1. MSc degree (Climate Change,Agriculture & Food Security)Lecture Topic: Gender, Agricultureand Climate ChangeDr. Jennifer Twyman, CCAFS-CIAT,Cali, Colombiawww.nuigalway.ie/ccafs

2. Learning Objectives1. Give an example of how gender affectsvulnerability to climate change (in terms of roles,resources, or power in decision-making).2. Understand the desired gender outcome and theapproach CCAFS takes to achieve it.3. Define and explain womens empowerment.4. Explain the difference between practical andstrategic gender needs.5. Explain the difference between a headship analysisand intra-household gender analysis.6. Explain the intra-household bargaining powertheory.7. Give examples of CCAFS gender research. 3. 1. Link betweenGENDER AND CLIMATE CHANGEPhoto by: Manon Koningstein 4. Why Study Gender, Agriculture &Climate Change? Gender shapes mens and womensexperiences of climate change (or climatevariability) and their vulnerability to it as wellas their adaptive capacities CARE 2010 gives examples related to thefollowing domains: Roles (gender division of labor) Access to and/or control over resources Decision-making power 5. RolesWomen Men Link to CC VulnerabilityStay home toCan migrate tocare foraccesschildren andeconomicsick or elderlyopportunitiesfamilymembersMen who can migrate may make it easierto deal with a crisis and could result inhousehold benefits. However, it may alsoincrease womens workload. It can alsoincrease womens exposure to other risks.Producesubsistencecrops (for hhconsumption)Producemarket-orientedcropsand livestockMen can often claim more fertile land forgrowing the market-oriented crops, leavingwomen to grow crops and less fertile(more vulnerable) landResponsiblefor foodstorage andpreparationResponsible forselling produceand livestockClimate change/variability impacts foodpreparation (amount of water andfuelwood) and can impact food stores inextreme events.Adapted from CARE, 2010 6. ResourcesWomen Men Link to CC VulnerabilityHave lowerHave higherincomes andincomes andare more likelyare more likelyto beto own landeconomicallyand otherdependentassetsMen typically have more money and otherassets than women. Mens savings providea buffer during tough times, along withother assets, make it easier for them toinvest in alternative livelihoods.Have lessaccess toeducation andinformationHave moreaccess toeducation andinformationInformation is key to managing climaterisks; men are more likely to have access tosuch information and know how to use theinformation and as such may be betterequipped to adapt.Adapted from CARE, 2010 7. Decision-Making PowerWomen Men Link to CC VulnerabilityHave less powerHave more powerover familyover familyfinances andfinances andother assetsother assetsWithout the power to decide about familyresources and finances, womens ability tomanage risks by, for example, diversifying crops,storing food or seeds or saving money, islimited.Have limitedengagement incommunitypoliticsHave greaterinvolvement /decision-makingpower incommunitypoliticsMen are likely to have more influence over localgovernance promoting policies and programsthat may not support womens rights and/orpriorities.Face manyculturalrestrictions onmobilityFace few culturalrestrictions onmobilityMobility is a key factor in accessing informationand services. It is also critical for escapingdanger posed by extreme weather such asfloods. Therefore, women are often at higherrisks from these events.Adapted from CARE, 2010 8. 2. CCAFS ApproachEMPOWERING WOMENPhoto by: Manon Koningstein 9. Gender IDO (The Desired GenderOutcome) CGIAR Intermediate Development Outcome (IDO)on Gender: (Also known as the womens empowerment IDO) Increased control over resources and participation indecision-making by women and other marginalizedgroups. CCAFS specifies: Women and other marginalized groups have increasedaccess to and control over productive assets, inputs,information, food, and markets; and strengthenedparticipation in decision-making processes.Photo by Manon Koningstein 10. Two prong approach Gender specific research CCAFS gender survey Specific gender activities in some projects (FS4project example) Integrating Gender in CCAFS projects(See CCAFS gender strategy: Ashby et al. 2012)Photo by Manon Koningstein 11. Key Research Questions: CCAFSGender T1-Adaptation: How might men and women be (differentially)affected by long-run climate change? What are their adaptation options andstrategies? How might their capacities be different? Which climate-smart agricultural practices andinterventions are most likely to benefit womenin particular, where, how and why? What interventions, actions, strategies andapproaches will help stimulate them?(Ashby et al 2012 and CCAFS 2014)Photo by L.Ortega 12. Key Research Questions: CCAFSGender T2-Risk Management: What are the characteristics and causes ofgender differentials in vulnerability toweather-related risk? What is the potential for climate-relatedinformation to help men and women manageclimate-related risk?(Ashby et al 2012 and CCAFS 2014)Photo by L.Ortega 13. Key Research Questions: CCAFSGender T3-Pro-poor mitigation: What are the institutional arrangements thatprovide incentives for reducing carbonfootprints? How are the arrangements genderdifferentiated (i.e. how are benefits shared)? What could be done to make theseinstitutional arrangements more gender-equitable?(Ashby et al 2012 and CCAFS 2014)Photo by L.Ortega 14. Key Research Questions: CCAFSGender T4-Integration for Decision-Making: What are the trade-offs and complementaritiesbetween different adaptation and mitigationoptions for dealing with climate change (atdifferent spatial and temporal scales)? Are these gender differentiated? How do gender relations and control overresources affect decisions about which portfolioto adopt?Photo by L. (Ashby et al 2012 and CCAFS 2014)Ortega 15. 3. Defining & OperationalizingWOMENS EMPOWERMENTPhoto by: Gian Betancourt 16. Womens EmpowermentAchievement(Outcomes)Agency(process)Access toResources(Precondition)the processes bywhich those who havebeen denied the abilityto make choices acquiresuch an ability. (p. 437)Kabeer (1999) 17. Womens Empowerment:Another Definition Relations: powerrelations through whichshe negotiates her path Agency: changes in herown aspirations andcapabilities Structure: Environmentthat surrounds andconditions her choicesCARE 2010. 18. Womens Empowerment in AgricultureIndex (WEAI) Used by USAID in Feed the Future Countries 5 domains used for measurement: Production (womens participation in decision-makingabout agricultural production) Resources (Ownership, access and decision-makingover productive resources) Income (control over use of income) Leadership (membership & influence in groups) Time (time allocation among productive,domestic, and leisure activities)Alkire et al. 2013 19. Operationalizing WomensEmpowerment Women have control over keyassets/resources (such as land, livestock,income/benefits, etc.) Women participate in decision-makingprocesses within Households, and Community groups. 20. 4. Gender Needs:PRACTICAL AND STRATEGICGENDER NEEDSPhoto by: Neil Palmer 21. Practical and Strategic Gender Needs Practical and Strategic Gender Needs Molyneux, 1985 and Moser 1993 Practical gender needs are associated withwomens socially accepted roles (i.e. related towater provision, healthcare, employment, etc.) Strategic gender needs are those related toinequalities and power dynamics (i.e. domesticviolence, legal rights, equal pay, etc.) 22. Practical and Strategic Gender Needsin CCAFS context By addressing practical gender needs we canensure that women are effectively included inprojects and that at a minimum CCAFS projectsdo not increase gender inequalities. A focus on strategic gender needs could beconsidered a gender transformative approach Seeks to transform gender roles Promotes more equitable relationships between menand women http://aas.cgiar.org/penang-dialogues/building-coalitions-creating-change/gender-transformative-approach This is how we will achieve the Gender IDO! 23. 5. Unit of analysis andHEADSHIP VS. INTRA-HOUSEHOLDGENDER ANALYSESPhoto by: Manon Koningstein 24. Unit of Analysis and Implications forGender Research Householdgender analysis reduced todifferences by sex of household head (ignoreswomen in male headed households) Individuallacks information about keyrelationships Intra-householdusually focuses onrelationship between husbands and wives 25. Unit of Analysis: Other Issues Who are the farmers? Women are not often identified as farmers. Bias against women in household surveys Headship, landholders, principal agriculturalists Culturally this is usually the male head of household But, they play a large role in agricultural production Labor Decision-making Access to and control over productive assets and otherresources(Deere, Alvarado, and Twyman 2012) 26. 6. Some key concepts related toINTRA-HOUSEHOLD BARGAININGPOWERPhoto by: Neil Palmer 27. Bargaining Power within theHousehold Bargaining Power: Related to fall-back position The persons well-being outside the household if thehousehold dissolved (i.e. by divorce, separation,widowhood, etc.) Components of the fall-back position: Womens ownership of assets Income-generating possibilities(Sen 1990; Agarwal 1994) 28. AssetOwnershipPrincipal HypothesisBargainingpowerMore agency(More involved inHH decision-making)Strong fall-back position 29. 7. Some Examples of Gender, Agriculture and Climate Change Research7A. An Example from EcuadorGENDER ASSET GAP PROJECTWOMENS ROLE IN AGRICULTUREPhoto by: Manon Koningstein 30. Agency = Participation in decision-making What decisions? For empowerment, strategic decisions: whether tomarry, to have children, to be employed, whatemployment, how to spend own income and in whatassets to invest (Kabeer 1999) Does the form of decision-making matter? She alone decides (autonomy) Joint decisions with spouse Does it matter if the husband agrees with howshe perceives decisions to be made? 31. Ownership of Agricultural LandForm ofownership% of parcelsIndividual Man 29.0Individual28.1womanJoint by Couple 34.4Other Joint 8.6Total 100 12.4% of householdsreported owning land. 513 parcel are ownedand worked directly byfamily members. 32. Key Questions1. Do partnered women (married or inconsensual union) land owners participate inmaking decisions over their parcels?2. Do husbands and wives perceptions ofwomens participation differ?3. What factors explain womens participation inagricultural decision-making according tohusbands and wives? 33. Data: Survey Questions about AgriculturalDecisions (in the last 12 months) Who in the householddecided what to plant? Who decided whatinputs to use? If part of the harvestwas sold, who decidedhow much to sell? Who decided how tospend the income fromthe sale of agriculturalproducts?Subsample of couples, where the woman is an owner (individual or joint owner). 34. Women land owners participation indecisions, according to the women80706050403020100What to plant(n=228)What inputsto use(n=164)How much tosell (n=115)How to spendincome(n=115)Woman aloneJointlyDoes not participaten=number of parcels owned by women 35. Analysis We are interested in comparing mens andwomens perceptions about womensparticipation in decisions: Sub-sample where both reported about decision-making(182 parcels). We use an index, 0 to 1, based on the proportionof decisions in which the woman participates outof the total number decisions taken on theparcel. Two indices to measure perceptions of men andwomen separately. 36. Distribution of the index ofperceptions of womens participation7060504030201000 0.25 0.33 0.5 0.67 0.75 1WomenMen 37. Models Dependent Variable =index (%) Tobit Regresions withrandom effects andinstrumental variables Separate regressions forwomen and men Variables of interest: Form of land ownership(individual or joint) Womans share ofcouples wealth Participation in fieldwork Off-farm work 38. Explanatory and Control VariablesDescriptive Statistics Womens Reporting (n=182)Explanatory VariablesWoman doesfieldwork*71%Woman works off-farm*30%Joint property 95%Womans share of48%couples wealth*Control VariablesCouple is indigenous 20%Number of adults(besides principalcouple)1,2Annual Crop 84%Rural 86%Coast 15%*Instrumental Variables 39. RESULTS: Factors associated with womensparticipation in decision-making (Womensperception) More participation: Individual land ownership (compared to jointownership) Womans participation in fieldwork Younger women Less participation: Womans off-farm work 40. RESULTS: Factors associated with womensparticipation in decision-making (Mensperception) More participation: Womans participation in fieldwork *** Womans share of couples wealth Woman works off-farm ### Annual crops (compared to perennials and other croptypes) Couple is indigenous Husband is much older than wife Less participation: Woman has more years of schooling***Both agree### Disagree 41. Key Results Men and women perceive different factorsassociated with womens participation inagricultural decision-making. Bargaining power variables (womans share ofwealth, off-farm work) influence his perceptionbut not hers. In womans perception: the womans share ofwealth is not significant. She could be using herbargaining power in other arenas of householddecision-making. 42. Summary Agricultural Decisions1. Most women land owners participate in agriculturaldecisions; in Ecuador, most women are managing theirparcels either individually or jointly.2. Womens participation depends on their marital statusand the form of ownership: Nearly all women household heads who are land owners make all thedecisions about their parcels. Married women (and those in consensual unions) who are individual landowners are more likely to make the majority of decisions alone ascompared to women that jointly own their land with their spouse. Married women (and those in consensual unions) who are joint landowners are more likely to make joint decisions or not to participate inagricultural decision-making at all. 43. General Conclusions Men and women have different perceptions about womensparticipation in agricultural decision-making. Husbands and wives do not always agree. Methodological implication: Who you ask in a household survey isimportant! Evidence from Ecuador indicates that womens assetownership impacts her bargaining power in the home and onthe farm. A womans asset ownership is associated with her greaterparticipation in decisions and with egalitarian genderrelations. 44. Policy Implications Promoting womens asset ownership, especiallyamong the asset poor, could lead to moreegalitarian gender relations in the household. If women land owners are actively participating inagricultural decisions, they must be recognized asfarmers to achieve agricultural policy objectives,such as food security and adaptation to climatechange. 45. 7B. An Example of On-Going CCAFS Gender-Specific ResearchCCAFS GENDER SURVEYPhoto by: Manon Koningstein 46. 46Gender Specific Research:CCAFS Gender SurveyPlot-level intra-household gender and CSA survey:Examining gender differences in: assets, information, decision-making agricultural practices enhancing climate resilience perceptions and values shaping adaptation choicesCCAFS gender survey and training materials:http://thedata.harvard.edu/dvn/dv/CCAFSbaseline 47. 47Some Initial FindingsIn 2 regions of Kenya, we found:There is still a very lowawareness, and often significantlylower awareness of women thanof men, of many water-conservingand soil enhancing agriculturalpractices that will help buildclimate resilience (along withother livelihood benefits)Reboot 48. 48Some findings, contdHowever, once aware, women are just as likely, or more likelyto adopt CSA practices as menSuch as: water harvesting, agroforestry, crop residue mulching,composting, manure management, drought/heat/flood tolerant varieties,minimum tillage and cover cropping (conservation ag practices)But, institutional (e.g. property rights) and market-relatedconstraints are still restrictive in many placesV. AtakosSee also: IFPRIs gender in ag resources:gaap.ifpri.infoifpri.org/book-9075/ourwork/program/weai-resource-center 49. 49Some findings, contdWomen are receiving significantly lessinformation on agricultural practicesand climate/weather across Africa andS. AsiaBringing together MeteorologicalServices, Extension, Researchers &NGOs/practitioners around improvedclimate services can enhance adaptivecapacity and resilience of vulnerablepeopleA. Tallccafs.cgiar.org 50. 7C. Some IdeasFUTURE CCAFS GENDER RESEARCHPhoto by: Neil Palmer 51. Other Gender-Specific Research Ideas What are the best (gender transformative)approaches for including gender in CCAFSprojects in terms of empowering women? Hypothesis-the following types of approaches wouldempower women: Approaches that consider both practical and strategic genderneeds; Participatory approaches; Including men (and thinking about masculinities); or Others? Need to design research to test thesehypotheses. 52. 7D. Some More Examples:INTEGRATING GENDER IN CCAFSPROJECTSPhoto by: Neil Palmer 53. Gender Integrated in CCAFS projects Analyzing gender relations during initial stages of theproject Gender Division of Labor (womens role in agriculture andthe farm household) Access to and/or control over resources Participation in decision-making at various levels Why? Understand potential vulnerabilities to climate change aswell as differentiated adaptive capacities of both men andwomen. Understand how to target both men and women toeffectively meet project objectives. Ensure that CCAFS projects arent increasing genderinequalities 54. Example 1: Playing Out TransformativeAdaptation in East AfricaPhoto by A. Eitzinger 55. Why gender? Understanding how gender differences impactadoption of CSA practices. Resources Roles/Activities Decision-making powerPhoto by A. Eitzinger 56. Methodology:QualitativeWorkshops Transect WalksPhotos by A. Eitzinger 57. Methodology:QuantitativeSurvey DataCCAFS Baseline Follow-up Survey 58. Gender DataQualitative Data Resources From interviews & informaldiscussions Roles/Activities Workshops Decision-Making WorkshopsQuantitative Survey Data Resources Who owns various assets? Roles/Activities Who does each activityrelated to various crops? Decision-Making Who decides how to useincome from each crop? 59. Division of TasksWorkshop Results(Tanzania site)According to Women According to Men 60. Gendered Division of Labor6050403020100LandpreparationSeedselectionWho does which activities in beans production?Planting ManualweedingApplyfertilizersApplycompostApplypesticidesIrrigation Harvest Post-harvestPrimarily malePrimarily femalePrimarily jointAll hh membersHired labor 61. Gendered Division of Assets &Wealth120100806040200Who is owner of asset?(If someone in householdowns)Primarily malePrimarily femalePrimarily joint 62. Summary Men and women reported some differences interms of the gender division of labor. Its important who you askyou will getvarying results depending on if you ask men orwomen. Many tasks done jointly but Men tend to do land preparation.Women tend to do seed selection and fertilizerapplication. Promoting CSA practices need to consider thisdivision of labor. 63. Next Steps for this project Comparing the gender roles, resources, anddecision-making data with householdadaptation strategies. Does gender matter for adoption of CSA practices(or other adaptation strategies)? 64. Example 2: Increasing food security and farming systemresilience in East Africa through wide-scale adoption ofclimate-smart agricultural practices Goal: Improve food security and farming system resilienceof smallholder mixed crop-livestock farmers in East Africawhile mitigating climate change. Objectives: Assess Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices in terms ofadaptation, mitigation, and food production potential. Monitor and model land health, agronomic suitability, andmulti-dimensional trade-off analysis to identify locallyappropriate CSA practices; Implement and appraise the most promising CSA practices atthe local level to identify perceived benefits and barriers toadoption as well as if/how these vary by socially differentiatedgroups: men/women, age, race, ethnicity, class, etc.; and Upscale and out-scale CSA activities in East Africa throughstrategic policy and development partnerships, including a CSAAR4D pathway that collaborates directly with IFAD. 65. Specific Gender Activities Rural Appraisal of CSA Workshops with both men and women Understanding roles, resources, and decision-making M&Epotential use of cell phones Mens and womens access and ownership ofmobile phones CCAFS Gender Survey 66. Example 3: Local Level AdaptationStrategies in Cauca, Colombia Series of Participatory Workshops atcommunity level Objective: Identify adaptation strategies fo Parcels/farms Communities Includes an initial analysis of GDoL Evaluate selected CSA practices based onlabor/time demands of household members 67. 8. SummaryCONCLUSIONS & KEY MESSAGESPhoto by: Manon Koningstein 68. Key Messages Vulnerability to climate change is related to gendernorms. Especially to Roles Resources Decision-making power CGIAR and CCAFS desired gender outcome: Empowerment of women Two-prong approach: gender-specific researchand integrate gender in CCAFS projects. 69. Key Messages (contd) Womens empowerment includes: resources,agency, and achievements (Kabeer, 1999). Both Practical and Strategic Gender needs must beconsidered. Intra-household bargaining power theory: Fallback position is important, and depends on Asset ownership; and Income earning potential. This determines bargaining power withhouseholds. 70. Key Messages (contd) Clearly identifying the unit of analysis for genderresearch is important. Headship analysis focuses on differences between male andfemale headed households. does not consider gender relations withinhouseholds ignores women within male headedhouseholds. Intra-household analysis focuses onrelationships (usually between husbands andwives) 71. Recommended Readingon Lecture Topic Bernier Q, Franks P, Kristjanson P, Neufeldt H, Otzelberger A, Foster K. 2013. AddressingGender in Climate-Smart Smallholder Agriculture. ICRAF Policy Brief 14. Nairobi, Kenya.World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). CARE, 2010. Adaptation, gender and womens empowerment. CARE International ClimateChange Brief, UK: CARE.http://www.careclimatechange.org/files/adaptation/CARE_Gender_Brief_Oct2010.pdf CCAFS. 2014. Gender and climate change: Enabling people to reach their full potential inadapting agriculture to climate change. Research in Action. Copenhagen, Denmark: CGIARResearch Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Deere, Carmen Diana, Gina Alvarado, y Jennifer Twyman. 2012. Gender Inequality in AssetOwnership in Latin America: Female Owners vs. Household Heads. Development andChange 43 (2): 505-530. FAO, 2012. FAO-CCAFS Training Guide: Gender and Climate Change Research in Agricultureand Food Security for Rural Development. FAO: Rome. Available athttp://www.fao.org/docrep/015/md280e/md280e.pdf. French Gates, M. 2014. Putting women and girls at the center of development. Science 345:1273 - 1275. Kabeer, Naila. 1999. Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement ofWomens Empowerment. Development and Change 30: 435-464. 72. More Reading Arora-Jonsson, S. 2011. Virtue and vulnerability: Discourses on women, gender and climate change. Global Environmental Change,doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.01.005 Aboud, G. 2011. Gender and Climate Change: Supporting Resources Collection. BRIDGE. IDS. Agarwal, Bina. 1994. A Field of Ones Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Alkire, S., R. Meinzen-Dick, A. Peterman, A. R. Quisumbing, G. Seymour, and A. Vaz. 2012. The Womens Empowerment in AgricultureIndex. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1240. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. Downloadable at:http://www.ifpri.org/publication/women-s-empowerment-agriculture-index. Ashby, J, Kristjanson P, Thorton P, Campbell B, Vermeulen S, Wollenberg E. 2012. CCAFS Gender Strategy. CGIAR Research Program onClimate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Copenhagen, Denmark. Available online at www.ccafs.cgiar.org. Brody, A., Demetriades, J. and Esplen, E. (2008). BRIDGE Occasional Paper: Gender and Climate Change: Mapping the LinkagesAScoping Study on Knowledge Gaps, Brighton: BRIDGE/IDS. CARE, 2014. 2015 and beyond: Action for a just, gender-equitable and sustainable future. CARE Breifing paper, September 2014. Chaudhury M, Kristjanson P, Kyagazze F, Naab J B, Neelormi S. 2012. Participatory gender-sensitive approaches for addressing keyclimate change-related research issues: evidence from Bangladesh, Ghana, and Uganda. Working Paper 19. Copenhagen: CGIARResearch Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). Deere, C.D. & J. Twyman (2012) Asset Ownership and Egalitarian Decision-making in Dual-headed Households in Ecuador. Review ofRadical Political Economics 44(3): 313-20. Deere, C.D, L. Boakye-Yiadom, C. Doss, A.D. Oduro, H. Swaminathan, J. Twyman & Suchitra J. Y. (2013). Womens Land Ownership andParticipation in Agricultural Decision-making: Evidence from Ecuador, Ghana and Karnataka, India. The Gender Asset Gap ProjectResearch Brief Series No. 2. Lambrou, Y. and Nelson, S. 2010. Farmers in a changing climate: Does gender matter? Food Security in Andhra Pradesh, India, Rome:FAO. Moser, Caroline. 1993. Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice and Training. London and New York: Routledge. Molyneux, M. (1985) Mobilization without emancipation? womens interests, state and revolution in Nicaragua, Feminist Studies,11(2). Otzelberger, A. (2008). Gender-responsive strategies on climate change: recent progress and ways forward for donors, Brighton:BRIDGE/IDS. Patt, A., et al. 2009. Gender and climate change vulnerability: whats the problem, whats the solution? In Matthais, R. and Ibarraran,M. (eds) Distributional Impacts of Climate Change and Disasters. Chettenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishers. 2009: 82-102. Sen, Amartya. 1990. Gender and Cooperative Conflict, in Irene Tinker, ed. Persistent Inequalities, pp. 123-149. New York: OxfordUniversity Press. Skinner, E. and Brody, A. 2011. Gender and Climate Change. Gender and Development InBrief, BRIDGE Bulletin, Issue 22, November2011. Available at http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk. Twyman, J., C.D.Deere & P. Useche (2014). Gendered Perceptions of Land Ownership and Agricultural Decision-making in Ecuador:Who is the Farm Manager? Working Paper, University of Florida. 73. Websites, tools & other learning resourceson Lecture Topic http://ccafs.cgiar.org/gender http://dapa.ciat.cgiar.org/category/gender/ http://dapa.ciat.cgiar.org/ccafs-ea-fieldwork/ http://www.genderassetgap.org Genderciat Twitter account http://aas.cgiar.org/penang-dialogues/building-coalitions-creating-change/gender-transformative-approach gaap.ifpri.info ifpri.org/book-9075/ourwork/program/weai-resource-center