Monitoring training

Tests and measures to improve performance

Université de Franche-Comté, Besançon, France, 07 November, 2013

Dr Roger RamsbottomDepartment of Sport and Health SciencesOxford Brookes University

MONITORING THE TRAINING RESPONSE

Appreciate a programme involves appropriate training stress and recoveryUnderstand the reasons for repeated testing of the athlete / normal healthy individual to monitor progress during trainingAppreciate the physiological, biomechanical and psychological factors influencing performanceUnderstand the energy systems involved in specific movement requirements involved in competitionAppreciate test methodology and understand the data provided by both laboratory and field tests

LEARNING OUTCOMES

CONTINUUM OF TRAINING STAGES

ASSESSING POTENTIAL AND PERFORMANCE

Talent Identification (potential)A screening process to identify individuals with particular talent or potential within a given sport or sportsTID personnel visit schools/clubs to identify individuals for fast track sports development programmes

Athlete Testing and Assessment (performance)A sport-specific battery of tests aimed at existing athletes already in a sports science support systemAimed at improving the competitive performance of the individual athlete

REASONS FOR TESTING

1. Identify strengths and weaknessesconduct tests to measure important performance components2. Aid training programme prescriptione.g. training aimed at eliminating weaknesses3. Monitor progressassess effectiveness of the prescribed training programme4. Provide feedback and motivationfeedback provides the incentive to improve5. Educate coaches and athletesimproves understanding of performance components and the way different training interventions affect them6. Predict performance potentialcorrelation of test results with competitive performances allows performance prediction on the basis of tests

FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE – LABORATORY BESED ASSESSMENT MEASURES

Co-ordination

SkillEconomy

Energy Output

Aerobic Energy Production

Strength

Power

Psychological Status

Anaerobic Energy

Production

Environmental/Climatic

Responses

Performance

Body Composition

FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE – LABORATORY BESED ASSESSMENT MEASURES

Co-ordinationSkill

Economy

Energy Output

Aerobic Energy Production

Strength

Power

Psychological Status

Anaerobic Energy Production

Environmental/Climatic

Responses

Performance

Body CompositionBioelectrical ImpedanceBodPod

Environmentalchamber

Psychological assessment

MargariaWingateAOD

VO2max

Tlac

Wingate or equiv.

Isokinetic dynamometry

Submax. VO2

Biomechanical assessment

PERFORMANCE PROFILING

Can be tailored for different sports

Excellent tool for athlete involvement

Regular physiological testing should correspond to improvements in targeted areas

DETERMINANTS OF ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE

%Type 1 Muscle Fibres

Performance Velocity

Performance Power

Resistance to Movement

Performance VO2

Lactate Threshold Power or Velocity

Lactate Threshold VO2

VO2 max

Economy of Movement

Gross Mechanical Efficiency

Muscle Capillary Density

Stroke Volume Aerobic Enzyme Activity

Distribution of Power and Technique

Functional Abilities

Performance Abilities

Morphological Components

TRAINING TECHNIQUES FOR ENDURANCE CYCLISTS

Prolonged distance

Aerobic intervals/Transition trainingPower/speed training

Resistance training

Base trainingGen. preparation

Several weeks before competition

Several weeks before competition

Off-season

Workout Training phase Duration Intensity(%HRmax)

Frequency(sessions/wk)

Primary benefits

1-6 hours

8-10 reps (x5 min with 1 min recovery)

8-10 reps (x1 min with 5-10 min recovery)

1 hour

60-75

85-90

Maximal

-

3-4

1-2

1-2

1-2

Impr. VO2max, endurance, ox.enz, efficiencyImpr. VO2max, maintain high power output, lactate tolerance

Enhanced max speed/power, incr. glycolyic enz. activityIncr. strength and endurance

1-2

1-2l

Jeukendrup (2002) High-performance cycling Pub. Human Kinetics, Leeds

ENERGY SYSTEMS USED FOR THE REGENERATION OF ATP

A brief resumé

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE THE CURRENCY OF ENERGY TRANSFER

ADENOSINE - O - P - O - P - O - P - OHO O O

OH OH OHHigh Energy

Bonds

TRIPHOSPHATE

ATP

ADP

Energy requiringprocesses (e.g.

muscle contraction) lead

to hydrolysis of ATP

to ADP

Oxidation ofFuel (food)

leads torephosphorylati

on of ADP to ATP

E E

ENERGY RESUPPLY SYSTEMS -1

1. ATP is broken down enzymatically to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) to yield energy for muscle contraction.

2. Phosphocreatine (PCr) is broken down enzymatically to creatine and phosphate, which are transferred to ADP to re-form ATP.

3. Glucose 6-phosphate; derived from muscle glycogen or blood- borne glucose through anaerobic glycolysis, is converted to lactate and produces ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation reactions.

4. The products of carbohydrate, lipid, protein and alcohol metabolism can enter the tricarboxylic acid (TCA or Krebs) cycle in the mitochondria and be oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. This process is known as oxidative phosphorylation and yields energy for the synthesis of ATP.

There are four different mechanisms involved in the generation of energy for muscle contraction:

1

3

4

2

ENERGY RESUPPLY SYSTEMS - 2

1. ATPQ. How long does the initial supply of ATP last?

2. CREATINE PHOSPHATEQ. What provides the first line of resupply?

Q. How long does this supply last?

3. ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSISR. What is the next source of resupply?

Q. How long does this supply last?

A.

4. AEROBIC METABOLISMQ. What is the final source of resupply?

Q How long does this supply last?

ANAE

ROBIC

AERO

BIC

Approximately 1 second

‘Alactic ‘Anaerobic Metabolism – Phospho Creatine

ADP + PCr ATP + C

Between 5 and 8 seconds

‘Lactic’ Anaerobic Metabolism - Anaerobic GlycolysisBreakdown of Glucose in the absence of oxygen

As long as carbohydrate is available – but the rateof ATP generation slows down as the end products(Lactic acid/ Hydrogen Ions) accumulate

Aerobic MetabolismBreakdown of fuel (CHO, fat or protein) in thePresence of oxygen

As long as the fuel supply – but the rate of supply of oxygen is the limiting factor to ATPregeneration and therefore speed in events lasting between 2mins and 1.5hrs. At the end long events (>1.5hrs) stores of glycogen and the capacity to metabolise fat determine theability to maintain speed

‘ALACTIC’ ANAEROBIC METABOLISM - THE PHOSPHOCREATINE SHUTTLE

1. During short-term exercise (1-8 s), energy released on hydrolysis of PCr is used to re-phosphorylate ADP to form ATP (MM-CK)

2. Free Cr-- diffuses to the mitochondrion where it is rephosphorylated (Mi-CK) by aerobically generated ATP

3. The PCr then shuttles back to the muscle fibre, ready again to provide phosphate-bond energy for the re-phosphorylation of ADP

ATP and PCr are non-aerobic sources of phosphate bond energy.

1

2

3

MM-CK – Muscle (M isoform) of Creatine KinaseMi-CK – Mitochondrial Creatine Kinase

THE MAJOR BIOCHEMICAL PATHWAYS FOR ATP PRODUCTION

Anaerobic and Aerobic

Metabolism

ENERGY SUPPLY DURING ‘ALL OUT’ EXERCISE

LABORATORY ASSESSMENT OF PERFORMANCE AND TRAINING PROGRAMMES SHOULD SPECIFICALLY ADDRESS

- Energy Systems- Muscle Groups- Movement Patterns

….utilised during competition.

LABOARTORY AND FIELD TESTS: EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS TESTS/SPORTS

Performance Component Laboratory/Rowing Field/Soccer

Aerobic Power Incremental test with GE analysis on rowing ergometer

Progressive shuttle-run test (bleep test)/Bangsbo Yo-Yo Tests

Anaerobic Power Specific rowing ergometer power test

Standing jump/sprint

Anaerobic threshold

Incremental test with lactate analysis on rowing ergometer

Conconi Test

Anaerobic Capacity

Maximum accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD)

High intensity shuttle run test (HIST)

Strength Isokinetic dynamometry 1 Repetition Maximum

Economy Submaximal VO2 Experienced coaching ‘eye’

TESTING AND ASSESSMENT GUIDELINES

Respect the athlete’s rights- informed consent- data protection- safetyUndertake appropriate tests- relevance- specificity- practicality- validityEnsure good quality control- precision- reliability- sound test interpretation

DEREMINING ANAEROBIC POWER AND CAPACITY

DETERMINING ANAEROBIC POWER AND CAPACITY

Jump TestsMargaria Step

Wingate

AOD

MEASURING MAXIMAL MUSCLE POWER: SARGEANT (VERTICAL) JUMP TEST

Simple Vertical Jump test- based on measure of height gained- improves with countermovement- tendency to improve with practice

Muscle Power is calculated according to the following equation:

Power (kg m s-1) = 4.91/2 x body mass x Jump height1/2.

NewTest:

MEASURING MAXIMAL MUSCLE POWER: MARGARIA STAIR CLIMB TEST

Simple stair run test- timed by 2 pressure

mats >1.05 vertical metres apart

- steps climbed 2 or 3 at a time

- test time < 1 sec

Power is calculated by the following equation:

mass (kg) x vertical displacement (m) x 9.8time (s)

Power (W) =

MEASURING INTERMEDIATE-TERM MUSCLE POWER: WINGATE TEST

30 s maximal cycle ergometer testProvides data on:- peak power output (highest power output in any 5 s period)- mean power output (over 30 s)- fatigue index (difference between peak power output and min power output divided by PPO (or time))

0100200300400500600700800900

0 10 20 30

Time (s)

Pow

er (W

)

Length of test can be modified to make it more event specific

ESTIMATING ANAEROBIC CAPACITY: (MAXIMUM) ACCUMULATED OXYGEN DEFICIT

1. Perform multiple submaximal tests to determine the linear regression equation relating VO2 (mL min-1) and Power (W)

2. Regression line is extrapolated to ‘supramaximal’ workloads to enable theoretical VO2 estimate of supramaximal work

3. Undertake intense exercise bout lasting 2-5 min, measuring VO2 throughout

– may be all out for defined period or constant intensity

4. The AOD is the difference between the measured VO2 and the VO2 equivalent of the work done, based on the VO2 power regression

DETERMINING AEROBIC POWER AND ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE

DETERMINING AEROBIC POWER AND ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE

MLSSTLAC

TVENT

Economy

VO2max

MEASURING AEROBIC POWER: LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS

LaboratoryMaximalDirect measure of VO2max using pulmonary gas exchange:motorised treadmill, cycle or other sport-specific ergometrySubmaximalÅstrand 6-min cycle ergometer testFieldMaximalProgressive Multi-stage Shuttle-run TestYo-Yo Tests (Recovery and Endurance)Cooper 12 minute runSubmaximalBench stepping (e.g. Chester Step Test)Rockport 1 mile walk

MEASURING AEROBIC POWER IN THE LABORATORY: COMMON PROTOCOLS

1.Supramaximal test: usually over race time – e.g. 6 minutes for rowers

2.Ramp test: continuous and seamless increase in speed/power

3.Incremental test: step increases in speed/ power; may be continuous or discontinuous

Ramp & incremental are undertaken to volitional exhaustion.

Measures:• Expired air is normally collected either

continuously or for 1 minute at relevant points throughout the test for determination of gas exchange variables (VE, VO2 , VCO2 ).

• Heart rate and RPE are usually recorded• Blood may also be removed for (lactate

or other metabolites) analysis

1. Supramaximal

2. Ramp

3. Incremental(continuous ordiscontinuous)

Time

Work rate

Workrate @ VO2max

MEASURING AEROBIC POWER INTHE LABORATAORY

Criteria for identifying VO2max in an incremental test:

- VO2 should level off at the highest exercise intensity (<2.0mL.kg-1.min-1 or 3% increase) despite an increase in the work rate. Otherwise VO2peak.- RER >1.15- Heart rate within 10 beats of predicted maximum- Post-exercise (4-5 min) total blood lactate > 8.0 mMol.L-1

- Subjective fatigue and volitional exhaustion- RPE of 19-20 on Borg Scale

Requirements for valid assessment. The exercise must:• utilise at least 50% of total muscle mass• be continuous and rhythmical• be undertaken for a prolonged period (>4min)• be performed under standard conditions avoiding excessive heat, humidity,

pollution or altitudeResults must be independent of motivation or skill

LABORATORY TESTS TO PREDICT ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE

Maximal Lactate Steady State (MLSS):- accurate determination of the maximum exercise intensity at which LA levels remain stable- invasive and requires multiple laboratory visitsLactate Threshold (TLAC):- provides an estimate of MLSS using an incremental exercise test- rapid, but invasive and not always representative of MLSS- affected by glycogen depletionVentilatory Threshold (TVENT):- provides a non-invasive estimate of MLSS- rapid and non-invasive, but results not always easy to interpretExercise economy:- oxygen cost at a given submaximal power output

MAXIMAL LACTATE STEADY STATE

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Time (min)

Blo

od la

ctat

e (m

Mol

.L-1

)

200 W220 W

240 W

260 W

280 W

300 W

MLSS workrate

LACTATE THRESHOLD (TLAC)Whole blood

lactate (mM)

10

8

6

4

2

0

Increasing Work rate / Speed

Lactate Threshold-1

(TLAC

)

Lactate Threshold-2

(TLAC

)

FIXED BLOOD LACTATE CONCENTRATION

Fixed blood or ‘reference’ lactate concentrations is a simple way of identifying lactate thresholds. The measurement of LT1 and LT2 is simply performed by determining the power output at the set blood lactate concentrations

Using reference blood lactate concentrations helps to minimize the biological variation in terms of where the inflection points are perceived to be in the blood lactate curve

REFERENCE BLOOD LACTATE CONCENTRATIONS

TRAINING ZONES BASED ON THE BLOOD LACTATE CURVE

HR and RPE can be use to control / monitor training

VENTILATORY THRESHOLD (TVENT)

5

4

3

2

1

0

250

200

150

100

50

0

VentilatoryThreshold-1

(TVENT)

VE

(L.min-1)

VO2

(L.min-1)

Increasing Work rate / Speed

VentilatoryThreshold-2

(TVENT)

Tvent-2 = respiratory compensation pointTvent-1 = metabolic threshold

COINCIDENCE OF TLAC WITH TVENT

Whole blood lactate (mM)

10

8

6

4

2

0Work rate / Speed

Lactate Threshold(TLAC)

5

4

3

2

1

0Work rate / Speed

VO2 (l.min-1)

250

200

150

100

50

0

VE (l.min-1)

VentilatoryThreshold

(TVENT)

Glycogen depleted

Normal Glycogen levels

CALCULATING AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC THRESHOLDS FROM RESPIRATORY DATA


Ventilatory equivalent method

Initially both the VE/VO2 and VE/VCO2 decrease. Later an intensity is reached where VE/VO2 increases at a much faster rate


V-slope method

Tvent is the point at which VCO2 increases at a faster rate than VO2

PROTOCOL FOR MEASURING RUNNING ECONOMY

1) Conduct a VO2max test on a treadmill2) From the data develop a regression equation relating VO2 (mL kg-1 min-1) to running speed (m s-1; km h-1) 3) Measure the oxygen cost at 60, 70, 80 and 90% VO2max4) Plot O2 uptake (y axis) against running speed (x axis)

CALCULATING ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD FROM HEART RATE DATA?

Deflection from linearity at high intensities has been associated withblood lactate accumulation (Conconi et al, 1982) and anaerobic threshold.

Can be performed in the field and related to the disciplines’ velocity.However, measure is not always evident and there are questions over its reliability.

INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS – HOW CAN THEY BE UTILIZED? 1

Incremental treadmill testHR and lactate responseHow can it help the athlete?

Can aid:Training prescription

E = Easy runningS = Steady runningT = Tempo runningI = Interval training

Has the training period had the desired effect?

How does the data fit within the norms?


NormsNBA Guards

60-65 ml kg-1min-1 (V02 max) NBA Forwards and Centres

55-60 ml kg-1min-1 National League Average

52 ml kg-1min-1

(Range 33-65 ml kg-1min-1)

Most team sports use field testingUsing sport specific movement patterns


17.7m

12.7m

In

A B5m

Normative Data

England Senior Men/Women 55.4 / 50.8 mL.kg-1min-1 VO2 max

Single sprint <2.6/<2.9 s

Run Three <9.5/<11.0 s

505 Cricket Agility Test <1.9/2.2 s

Rolling Start

MONITORING TRAINING LOADThere is a distinct difference between training volume, intensity and load.

Training volume does not incorporate training intensity over the session, and therefore does not provide a valid measure of training load (e.g. distance, time, total weight lifted, time at crease (cricket), points / games (racket sports).

Conversely while training intensity helps to describe how hard a session was, it does not provide any guide as to how long the session was (e.g. velocity, heart rate, %VO2 reserve, lifts per min, recovery time between sprints).

Therefore the product of the two variables is equivalent to the ‘load’ of the training session.

TRAINING IMPULSE (TRIMPS) LOADING

A simple method to calculate training load is the average heart rate across the session multiplied by its duration (training impulse or TRIMPS)

The purpose of TRIMPS is to provide a quantitative measure of ‘load’ using the HR response observed during the session

TRIMPS is only suited to endurance exercise with limited HR variation

TRIMPS does provide a simple and objective measure of training load from a session

TRIMPS load: Duration (min) x HRaverage (b min-1)

MONITORING TRAINING LOAD

http://www.ismarttrain.com/articles/TRIMPS.php

OVERVIEW OF ATHLETE ASSESSMENT

Factors that contribute to performance in a sport need to be identified prior to designing a testing protocolThose attributes most necessary of a top class competitor are the ones to assess in order to identify strengths and weaknessesThe energy systems, muscle groups and movement patterns used in competition are the ones to assess in physiological testsTests should adhere to well established guidelines which respect the rights of the athlete and ensure validity, accuracy and reliability of the resultsTest results should be fed back to athletes and coaches in an understandable way which provides the basis for future training programmes and a source of motivationReally important to be aware of normative data for the tests you use and to have “population specific” normsTesting should be undertaken regularly as part of an ongoing and adaptable programme of monitoring.