

3. Organize to reach goals

4. Provide training

5. Carry out projects to solve problems

6. Report progress

7. Give recognition

8. Communicate results

9. Keep score

10. Maintain momentum by making annual improvement part of the regular systems and processes of the company; set goals for improvement

Armand V. Feigenbaum• Dr. Armand V. Feigenbaum is the originator of the 850-page book

Total Quality Control: Engineering and Management. The Japanese discovered his work in the 1950s at about the same time Juran was visiting Japan.

• This discovery came about first via his role as vice president of worldwide quality at the General Electric Company, where he worked until the late 1960s, when he set up his own consulting firm, General Systems, Inc.

• While at General Electric he had extensive contacts with companies such as Hitachi and Toshiba.

• Second, it was associated with the translation of his 1951 book: Quality Control: Principles, Practices and Administration and his articles on total quality control.

• Feigenbaum argued for a systematic or total approach to quality, requiring the involvement of all functions in the quality process, not jus manufacturing.

• The idea was to build in quality at an early stage, rather than inspecting and controlling quality after the fact.

Armand V. Feigenbaum

• Like Deming and Juran, Feigenbaum achieved visibility through his work with the Japanese using a total quality control approach. He promoted a system for integrating efforts to develop, maintain, and improve quality by the various groups in an organization.

• To do otherwise, would be to inspect for and control quality after the fact rather than build it in at an earlier stage of the process.

Four fundamental principles:1. Total quality is a continuous work process, starting with customer requirements and ending with customer satisfaction.

2. Documentation allows visualization and communication of work assignments.

3. The quality system provides for greater flexibility because of a greater use of alternatives provided.

4. Systematic reengineering of major quality activities leads to greater levels of continuous improvement.

• Quality control itself is defined as an effective system for coordinating the quality maintenance and quality improvement efforts so as to enable production at the most economical levels which allow for full customer satisfaction.

• He stressed that quality does not mean “best” but “best for the customer use and selling price.” The word “control” in quality control represents a management tool with four steps:

1. Setting quality standards2. Appraising conformance to these standards3. Acting when standards are exceeded4. Planning for improvements in the standards

Philip B. Crosby

• Philip Crosby was a leader of the resurgence of interest in quality during 1980s. He graduated from Western Reserve University, after naval service during the Korean War. His early experience was as a quality manager on the first Pershing missile program. He worked his way up and for 14 years he was a corporate vice president and director of quality, with worldwide responsibilities for quality.

Philip B. Crosby• In 1979 Crosby published Quality Is Free: The Art of Making

Quality Certain, which became a bestseller. He stated that quality is free because the small costs of prevention will always be lower than the costs of

• detection, correction, and failure. • He set up Philip Crosby Associates Inc. at the Quality

College established in Florida, he started to teach organizations how to manage quality as advocated in his book. Crosby also published Quality without Tears: The Art of Hassle-Free Management,44 and a group of three management books that are popular and easy to read:

1. Running Things. The Art of Making Things Happen2. The Eternally Successful Organization: The Art of

Corporate Wellness3. Leading: The Art of Becoming an Executive.

Philip B. Crosby• He is best known in relation to the concepts of

“Do It Right the First Time” and “Zero Defects.”• He believed that zero defects motivates line

workers to turn out perfect products• He defines quality as conformance to the

requirements, which the company itself has established for its products based on its customers’ needs.

• According to Crosby, most companies have organizations and systems that allow (and even encourage) deviation from what is really required.

Philip B. Crosby• Crosby does not believe that workers should

take prime responsibility for poor quality; the reality, he says, is that you have to get management straight. In the Crosby scheme of things, management sets the tone on quality and workers follow its example; what zero defect means is not that people never make mistakes, he says, but that the company does not start out expecting them to make mistakes.

“Four Absolutes of Quality Management

1. Quality is defined as conformance to requirements.

2. The system for causing quality is prevention of problems, not appraisal of them.

3. The performance standard must be zero defects, not “that’s close enough.”

4. The measurement of quality is the price of nonconformance, or the cost of quality.

• Crosby stresses motivation and planning and does not dwell on statistical process control and the several problem-solving techniques of Deming and Juran.

• He emphasizes performance standards instead of statistical data as other experts do. Crosby has his own 14 steps to quality improvement that he considers to be the way that the quality improvement process is implemented in an organization as follows:

Crosby has his own 14 steps to quality improvement

1. Management commitment

2. Quality improvement team

3. Quality measurement

4. Cost of quality

5. Quality awareness

6. Corrective action

7. Zero defects planning

8. Supervisor training

9. Zero defects day

10. Goal setting

11. Error cause removal

12. Recognition

13. Quality councils

14. Do it all over again

The Japanese Contribution• Kaoru Ishikawa

– Dr. Ishikawa was born in 1915 and graduated in 1939 from the Engineering Department of Tokyo University with a degree in applied chemistry.

– In 1947 he was made an assistant professor; in 1960 he earned his doctorate of engineering and was promoted to professor

– He was a founder of the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers, a body that promoted quality developments in Japan during the post-war recovery period.

Kaoru Ishikawa

• Although he believed strongly in creating standards, he felt that standards were like continuous quality improvement programs —they too should be constantly evaluated and changed.

• “Standards are not the ultimate source of decision making; customer satisfaction is.”

Kaoru Ishikawa

His innovative tools such as the cause-and-effect diagram. Through the use of such tools, he provided easy-to-use analytical methods that could be used by all workers, including those on the production line, to analyze and solve problems.

• The Ishikawa diagram is useful as a systematic tool for finding, sorting out, and documenting the causes of quality variations in production and organizing mutual relationships between them. Other techniques he has emphasized include control charts, scatter diagrams, and sampling inspection

SEVEN CRITICAL FACTORS WERE ESSENTIAL FOR THE SUCCESS OF TOTAL QUALITY CONTROL IN JAPAN

1. Company-wide total quality control participation

2. Education and training in all aspects of total quality

3. Use of quality circles to update standards and regulations, which are in constant need of improvement

4. Quality audits by the president and quality council members (senior executives) twice a year

5. Widespread use of statistical methods with a focus on problem prevention

6. Nationwide quality control promotion activities, with the imperative of keeping Japanese quality number one in the world

7. Open mental attitude on the part of both management and workers, toward one another and toward the customer, welcoming complaints, and encouraging risks

Genichi Taguchi• Dr. Genichi Taguchi was born in 1924. After service in

the Astronomical Department of the Navigation Institute of the Imperial Japanese Navy during 1942 to 1945, he worked at the Ministry of Public Health and Welfare — where he learned experimental design techniques

• In 1950 he joined the newly founded Electrical Communications Laboratory of the Nippon Telephone and Telegraph Company with the purpose of increasing the productivity of its research and development activities by training engineers in effective techniques. He stayed for more than 12 years, during which period he began to develop his methods.

• Taguchi’s methods are systems of cost-driven quality engineering that emphasize the application of engineering strategies rather than advanced statistical techniques.

• They can be classified as upstream methods and shopfloor methods.

Two Methods

Upstream methods

• use small-scale experiments to reduce variability and find cost-effective, robust designs for large-scale production and the marketplace.

Shopfloor methods

• provide cost-based, real-time methods for monitoring and maintaining quality in production.

Robust design

Optimization of product and process prior to manufacture

Provides an efficient technique to develop product test

results in consistent, high-level performance products

a trouble-shooting tool to sort out pressing manufacturing problems.

Taguchi breaks down off-line quality control into three stages

System design

Parameter design

Tolerance design

• Taguchi’s robust design methodology is fundamentally a prototyping method that enables the engineer or designer to identify the optimal settings to produce a robust product that can survive manufacturing time after time, piece after piece, in order to provide the functionality required by the customer.

Think about?

• Despite having different management thoughts, can you identify some common themes among the Pioneers in Scientific Quality Management?

• Please list…