ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT STUDIES OF THE

POLLUTED WATER AT PATANCHERU INDUSTRIAL

AREA, HYDERABAD, A.P.

N. SAI BHASKAR REDDY M.Sc. (App. Geol.), M.Sc. (Geog.)

THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE KAKATIYA UNIVERSITY

FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

Doctor of Philosophy IN GEOLOGY

1999

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the research work of this thesis entitled “Environmental

Impact Assessment Studies of the Polluted Water at Patancheru Industrial Area,

Hyderabad, A.P.”, has been originally carried out by me in the Department of

Geology, Kakatiya University, Warangal, Andhra Pradesh, India, and it has not

been submitted either in full or in part for the award of any degree or diploma

to any other Institution / University.

N . SAI BHASKAR RED DY

Department of Geology

Kakatiya University,

Warangal - 506 009 (A.P.)

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To my Parents

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CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT 1- 8

CHAPTER – I INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL 9

1.2 LOCATION AND EXTENT OF THE AREA 12

1.3 INDUSTRIAL SCENARIO IN MEDAK DISTRICT 12

1.4 BACKGROUND 22

1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM 23

1.6 METHODOLOGY 26

C H A P T E R - II PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION 32

2.2 GEOLOGY 32

2.3 TOPOGRAPHY 36

2.4 SOILS 36

2.5 CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY 45

2.5.1 TEMPERATURE 46

2.5.2 EVAPORATION 47

2.5.3 RAINFALL 48

2.5.4 WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION 48

2.6 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY 56

C H A P T E R - I I I BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION 59

3.2 FLORA 59

3.3 FAUNA 66

3.4 FLORA AND FAUNA OF SURFACE WATER 67

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CHAPTER-IV SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT

4.1 INTRODUCTION 71

4.2 POPULATION 71

4.3 EDUCATION 74

4.4 HEALTH 77

4.5 LAND-USE 79

4.6 AGRICULTURE 82

4.7 EMPLOYMENT 87

4.8 POPULATION STRUCTURE OF MOST POLLUTED VILLAGES 89

4.9 CULTURAL PROPERTIES 92

CHAPTER-V WATER ENVIRONMENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION 95

5.2 NAKKAVAGU BASIN 97

5.2.1 DRAINAGE SYSTEM 99

5.2.2 TANKS 100

5.3 INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION IN NAKKAVAGU BASIN 103

5.3.1 COMMON EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANTS 109

5.3.1.1 CETP-PATANCHERU 109

5.3.1.2 CETP-BOLLARAM 111

5.4 SURFACE WATER 114

5.4.1 FLOWING WATERS 120

5.4.1.1 SURFACE WATERS ANALYTICAL RESULTS 122

5.4.1.1.1 SUMMER DATA OF STREAMS (S - DATA) 122

5.4.1.1.2 RAINY SEASON DATA OF STREAMS (R - DATA) 128

5.4.1.1.3 WINTER DATA OF STREAMS (W - DATA) 136

5.4.1.2 QUALITY OF STREAMS 136

5.4.2 TANKS 138

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5.4.2.1 TANKS ANALYTICAL RESULTS 138

5.5 GROUNDWATER

5.5.1 GROUNDWATER IN GRANITES 141

5.5.2 GROUNDWATER ANALYTICAL RESULTS 149

5.5.2.1 SUMMER DATA (S - DATA) 149

5.5.2.2 G1 AND G2-DATA 154

CHAPTER-VI DISCUSSIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION 172

6.2 ECOSPHERE 172

6.3 HYDROSPHERE 174

6.4 ROLE OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ENVIRONMENT 174

6.5 WATER CONTAMINATION 175

6.6 INDUSTRIES AND POLLUTION 176

6.7 INDUSTRIES AND MICRO-CLIMATE 179

6.7.1 SMOG 179

6.7.2 ACID RAINS 180

6.7.3 HEAT ISLAND 180

6.8 TOXICITY 181

6.8.1 TOXICS FOUND IN NAKKAVAGU BASIN 183

6.9 PEOPLE 194

6.10 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES 195

6.11 LANDSCAPE 196

6.12 CONCEPTS OF EIA AND SEA 199

CHAPTER-VII ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

7.1 INTRODUCTION 206

7.2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 206

7.2.1 GEOLOGY 206

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7.2.2 TOPOGRAPHY 207

7.2.3 SOILS 207

7.2.4 CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY 210

7.3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT 211

7.3.1 FLORA 211

7.3.2 FAUNA 211

7.3.3 FLORA AND FAUNA OF SURFACE WATERS 214

7.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT 214

7.4.1 POPULATION 214

7.4.2 EDUCATION 215

7.4.3 HEALTH 215

7.4.4 LAND-USE 216

7.4.5 AGRICULTURE 216

7.4.6 EMPLOYMENT 216

7.4.7 CULTURAL PROPERTIES 217

7.5 WATER ENVIRONMENT ' 217

7.5.1 NAKKAVAGU BASIN 217

7.5.2 INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION IN NAKKAVAGU BASIN 218

7.5.3 SURFACE WATER 220

7.5.4 GROUNDWATER 223

7.6 ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON NAKKAVAGU BASIN

WITH AND WITHOUT INDUSTRIES 223

CHAPTER- VIII CONCLUSIONS AND MITIGATIONS

8.1 CONCLUSIONS 230

8.2 MITIGATIONS 232

REFERENCES 235

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish the deep sense of gratitude to Dr. K. Narender Reddy. Chairman. Board of

Studies. Department of Geology. Kakatiya University (K.U.), Warangal, for his

continued encouragement, guidance, and freedom during the progress of work.

It was a great pleasure to work under such a warm and ever helpful Guide.

I express thanks to Prof. V. Madhavan, Head, Department of Geology, K.U., Prof.

Padmanabha Rao, Dean, Faculty of Science, K.U. and Dr. K. Niranjan Kumar and

Dr. K. David, Asst. Professors, Dept. of Geology, K.U., for their co-operation

during the study.

I am very much thankful to Prof. K. Purushotham Reddy. Head, Department of

Political Science, O.U., for motivating me to work on environmental problems

and also for all the help rendered by him during the research work. I am

grateful to Late Shri V.R Reddy, Director, DDS. Hyderabad for getting me

involved in National Environmental Awareness Campaign (NEAC), and on other

various environmental issues, the participation helped me in understanding the

intricacies of the environment.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. S.D. Bhadrinath. Senior Deputy

Director (Retd.), NEERI, for his valuable suggestions and comments during the

final stages of the thesis. I express my thanks to Dr. U.V. Bhaskar Reddy, Dept.

of Geochemistry. O.U., for providing me with a statistical package (SYSTAT) and

for all the help during the work. Thanks to Dr. P. Venkat Reddy, Professor of

Zoology and Dr. V.S. Raju, Associate Professor of Botany, of K.U. for their helpful

discussion and comments on Biological Environment. Thanks are also to Dr.

Biksham G. Manager. Fresh Water. WWF (Geneva); Prof. Y. Anjaneyulu. JNTU,

Hyderabad; Dr. Nagi Reddy, Archaeology and Museums. Hyderabad; and Dr.

Kishan Rao of Patancheru, received their help at various stages of my thesis

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work. With Shri. K. Ashok Reddy, Advocate. I had the pleasure of sharing and

learning the legal aspects of environmental issues for which I am grateful to

him.

1 am thankful to Dr. D.D. Basu. Senior Scientist. Dr. R.C. Trivedi. Senior Scientist

and Mr. N.S. Babu. Asst. Env. Engineer of CPCB, New Delhi, during the Impact

assessment and performance evaluation of Bollaram and Patancheru industrial

area (Jan 18-24. 1998). As part of the study team, in their company I could learn

and share several things on the environment. Thanks are also to Mr. Surendra

Raj, Senior Engineer. Mr. N. B. Ramesh, Scientist, Mr. Ramesh Chandra, Mr.

Prasad, Mr. Veeranna and other staff members of APPCB, with them, collected

the samples (August '97) and for all the information provided by them.

I am grateful to my friends Dr. Satish C. Jayanthi, Scientist, NRSA, Mr. G. Santosh

Reddy, Yegna Envirochem Labs, Mr. D. Narasimha Reddy, Center for Resource

Education and Mr. Navneeth Reddy for their valuable suggestions and criticism

during the final stages of writing the thesis.

I wish to say special thanks to my friends M. Prashanth (for his help throughout

the research work), and to D.V.M. Prabhakara Rao, Poorna, Sudhir, Kalyan,

Srisailam, Yugesh, Giridhar and Uma for all their help at various stages of my

research work.

I acknowledge the blessings of Prof. K. V. Subba Rao, Dept. of Earth Sciences,

IIT, Bombay. I am thankful to Jagga Reddy, Carmen, Vikram, and A.M. for their

best wishes and encouragement.

I express my love and thanks to those thousands of indigenous population who

are victims of environmental pollution, residing in Nakkavagu basin, as their

cause was my problem for the thesis. I also express my indebtedness to many

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of them unknown to me personally, who first spoke on reckless and

irresponsible poisoning of this fragile planet a home for millions of species

including man.

Without these friends, my work would have been difficult, thanks to Sashidhar

Reddy for getting me a good Computer, K. Venkateshwar Rao and Balram for

their excellent Xeroxing. Thanks to the staff of Kakatiya University, Venu, Rajitha,

Upender, Sarangapani, Ameer and Saraiah for all the help during the research

period.

Good and latest books are important especially when the subject is new, The

British Library. Hyderabad had been a great source for most of the literature on

Environmental Sciences, for which I am grateful to the management and staff of

The British Library.

I acknowledge C.S.LR, New Delhi, for all the financial assistance under JRF

(1995-97) and SRF (1997-99) and a contingency fund for research in Earth

Sciences.

Finally, I express my thanks to my parents who gave all the freedom in my life

and also for their support, encouragement and their belief in me. 1 am grateful

to my other family members Sisters, Brothers-in-law and Nieces (Dolly and

Bunny) for all the encouragement during my research work.

(N. Sai Bhaskar Reddy)

Date:18-02-1999

Abstract

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ABSTRACT

Industrial activities including infrastructure and other associated developmental

activities, which are concentrated in certain zones especially to the south-

eastern quadrant of Nakkavagu basin. Consequently, physical, chemical and

biological nature of surface environment was altered. In this work it has been

tried to assess the impacts of such developmental activities on physical,

biological, socio-economic and cultural, and water environments in Nakkavagu

basin. Mainly based on the principles of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

and broadly on Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA).

The Patancheru township and the main industrial area lies around 78 0 15’ East

longitude and 17 0 32’ North latitude in Medak District of Andhra Pradesh.

Patancheru industrial area in this context implies Patancheru, Bollaram,

Pashamylaram, Khazipalli, Gaddapotharam, Bonthapalli and Chitkul industrial

clusters, which are located in Nakkavagu basin. Nakkavagu basin extending

over 734 sq. kms, lies between the longitudes 78 deg. 05 min. and 78 deg. 25

min. East and the latitudes 17 deg. 25 min. and 17 deg. 45 min. North.

Nakkavagu (a stream) and its tributaries drain Nakkavagu basin. Nakkavagu

basin is the sub-basin of Manjira River basin, which in turn is the sub-basin of

Godavari River basin. Industrialisation in Patancheru area has devastated the

environment of Nakkavagu basin, which has about 300 industries. The present

work is an integrated and multidisciplinary approach towards assessing the

impact of water pollution and to some extent other kinds of pollution on

Nakkavagu basin.

Environmental impact may be defined as any changes of environmental

conditions or creation of a new set of environmental conditions, adverse or

beneficial, caused or induced by the action or set of actions under

Abstract

2

considerations. Environmental impacts can be of three types primary, secondary

and tertiary. Primary impacts are the result of direct actions and, secondary and

tertiary impacts are indirectly induced and typically include the associated

investment and changed patterns of social and economic activities by the

proposed action.

In the physical environment geology, topography, soils, climate and

meteorology, and air of a region influences the mobility, dispersion and

concentration of pollutants.

Granitic terrain of Nakkavagu basin being acidic in nature does not buffer the

acidic waters directly released by industries. Joints and fractures in the Granites

act as conduits for wider dispersion. Deep well disposal practice in Nakkavagu

basin is not recommendable. As Nakkavagu basin is located over hard rock area

(Peninsular granites and gneisses), effluents do not have any chance to

penetrate deep into the ground, and get restricted to shallow zones. With the

result, groundwater of the area gets polluted. It is possible that some of the

pollutants identified in water and soil samples are contributed by the geology

of the area.

Effluents flow all the way across the basin, which increases the residence time

for the toxicants; therefore, residence time of pollutants is more in the basin.

Slope of the basin is in the NW direction, while most of the industries are

located in the south-east quarter of the basin. The establishment of industries

and other ancillary structures have also resulted in change in the topography of

Nakkavagu basin.

The black cotton soils are polluted as they adsorb large amounts of hazardous

elements. Salt incrustations in the soils adjacent to Nakkavagu are common

Abstract

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which effect the growth of flora. The mining of sand along Nakkavagu also

results in easy movement of pollutants further into new areas along Nakkavagu.

The high temperature conditions and evaporation rates resulted in increase of

concentration of the pollutants in the effluents. The problem of formation of

salt incrustations increases in areas with high temperature and less rainfall. And

also the residence time of pollutants would have been less in case of areas with

high rainfall, as the pollutants would be flushed out with the rainwater.

The gases such as methyl mercaptan released from industries in Nakkavagu

basin was detected recently in the heart of the city. This indicates that other

harmful gases also do reach the City, which would add up to the existing air

pollution problems. The use of several tonnes of volatile organic compounds

(VOCs) such as like Benzene, Toluene etc. are also hazardous to the people.

Pollution in the region had drastically reduced the incidence of natural species

and are restricted to few pockets. The species such as prosopis juliflora is seen

in more numbers in all the highly polluted parts of the basin. Pollution also

affected the agricultural sector in parts of Nakkavagu basin.

There is no appreciable wild fauna in the region, as the percentage of forest

cover is very less. Many domestic animals were effected by diseases and many

died this led to direct economic losses to the farmers. Appearance of birds,

resident and migratory, is decreasing drastically. Aerial fauna got effected the

most due to pollution of water bodies such as streams and tanks. Manjira wild

life sanctuary an ecologically sensitive area is well within 25 to 30 kms of the

industrial area.

The socio-economic and cultural environment of Nakkavagu basin would get

effected the most covered in Patancheru, R.C.Puram, Jinnaram and Sangareddy

Mandals. Patancheru is less developed in comparison to R.C.Puram because of

Abstract

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water pollution and obnoxious smell. Female ratio per 1000 males is less for

Patancheru and other three Mandals as bachelors immigrated from elsewhere,

for working in the industries at the cost of local population.

The villages considered as highly affected are located close to the industrial

areas and the polluted streams, are Ismailkhanpet, Arutla, Chidruppa, Bythole,

Eardanoor, Indrakaran, Lakdaram, Chinnakanjerla, Peddakanjerla, Sultanpur,

Krishnareddipet, Indresham, Inole, Bachuguda, Chitkul, Isnapur, Kardanoor,

Muttangi, Pocharam, Khazipalli and Bollaram. The percentage of rural

population is around 80 in most of these villages, which means not many

people are taken in jobs in spite of industrialisation. Only around 20% of the

population is literate that reduces the job opportunities. Around 20% of the

population being below 6 years of age are sensitive to pollution. As literacy and

the educated local population is small in comparison to the large number of

educated people in a city like Hyderabad which is located in the suburbs, local

people are getting less employment opportunities.

Many of the polluted villages in Nakkavagu basin have no safe drinking water

and in some villages inadequate water supply is available. The domestic animals

such as cattle and sheep, upon drinking the polluted waters either got effected

or died. Moreover, the crops grown in such a polluted environment could be

phyto-toxic. Therefore, the polluted water, air and food would have an adverse

impact on the lives of people and other life in Nakkavagu basin. The present

Public Health Centers and Veterinary services provided by Government are

inadequate.

Increase in the fallow lands and less percentage of net sown area in Patancheru,

Sangareddy, Jinnaram and R.C.Puram Mandals can be related to the

developmental activities and the pollution of environment by industries. Many

Abstract

5

farmers have shifted to dryland farming where the surface and groundwater

sources are polluted. Some of the farmers are leaving their fields fallow even up

to 20% as in case of Pocharam and Bachuguda villages.

In the south-east and southern part of the basin the irrigated crops are yielding

low and or the whole crop dyeing due to pollution of tanks and wells. The

pollution of water and soil has an adverse impact on the majority of local

population still dependent on agriculture especially would affect the majority of

marginal farmers.

Industrialisation did not help the local people in getting alternative

employment opportunities because of the more competitive people in

Hyderabad. Therefore, there is a large-scale migration of `skilled’ people into

this region. As the residential areas are located towards Hyderabad away from

the industrial area because of polluted environment in Patancheru area and

other disadvantages of services. As a result, the indirect employment

opportunities are less therefore the multiplier economic benefits are also less.

The relicts of cultural and other heritage sites existing in and around

Patancheru area were neglected due to industrialisation. Innumerable ancient

sculptures, engravings etc., found in the region have been abandoned and are

never taken care of nor reported to the Archaeology department.

The drainage system of Nakkavagu was altered through many centuries by the

interference of human activities, like the construction of tanks and channels etc.,

and also with the recent developmental activities especially in the south-eastern

quadrant of the basin. The drainage system is altered and obstructed, therefore

these kinds of activities will act against the free flow of pollutants, and hence

the residence time of pollutants in the basin increases.

Abstract

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The presence of tanks such as Isnapur tank, Peddacheruvu, Saka cheruvu,

Krishnareddipet tank etc., in the south and south-eastern part of the basin

which receives highly polluted water are acting as solar evaporation ponds

thereby increasing the residence time of the pollutants in the basin.

Majority of the industries located in Nakkavagu basin are the bulk-drug or

pharmaceutical industries. Some of the chemical compounds which are used as

raw material in the production of drugs are Acetone, Acetyl chloride, Ammonia,

Aniline, Benzene, Bromine, Chlorine, Chlorosulphonic acid, Dimethylcaromyl,

Dioxane, Ethylene dichloride, Formaldehyde, Hexane, Hydrochloric acid, Maleic

anhydride, Methylene chloride, Nitrobenzene, Nitrogen dioxide, Nitrogen

oxides, Phenol, Phenyl glycidal ether, Sodium cyanide, Sulphuric acid, Thionyl

chloride, Toluene, Triethylamine etc. The use of tonnes of such chemicals in the

production is hazardous. In a case study of 10 such industries on an average

about 4.3 times of hazardous raw material is utilised for every unit of the

product produced. These industries are using organic and inorganic hazardous

chemicals release of such chemicals during the process are hazardous to the life

in Nakkavagu basin.

The two CETPs, which were established in Patancheru and Bollaram, to treat the

effluents of member industries, are in fact became major contributors for water

pollution in Nakkavagu basin. The effluents released by CETP-Patancheru are

toxic and hazardous, as the effluents are only partially treated. The sludge that

is derived as waste product in the treatment process of both the CETPs has no

place for secure disposal, which is again a potential source for water

contamination. Therefore, CETPs which are industries by themselves are the

major contributors of water pollution in Nakkavagu basin.

Abstract

7

In general, the quality of effluents in Nakkavagu are deteriorating as observed

over a period of time. TDS, TH, TSS, COD, BOD, SO4, Pb, Hg, As and Se are

found to be high in the samples collected from Nakkavagu, Pamulavagu and

CETP. CETP is releasing the effluents with high concentration of all the above

parameters and including Cd, Zn, Cu, B, Mn, Cr and Fe. These waters are not fit

for releasing into the inland surface waters.

TDS, COD, and BOD of the effluents of Nakkavagu are only partially reduced

over a distance of about 22kms. As the chances of dilution in Nakkavagu is less

as the rainfall in this region is about 80cms only. Therefore, Nakkavagu mainly

acts as an influent stream, which contaminates the groundwater on either side

of the stream.

Leachets from solid waste dumps enter into Nakkavagu stream. Salts from salt

incrustations in the soil and or other precipitates would directly or indirectly

reach Nakkavagu. Some of the pollutants may enter Nakkavagu by accident or

illegal release of effluents from `solar evaporation ponds’. Nowhere and at no

time of the year Nakkavagu is fit for irrigation right from Kardanoor village to

the confluence point at Gaudcherla (about 25 kms stretch).

Groundwater is polluted on either side of the Nakkavagu and the waters are not

useful for drinking. TDS, COD, BOD, Cl, and Hg are found to be high in the

groundwater samples collected at Pocharam, Ganapathiguda and Bachuguda

villages. Openwells, which are close to Nakkavagu, are highly contaminated in

comparison to the borewells. The pollutants also entering into the drinking

water sources of the following villages: Baithole, Baithole Tanda, Lakdaram,

Sultanpur, Inole, Chitkul, Arutla, Chidruppa, Ismailkhanpet, Peddakanjerla,

Kardanoor, Eardanoor and Eardanoor Tanda. Some of the pollutants such as F,

Mn could have been partially entered into borewells through deep fractures

and also the pollutants such as NO2 and NO3 could have been the result of use

Abstract

8

of nitrogen fertilisers by farmers. Overall the groundwater is contaminated, up

to a distance of 500 to 1000 meters on either side of Nakkavagu, from

Kardanoor to Ismailkhanpet.

Evaluation of the impacts with and without industries is done finally choosing

36 parameters. Parameter importance weights (PIW) were given were given to

represent the value of importance of each environmental parameter. In the

absence of industries too there ought to be changes in the environment, mainly

because of four factors: The growing population in Nakkavagu basin and

associated developmental activities like housing, road networks and other

services. The modernisation of agriculture (increasing use of chemical pesticides

and fertilisers). Influence of growing Hyderabad City and the expansion of the

city along NH-9 axis. Impact of NH-9, pollution by vehicles, increase in number

of vehicles, etc.

The impact assessment studies of this area indicate that there is considerable

adverse impact on the environment. There is a two-fold increase when

compared to the ratios to ‘No industries’. When viewed for ‘No industries’ it

would have retained 80% of the environment unaffected. Whereas with

industries, it is observed that the loss to the environment is to the extent of

60%. The differences show that there is a limited advantage for human interest.

Finally, the results produced using this modified methodology is an exercise to

quantify the environmental degradation. The results should be viewed seriously

otherwise the basin would further becomes unsuitable for any kind of activities.

Introduction

9

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Water is an essential resource for the sustenance of life on earth. It is needed

for many human activities, including agriculture, domestic and industrial use,

transport and recreation. The pollution of water resources from industrial

sources is the point of concern. Earth is an eternal source of life-giving water

and therefore there is a need for protection of the water from pollution and

judicious use of the precious water resource.

The use of aquatic ecosystems as a sink for the effluvia of civilisation is by no

means new. Even in Greek mythology, one of the tasks of Hercules was to

cleanse the Augean stables within a single day. These stables contained a great

wealth of cattle and had never been cleansed. Hercules harnessed the River

Alpheus and ran it through the stables and washed them out quickly. Aristotle

noticed white filamentous threadlike organisms in polluted water 2,400 years

ago. We know these today as the sewage fungus complex. Imperial Rome in

Augustine times had a population over one million people. The high population

densities required some means of dealing with their domestic wastes; therefore

they developed very high degree of household water carriage system (Clapham

Jr. 1981). The classic example from Indian sub-continent is the sewerage system

developed about five thousand years ago, during the Harappa and Mohenjo-

Daro civilisations. These systems are prerequisite for the health and hygiene.

A concern for nature and natural resources and its management is not at all a

new concept for Indians. Admiration of nature and the urge to concern and

protect it has been part of our civilisation. India’s wealth of literature, scriptures

and folklore are replete with examples which show that our ancestors were

environmentally conscious and advocated concepts of sustained usage of

resources through many social customs, myths, taboos, traditions and religion.

Introduction

10

The rock edicts of emperor Asoka (273-232 BC) are probably the first ever

governmental directive towards environmental protection in recorded history.

But in spite of such an impressive beginning, the conservation movement in

India is less than two decades old. (Singh and Subramanian, 1990).

Until the Industrial Revolution population densities were low enough that the

traditional methods of composting, earth closets, and so on, were adequate to

solve most waste disposal problems. But so much waste was being generated in

industrial countries such as England by the eighteenth century that the old

methods simply could not keep up with the production. Garbage and

excrement accumulated in the streets, and industries that had grown up along

rivers to tap readily available power sources were dumping their by-products

into the same rivers. Early in the nineteenth-century sewers were introduced

into industrialised countries and quickly became the norm (Hynes, 1960; Tarr

and McMichael, 1977). The dumping of pollutants into the environment has

increased because of the intense industrial development to cater the demands

of the ever growing population.

The stress imposed upon the environment by civilisation becomes primarily

reflected in the water environment. The total water used per person is

increasing with the development of man. All uses of water result in an increase

of dissolved components, all used water, has to be disposed of somewhere, and

all disposed water reaches the existing water reservoirs, lakes, rivers,

groundwater and the ocean. Hence, and intrinsic part of water use is water

contamination, i.e. addition of components that were not there before (Mazor

E, 1991). Data on the behaviour of heavy metals and other inorganic and

organic pollutants in a water environment and their ultimate distribution is

important.

Introduction

11

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a structured and useful planning tool

to identify and evaluate the potential impacts (beneficial and adverse) of

developmental projects on the environmental system. It is a useful aid for

decision making based on an understanding of the environmental implications

including social, cultural and aesthetic concerns which could be integrated with

analysis of the project costs and benefits (Harjit et al. 1994). The government of

India through a notification on Environment Impact Assessment gazetted in

January 1994. Environment Impact Assessment of certain identified activities

whether the public or private sector has been made a statutory requirement.

Impact assessment originated with a desire for strong change in both

philosophy and the methodology of resource management. It is assumed that a

systematic, focussed, interdisciplinary use of science may improve the quality of

planning and decision-making (Caldwell, 1988). Environmental Impact

Assessment methodology is selected for the research work to assess the

multidimensional impacts of industrial pollutants especially from the effluents

released into Nakkavagu basin.

Water interacts with all other components of the ecosystem, i.e., geology, soils,

weather and climate, flora, and fauna. The pollution of water causes impact not

only on the above but also on the socio-economic and cultural environment.

Industries cause pollution of natural resources, through the indiscriminate

release of effluents. In one such case, effluents released by industries into the

environment in Nakkavagu basin devastated the environment of the basin.

Industrialisation had an adverse impact on the lives of people in Nakkavagu

basin.

Nakkavagu is a tributary of Manjira River, which drains the water of highly

industrialised zone of Patancheru area. The Manjira River finally joins with the

river Godavari.

Introduction

12

1.2 LOCATION AND EXTENT OF THE AREA

Patancheru the town and one of the main industrial areas is located 30 kms to

the north-west of Hyderabad, Capital City of Andhra Pradesh, on National

Highway No. 9 (NH-9). It lies around 78 0 15’ East longitude and 17 0 32’ North

latitude and it is part of Medak District in Andhra Pradesh. Patancheru industrial

area in this context implies Patancheru, Bollaram, Pashamylaram, Khazipalli,

Gaddapotharam, Bonthapalli and Chitkul industrial clusters, which are located in

and around Patancheru town and in Nakkavagu basin. Nakkavagu basin lies

between the longitudes 78 deg. 5 min. and 78 deg 25 min East and the

latitudes 17 deg 25 min and 17 deg 45 min North. The basin extends over 734

sq. kms area (Figure 1.1 (a) and 1.1 (b)). Nakkavagu basin is covered in

Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram, Jinnaram and Sangareddy Mandals of Medak

District and to a lesser extent in Rangareddy District (Figure 1.2), and found in

‘Survey of India’, toposheet numbers – 56K/2, 56K/3, 56K/6 and 56K/7.

Patancheru is easily accessible as it is located on one of the busy National

Highway’s (NH-9) and many bus services are available from Hyderabad and

Secunderabad.

1.3 INDUSTRIAL SCENARIO IN MEDAK DISTRICT

Andhra Pradesh with 173 most polluting industries stood fourth in India after,

Maharashtra (335), Uttar Pradesh (224) and Gujarat (177) (CII, 1996). In India

maximum amount of pollution comes from pharmaceutical and sugar

industries, Andhra Pradesh is the leading state in India in the production of

pharmaceutical products and majority of them are located in Medak District.

Medak District is one of the most industrialised districts in the country and has

the largest number of industries in the State (Figure 1.3 (a) and 1.3 (b)). The

type of industries includes bulk drugs, pesticides, pharmaceutical, plastics,

ceramics, boilers, industrial alloys, industrial chemicals, electronic goods and

Introduction

13

computers. There are 3905 small-scale industries and about 192 medium to

large-scale industries in the District (Chandra, 1997). Within the District,

Patancheru Mandal is having a maximum number of industries.

In Medak District, under the scheme of encouraging industries in backward

districts, Central Government gave 20% concession to units on electricity bills

and allowed changing their sales tax dues into loans. These were made interest

free for 10 years. This facility continued until December 1989. State Government

also introduced subsidies for promoting industries in the District. The Andhra

Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation (APIIC) had set up industrial

estates at Bonthapally, Bollaram and Patancheru.

Patancheru industrial area which includes Patancheru, Bollaram, Pashamylaram,

Khazipalli, Gaddapotharam, Bonthapalli and Chitkul industrial clusters, the

changes in physicochemical and biological properties of water brought about

by the release of effluents by those industries resulted in pollution of the water

environment. There are about 118 industries in Patancheru IDA and 110

industries in Bollaram IDA, which are working presently, in addition to other

satellite industries in Nakkavagu basin. There are two Common Effluent

Treatment Plants (CETPs) located in Nakkavagu basin at Patancheru and

Bollaram. The pollution in Nakkavagu basin is the sum result of the direct or

indirect contribution of all the industries located in Nakkavagu basin.

Among the industrial areas, one of the most important industrial areas in

Medak District is Patancheru Industrial Development Area (IDA). Starting from

Ramachandrapuram village boundary, opposite to International Crop Research

Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru industrial area spreads

over a vast stretch of land in and around Patancheru. Measuring about 56.176

acres, this industrial area is divided into 576 plots and was developed in five

phases. Many of the polluting industries are in the Phases I, II, and IV. Phases III

Introduction

14

and V house only non-polluting small-scale engineering industries. Now there

are about 300 industries in Patancheru and its surrounding Mandals

(Ramachandrapuram (R.C.Puram), Jinnaram and Sangareddy). Patancheru

industrial area development and related issues are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Landmark events of industrial development and related issues in

Patancheru.

1962 – Industrialisation started in Patancheru.

1974 – Creation of Andhra Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation

(APIIC).

1975 – Patancheru industrial estate established.

1976 – Acceleration of the growth of the industries.

1980 – Indira Gandhi wins MP seat from Medak constituency and became

Prime Minister, encouraged the industrial development in this

constituency (Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram, Narsapur,

Gummadidala and Sadashivapet.)

1983-84 – The impact of pollution on the local residents noticed, as reported

largely in press.

1986 – An incident led to agitation against industrial pollution – A 75-

year-old man’s legs got burnt when he accidentally stepped into

the chemicals dumped along the roadside. The subsequent

incidents are: On 10th June and 16th July – people protested

through hunger strikes, on 16th of August- A Public rally was

organised - for seeking immediate redress of the grievance, on

21st August-road blocking or ‘Rasta Roko’ was organised at

Patancheru on NH-9 to highlight the gravity of the problem of

pollution – State cabinet passed a resolution to alleviate the

problem of farmers.

Introduction

15

1987 – 12th September- another road blocking or ‘Rasta Roko’ agitation

took place in which 10,000 farmers participated to protest against

pollution by industries in Patancheru.

1991 – National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)

submitted a report to Supreme Court and recommended about

32.2 crores as compensation to the suffering farmers.

1993 – ‘Scientific evaluation of pollution around Patancheru and Bollaram

industrial areas’, a report published by DDS (an NGO), Hyderabad.

1994 – Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP), started functioning.

1996 – State government declares a ban on new industries in the region.

1998 – ‘Effluent Management in Nakkavagu drainage Basin’, CPCB, report

on pollution.

Introduction

16

Photo1.1: Polluted waters of Nakkavagu at N.H.9, Bridge near Patancheru

Photo1.2: Discussions with Villagers of Ganapathiguda

Introduction

17

Figure 1.1 Location Map of Nakkavagu Basin

Introduction

18

Figure 1.2

Introduction

19

Figure 1.3 Political and Culture map of Nakkavagu basin and its surroundings

Introduction

20

Figure 1.4 Industrial Map of Medak District, A.P.

Introduction

21

Figure 1.5

Introduction

22

1.4 BACKGROUND

Environmental problems in the area forced the Government, Non-

Governmental Institutions, and individuals to carry out studies on various

aspects of pollution for the past more than two decades. Many articles were

published in various newspapers and non-scientific magazines till now. As per

the directions of the judiciary, some reports were produced and submitted from

time to time, based on cases filed for relief from environmental pollution by

farmers and environmental action groups. Some of the most important studies

are discussed below.

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur,

prepared a report titled - ‘Report on Environmental Pollution caused by

Patancheru and Bollaram industrial estates in nearby villages of Medak District,

Andhra Pradesh’, (1991), based on studies and observations of five scientists.

This report concentrated mainly on human health and mortality, and their

economic losses due to crop failures and death of domestic animals (cattle,

sheep, etc.,) due to industrial pollution (NEERI report, 1991).

‘Scientific evaluation of pollution around Patancheru and Bollaram industrial

areas’, Medak District, Andhra Pradesh (Biksham, Shiva Kumar and Mohan

Reddy, Deccan Development Society (DDS) report, 1993). This report covered

all the major and traced elemental concentrations in the water environment of

parts of Nakkavagu basin. Data evaluation is done using statistical techniques;

the mobility of elements in the hydrogeological system is presented in contour

diagrams. It also covered the social aspects.

Honourable Mr. Justice J. Jeevan Reddy, while disposing of writ petitions,

appointed a Committee of Experts comprising, Prof. O.S. Reddy, Retired

Professor, Osmania University, Shri P. Ramayya Naidu, Retired Chief Engineer

Introduction

23

(PH) and former Member Secretary, APPCB, and Prof. N. Sreeramulu of JNTU.

They have visited fifteen industries in Patancheru to verify whether the modified

directions given by the Government of Andhra Pradesh are complied with or

not in respect of each of them (O.S.Reddy Committee report, 1990).

Report of Shri D. Appa Rao, District Judge, Medak at Sangareddy, Andhra

Pradesh, submitted a report to the Supreme Court of India pursuant to the

direction in I.A.2 in WP (Civil) no. 1056 of 1990 (Appa Rao D. report, 1996).

Sri P. Lakshma Reddy, District Judge, Medak District, at Sangareddy, submitted

a report to the Supreme Court of India (Lakshma Reddy report, 1996).

A group of scientists from CPCB prepared a comprehensive report on effluent

management in Nakkavagu drainage basin in four phases and submitted it to

the Supreme Court of India (CPCB report, 1998).

It is reported that some of the industries mainly release arsenic through their

untreated industrial effluents at Common Effluent Treatment Plant. The

discharge from CETP shows very high values of Arsenic, which is directly

released in Peddavagu (Isukavagu), joining the Nakkavagu, and finally, meets

Manjira River. (Govil et al 1998).

1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM

Patancheru industrial area in this context is defined as all those industries

located in Nakkavagu basin covering mainly Patancheru and other Mandals

(R.C.Puram, Jinnaram, and Sangareddy), that are letting their effluents directly

or indirectly into the Nakkavagu basin. Present research work mainly assesses

the impact of polluted waters from industries on Nakkavagu basin area, based

on Environmental Impact Assessment studies of the polluted waters of

Patancheru industrial area (Figure 1.4).

Introduction

24

This research work is predominantly based on the principles of Environmental

Impact Assessment (EIA) and to some extent confirms to the broad principles of

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA).

The present environmental situation is the result of the activity of existing

industries and also of those that were closed. Studies of some of the industries

were considered which use the hazardous raw material in the production, as it

is not possible to evaluate the impact of pollution caused by each industry.

All the existing parameters to assess environmental impact, physical, biological,

socio-economic and cultural and water environments were considered for the

Nakkavagu basin area, which gives an insight into the present carrying capacity

of Nakkavagu basin (i.e. the sustainable development of the region). The

present research work is an integrated approach to assess the impact of water

pollution and to some extent other kinds of pollution on Nakkavagu basin.

Introduction

25

Figure 1.6 Industrial Development in Nakkavagu basin and integrated view of

research

Introduction

26

This kind of assessment might help in taking a decision for further

industrialisation, or closure of some of the most polluting industries, to curtail

the further deterioration of the Nakkavagu basin environment.

1.6 METHODOLOGY

Research work was done between August 1995 and August 1998, covering

various parts of Nakkavagu basin. This study included literature survey,

reconnaissance survey, secondary data collection, informal discussions, and

fieldwork, involving geology, soils, tanks and bio-diversity, and collection of

water samples for analysis, and interpretation.

Physical, chemical and biological nature of the environment was assessed

through primary and secondary sources of information. It includes water

sample collection during Pre-Monsoon or Summer (S-Data), Monsoon or Rainy

(R-Data) and Post-Monsoon or Winter (W-Data) periods for studying various

aspects of chemical pollution in surface and groundwater samples

The sample locations were selected in three phases according to their

importance. These selected locations are useful in the characterisation of the

surface water and groundwater pollution of Nakkavagu basin. Among the

sample locations selected in three phases except for few locations, all other

locations are discrete.

A reconnaissance survey was followed by extensive and intensive fieldwork.

During the fieldwork, water samples were collected from Nakkavagu and its

tributaries and dug wells and borewells. General water quality parameters are

analysed as per the standards of American Public Health Association (APHA),

American Water Works Association (AWWA) and American Pollution Control

Federation (APCF). Trace metals are estimated by ICP-MS (Jopiom Yvon 24

(JY24) model) using 18mega-ohm conductance water as an internal standard.

Introduction

27

The fieldwork includes the study of streams and tanks, and their ecology,

geology, soils, and topography of the basin, including cropping pattern and

bio-diversity of the region.

The primary and secondary water sample analysis data is subjected to

multivariate data analysis was processed using the software ‘SYSTAT for

Windows, 1995’. Basic statistical data such as minimum value, maximum value,

range, median, mean and standard deviation, etc. were also generated using

the same software.

A Pearson correlation of zero indicates that neither of two variables can be

predicted from the other by using a linear equation. A Pearson correlation of

+1 indicates that one variable can be predicted perfectly by a positive linear

function of sample analysis data, between the sample cases gives the

relationship between the sample locations with a similar degree of pollution

and the dendrogram between the elements gives a degree of association of

elements in their occurrence. Factor analysis provides principal component

analysis (maximum likelihood and iterand principal axis). Factor analysis data

includes Eigen values, Component loadings, Variance explained by components

and Percentage of total Variance. The analysis data between factors is

presented in Factor Loadings Plot and between Number of Factors and

Eigenvalue is presented as Scree Plot. Factor analysis helps in identifying the

groups of elements from common sources.

To characterise the pollution of Nakkavagu basin, primary and secondary data

is used. Sample analysis data pertaining to summer, rainy and winter seasons

are utilised. In the month of May, seventeen samples were collected from

Nakkavagu stream, Pamulavagu Isukavagu, dug well, bore wells, and effluents

of Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP). A total of nineteen samples were

Introduction

28

collected in August, 1997, with the team of Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control

Board, from Nakkavagu, Manjira River, Nizamsagar, Godavari River and other

three tanks. Analysis of data from nineteen samples presented subsequently in

the report is used for rainy season period. Analysis of water samples from tanks,

Nakkavagu and Isukavagu streams and Manjira River, and flow studies of

Nakkavagu and quality of water in tanks was done during January 1998. This

study was done with Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) team, New Delhi.

Data generated by the study, which was included in the report ‘Effluent

Management in Nakkavagu Drainage Basin’, (CPCB, 1998), was considered for

the winter period.

For a comprehensive evaluation of pollution in Nakkavagu basin, other primary

data was also considered. Data of Panchayat Raj Internal Water Quality

Monitoring Laboratory, Uppal, Hyderabad, of forty-one groundwater samples

collected in 1991, and of about twenty-six groundwater samples collected by

Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board (APPCB) in the year 1991. Although the

data is seven years old, the analysis data of groundwater samples was

considered because of their extensive coverage of the Nakkavagu basin area

that helps in identifying the movement of pollutants in the ground. All the data

is subjected to environmental data analysis. Secondary information from the

recent works and papers published on Nakkavagu basin area is also considered.

The following types of methods have been used to perform the tasks of impact

identification and summarisation:

Descriptive methods have been used based on the facts and information

collected during discussions with local people and from secondary sources.

Introduction

29

To explain the complex nature of the pollutants and the relations between

various factors simple and three-dimensional figures are used. The data is

processed, simplified and presented in appropriate graphs.

Network diagrams are also used which link secondary and tertiary impacts to

primary impacts; networks are directional diagrams designed to trace in two

dimensions the higher-order linkages between project actions and

environmental factors.

Finally, checklist developed by the Environmental Evaluation System (EES) at the

Batelle Columbus Laboratories, USA (Dee et al, 1973) is used with some

modifications, for final evaluation of impacts with and without industries. In this

assessment, 36 parameters are selected (Figure 1.5). Parameter importance

weights (PIW) represent the value of importance of each environmental

parameter. The weights have been given to the 36 environmental parameters

based on the degree of the impact caused by the establishment of industries

and associated developmental activities over the last 40 years (industrialisation

started in Nakkavagu basin about 40 years back). Similarly, the weights were

given assessing the degree of alteration of environmental parameters that

would have happened over the last 40 years, even without industries in

Nakkavagu basin.

Introduction

30

Figure 1.7 Assigned weights for environmental parameters

Introduction

31

Parameter importance weights (PIW) are given to each of the 36 selected

parameters. The total weight of the parameters is assumed as 1000 points. They

are broadly classified into four categories namely, Ecology, Environmental

Pollution, Aesthetics and Human interest. The weights are initially distributed to

the four basic parameters, according to their importance. Most important -

environmental pollution is given a value of 1 and next Human interest and

Ecology are considered as half-important in comparison to environmental

pollution so they take the value 0.5 each. Aesthetics are considered as only

one-fourth important, that as compared to environmental pollution, therefore

aesthetics takes the value of 0.25. Total weight being 1000 points; accordingly,

they take values as such 444.44, 222.22, 222.22 and 111.11. The values are

rounded to 450, 250, 200 and 100. Human interest is considered more

important than ecology, so human interest is rounded to a higher value (250)

and so the ecology to a lower value (200). These weights are distributed to the

parameters under each sub-class as per personal judgement and upon similar

lines as above, depending upon their importance.

Physical Environment

32

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

2.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter is aimed to study the impact of pollution by the industries in and

around Patancheru upon the physical environment of Nakkavagu basin. The

physical environment plays a major role in the mobilisation, dispersion, dilution

or concentration of the pollutants in the environment. Physical environment

studies help in understanding the present status of pollution and also the

carrying capacities of the study area on pollution. The geology, topography,

drainage basin, water bodies, soils, climate, meteorology and air quality are the

parameters considered in this chapter for describing the physical environment

of Nakkavagu basin.

2.2 GEOLOGY

The geology of the area plays a major role in the mobility and concentration of

pollutants released into the environment. The composition and the type of

rocks (Igneous or Sedimentary or Metamorphic) and the structures in them

such as joints, fractures, fissures, etc. are important in understanding the

behaviour of pollutants.

In the Nakkavagu basin and the surrounding areas, the Archaean Peninsular

granites and gneisses form the basement, which is overlaid by the Deccan

basalt, is the basic geology of the area (Table 2.1).


33

Table 2.1 The Geological Succession

Age Description

1

2

3

Sub-recent to recent

Upper Cretaceous to

Lower Eocene

Archaean

Alluvium, Colluvium, Laterites and Basalts.

Deccan Traps, Laterites, and Basalts.

Peninsular Gneissic Complex, diorite, coarse-

grained granite with dolerite dyke intrusions.

The grey and pink granite outcrops are seen around Patancheru, on the western

and south-western parts, they are overlaid by isolated cappings of basalt and

laterite. Dyke outcrops are not seen along the Nakkavagu stream, although

dolerite dykes and quartz veins are observed in adjacent areas, because of thick

alluvium deposited along the stream. The flood plains of the streams are

occupied by recent and older alluvium, mainly consisting of sand silt and clay in

different proportions and thickness varying from 25 to 30 feet. The lateral

extent of alluvium along Nakkavagu is about 250 to 500 meters. Alluvium is

mainly found along Nakkavagu near these villages; they are Pocharam,

Ganapathigudem, Bachuguda, Arutla, Peddakanjerla and Inole. Black cotton

soils derived from the basalt occupy the lower reaches, mainly to the western

and north-western parts of Patancheru. The percentage of outcrop exposure is

less around Patancheru and at higher contour levels granite outcrops are

exposed in the form of kopjes, tors and sheet rocks.

The outcrops are largely exposed to the north-western parts of Patancheru

which are studied in detail by Sarvotham and Leelanandam (1987), reveals the

nature of Peninsular granite and gneisses and other lithological units. The

Peninsular granites and gneisses studied in this region is classified as

granodiorite, granite, adamellite (quartz-monzonite), monzodiorite and alkali

feldspar granite, which are emplaced as discrete plutons; they form part of a

composite batholith and contain inclusions of tonalite quartz-diorite and


34

amphibolite. Alkali feldspar granite intrudes and truncates all the above litho-

units, and represents the youngest of the granitic emplacements. A swarm of

dolerite and gabbro dykes intruding into the granites and gneisses. At least two

sets of dykes are discernable; one set is pre-alkali feldspar granite and the other

of post- alkali feldspar granite ages. The older set of dykes are metamorphosed

and intruded by alkali feldspar granite veins, while the younger dykes are

unaffected. (Sarvotham and Leelanandam, 1987). Petrographic and

petrochemical studies indicate that the Medak area (along with the adjoining

terrain) is dominated by potassic granites, (Bhaskar Rao et al., 1983; Naqvi et al.,

1983).

The structures have a control on the local topography and hydrogeology of the

area. Fractures and joints in granites are responsible for the formation of

massive boulders and other geomorphic structures such as tors. The width of

the joints varies, at places, they are 1 to 2 meters wide. The joints filled with the

weathered material are important, as they are good aquifers. These granitoids

show a prominent two to three sets of joints in NNW-SSE, N-S, and NE-SW

directions. The lineaments of the region are in NNE-SSW, NE-SW, and NW-SE

directions mainly and very few are in E-W and N-S directions, which are

represented by the flow of streams and the dykes and shear zones. The quartz

reefs have the trend of NNE-SSW, NE-SW, N-S and a few are in the E-W

directions. Dolerite dykes are emplaced in the trend of NW-SE, NE-SW, E-W and

N-S. Gabbro intrusions show the trend of NE-SW and E-W. Pyroxenes have the

trend of - NNE-SSW and NE-SW.


35

Photo2.1: Granite outcrops in Nakkavagu stream-bed near Bachuguda

Photo2.2: Recent sand and gravel deposited along the banks of Nakkavagu

near Bachuguda

Photo2.3: Black cotton soil on the floodplain of Nakkavagu near Chitkul

Showing typical wedge-like cracks


36

2.3 TOPOGRAPHY

The topography of an area also influences the drainage system and the

groundwater movement. The Nakkavagu basin forms a peneplain surface of the

ancient Deccan Peninsula that had undergone several cycles of erosion,

deposition, and upliftment. Sporadic granitic tors, kopjes, and sheets of bedrock

are seen in the region. The lands are rolling plains interspersed with stony

wastes and open scrubs. Isukavagu, Pamulavagu and Nakkavagu mainly drain

the basin. The slope is from east to west up to Nakkavagu and it is south to

north and north-west up to Manjira river. The land has a slope of 0.5

percentage. The relief of the basin is about 140 meters. The lowest contour is

500 meters above mean sea level (msl) lies near Gaudcherla at the confluence

point with Manjira River. The highest contour passing through the Nakkavagu

basin is 640 meters above mean sea level. The highest point 648 meters above

mean sea level lies to the North of Gumadidala village, located to the eastern

part of Nakkavagu basin.

2.4 SOILS

Table 2.2 The soils (Source: EIA report on the proposed Thermal power

plant by National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) at Shankarpalli, M/s

Kirloskar Consultants Limited, Pune, 1996-97)

S.No. Type of series Description

1 Lingampalli

series

Soils are members of fine loamy mixed inohyperthermic

family of Lithic Rhodustalfs.

Typifying Pedon: Lingampally sandy loam-cultivated.

Setting: Occurs on gently undulating gneiss pediments in the

region of domes and tors.

Drainage: well drained with moderately rapid permeability.

Use and Vegetation: Cultivated to sorghum.

Distribution: extensive soil.


37

2 Manmool series Soils are of fine, mixed isoperthermic family of fluventic

Ustropepts.

Typifying pedon: Manmool sand clay-cultivated.

Setting: Occurs on low lands covered with weathered basalt.

Drainage: Poorly drained with poor to very.

Permeability: Poor permeability.

Use and Vegetation: mainly cultivated to rice.

Distribution and extent: Limited in extent.

3 Patancheru

series

Soils are members of clayey-skeletal, mixed, isohyperthermic

family of Udic Rhodustalfs.

Typifying pedon: Patancheru sandy loams culturable fallow.

Setting: Occurs on gently sloping pediment of coarse-grained

granite-gneiss basement complex.

Drainage: Well drained.

Permeability: Moderate.

Use and Vegetation: Mainly cultivated to sorghum and

pulses.

Distribution: Extensive soil.

4. Rudravaram

series

Soils are members of fine-loamy, mixed, inohyperthermic

family of udic ustropepts.

Typifying pedon: Rudravaram sandy clay-cultivated.

Setting: Low-lying level to very gently sloping pediment

covered by Basaltic outwash.

Drainage: Moderately well drained.

Permeability: Moderate.

Use and Vegetation: Mainly cultivated to rice.

Distribution: Extensive soil.


38

5

Lakdaram series

Soils are members of fine loamy mixed, isohyperthermic

family of Udic Haplustafts.

Typifying pedon: Lakdaram sandy clay loam-cultivated.

Setting Occurs on the granite-gneiss complex.


Permeability: moderate permeability.

Use and Vegetation: Mainly cultivated to sorghum and

sunflower - natural vegetation.

Distribution: Limited in extent.

6 Jolkal series Soils are members of very fine, montmorillonite,

isohyperthermic family of typic Chromusterts.

Typifying pedon: Jolkal silty clay-cultivated.

Setting: Occurs on the lower basalt pediment in conjunction

with gently sloping weathered granite gneiss basement

complex.


Permeability: Slow permeability.

7 Isnapuram

series

Soils are members of the fine-loamy, mixed, isohyperthermic

family of udic Rhodustalfs.

Typifying pedon: Isnapuram sand-cultivated.

Setting: Occurs on gently sloping pediment of granite-gneiss

basement complex.

Drainage: Well-drained

Permeability: Moderate

Use & Vegetation: Mainly cultivated to sorghum and pulses.

Distribution: Extensive soil

8 Icri series Soils are members of the fine, montmorillonite,

isohyperthermic family of paralithic Vertic Ustropepts.

Typifying pedon: Icri gravelly clay – grassland.

Setting: Occurs on weathered basalt over granite-gneiss

pediment surface.

Drainage: Moderately well drained

Permeability: Slow permeability.

Use and Vegetation: Grassland



39

9 Kasireddipalli

series

Soils are members of very fine, montmorillonitic,

isohyperthermic family of Typic Pellusterts.

Typifying pedon: Kashireddipalli clay-cultivated fallow.

Setting: Occurs in valleys and troughs.

Drainage: Moderately to imperfectly drained.

Permeability: Slow to very slow permeability.

Use and Vegetation: Cultivated to chickpea, pigeonpea,

sorghum and sunflower, natural vegetation.

Distribution and extent: Extensive soil.

10 Yamakunta

series

Soils are members of fine, montmorillonitic, isohyperthermic

family of Vertic Halaquepta.

Typifying pedon: Yamakunta clay fallow.

Setting: Occurs in filled valley.

Drainage: Imperfectly drained.

Permeability: Very slow permeability.

Use and Vegetation: Lying fallow due to frequent inundation,

strong salinity, and alkalinity.


11 Singapur series Soils are members of fine, montmorillionitic, isohyperthermic

family of paralithic Vertic Ustropepts.

Typifying pedon: Singapur clay-cultivated.

Setting: Occurs on nearly level basalt plateau and basalt

pediment.


Permeability: Moderate permeability.

Use and vegetation: Mainly cultivated to pulses, sorghum and

sunflower.



40

12 Shankarpalli

series

Soils are members of fine-loamy, mixed, isohyperthermic

family of Udic Ustrothents.

Typifying pedon: Shankarpalli clay-cultivated.

Setting: Occurs on very gently sloping plateau and basalt

pediment.


Permeability: Moderately slow permeability.

Use and Vegetation: mainly cultivated to pulses.


13 Pamulavagu

series

Soils are members of mixed, isohyperthermic family of typic

ustipsamments.

Typifying Pedon: Pamulavagu sand-fallow

Setting: Floodplain

Drainage: Extensively well drained

Permeability: Rapid

Use and Vegetation: Fallow land with local grasses.

Distribution: Narrow patches along stream.

14 Nakkavagu

series

Soils are members of coarse-loamy, mined, isohyperthermic

family of typic Ucstifluvents.

Typifying pedon: Nakkavagu gravelly sand-fallow

Setting: Floodplain

Drainage: Well-drained

Permeability: Moderately and Moderately Permeability

Use & Vegetation: Fallow land with local grasses.

Distribution & extent: Narrow patches along stream.

Source: ICRISAT, Medak District.

To sum up, Nakkavagu basin has rich, diverse and fertile soils (Figure 2.2 and

Table 2.2). The black soils comprising of clay loam’s, clays and silty clays are

found in the low-lying areas and along river-banks. Alluvial black cotton soils

are found along most stream flood plains, while secondary black cotton soils

are present in the upland areas in basaltic terrain. The upland areas mainly

comprise of red soils, loamy sands, and sandy clay loams. The soils in

Sangareddy, Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram mandals of Medak mainly


41

comprises of clayey loams, clays, and silty clay. They are moderate to well

drained and are suitable for cultivation by irrigation.

Black cotton soils are locally known as ‘Regadi matti’. These types of soils

develop deep wedge-shaped open cracks, helps in tapping the atmospheric

nitrogen too. They have the moisture retaining capacity and are best suitable

for dry land farming. Black cotton soils are inherently more fertile then red soils.

Black soils are slightly saline to alkaline, whereas red soils are neutral. Black

cotton soils are suitable for crops like cotton, rice, sugarcane, and other Kharif

and Rabi crops. Red soils are suitable for horticultural crops. Alluvium is mainly

suitable for paddy.


42

Figure 2.1 Soils and Geology of Nakkavagu Basin and its Surroundings


43

Salts dissolved and deposited in the valleys will increase soluble salt content in

the soils in low-lying areas. Soils are slightly calcareous in areas immediately

adjacent to Nakkavagu and more calcareous in the upper reaches of the soil

profile, forming salt incrustations. Saline soils lead to relatively poor

germination and leads to physiological drought, thereby effecting the growth

of the plants. The industrial effluents caused phytotoxicity to the crops and also

total crop failures. The analysis data of the soils along Nakkavagu are presented

in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Soil analysis of the fields along Nakkavagu area.

S.No. Village Survey

No.

pH EC Organic

Carbon

Available

P205

Available K20

micromhos /

cm

Kgs / hect. Kgs / hect.

1 Bachuguda 265 8.24 0.13 low 6 314

2 Bachuguda 113 8.34 0.14 low 3 258

3 Inole 318 7.8 0.11 low 1 272

4 Pedda Kanjerla 403 7.75 5.2 high 4 >336

5 Pedda Kanjerla 403 8 6.5 high 4 >336



8 Inole 109 7.7 2.14 high 1 >336

9 Ganapathiguda 109 7.7 7.34 medium 14 >336

10 Ganapathiguda 109 7.6 4.78 high 13 >336

11 Chitkul 8.35 0.16 medium 5 >336

12 Baithole 202 8.2 2.25 low 6 >336

13 Chidruppa 449 8.5 0.41 medium 1 >336

14 Arutla 278 8.1 0.3 medium 5 >336

Source: Agriculture department, Sangareddy (1989).


44

Photo 2.4: Salt incrustation as seen in soil profile near Bachuguda

Photo 2.5: Patch of salt incrustation in soil along the banks of Nakkavagu near

Bachuguda


45

Ranges of soil reaction to pH

S.No. Rating Light soils Heavy soils

1 Acidic Up to 6.00 Up to 6.00

2 Normal above 6 to 7.6 6 to 7.6

3 Weakly alkaline 7.7 to 8 7.7 to 8.5

4 Tending to become Alkaline above 8 to 8.5 8.5 to 9

5 Alkali more than 8.5 more than 9

Ranges of soil reaction to Electrical Conductivity (in micromhos / cm)

S.No Rating Sandy Loamy Clayey

1 Normal up to 1 up to 1.5 up to 2.00

2 Critical for germination above 1 to 2 above 1.5 to 8 above 2 to 4

3 Critical for growth

of salt sensitive crops

above 2

to 3

above 3

to 4.5

above 4

to 6

4 Injurious to most crops above 3 above 4.5 above 6

2.5 CLIMATE AND METEOROLOGY

The meteorological data is important in interpreting the air quality and

dispersion pattern of pollution. Analysis of recorded historical meteorological

data is important in predicting the likely climatic scenario of the region. The

climate of the region is broadly divided into four seasons.

Pre-monsoon season: March to Mid of June

Monsoon season: Mid of June to end of September

Post-monsoon season: October to Mid December

Winter season: Mid of December to end of February

The data is obtained from the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), a

meteorological station located at Begumpet 25 kilometers to the east of

Patancheru. It is equipped to observe Pressure, Temperature, relative humidity,

rainfall, evaporation, wind speed and direction, duration of cloud cover, etc. It is


46

in operation since 1891. The synthesized data is about the period between 1985

and 1994. Rainfall data, for the study area, was collected from local recording

stations at Patancheru, Jinnaram and Ramachandrapuram Mandals, rainfall and

temperature data of Sangareddy Mandal was also collected.

2.5.1 Temperature

Temperature conditions of the region has an influence on the movement of air,

precipitation, formation of fog, evaporation rate, atmospheric pressure, etc.,

therefore temperature influences directly or indirectly the dispersion,

concentration or dilution of pollutants released into the environment.

The data presented was recorded at Indian Meteorological Department (IMD)

at Hyderabad, this is the nearest meteorological recording station. January is

the coldest season with the mean daily minimum temperature at 10.3 0 C.

Between March and May is the hottest season with increasing day and night

temperatures till the onset of Monsoon. The highest pre-monsoon (May) mean

maximum temperature is observed at 43.9 0 C and mean minimum temperature

observed is 20.3 0 C. Onset of monsoon results in sudden drop in mean

maximum temperature, for June it is 39.9 0 C. During post-monsoon season

there is slight increase in mean maximum temperature and it is 36.3 0 C in

October. The climate appears enervating during the daytime, with relative

moisture being high. An appreciable drop in minimum temperatures are

observed in nights during the post-monsoon season between 10.9 0 C and 14.5

0 C compared to temperatures during monsoon season 19.6 0 C and 20.3 0 C.

Average monthly maximum and minimum temperature recordings at

Sangareddy (1991-94) are presented in Figure 2.3.


47

Figure 2.2 Maximum and Minimum Temperature at Sangareddy (1991-1994)

2.5.2 Evaporation

The concentration of the pollutants in the effluents increases with increase in

evaporation rate. The concentrated effluents are more toxic then diluted

effluents. In the tropical areas, one of the extensively used methods of

treatment of effluents is by letting of effluents into solar - evaporation ponds,

where the water gets evaporated under intense tropical sunlight, leaving

behind sludge which is dried and disposed of in the secure landfill sites. Such a

treatment process is effective where evaporation rates are high. The

evaporation rate also depends on the solar radiation, cloud cover, the wind, etc.

Evaporation rate increases from February through June. A steep fall in

evaporation rate is observed during the first half of south-west monsoon

season. Maximum evaporation rate is observed in May at 16.2 mm with the

minimum occurring in November at 7.6 mm. Evaporation rate does not change

much in all other seasons.

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES AT

SANGAREDDY (1991- 1994)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

MONTHS FROM JANUARY TO DECEMBER

TE

MP

ER

AT

UR

E I

N C

EN

TIG

RA

DE

MAXIMUM

MINIMUM


48

The total solar radiation levels direct and diffuse are between 15.2 MJm-2 day-1

and 24.3 MJm-2 day-1. Minimum radiation levels are recorded in the month of

July and Maximum levels recorded in the month of May.

During winter season clear bright weather prevails with clear to lightly clouded

skies. During the onset of south-west monsoon, sky appears moderately to

heavily clouded.

2.5.3 Rainfall

Dilution is a major factor in lessening the adverse impacts of pollution.

Precipitation is one of the natural diluting factors of the polluted waters. The

problems of salt incrustations in the soils would not exist in areas with heavy

rainfall. The residence time of the pollutants in a basin would be less with heavy

rainfall.

The average annual rainfall for the 10years period is 802.8 mm as recorded at

IMD, Hyderabad. About 85 % of the rainfall is received during south-west

monsoon season. Maximum rainy days occur in the month of July.

The seasonal and annual rainfall for Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram, Jinnaram

and Sangareddy Mandals and also Medak District average rainfall is presented

in Figure 2.4. District average rainfall from 1981-82 to 1993-94 and actual and

normal rainfall season wise for the year 1993-94 is presented in Figure 2.5 (a) &

(b).

2.5.4 Wind Speed and Direction

Wind speed and direction are very much important in the case of air pollution

studies and its impact on the residential population around the industrial areas.

High-speed winds disperse suspended particulate matter and other pollutants

to far off places, thereby lessening the pollution in the immediate surroundings.


49

Light to moderate winds prevail throughout the year, during early monsoon

slightly stronger winds are observed. Seasonal and annual wind directions are

presented in Figures 2.6 - (a), (b), (c), (d) & (e). Pre-monsoon winds travel north-

west in the mornings, reversal of the wind takes places in the evenings, and

they travel in the south-east direction (Figure 2.6). These winds in the peak of

summer carrying dust and polluted gases are a threat to the residents of

Hyderabad, which is located to the south-east of Patancheru. Monsoon winds

are predominantly in the west and west-north-west direction at 0830 and 1730

hours (Figure 2.7). The post-monsoon winds travel between north and east

directions (Figure 2.8). Winter winds mainly move in the eastern and south-

eastern directions and in the northern direction for few days especially in the

mornings (Figure 2.9). The annual wind patterns at 0830 hours recordings are in

between west and north-west direction and also in the northern direction, 1730

hours recordings are in eastern, western and northern directions (Figure 2.10).

The winds in the southern and south-western directions are rare. Wind speeds

are presented in Table 2.4.

To the south-east quadrant of Patancheru Hyderabad is located. The other

three quadrants have rural population. Overall the people residing in the south-

western quadrant of Patancheru are safe from air pollution.


50

Figure 2.3 District average rainfall year wise (in mm) from 1981-1982 to 1993-

1994


51

Figure 2.4


52

Figure 2.5


53

Figure 2.6


54

Figure 2.7


55

Figure 2.8


56

Table 2.4 Most probable wind speed class.

Wind speed

(km/h)

Seasons

Annual Pre-monsoon Monsoon Post-monsoon Winter

Data recorded at IMD Hyderabad Airport (0830 hrs)

0.00-1.6 0.42 0.22 0.17 1.00 0.57

1.61-5.0 40.29 36.15 10.99 71.31 63.56

5.01-10 33.32 50.66 23.88 22.89 35.53

10.01-15.0 16.18 10.33 38.60 3.15 0.34

>15.01 9.79 2.64 26.36 1.66 0.00

Data recorded at IMD Hyderabad Airport (1730 hrs)

0.00-1.6 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

1.61-5.0 4.16 5.40 0.91 4.16 7.31

5.01-10 44.99 57.38 11.27 54.24 71.88

10.01-15 23.50 25.77 18.48 35.44 19.91

>15.01 27.35 11.45 69.35 6.16 0.90

Source: IMD, Hyderabad

2.6 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY

As man consumes more air in a day then the quantity of water and food, and

unlike water and food he has little choice regarding the quality of air he

breaths. The quality of air is important to all the living things on earth.

The air quality data of various locations in and around Patancheru town and

Bonthapally areas are presented in Table 2.5 and average air quality data

recorded for three months period recorded at Patancheru and Lakdaram are

presented in Table 2.6. The Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) is high in

Patancheru beyond the permissible limit of CPCB; this could be the resultant

effect of industries and the movement of vehicles on the busiest National

Highway-9. SO2 and NOX values are well within limits at all locations prescribed

by CPCB. Patancheru is showing the relatively higher concentration of all the

parameters. Carbondioxide and other gases released by the vehicular


57

movement and the industrial activity may contribute for acid rains and smog in

the area.

Table 2.5 Ambient air quality (random)

Near NH9 bridge over Nakkavagu, Patancheru

Mandal

Date: 18-11-97 Time: 12pm to 6pm

Near Pocharam Junction at NH-9

Date: 11-11-97 Day time 6 hours

Sample1 Sample 2 Average Sample 1 Sample 2 Average

SPM(200)

SO2 (80)

NOX (80)

229

38

26

364

59

78

296.5

48.5

52

SPM

(200)

SO2 (80)

NOX (80)

398

15

16

286

10

19

342

12.5

17.5

Near Kardanoor Village, Patancheru Mandal


Isnapur, Patancheru Mandal


Sample1 Sample 2 Average Sample 1 Sample 2 Average

SPM(200)

SO2 (80)

NOX (80)

386

18

22

223

12

17

304.5

15

19.5

SPM

(200)

SO2 (80)

NOX (80)

342

23

26

253

21

36

297.5

22

31

Near petrol pump, Patancheru


Bonthapally, Jinnaram Mandal

Date: 5-1-98 Time: 11am to 5pm

Sample1 Sample 1 Sample 2 Average

SPM(200)

SO2 (80)

NOX (80)

256

11

16

SPM (200)

SO2 (80)

NOX (80)

223

31

26

196

49

18

210

40

22

Note: Units in microgram per cubic meter of air.

CPCB standard for residential and rural areas given in brackets.

Source: Yegna Envirochem labs, Hyderabad. (1997-1998)


58

Table 2.6 Ambient air quality (December 1994 to February 1995)

SPM (200) SO2 (80) NOX (80)

Patancheru

No. of samples

Min.

Max

Arithmetic Mean

95 percentile

Standard deviation

59

21.77

629.34

320.59

595.59

169.67

118

0.28

22.65

4.98

12.15

4.16

119

9.11

29.56

15.84

26.44

5.96

Lakdaram

No. of samples

Min.

Max

Arithmetic Mean

95 percentile

Standard deviation

56

6.41

484.94

244.8

418.19

112.77

115

0.31

19.95

4.93

17.43

5.79

119

9.20

43.22

14.99

22.52

6.46

Note: Units in microgram per cubic meter of air. (CPCB standard for

residential and rural areas given in brackets.)

Source: EPTRI, Hyderabad. (1995)

Biological Environment

59

BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The present study is to characterise the environmental components of flora and

fauna, to assess the biological diversity of the region. Flora and fauna can be

used for biological surveillance in assessing the environmental status (Figure

3.1). The ecological interpretation of Nakkavagu basin is based on

reconnaissance survey and from secondary sources of information.

Water is the basic and essential resource for the survival of flora and fauna. The

flora being the primary producer influences the fauna of the region. The

characteristic flora existing in a region depends up on the existing conditions

such as intensity of sunlight, type of soil, quality of air, including the quality and

quantity of water available, etc. In Nakkavagu basin the Industrialisation led to

pollution of surface and groundwater resources, soil, air, etc., this will have

impact on the biodiversity of the region.

Nakkavagu basin area supports diverse fauna because of the presence of water

bodies in and around the basin. The Manjira wildlife sanctuary located to the

north-west of Nakkavagu basin about 30kms from Patancheru lies in between

the Manjira and Singoor barrages. This Sanctuary is the abode for a number of

resident and migratory birds in addition to being the home for the Marsh

crocodile. On the whole the rivers, streams, reservoirs, tanks, ponds, and lakes

present in this part of Medak District, supporting diverse aquatic flora and

fauna, is the sensitive region to be protected.

3.2 FLORA

The flora in this region is tropical deciduous, as the monsoons are very much

short lived in this District. The shedding of leaves starts around January and the

trees remain leafless till June. The flora that is found in Nakkavagu basin is

presented in (Table 3.1).


60

Figure 3.1 Effect of Development activities on plants and animals

(Ramaswamy et al. 1990)


61

Table 3.1 Indigenous plant species of Nakkavagu basin.

Botanical Name Common Name Local Name Uses

1. Acacia arabica Babul Tumma Timber, fodder, fuel-wood,

fencing,

2. Acacia auriculoformis Nakka Thoka Timber, fuel-wood

3. Acacia concinna Shikakai Fencing, shampoo

4. Acacia ferrugen Tella Thumma Timber, fuel-wood, fodder

5. Acacia instia Seema Korinda Fencing,

6. Acacia mangium Budidaaku Chettu Fuel-wood

7. Acassia catechu Tella Thumma Timber, fuel-wood, fodder

8. Achras zapota Sapota Sapota Fruit

9. Adathoda vasica Addasaram Fencing, medicinal, biopesticide

10. Adenanthera pavonina Erra Goli Timber, fuel-wood, fodder

11. Aegle marmelos Bale Maredu Fruit, dye, cultural

12. Agave angustifolia Agave Sagaramatta Fencing, fiber

13. Alebizzia lebback Dirishanam Fodder, timber, fuel-wood

14. Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthus Totakura Greens

15. Annona squamosa Custard Apple Seetahapal Fruit, medicinal, biopesticide.

16. Artocarpus heterophyllus Jack Fruit Panasa Fruit, timber

17. Azadirachta indica Neem Vepa Timber, fuel-wood, fodder, oil,

medicinal, biopesticide

18. Bambusa arundinacea Bamboo Veduru Timber, basket making

19. Bauhinia purpurea Kanchanam Timber, fodder, fuel-wood

20. Bauhinia racemosa Are Fuel-wood, timber, fodder

21. Bixa orellana Annota Dye

22. Buchannia lanzan Chiranj Morri Fruit, fodder, fuel-wood

23. Butea monosperma Flame of Forest Modugu Dye, fuel-wood, leaf plate,

green manure, medicinal

24. Caesalpinia crista Gachhakaya Fencing, medicinal

25. Calotropis gigantia Jilledu Medicinal, fodder, green

manure, biopesticide

26. Canavalia enciformis Swork Bean Chammakaya Vegetable, green cover, fodder

27. Carica papaya Papaya Fruit, medicinal

28. Cassia auriculata Nela Tangedu Fuel-wood, medicinal, manure

29. Cassia fistula Rela Fuel-wood, fodder, timber


30. Cassia siamea Adavi Tangedu Green Manure, medicinal, fuel-

wood, timber


62

31. Cassia spectabilis Pachha Tangedu Fuel-wood, green manure,

medicinal, timber

32. Centrocema pubescens Katte teega Fodder, green cover

33. Cibea pentandra Adavi Patthi Cotton, medicinal, fodder

34. Citrus auruntium Citrus Nimma Fruit, medicinal, biopesticide.

35. Clerodendron phlomidis Takkali Medicinal

36. Clitoria ternatea Blue Bell Shanku pushpam Fodder, green cover

37. Coleus aromaticus Vaamaku Medicinal, biopesticide,

38. Coriandrum sativum Coriandar Daniyalu Greens, biopesticide

39. Crotalaria juncea Sun Hemp Janumu Fiber, green manure, medicine

40. Cucurbita moschata Pumpkin Gummadi Vegetables

41. Diospyros chloroxylon Illinta Fencing, fodder, timber, fuel-

wood, fruit

42. Dodonaea viscosa Pulaili Fuel-wood, fencing, fodder

43. Dolichos biflorus Horsegram Uluvalu Fodder, green manure,

Medicinal

44. Dolichos lab-lab Bean Kuranupa Vegetables, green cover

45. Emblica officinalis Gooseberry Usiri Fruit, medicinal

46. Erithrina indica Tellarjam Fodder, fuel-wood

47. Euphorbia antiquorum Pudaka Jemadi Fencing, medicinal

48. Feronia elephantum Wood apple Veluga Fruit, fuel-wood, fodder.

49. Ficus bengalensis Bhad Marri Fuel-wood, medicinal

50. Ficus glomerata Fig Medi Fodder, fuel-wood, timber

51. Ficus religiosa Peepul Ragi Fruit, fuel-wood, cultural

52. Gardinia gummifera Chitimiti Fruit, fencing, fodder, fuel-wood

53. Gossypium herbaceum Nalla Patti Cotton, Medicinal

54. Grewia tilliaefolia Palsa Fruit

55. Guizoltia abyasinica Niger Gaddinuvulu Oil, Green manure, medicinal,

fodder

56. Gymnosporia montana Danta Fencing, fuel-wood

57. Hardwickia binnata Yepi Timber, fuel-wood, fodder,

58. Hibiscus cannabinus Punti Fiber, fodder


59. Ipomoea fistulosa Tuti poraka Fencing, weaving

60. Jeatropha curacas Adavi amudam Oil, medicinal, biopesticide

61. Lagenaria leucantha Bottle Gourd Sorakaya Vegetable

62. lagerstroemia parviflora Chennagi Food, medicinal, fodder

63. Lantana camera Lantana Kakipandu Fencing, fruit, thatch

64. Luffa acutangula Ridge Gourd Beera Vegetable


63

65. Madhuka indica Mohua Ippa Fuel-wood, fodder, medicinal,

timber, food

66. Mangifera indica Mango Mamidi Fruit, timber, fuel-wood.

67. Melia azadirachta Persian Lilac Turka Vepa Timber fodder

68. Momordica charantia Bitter Gourd Kaakara Vegetable, medicinal

69. Morinda tomentosa Maddi Timber, fodder, medicinal, fuel-

wood

70. Morus alba Mulberry Bontha Pandlu Fruit, fodder, fuel-wood

71. Mucuna cochinchinensis Velvet bean Doolkaya Fodder, green cover

72. Murraya koenigi Curry leaf Karivepaku Medicinal, biopesticide

73. Occimum basilicum Sanctum Tulisi Medicinal, biopesticide, cultural

74. Ougeinia oojeinensis Tella Motuku Firewood, timber

75. Parkiasonia aculeata Cheema tumma Fencing, fuel-wood

76. Passiflora edulis Passion fruit Pacha Pundu Fruit, medicinal,

77. Peltophoram pterocarpum Pachha Pulu Fuel-wood, timber

78. Phaseolus trilobus Pilli Pesara Fodder, green manure,

medicinal

79. Phoenix sylvestris Palm Eetha Fruit, basket making, fencing

80. Pithecellobium dulce Inga dulce Seema Chinta Fruit, timber, fodder,

81. Plantago ovata Mehandi Gorinta Fencing, dye

82. Pongamia pinnata Kharanj Kanuga Green manure, medicinal, fuel-

wood, oil, timber.

83. Premna integrifolia Takkali Fodder, fencing, medicinal,

timber, biopesticide

84. Prosopis cineraria Jambi chettu Timber, fodder, cultural

85. Prosopis juliflora Sarkar Tumma Fodder, fuel-wood, fencing,

86. Psidium gujava Guava Jama Fruit, furniture, medicinal

87. Punica granatum Pomegranate Danimma Fruit, medicinal


88. Ricinus communis Castor Amudam Oil, fodder, timber

89. Rumex pesicarius Chukkakura Greens

90. Samaea saman Rain tree Nidra ganneru Fuel-wood, timber, fodder

91. Sapindus mukorossi Soapnut Kunkudu Shampoo, fuel-wood

92. Sasbania aculeata Tagarancha Green manure, medicinal, green

cover

93. Sesbania grandiflora Avisha Food, fuel-wood, fodder,

94. Sesbania species Jiluga Fodder, green manure,

medicinal

95. Sesbania species Barputam Fodder, green cover, green


64

96. Spinacea oleracea Palak Palak Greens

97. Strychnos nux-vomica Vishamushti Timber, medicinal, fuel-wood

98. Strychnos potatorum Chilla Fuel-wood, timber, fodder

99. Stylosanthes guyanensis Stylo Fodder, green cover, green

manure, medicinal

100. Syzyphus cumini Kala Jamun Allaneradu Timber, fodder, medicinal, fruit

101. Tagetes erecta Marigold Banthi Medicinal, biopesticide, flower

102. Tamarindus indica Tamarind Chinta Fruit, fuel-wood, fodder

103. Tectona grandis Teak Teak Timber, fodder,

104. Tephrosia purpurea Vempali Green manure, dye

105. Terminalia alata Tanni Timber, medicinal, fuel-wood.

106. Terminalia catappa Indian Almond Baadam Fruit

107. Terminalia chebula Hulda Karka Medicinal, fuel-wood

108. Thevetia peruviana Ganneru Fencing,

109. Trigonella foenum graecum Fenugreek Menti Greens

110. Vigna sinensis Cow Pea Alasandalu Fodder, green cover

111. Vitex negundo Vaili Fencing, medicinal, fuel-wood,

biopesticide

112. Vitis setosa Pulla bachhali Greens,

113. Ziziphus mauritiana Ber Reni Fruit, fencing, timber, fodder,

medicinal

114. Ziziphus oenoplia Sparrow Berry Pariki Fruit, fencing, fodder

These lists of species identified are indigenous to this region, many of them

were once found abundantly in these parts of Nakkavagu basin. These species

listed are within the knowledge of older generation, their opinion is considered

before finalising the list. The diverse species identified meet the various

requirements of local people and their domestic animals. They also play an

important role in the local ecosystem of the area. Many tree species are

reduced to few numbers and are limited to few scattered pockets. As per the

villagers, with the industrial development many species are not found any more

or are seen in reduced numbers. As these species are indigenous some of these

listed species can be selected for afforestation and greening of the industrial

areas for lessening the impacts of pollution.


65

Photo 3.1: Prosopis juliflora along the banks of Nakkavagu at N.H. - 9

Photo 3.2: Prosopis juliflora at the confluence of Nakkavagu and

Pamulavagu near Bachuguda


66

Agro-forestry is still a practice in many villages; the fields are dotted with

species like Mangifera indica, Tamarindus indica, Psidium guajava, Accacia

arabica, etc.

Prosopis juliflora and Parthenium hysterophorus are the invading species, which

are recent introductions. Prosopis juliflora growing luxuriantly in saline and

polluted soils, all along the polluted streams of Nakkavagu basin. Parthenium

hysterophorus is the major weed found everywhere.

3.3 FAUNA

Two of the major streams in Nakkavagu basin are named after a mammal and

reptile, ‘Nakka’ means fox, ‘Pamula’ means ‘of snakes’ and ‘vagu’ means stream

in Telugu. ‘Nakkavagu’ – ‘fox-stream’ as per the villagers this stream was habitat

for foxes in the past. Similarly, ‘Pamulavagu’ – ‘Stream of snakes’ was the

natural habitat for snakes. Whenever Pamulavagu was is in spate, large

numbers of snakes were seen everywhere, even in the nearby villages. The

irrigation facilities led to growing crops like paddy, which attracts pests like rats;

they in turn could have attracted snakes in large numbers, which helped in

control of rats.

In the past the forests in the District were active with wild life. The fox, wolf and

Jackal are not seen presently in Nakkavagu basin, as aquatic habitat and forest

areas are devastated by industrial pollution in Nakkavagu basin. As per the local

people’s observation the species like birds, reptiles, amphibians, Pisces, insects

and mammals etc. are drastically reduced or migrated elsewhere. The sparrows

are seen less in numbers nowadays and their numbers have drastically reduced

with increasing pollution. There is complete absence of aquatic life in the

Nakkavagu. The tanks in the past might have attracted a large number and

variety of migratory birds from higher latitudes in winter. Birds are an integral

part of the agricultural system. Birds play an important role in the control of

pests by helping the farmers from crop losses and also their excreta nourishes


67

the fields with natural fertiliser. The fauna seen in parts of Nakkavagu basin and

in the adjacent Manjira wildlife sanctuary is presented in (Table 3.2 (a) & (b)).

Table 3.2 (a)

FISHES REPTILES

- Catla

- Rohu

- Murrel

- Eel

- Paten

- Kaarugu

- Chidwa

- Monitor Lizard

- Fresh water turtles

- Cobra

- Marsh Crocodiles (exclusively found in Manjira

Wildlife Sanctuary)

Table 3.2 (b) Birds observed in parts of Nakkavagu basin and in the Manjira Wildlife

Sanctuary.

Important Resident Birds

- Grey Herons

- Night Herons

- Pond Herons

- Purple Herons

- Purple Moor Hen

- Little Egrets

- Cattle Egrets

- Cormorants

- Coots

- King Fishers

- Green bee eater

- Red watlled lapwing

- Shriek

- Hoopoe

- Doves

- Sparrows

Important Migratory Birds

- Painted Storks

- Open billed Storks

- Spoon bills

- Comb ducks

- Cotton teals

- Whistling teals

- Red crested pochards

- Common pochards

- Brahminy ducks

- Grey Pelicans

- Brown headed Gulls

- Barheaded geese

- Osprey

- Marsh Harrier

- Demoisselle Cranes

- Swallows

Local Migratory Birds

- Oriental Darters

- Black Ibis

- White Ibis

- Glossy Ibis

3.4 FLORA AND FAUNA OF SURFACE WATER

In the polluted environment of streams and tanks, pisces, amphibians, reptiles,

invertebrates, zooplankton and larva of many insects would be under severe

stress, similarly there will be reduction in the wetland species along the banks -


68

emergent macrophytes, floating macrophytes, submerged macrophytes and

phytoplankton. May also lead to extinction and change in the species diversity

and numbers. With the loss of aquatic life due to pollution, the birds'

dependent on streams and tanks for food also get affected.

Streams and tanks of Nakkavagu basin support a wide range of natural

communities. Streams and tanks are important wildlife habitats and they can

have economic value of fisheries too. Tanks support rich and / or characteristic

plant communities, invertebrates, amphibians and birds and may even support

rare species, the seasonal tanks are less important in this regard. Habitat

diversity studies are useful in measuring the quality of whole ecosystem, it is

less time consuming and inexpensive.

The problems of freshwater habitats are, pollution, changes in flow regime,

water depth, catchment area and reduction of habitat size. The pollution of

water is the major cause of loss of biodiversity in streams and lakes. Because of

industrial effluents entering into these water bodies, Nakkavagu does not

support any significant life; many tanks have become dead, supporting only

anaerobic life, exceptionally in some cases. Some of the tanks whose catchment

area is free from industrial activity are supporting vibrant life. The relationship

between diversity of species and the degree of water pollution is vice versa.

The biodiversity of some streams and tanks of Nakkavagu basin is given in

(table 3.3).


69

Table 3.3 Biodiversity of streams and tanks.

S.No. Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

MACROPHYTES

1 Ceratophyllum demersum A A A A P P A A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A

2 Ipomoea aquatica A A P A P P A A P A A A P A P A P A A P A A

3 Carex species A A P A A P A A A P A A P A P A A A A P P A

4 Cyperus species A P P A A P A P A P P P P A P A P A A P P A

5 Hydrialla veritcillate A A P A P P A P A P A A P A A A A A A P A A

6 Ottella alismoides A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

7 Vallisneria spiralis A A A A P P A A A P A A P A A A A A A A A A

8 Iris pseudocorus A A P A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

9 Juncus heterophylla A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

10 Lemna minor A A P A P P A A A P P A A A A A A A A A A A

11 Spirodela polyrhyza A A A A P P A P A P P A A A P A P A A A A A

12 Nelumbo leutea A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

13 Agrostis species A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A

14 Agrostis A A A A A A A A A A A A P A P A P A A P P A

15 Eichhornia crassipes A A P A P A A A P P P P P A A A P A A A A A

16 Potamogeton perfoliatus A A A A A P A A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A

17 Potamogeton penctinatus A A P A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A

18 Potamogeton crispus A A A A A P A A A P A A A A A A A A A P A A

19 Ipomoea species A A P A P A A P P P P P P A P A A A A P P A

S.No. Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

20 Nymphaea species A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A A A A

21 Scirpus species A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A A A A A P P A

Algae

22 Chara vulgaris A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A A A A A P A A

23 Nitella gracillis A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A

24 Cladophora glomerati A A P A A P A P P P P A P A P A P A A P P A

25 Spirogyra communia A A P A P P A P P P P A P A P A P A A P P A

26 Spyrogyra varians A A P A P P A P A P A P P A P A A A A P A A

27 Oscillatoria formosa A A P A P P A P P P A A P A P A P A A P P A

28 Oscillatoria limosa A A P A A A A P P P A P P A P A P A A A P A

29 Oscillatoria putrida A A P A A A A P P P P P P A P A P A A A P A

30 Hydrodictyon reticulata A A P A A P A A A P A P A A A A A A A P A A

31 Zygema species A A P A A P A A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A

FISH AND OTHER ANIMALS

32 Heteropterans A P P P P P A P P P P P P A P A P A A P P A

33 Coleopterans A A P A P P A P P P P A P A A A P A A P P A

34 Cladocerans A P P A P P A A P P P A P A P A P A A P P A

35 Gastropods A A A A A P A A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A

36 Bivalves A A A A A P A A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A

37 Cyprinus carpeo A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A A A A A P A A

38 Labeo rohita A A A A P P A A A P A A P A A A A A A P A A

39 Labeo bata A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A

40 Clarias species A A A A A P A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A

41 Channa punctatus A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A P A A

Biological Score(Species Present) 0 3 26 1 15 32 0 12 11 24 11 8 26 0 14 0 14 0 0 28 13 0

Biological Score (%) 0 7 63 2.5 37 78 0 29 27 59 27 20 63 0 34 0 34 0 0 68 32 0

(Source: CPCB report (1998))

A – Absent, P – Present


70

Index

Lakes River or stream

1 Khazipally cheru 14 Bollaram near Sultanpur

2 Gandigudem cheru 15 Isukavagu U/s CETP

3 Nagula cheru 16 Isukavagu D/s outfall near Pocharam

4 Krishnareddipet cheru 17 Isukavagu at bridge

5 Mukta kunta 18 Nakkavagu at Bachuguda after confluence with Pamulavagu

6 Aminpur cheru 19 Nakkavagu at Sultanpur bridge

7 Bollaram cheru 20 Manjira U/s Nakkavagu confluence

8 Khazipalli village cheru 21 Manjira D/s Nakkavagu confluence

9 Saka cheru 22 Nakkavagu before Manjira confluence

10 Mutangi cheru

11 Isnapur cheru

12 Chitkul cheru

13 Lakdaram cheru

(Note: The biological score in percentage is directly related to the degree of toxicity of the

surface waters. Zero score percentage indicates highly toxic and almost devoid of any life.)

Socio-Economic and Cultural Environment

71

SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The socio-economic and cultural environment studies are necessary in

assessing the impacts of developmental activities on human beings.

Environmental pollution by the industries also influences directly or indirectly

the social and economic environment.

The developmental activities in a region are meaningless unless such activities

help in the socio-economic development of the region. The creation of

employment opportunities for the local people is the direct impact. The

changes in population composition of the region, multiplier benefits, education

and health status of the local people, changes in the land-use pattern

(agricultural and industrial) and impacts on the cultural properties of the area

are the indirect impacts. This chapter aims to evaluate pros and cons of the

direct and indirect impacts of the industries located mainly in Patancheru and

other Mandals (R.C.Puram, Jinnaram, and Sangareddy) covered in Nakkavagu

basin.

4.2 POPULATION

The population growth and urbanisation of the area can be attributed to the

industrialisation, infrastructure development, and proximity to Hyderabad

(Mega-city). National Highway No.9 (NH-9) that passes through Patancheru

connects Hyderabad and Pune. Secunderabad - Wadi railway line passes

through the south-eastern parts of Patancheru. Industrialisation led to the

growth of Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram as urban towns. With the

accessibility of transportation facilities, Hyderabad is expanding in the north-

west axis along NH-9 too. For the composition of the population of urban

areas, Mandals and Medak District is shown in Tables 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.


72

Percentage of rural and urban population and density of persons per square

kilometer are shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 respectively.

66.25

84.66100

52.82

85.53

33.75

15.34

0

47.18

14.47

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1 2 3 4 5

Percentage of rural and urban population

Figure 4.1 Percentage of rural and urban population

1 2 3 4 5

351

1062

237

479

234

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

pers

ons

Figure 4.2 Density of persons per square kilometre

Legend : 1 – Patancheru, 2 – R C Puram, 3 – Jinnaram, 4- Sangareddy,

5- Medak District


73

Table 4.1 Urban area Population

Place Area (sq. km.) Population Density

(pp.sq.km)

Patancheru

R.C.Puram

BHEL township

14.97

2

25.88

26,862

46,129

17,707

1,794

23,064

684

(Source: Population Census, 1991, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

Table 4.2 Population of Patancheru and Sangareddy - 1981 and 1991 census

Place Status Population % of (+) increase.

1981 1991

Patancheru

Sangareddy

Panchayat

Municipality

11,975

31,360

26,862

50,123

+124.3

+59.8

(Source: Population Census, 1991, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

In Ramachandrapuram (R.C.Puram) the density of population is very high, this is

due to its proximity to Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL)-a public sector

company, the availability of all kinds of services and being an area less polluted,

developed as a major town. BHEL Township built for its employees is well

planned, having wide roads, parks and open spaces, which explains the low

density. Patancheru in spite of being a major industrial area is less developed in

comparison to Ramachandrapuram mainly because of obnoxious smell and

water pollution. Overall Patancheru had shown a very significant growth rate of

the population between 1981 to 1991, because of the growth and

establishment of some industries during that period, in and around Patancheru.

Sangareddy being administrative headquarter of Medak District is also shows a

higher growth rate of population may be because of immigrations.


74

Table 4.3 Area, No. of Villages, Towns, Males and Females and total population

Name of the

Mandal

The

area in

sq.kms.

Total

inhabited

villages

No. of

towns

Males Females Populatio

n

(Persons)

Patancheru

R.C.Puram

Jinnaram

Sangareddy

227

71

203

222

24

5

28

27

1

1

0

1

41,948

39,349

25,148

54,572

37,634

36,054

23,042

51,656

79,582

75,403

48,190

1,06,228

Medak dist. 9,702 1,223 10 11,52,079 11,17,721 22,69,800

(Source: Population Census 1991, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

Ramachandrapuram Mandal is small in the area having few villages. Patancheru,

Jinnaram, and Sangareddy Mandals are comparable in size and have some

villages in them. Jinnaram Mandal is not having any town, while rest of the

Mandals are having one town each. Females per 1000 males are abnormally low

for Patancheru and less in other three Mandals too, in comparison with the

District ratio (Figure 4.3). In industrial areas working bachelors are usually found

in large numbers, as industrialisation attracts many single male members that

resulted in low sex ratio.

4.3 EDUCATION

The development of a backward region by the establishment of industries

becomes meaningless unless local people can seize the opportunities. In the

absence of educated local people the most sought after skilled and

administrative posts are taken over by neo-immigrants. Therefore the local

people will be limited to unskilled labour. Education plays a major role in the

socio-economic development of the region.


75


76

Literacy and education generates awareness and awakening among people

about the positive and negative impacts of industrial development. It helps

people in judging the choice and location of industries and also become aware

of the nature of pollution they would generate and take precautionary

measures against environmental hazards. Except in Ramachandrapuram and

Sangareddy Mandals, in rest of the Mandals, there is no great improvement in

the percentage of literates against Medak District literacy percentage (Figure

4.4) and (Table 4.4).

Primary schools are good in numbers; upper primary and secondary schools

can be improved for the Patancheru and Jinnaram Mandals. On an average one

school is existing for a group of about 4 to 5 villages (Table 4.5). The students

spend more time and energy in reaching the school. As the total population is

very high in Sangareddy and Ramachandrapuram Mandals, they too require

more number of upper primary and secondary schools. The number of Junior

Colleges and Degree colleges can also be improved. Industrial Training

Institutes which train people for the skilled labour requirement in industries are

to be increased, at present, only one such institute is existing (Table 4.6).

Table 4.4 Literacy

Name of the Mandal No. of literates (%age)

Males Females Total

1

2

3

4

Patancheru

R.C.Puram

Jinnaram

Sangareddy

20953(49.95)

25120(64.60)

10698(42.54)

29448(53.96)

9590(25.48)

16894(46.26)

3763(16.33)

16701(32.33)

30543(38.38)

42014(55.71)

14461(30.01)

46149(43.44)

Medak dist 426073(36.98) 175796(15.73) 601869(26.52)

(Source: Population Census 1991 in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).


77

Table 4.5 Number of Primary, Upper Primary & Secondary Primary schools-Enrollment (1993-94)

Primary school Upper primary school Secondary primary school

No.

Schools

Total

Enrolled

No.

Schools

Total

Enrolled

No. Schools Total

Enrolled

Patancheru

R.C.Puram

Jinnaram

Sangareddy

33

10

34

42

4849

2762

4028

5302

9

2

5

8

2607

716

1143

1686

6

7

7

12

2174

3093

2109

3543

(Source: Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

Table 4.6 Colleges / Institutes

Patancheru -One Government Junior College

-One Industrial training institute

Sangareddy -Two Government Junior colleges, one each for boys and girls

-Two degree colleges

-One Industrial training institute


4.4 HEALTH

It is the duty of a welfare state to look after the health of its people, for that

reason medical facilities are provided by Government (Table 4.7). The medical

facilities provided by Government are inadequate. In this kind of polluted

environment, people are prone to a variety of diseases and hence require timely

and proper attention from the Government in providing medical facilities. Some

practicing private doctors are doing well, costing the pockets of innocent

victims of pollution.

Table 4.7 Medical facilities, 1993-94

Patancheru R.C.Puram Jinnaram Sangareddy Medak dist.

No. of Dispensaries 0 0 0 0 4

No. of Hospitals 0 0 0 1 4

No. of P.H.Cs 0 1 2 1 49

No. of Doctors 0 1 3 1 86

No of Beds 0 0 4 2 324

No. of Patients treated 0 25359 51681 9526 1175296



78

Photo 4.1 : A person cleaning with the polluted waters of


Photo 4.2 : Sheep drinking polluted waters of


Photo 4.3 : Conversion of irrigation land to dry-land farming immediately adjacent to

Nakkavagu near Chitkul, because of pollution of water


79

The veterinary services available for domestic animals are given in Table 4.8.

Several cattle and sheep suffered from deterioration of health and some died

instantly after consuming the polluted water from streams and tanks. During

summers when there are very few water bodies left with uncontaminated water,

the thirsty animals in the fields have no other way, except to drink these

polluted waters. During rainy season leachets from solid waste dumps and

polluted water from overflowing effluent lagoons, enter into the fresh rainwater

collected in pools, the unsuspecting animals, which blindly consume these

polluted waters, get affected. Incidents of livestock accidentally becoming

victims to polluted waters are many. In such an environment adequate drinking

water facilities should be provided at various points for the convenience of

animals. In this kind of hostile environment, the medical facilities provided for

animals are inadequate.

Table 4.8 Veterinary services (1993-94).

Vet. Hospitals & Dispensaries

(LSU and RLUS are the lower version of Vet. Hosp’s)

Vet.

Doctors

Livestock

inspectors

Vet. Hosp. LSU RLUS

Patancheru

R.C.Puram

Jinnaram

Sangareddy

0

0

0

1

2

2

1

1

7

1

5

1

2

2

1

6

0

0

5

0

Medak dist. 11 68 131 82 70

(Source: Joint Director, Animal Husbandry Medak Dist,. in Handbook of Mandal Statistics,

Medak District (1995)).

4.5 LAND-USE

Land-use trends in Nakkavagu basin are shown in Figure 4.6 and Table 4.9.

Agriculture dominates the land-use pattern as seen in Patancheru,

Ramachandrapuram, and Sangareddy Mandals.


80

Figure 4.5 Land Utilization particulars for the year 1993-94

Patancheru

1

0%2

8%3

10%

4

3%

5

2%

6

1%

7

20%8

38%

9

18%

R.C.Puram1

0%

2

1%

3

17%

4

0%

5

0%

6

1%

7

12%

8

57%

9

12%

Jinnaram

1

20%

2

13%

3

7%4

5%5

1%6

2%

7

13%

8

19%

9

20%

Sangareddy1

0%

2

1%

3

13%

4

0%

5

0%

6

1%

7

12%

8

35%

9

38%

Medak dist.

1

9%2

7%

3

7%

4

5%

5

1%

6

3%

7

8%

8

18%

9

42%

Legend 1- Forest 2- Barren & un-cultivable land 3- Land put to non-agricultural uses 4- Permanent pastures & other 5- Miscellaneous trees of grooves 6- Cultural waste 7- Other fallow land 8- Current fallows 9- Net area sown


81

Percentage of forest area is considerable only in Jinnaram Mandal. There is no

forest area in Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram, and Sangareddy Mandals.

Barren and uncultivable land is less in Sangareddy and Ramachandrapuram

Mandals whereas District (7%) average is comparable for Patancheru Mandal

(8%) and slightly high for Jinnaram (13%) Mandal. Land put to non-agricultural

use is high in Ramachandrapuram (17%), Sangareddy (13%) and Patancheru

(10%) in comparison to Jinnaram Mandal and the Medak District at 7%. The

high percentage of land put to non-agricultural uses is the result of

industrialisation and associated urbanisation, and also Sangareddy being

administrative capital of Medak District it has the highest percentage.

Sangareddy and Jinnaram Mandals have no permanent pastures or grazing

lands, Patancheru (3%), Jinnaram (5%) and for Medak District (5%).

Miscellaneous tree groves are significant only for Patancheru Mandal, Jinnaram

and Medak District average stand at 1%. Cultural wastelands are less in all the

Mandals in comparison to District at 3%. Other fallow lands are highest for

Patancheru (20%), and high in Jinnaram (13%), Sangareddy (12%) and

Ramachandrapuram (12%) Mandals, in comparison to the District (8%). Current

fallow lands are very high in Ramachandrapuram (57%); Patancheru (38%) and

Sangareddy (35%) in comparison to Jinnaram (19%) and Medak District average

(18%). The total fallow (current fallow + other fallow) lands are high in

Ramachandrapuram (69%), Patancheru (58%), Sangareddy (47%) and Jinnaram

(32%) in comparison to Medak District (26%). Net sown area is less then the

District (42%), at Sangareddy (38%), Jinnaram (20%), Patancheru (18%) and

Ramachandrapuram (12%). The high percentage of fallow lands and less

percentage of net sown area in Patancheru, Sangareddy, Jinnaram and

Ramachandrapuram Mandals is the net result of the pollution of soil, water and

air by the industries.


82

Table 4.9 Land utilisation particulars for the year 1993-94 (in Hectares)

Patancheru R.C.Puram Jinnaram Sangareddy Medak dist.

Geographical area 25193 8933 20943 24612 951828

Forest 0 0 4214 0 87349

Barren & uncultivable land 1974 68 2643 253 65408

Land put to non-agricultural uses 2449 1507 1418 3323 63585

Permanent pastures & other 726 0 975 36 44285

Misc. trees of grooves 434 6 134 106 8725

Cultural waste 354 81 377 266 24487

Other fallow land 5093 1074 2823 3046 73443

Current fallows 9535 5128 3945 8416 178179

Net area sown 4629 1069 4414 9206 405834

(Source: Chief planning office, Medak District, in Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).

4.6 AGRICULTURE

During 1940’s Patancheru was identified as a model rural development centre,

which is aided by grants from the rural welfare trust fund to cover rural

development including agriculture, horticulture, and hygiene (Barass, 1950). In

spite of industrialisation, a major percentage of people are engaged in rural

activities - about 60% and above in all the Mandals, except in

Ramachandrapuram Mandal. However, there is a shift in a number of people

involved in rural activities to other activities, in all the four Mandals in

comparison to the District average (Figure 4.5).

The principle crops under cultivation are given in Table 4.10. Jowar is the

principal dry-land crop and Paddy is the main wetland crop. Various pulses and

oil seeds are grown as rain-fed crops. The area under cotton cultivation is

increasing in the recent years only. The mechanisation of agriculture is

expanding rapidly, as the labour costs have increased phenomenally because of

industries. The ratio of the number of villages and the total number of tractors

for each Mandal is nearly one for Patancheru, two each for Ramachandrapuram


83

and Jinnaram Mandals. Sangareddy Mandal shows less mechanisation in

comparison to other Mandals.

Figure 4.6 Distribution of working population


84

Figure 4.7 Group wise number of farmers (1990-91)


85

Particulars of agricultural land holdings are given in Figure 4.7 and Table 4.11.

Marginal farmers are greater than 50% in all the Mandals, marginal and small

farmers together constitute greater than 75% in all the Mandals. On the whole,

the categories of farmers are comparable to the District average percentage.

Marginal farmers are having up to 2.46 acres of land, in the case of pollution of

their lands, have no other way but to sell off at through away prices or those

lands are left fallow. This section of the population is more vulnerable to

environmental changes like droughts, floods and even environmental pollution,

which will lead to out-migrations or will be reduced to agricultural labourers.

The disguised unemployment is another major problem, which is the result of

small land holdings. Agricultural machinery and implements are given in Table

4.12.

Table 4.10 Area under principle crops 1993-94 (Area in Acres)

Crops Patancheru R.C.Puram Jinnaram Sangareddy Medak dist.

Paddy 4722 865 8348 4787 226292

Wheat 0 67 5 201 6289

Jowar 5563 1559 1053 10806 274878

Maize 2 15 1917 53 169985

Horsegram 0 0 4 179 4639

Greengram 69 26 31 892 78398

Blackgram 34 0 0 921 47322

Redgram 446 122 144 600 28564

Bengalgram 281 22 31 699 37248

Chillies 506 148 73 1436 25723

Coriander 0 50 0 319 6638

Turmeric 0 0 0 531 3405

Cotton 276 0 182 392 26275

Sugarcane 12 0 65 1012 71806

Groundnut 169 26 153 892 17486

Seasamum 14 0 0 139 8430

Safflower 386 61 0 951 17321

Sunflower 201 80 52 658 39281

Castor 0 115 45 0 3668

Linseed 0 0 0 346 2785

Source: Handbook of Mandal Statistics, Medak District (1995)).


86

Table 4.11 Particulars of Agricultural Census (1990-91).

Holdings Total area in acres

Patancheru

R.C.Puram

Jinnaram

Sangareddy

8689

2151

6769

10617

36388.38

9670.57

23037.12

37590.99

Medak Dist. 423686 1644528.49


Table 4.12 Agricultural machinery and implements

Tractors Sprayers Ploughs Oil engines Electric motors

Patancheru

R.C.Puram

Jinnaram

Sangareddy

20

15

52

18

50

107

347

97

2864

19

2537

26

4

4

1

3

774

154

1258

1119

Medak dist. 1927 8179 133062 1691 67468


Percentages of the cultivated and fallow land of the highly polluted Pocharam

and Bachuguda villages for the periods 1984-85 to 1995-96 is presented in

Figure 4.7. Pollution of water, soil, and air may be the main cause of fallow

lands; at least on the whole about 20% of the lands are being left fallow in both

the villages.

Traditionally there had been two types of irrigation practices in the region, lift

irrigation from wells and streams, and irrigation by gravity from tanks. The lifts

worked with bullocks called mhotas are suitable for irrigating up to 8 acres.

Mhotas were in practice till 1980’s. The present method of lift irrigation is by

electric motor pumps. The availability of water from some tanks spread in the

region can also be attributed to the prosperity of agriculture (Table 4.13). Tanks

are adequate in numbers, but now some tanks are of little use except as storage

ponds for industrial effluents. As these tanks are connected in series the


87

pollutants entering a tank at higher reaches pollutes all other tanks

downstream. Presently many farmers shifted to dry-land farming as the water

sources are polluted. The pollution of wells and tanks crippled all those farmers

irrigating crops under them.

Table 4.13 Minor irrigation sources

No. of Tanks Total Ayacut (Acres)

Patancheru

R.C.Puram

Jinnaram

Sangareddy

18

5

19

19

3823

634

3438

3519

Medak dist. 637 140816


4.7 EMPLOYMENT

Development of industries in other then the main urban centres is the policy of

decentralisation so that socio-economic development takes place in other

regions too. Industries generate direct and indirect job opportunities.

In industrial areas due to the payment of higher wages, it has an impact on the

agricultural sector. Mechanisation of agriculture took place especially in

Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram Mandals, because of shifting of

agricultural labour to industrial sector where they are paid high. The

involvement of a considerable percentage of people engaged in other then

rural activities, in comparison to the distribution of working for population in

Medak District, is the direct indication of people absorbed in industries and

allied sectors (Figure 4.5).


88

Figure 4.8 Percentage of cultivated and fallow land


89

The real development of a region takes place only if there is any social and

economic development of the local people. As the industrial area is close to the

major urban center Hyderabad, industrialisation gave way for shuttling workers

from the city. On account of pollution, the area is not preferred for a living,

especially in Patancheru Mandal. The low literacy rate provides fewer

opportunities for the people seeking suitable jobs that lead to immigrations

from elsewhere. The tertiary sector is also less developed as the money is being

spent in the main city. No residential colonies are existing in the region because

of pollution which indicates the majority of the industrial workers are

commuting from other places especially from Hyderabad and its outskirts

where they have better civic amenities and other services too. As a result, the

local people are losing indirect employment opportunities, therefore the

multiplier effect is very weak.

The actual backwardness of the District is in the interior and western parts of

the District. By selecting this peripheral area close to Hyderabad, the industrial

development is contributing more to the economic development of Hyderabad

rather than in reducing the backwardness of Medak District.

4.8 POPULATION STRUCTURE OF MOST POLLUTED VILLAGES

The following are the villages, which are located close to the industrial areas

and the polluted streams, with polluted groundwater, surface water, soil and air

pollution: Ismailkhanpet, Arutla, Chidruppa, Byathole, Edthanoor, Indrakaran,

Lakdaram, Chinna Kanjerla, Pedda Kanjerla, Sultanpur, Krishnareddipet,

Indresham, Inole, Bachuguda, Chitkul, Isnapur, Kardanoor, Mutangi, Pocharam,

Khazipalli and Bollaram. These are the most polluted villages, which are

frequently mentioned in the press and other media. The workers engaged in

rural and urban activities, the percentage of literates and illiterates, and

population below and above 6 years of age of the above villages is presented in

Figure 4.8.


90

Figure 4.9 (a) Population statistics of most polluted villages


91

Figure 4.9(b) Population statistics of most polluted villages


92

As the percentage of rural population (about 80 percent) is higher in some

villages in spite of their proximity to the Industrial areas, it implies that the

industrialisation did not result in much creation of job benefits to them. As the

literacy rate is also very low (about 20 percent) in many of the villages, this is

another negative factor for not getting job opportunities. Nearly 20 percent of

the population in these villages is well below 6 years of age, as this age group is

sensitive to pollution, it is hazardous for their growth and development.

4.9 CULTURAL PROPERTIES

The cultural history of Medak District commences from the prehistoric time that

is Paleolithic age. At Kondapur near Patancheru, shreds of pottery, polished

stone artifacts and slag of iron belonging to the Neolithic and megalithic

cultures were collected. These and other discoveries in the area reveal that

there existed a highly developed cultural people in the prehistoric times. The

innumerable burials (Cairns and stone circles) near Muttangi, Asnathpur, and

Khazipalli near Patancheru and other parts of the District, belonging to

Megalithic culture were also discovered. About 30 kilometers to the west of

Patancheru at Kondapur archaeological excavations indicate the existence of a

buried city of vast dimensions dating back to Mauryan and Satavahanas period.

Early History of Medak District dates back to Pre-Asokan times (Table 4.1).


93

Table: 4.1 Early History of Medak District.

PERIOD DYNASTY IMPORTANT RULERS

Before 230 B.C

230 B.C to 218 A.D.

A.D. 218 to 543

A.D. 378 to 600

A.D. 543 to 757

A.D. 757 to 973

A.D. 973 to 1200

Mauryan

Satavahanas

Mahisha dynasty

Vishnukundins

Chalukyans of Badami

Rashtrakutas of Malkhed

Western Chalukyans of

Kalyani

Asoka

Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 62-86).

Vasisthiputra Pulumavi (A.D. 86-114)

Siva Sri (A.D. 114-121)

Yajna Sri Satakarni (A.D. 128-157).

Mana and Yasa.(?)

Vikramendra Verma

Madhava Verma

Govinda Verma

Kirttivaraman II (Last Ruler).

(Total Nine Rulers)

Danti Durga to

Dhruva

Ahavamalla taila II (A.D. 973-97) (Founder)

Taila II (973 A.D.)

Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya II (A.D.

1076-1126).

Somesvara III (A.D. 1126-38).

(Total Thirteen Rulers).

Patancheru is the modern name, which was also called as Pottalacheruvu or

Potlakire in the past. Patancheru as the capital of Chalukyans of Kalyani for

some time played an important role in the political and religious history of the

area. The early rulers of the dynasty encouraged Jainism until Somesvara built

the Kalyana. Brahma Siva a staunch follower of Jaina law who also authored two

Kannada works belonged to Potalakire. Potalakire once flourished as an

important Jaina center. Parasvanatha (23rd Tirthankara) is worshiped in Manikya

Prabhumandir found here. Innumerable Jina panels are excavated in addition to

other antiquities by the Department of Archaeology and Museums,

Government of Andhra Pradesh.


94

During the Medieval period, Patancheru was under the rule of Kakatiyas,

Bhamanis, Qutub Shahis and Barid Shahis respectively. Medieval Hindu temples

are found scattered in the villages around Patancheru. The Gods and Goddesses

of these temples are identified as, Yoga Narasimha, Siva in Linga form, Bhairava,

Ganesa, Devi, Gandharvas, Virakal, Anjaneya, Naga, Nagini, etc. In the Modern

period, it was under the rule of Mughals and Asaf Jahis respectively. In 1930 the

first Andhra conference was held at Jogipet in this District. The whole of

Nizam's dominion remained outside the mainstream of Indian national

movement. Medak District merged with the Indian union only on 17th of

September 1948 at the time of the police action over Nizam.

The rich cultural heritage of the past was alone possible by the prosperity of

agriculture and allied trade. Irrigation had been the chief need in developing

agriculture. The prosperity and development of the state depended on revenue

collection, which was mainly dependent on the pros and cons of agricultural

development.

Prehistoric and historical evidence prove that this place is one of the

continuously settled places on par with other areas of the country. The

resources which sustained indigenous populations over more than 2000 years is

a record by itself. Availability of water and fertility of soil were the necessary

requirements for supporting earliest civilisations and advanced through

sustained agricultural activity. Through ages indigenous people protected,

saved and managed the precious available fresh water to their advantage, for

sustainable livelihood.

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WATER ENVIRONMENT

5.1 INTRODUCTION

It is predicted that the 21st century would witness hydro-politics that could even

result in wars for water at all levels (international, national and regional). The

hydrosphere presently holds about 1,384,120,000 km3 of water in various states,

of that most of which is stored in the oceans. Only 2.6 percent is fresh water, of

this, 77.23 percent is frozen in ice caps, icebergs, and glaciers. Groundwater

found up to a depth of 4kms that accounts for another 22.21 percent of fresh

water. The remaining little water is stored in the soil, lakes, rivers, the biosphere

and atmosphere. Therefore, fresh water is the precious commodity for all

terrestrial life on earth.

The protection of fresh water sources like lakes, tanks, rivers, streams and

groundwater from pollution is fundamental to food production, public health

and health of all living species. Toxic pollutants released into the freshwater due

to the so-called developmental activities by human beings can render water

unfit for supporting life.

The biggest problem associated with industrial activity in Patancheru area is the

deterioration of the quality of water from its industrial wastes. The chemicals

from a wide range of industries including pharmaceutical industries release

chemical wastes into the environment thereby polluting the water environment.

Location of tanks, streams, settlements, and industries are shown in Figure 5.1.

The practice of using drainage system and tanks for disposal of industrial

effluents resulted in the devastation of surface and groundwater environments,

in Nakkavagu basin.

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Figure 5.1 Location of Cheruvus / Tanks, Streams Settlements

and Industries

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97

The areas other than Patancheru industrial area within Nakkavagu basin, which

are affected by water pollution include Chitkul, Chidruppa, Sultanpur,

Eardanoor, Arutla, Baithole, Gandigudem, Pocharam, Ganapathigudem,

Ismailkhanpet, Inole, Lakdaram, Bachuguda and Peddakanjerla.

5.2 NAKKAVAGU BASIN

In water pollution impact assessments the basins are considered as units

because the movement of surface and ground waters is mainly restricted to the

basin alone till they join a higher order basin.

The Nakkavagu basin is the sixth order basin, as Nakkavagu stream is a sixth

order stream. The catchment area of Nakkavagu basin is 734 square kilometres;

it appears polygonal in the plan (Figure 2.1). The catchment area lies mainly in

the Medak District and partly in Rangareddy District. Nakkavagu originates to

the south of Patancheru near Kollur and joins Manjira River near Gaudcherla

village after travelling a total distance of 35kms. Initially, Nakkavagu is known as

‘Maisammavagu’, from Kardanoor it is popularly known as Nakkavagu. A major

tributary of Nakkavagu is Pamulavagu, a fifth order stream, which flows from

the north-east direction of the basin and joins Nakkavagu at Bachuguda village

of Patancheru Mandal. The Nakkavagu initially travels north up to Bachuguda

village, after the confluence of Pamulavagu it goes in the north-north-west

direction up to Chidruppa, from here it takes a turn in the north-west direction

and forms an ‘S’ shaped meandering loop before joining with Manjira river at

Gaudcherla. Manjira River ultimately ends up in Godavari River at Kandukurthi

Bridge in Nizamabad District. Nizamsagar is the reservoir constructed over

Manjira River at the border between Medak and Nizamabad Districts.

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Figure 5.2 Drainage Pattern Nakkavagu Basin

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99

Nakkavagu has largely dendritic drainage pattern. This kind of drainage pattern

is very commonly associated with areas of uniform lithology, horizontal or very

gently dipping strata, and low relief. They comprise a multitude of small branch

streams, which join each other, usually at relatively acute angles, to nourish a

large trunk stream. While the drainage density depends on the permeability of

the underlying rock and precipitation. Drainage density is high on north-eastern

portion of Nakkavagu basin that is to the right of Nakkavagu stream. Rainwater

flows in Nakkavagu typically for 4 to 6 months during Monsoon and Post-

monsoon periods, and the rest of the year industrial effluent flows along the

water course. Presently the water flowing in Nakkavagu in any given season is

more, in comparison to the flow conditions before industrialisation. Since all the

industrial effluents will finally end up in the Nakkavagu.

5.2.1 Drainage System

Drainage of Nakkavagu is highly altered by the interference of man through

many centuries. The flowing waters are tamed through the construction of a

series of tanks and channels. The characteristics of the drainage system of

Nakkavagu is given below:

a) The drainage pattern is mainly considered as sub-parallel and dendritic

which is characteristic in granitic terrain.

b) Radial drainage is observed on the north of Lakdaram cheruvu,

streamlets radiating from kopje like granitic structure (Figure 2.1(a)).

c) A tributary of Nakkavagu emerging from Peddacheruvu outflow flows

parallel to Nakkavagu for a distance of about six km before joining with

Nakkavagu near Baitul village (Figure 2.1(e)). The semi-parallel drainage

system observed at many places along Nakkavagu can be attributed to

the paleo-flow channels of Nakkavagu. For example the stream of Arutla

and another stream north of Bachuguda (Figure 2.1(d) & 2.1(f)).

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d) ‘S” shaped meandering of Nakkavagu, before its confluence with Manjira

River at Gaudcherla is the prominent feature of Nakkavagu (Figure

2.1(c)).

d) The drainage is also affected by roadways, railway line, development of

industries and construction of houses, etc. As it is easy to alter drainage

of streamlets, they got most affected. The provision of culverts or

bridges over larger streams lessened the alteration of natural drainage.

5.2.2 Tanks

The artificial lake is called ‘tank’ it is locally called as cheruvu or cheru or kunta.

They are largely seen in regions of uncertain rainfall. They are formed in natural

hollows or depressions or sloping land by building a dam or bund on the lower

side to hold water, by enclosing a semi-circular or semi-elliptical area. Some

times artificial tanks are created by removing earth to create depression and

then bund is laid, which are usually oblong in shape. The area irrigated by a

tank is called its ayacut.

The tanks are serving two important purposes in controlling the floods and as

an insurance against crop failure during drought. Water collected in the tanks is

the primary source of water for meeting domestic, agricultural needs of human

beings and for supporting all other living things of the region. They have a

prime role in the development of the region and therefore they are essential in

the area.

The characteristics of the tanks in Nakkavagu basin are given below:

a) Intensive integrated watershed management was done in Nakkavagu

basin, in the past. Almost all the second order and some higher order

streams are tapped through the construction of bunds and creation of

tanks.

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b) Smaller tanks are constructed in the fertile agricultural fields. The primary

purpose of these tanks is for recharging the groundwater and less

important as a source for flow irrigation. Centuries of flooding of streams

and streamlets resulted in the deposition of large thickness of alluvium.

The soil in such places is highly permeable, and construction of huge

tanks for storage of water for flow irrigation is impossible. Therefore a

series of small tanks are constructed in those regions; they are the places

for recharging the groundwater aquifers. As a result, groundwater raises

high on the downward side of the tank. The high density of dug wells

and bore-wells are found on the downward side of such tanks, for

example, a number of such tanks and bore-wells are seen in the north of

Nakkavagu, between Chidruppa and Tarkhanpet (Figure 2.1(i)).

c) Non-cultivable rocky wastelands at higher contour levels are selected for

construction of very large tanks. These places are less permeable so

there ought to be lesser leakage’s, therefore such places are put to best

use by construction of large tanks for storing water example, Lakdaram

tank (Figure 2.1(b)), Peddacheruvu (Figure 2.1(g)) etc. In this way the

wastelands are also contributing to the economic prosperity of a region

indirectly. Rocky granite areas are least useful for cultivation, so they are

of least use. All the rainwater falling on such areas will ultimately move

to lower reaches quickly. As a result, all the water would have been

wasted in the absence of tanks in such places. The wastelands increase

the total availability of rainwater per unit area under cultivation if the

water falling upon wastelands is fully harvested and utilised for cultivable

lands. The rocky wastelands too have a role in sustaining the agricultural

activity of the region.

d) Eye like small depressions observed at many places are non-perennial

water sources, at the time of rains they overflow leading to streamlets.

During rainy season some of these act as percolation pits. Some of these

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102

small depressions located close to many of the villages could be the

result of excavation for clay or mud and the raw material for construction

purpose. Such a usage is still seen around Patancheru town; intensive

brick making activity is going on around Patancheru.

e) Some tanks are oblong and square in shape in plan, indicating that many

of these tanks are dug and constructed for the purpose of storing water

ex. Ismailkhanpet south tank (Figure 2.1(j)) and Peddacheruvu of Chitkul

(Figure 2.1(g)). These tanks are usually shallow; the range between full

tank level and low tank level is high. Whereas the bund constructed

directly over natural depression usually appears like ‘delta’ in the plan

(Figure 2.1(k)), which ranges between full tank level, and low tank level is

very high as a result, the storage capacity is also high. The dugout tanks

involve enormous costs so that preference will be given for the

construction of bunds along the natural valleys of the streams. Therefore,

dugout tanks are found few in numbers in Nakkavagu basin.

f) Canals are dug out to divert the floodwaters from the streams they

ultimately end up in the tanks, which are specially constructed for this

purpose for example Muttangi village tank (Figure 2.1(h)).

g) Two types of water outlet systems are existing for the tanks. The

controlled central point of the opening which is manually operated

facilitates controlled irrigation, whereas spillway is to let out the excess

waters as a security against bund failure and for filling the tanks

downstream from excess waters. A series of tanks are constructed on the

downstream to see that no water goes waste from spillways.

h) Some of the tanks of the past are silted up completely; therefore very

little or no water can be stored in them. Such tank-bed areas are at

present under cultivation. The soil (silt deposited in the tank bed)

deposited over a period in these tanks is fertile.

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i) In Bollaram industrial area, nearly 95 % of the tanks are of non-perennial

water source category, in Bachuguda area about half of the tanks are

perennial sources of water.

5.3 INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION IN NAKKAVAGU BASIN

Case studies of 10 pharmaceutical industries located in Nakkavagu basin are

considered to evaluate the quantity of hazardous raw material utilised in the

production (Table 5.1). The difference between the total raw material consumed

and the amount of product produced is the material that would ultimately enter

into the environment of Nakkavagu basin, in the form of solid, liquid or

gaseous state. Of which only a part of the material is recovered, and most of

the remaining wastes are the effluents, which are partially treated and are then

released into the environment. Total quantity of products produced by these

ten industries is about 1881.5 tonnes and the total amount of hazardous raw

material used is about 8146 tonnes i.e. on an average about 4.3 times of

hazardous raw material is utilised for every unit of the product produced. These

industries are using organic and inorganic hazardous chemicals as raw material.

The hazardous and toxic chemicals identified under schedule one and part two

of ‘The Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989’,

are being utilised in the production by many industries. They are, Acetone,

Acetyl chloride, Ammonia, Aniline, Benzene, Bromine, Chlorine, Chlorosulphonic

acid, Dimethylcaromyl, Dioxane, Ethylene dichloride, Formaldehyde, Hexane,

Hydrochloric acid, Maleic anhydride, Methylene chloride, Nitrobenzene,

Nitrogen dioxide, Nitrogen oxides, Phenol, Phenyl glycidal ether, Sodium

cyanide, Sulphuric acid, Thionyl chloride, Toluene and Triethylamine. There are

four possible potential hazardous problems associated with the use of

chemicals; they are

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Table 5.1 Hazardous raw material used by industries in Nakkavagu basin

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1) Hazardous waste products.

2) These chemicals are a potential occupational hazard to the workers.

3) The containers used for storage and transport are being reused for domestic

purposes. Thousands of such containers are sold every year, which are

supposed to be disposed off safely.

4) They can find their way into the environment through mishandling and

leakage’s etc.

5.3.1 COMMON EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANTS

There are two Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs), which are

established at Patancheru and Bollaram.

5.3.1.1 CETP - PATANCHERU

The association of industries constructed a CETP at Patancheru in the year 1994.

The effluent treatment plant is meant for treating 7,500 cubic meters per day.

The total members of CETP-Patancheru are 128 industries, presently only 72

industries are contributing their effluents to CETP.

The treatment process at CETP can be grouped into three categories

respectively i.e. 1) Effluent collection and equalisation 2) Physico-chemical

treatment and 3) Biological treatment. The effluents reaching the CETP through

tankers from the member industries are collected in sumps. After that, the

combined effluent is given the physicochemical treatment comprising

equalisation, decanatation and screening. The supernatant effluent from

decanatation unit is pumped into biological treatment system comprising an

anaerobic system (USAB) and aerobic activated sludge process (ASP) with a

secondary clarifier. The effluents are then treated in aeration tanks then the

effluents are sent into secondary settling tanks. Decanter separates the sludge

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from secondary settling tanks, and the effluents are released into the Isukavagu

stream (CPCB report, 1998).

Two samples of treated effluents released by CETP-Patancheru collected in the

rainy season are chemically analysed (Tables 5.2). They are highly polluted and

far exceed the permissible limits of industrial effluents, disposable in inland

surface waters. CETP has no secure hazardous sludge disposal site. The sludge

collected in the process is being dumped in the same premises, which is also a

potential source of water contamination.

Table 5.2 CETP-Patancheru effluents (1997) (in ppm)

pH TS TSS TDS Cl S COD BOD Zn Cd Pb Cr Cu

a 8.6 12154 609 11545 3349 3065 5240 2200 0.285 0.042 0.4 0.1 0.22

b 8.5 8174 399 7775 2149 2115 3680 1650 0.21 0.025 0.4 0.1 0.2

As almost all the industries do not have primary treatment plant facility, the

effluents are being directly sent to CETP. As this facility is not equipped to treat

the effluents in two stages, the CETP fails to treat the effluents.

Since its inception in 1994, CETP was receiving effluents from Patancheru and

other places like Jeedimetla, Kazipally, Medchal, Kothur, Bollaram and

Pashamylaram, etc., it is also receiving effluents from other Districts such as

Rangareddy, Hyderabad, Medak, Nalgonda, Mahboobnagar of Andhra Pradesh

and Bidar of Karnataka. Although CETP is not capable of treating local industrial

effluents it had been receiving the effluents across Nakkavagu basin. Also CETP

of Patancheru received effluents from non-member industries too. Therefore

the impact of Pollution on Nakkavagu basin area is the net result of industries

located in a far wider area than Nakkavagu basin alone.

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Nine different types of industries are sending their effluents to CETP of

Patancheru. They are Bulk Drugs and Drug Intermediates, Pulp paper and other

cellulose base industries, Metal finishing, Resins and Chemicals, Pesticides,

Paints, Rubber, Edible oil refineries and Textile processing. Therefore it is

impossible for CETP to treat the effluents to the prescribed standard from such

diverse industries. The classification of member industries of CETP-Patancheru,

type of effluents, location wise and contribution of effluents are given in Tables

5.3 and 5.4

5.3.1.2 CETP - BOLLARAM

CETP-Bollaram is having presently 25 member industries, of which eight

member industries are from outside Bollaram IDA. The present effluent load of

CETP is 340 m3/day. Some of these industries are also members of Patancheru

and / or Jeedimetla CETP’s too.

The wastewater brought in tankers is unloaded into the primary clarifier, by

using pumps, at the rate of 10 to 15 m3/h. Suspended solids are removed here

and collected in 3 sludge lagoons. Clear wastewater flows by gravity to the

holding tank where nutrients, i.e. Phosphoric Acid, Urea and Di-Ammonium

Phosphate, are added. The wastewater is equalised by gentle recirculation by a

pump and after equalisation fed into a chamber for the digester, which is

recycled back to the digesters at the rate of 40 to 50 m3/h. Wastewater at the

rate of 10 m3/h is sent to first stage aeration tank for biological treatment. From

the first stage of the aeration tank, wastewater flows by gravity to the

intermediate clarifier where micro-organisms are separated in the form of

sludge and the same is returned to the first stage aeration tank and clear liquid

overflows to the second stage aeration for further biological degradation.

Wastewater from the second stage of aeration tank flows by gravity to the final

clarifier is taken to maturation ponds from where it is pumped to the oxidation

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ponds-cum-solar evaporation ponds. All the solar evaporation ponds are

connected in series. The effluents get evaporated and the sludge collected is

disposed of (CPCB report, 1998). It also receives effluents without primary

treatment at various industries.

The effluents released from CETP’s do not have adequate water sources for

dilution in Nakkavagu and Manjira River, except to some extent. The

performance of CETP’s is given in Table 5.5. CETP’s are the industries by

themselves are the major contributors of pollution.

Table 5.3 Classification of Member Industries of CETP-Patancheru

S.No. Name of Products Number of Industries

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Bulk-drugs

Chemical

Steel

Textile

Leather Finishing

Cellulose Product

Edible Oil Refinery

Paper (Card Board)

Rubber

Paints

Polyelectrolyte

Pesticides

49

2

5

2

3

2

1

3

1

1

2

1

Total 72

Source: CPCB Report, 1998.

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Photo 5.1 : Partially treated effluents being released from CETP –

Patancheru into Isukavagu

Photo 5.2 : Hazardous sludge as waster collected and stored at

CETP – Patancheru

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Table 5.4 Location wise classification of Member industries of CETP-Patancheru and their

effluent loads.

S.No. Location of Industries No. of

Industries

Effluent load (kld) Percentage

contribution

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Patancheru

Pashamylaram

Bollaram

Gaddapotharam

Bonthapalli

Chitkul

Others

24

4

3

9

4

2

15

1597.06

197.20

70.00

208.80

75.00

120.00

559.00

56.5

7.0

2.0

7.5

2.5

4.5

20.0

Source: CPCB Report, 1998.

Table 5.5 Performance of CETP’s

Parameter Name

CETP-Patancheru CETP-Bollaram

Relevance of Unit Operation ++ +

Operation and Maintenance ++ +

Stability of ETP ++ +

Performance of ETP ++ +

Time required for perfect operation 3 months 6 months

Disposal system + -

Management Practices ++ +

+ Not satisfactory ++ Near to mark or near satisfactory level.

Source: CPCB report (1998).

5.4 SURFACE WATER

The surface waters in the basin include Nakkavagu and its tributaries, tanks,

ponds and other small depressions. The volume of water in many of the surface

water bodies varies with seasons. The surface water bodies, which receive the

effluents from industries continuously, do not show much variation. Similarly

because of industrial effluents entering into Nakkavagu, the flow is maintained

from Kardanoor onwards, even during the peak of summer Nakkavagu never

goes dry. The flow of effluents in the Nakkavagu and its tributaries is shown in

Figure 5.2.

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Figure 5.3 Effluents (quality and quantity) of Isukavagu Pamulavagu,

Nakkavagu and Manjira river, January 1998).

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Figure 5.4 Effluent Stream

Water table Lagoon

precipitation

Groundwater

Pollution zone Dilution zone

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Figure 5.5 Formation of Acid rain

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Figure 5.6 Unpolluted tank

granite

Bund

Aquatic macrophytes

sediments

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Figure 5.7 Impact of Industrial effluents on tank

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The industrial effluents are usually released directly into streams and tanks.

Pollutants also enter indirectly, as effluent stream (Figure 5.3), through the

atmosphere in the form of acid rains (Figure 5.4) and dust particles brought

down by rain or air, leachates from solid waste dumps, surface runoffs during

rains, leakage of effluents from solar evaporation ponds, etc. The surface water

pollution is dangerous to the aquatic ecosystem. Nakkavagu waters are

polluted beyond sustaining any life. Some of the tanks are supporting little life

forms, and some are completely devoid of aerobic fauna. The comparison

between unpolluted and polluted tanks is given in Figures 5.6 and 5.7.

All the industrial effluents ultimately end up in Nakkavagu; as a result, it

became the most polluted stream. Nakkavagu carries the effluents to a distance

of 22 km from Kardanoor onwards up to the merging point with Manjira River

at Gaudcherla. Pamulavagu, a major tributary of Nakkavagu, adds its effluents

into Nakkavagu at Bachuguda. The flow of effluents in Pamulavagu is erratic;

sometimes there is no flow at all, because of a series of tanks located across its

tributaries. The industrial effluents released in Bollaram and Khazipally industrial

areas gets collected and stored in the tanks like Khazipally tank, Gandigudem

tank, Asanikunta, Krishnareddipet tank, etc. Krishnareddipet tank is the largest,

and is the last of the series of tanks across the Pamulavagu tributary unless the

outlet of this tank is rarely opened any water flows into Pamulavagu.

5.4.1 Flowing Waters

The quality of streams varies, and it is dependent on various factors. The total

dissolved solids of the effluents of Nakkavagu as analysed over a period are

presented in Figure 5.8. This gives a general picture of the pollution in

Nakkavagu over a period. On the whole, the trend shows a gradual increase in

pollution since 1979 with the exception of observations in 1995 and 1998.

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Figure 5.8 Nakkavagu-TDS

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The analytical data related to the quality of flowing waters is presented in

Tables 5.6, 5.7, 5.8 & 5.9. The data is subjected to various statistical procedures

to understand the nature of pollution. The parameters are compared to the

inland surface water standards of EPA, 1986 (Table 5.10).

5.4.1.1 Surface waters Analytical Results

5.4.1.1.1 Summer Data of Streams (S-Data):

The data is pertaining to eleven samples of which nine samples represent the

Nakkavagu, and two samples represent CETP and Pamulavagu. These samples

are collected in summer 1997. Basic analysis data of the samples is presented in

Table 5.6 and 5.11.

These samples are compared to the standards of inland surface waters (Table

5.10). The pH of Nakkavagu waters are slightly alkaline, CETP waters are slightly

acidic and the Pamulavagu waters are more alkaline. TDS, COD, BOD and SO4

parameter concentrations are very high. Cl is nearer to the limit of 1000ppm. F

is high in 4 samples that are above 2ppm. Pb is high in all the samples with the

exception of one sample of Nakkavagu. Hg is very high in all the samples. As

and Se are high in all the samples with the exception of one sample from

Nakkavagu. Cd, Zn, Cu, B, Mn, Cr, and Fe parameters are within permissible

limits.

Almost all the parameters of CETP effluents are high. Therefore, the pollution in

Nakkavagu is mainly because of the release of partially treated effluents into

Nakkavagu.

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Table 5.6 S-Data (Stream)

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The correlation matrix is given in Table 5.12. The following groups of elements

are strongly and positively correlated: TDS is strongly related to TH, Cd, Hg and

Cr, TH is related to Cd, Hg and Cr, COD is related to BOD and Cl, BOD related to

SO4 and Cl, and the following pairs of parameters are also strongly related SO4

– Cl, SO4 – Zn, F – Fe, Zn – Se, Cu – As, and As – Se.

5.4.1.1.2 Rainy Season Data of Streams (R-Data):

R-Data is pertaining to 14 samples of surface waters collected from Isukavagu,

Nakkavagu, Manjira River, Nizamsagar and Godavari River. These samples are

collected during the rainy season (1997). The variation of TDS, COD and BOD in

surface waters at various locations from the source up to Godavari River is

given in Figures 5.9, 5.10 & 5.11 and Table 5.13. There is an only slight

reduction in the above parameters as the waters of Nakkavagu flow

downstream. TDS and COD values in the effluents are reduced to the

permissible limits, whereas BOD is still high just before the confluence point

with Manjira River. The low values can be attributed to two factors, the innate

capacity of self-treatment of the stream as it moves over a distance (about

22kms) and the dilution factor, as it is the rainy season freshwaters from other

sources reach Nakkavagu. Total suspended solids are also high in Nakkavagu

and Pamulavagu streams. The waters of Manjira and Godavari Rivers are

moderately alkaline, could be the result of agricultural pollution, the excess salts

from agricultural fields (the residual fertilisers etc.) might have reached through

water into the rivers. Sulphates and chlorides found in the effluents are

contributed by the industries as directly or indirectly through CETP’s. But after

the confluence with Manjira River, they are diluted to the safer limits.

Throughout Nakkavagu DO is very low and it is incapable of sustaining any kind

of aerobic life, and also there are few chances of survival of anaerobic life

because of the toxicity of Nakkavagu waters.

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The concentration of Zn, Cd, Pb, Cr and Cu in Isukavagu and Nakkavagu are

presented in Table 5.8 among them except Pb rest are within the safe limits.

Correlation of the parameters indicates that the TDS, TS, TSS, Cl, SO4, COD and

BOD all are positively related to each other’s (Table 5.14). The dissolved

substances such as Cl, SO4, etc. are responsible for the high COD and BOD in

the stream waters. The negative values for Dissolved oxygen (DO) against all

the above parameters indicate that they are responsible for the fall in oxygen

levels in the water.

5.4.1.1.3 Winter Data of Streams (W-Data):

The water of Pamulavagu is highly acidic, whereas the waters of Nakkavagu is

alkaline. TDS, Electrical Conductivity (EC) and COD parameters are moderately

high as compared to the waters of Manjira River. Isukavagu is less polluted

before the confluence of CETP effluents. DO in Manjira River is high before the

confluence of Nakkavagu effluents, but after the addition of Nakkavagu

effluents, its DO is reduced by half (Table 5.15). The Table 5.16 shows a strong

correlation between TDS, EC and COD.

5.4.1.2 Quality of Streams

The quality of the streams as observed during the year is discrete and cannot

be linked to seasons. The drainage system existing and which is used for

draining the effluents from industries are not perennial. The perennial nature of

the streams especially Nakkavagu and Isukavagu are because of the continuous

letting out of the industrial effluents and effluents from CETP-Patancheru. The

production in industries is not seasonal, and the effluents are continuously let

into the streams. Some of the industries are releasing their effluents at intervals

in such cases the samples collected would appear more polluted.

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During the rainy season because of dilution, the pollution levels of Nakkavagu

effluents should have been low but as compared to Summer Data (S-Data) and

Winter Data (W-Data) over all the parameters are high at same locations. The

industrialists had a knowledge of the presence of CPCB team. As a result the

quality of effluents sent to CETP during that period had been good, and the

industrialists restricted themselves during that period by not letting the

effluents into the streams, and also during that period the treatment facility was

improved a lot. There are many reasons for variation of the quality of the

effluents in the streams

5.4.2 Tanks

The quality of tanks depends on upon the water entering them; these are

artificial water bodies purposefully built across the streams to store water. They

have become the traps or obstruction points to the free movement of effluents

in the natural drains, which are released by industries into them. The residence

time of pollutants in tanks is increasing, unless the effluents are released they

remain trapped in them. But for fear of damage to the crops, water is not being

let out. They are presently appearing like ‘solar evaporation tanks’ where

pollutants are getting accumulated in them.

5.4.2.1 Tanks Analytical Results

The degree of quality of some of the tanks in the region is presented in Figure

5.12 and Table 5.17 and 5.18. Higher values of TDS, EC and COD, indicate

higher pollution levels in such tanks. Asanikunta, Khazipalli and Krishnareddipet

tanks are the worst polluted tanks in the region. The Krishnareddipet tank is

one of the highly polluted largest tank in the region. Asanikunta and Khazipalli

tanks have highly acidic waters, which when released into streams will lead to

secondary effects like the mobilisation of heavy metals to less polluted areas.

The Table 5.19 shows a strong correlation between TDS, EC and COD, and a

negative correlation between all the above parameters and DO. Therefore, the

pollutants in the waters are responsible for the fall in DO in the tanks.

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5.5 GROUNDWATER

Groundwater potential depends on upon some factors like climate, topography,

soil characteristics, lithology, geological structures and flora of the area.

Geologically Nakkavagu basin comprises mainly of Archaean granites, alluvium

and partly basalts and laterites. Groundwater occurs in confined, semi-confined

and unconfined conditions. The groundwater pollution depends on various

factors such as depth of groundwater table, type of aquifer, the permeability of

the aquifer, characteristics of the soil, topography, geology of the area and

concentration, dilution, dispersion and nature of pollutants.

The groundwater flow directions get established over a period, there won’t be

much variation in the behaviour of groundwater in aquifers unless there is a

significant crustal movement. As pollutants in groundwater follow the

groundwater flow trends, the dispersion patterns remain the same although the

concentrations of pollutants may vary.

Groundwater pollution takes place because of percolation of the pollutants into

the saturated zone (Figures 5.13 and 5.14). As many factors control the flow of

groundwater, the pollutants also disperse in those directions. The concentrates

of pollutants reaching the groundwater do not remain the same as at the

surface, some of the pollutants get absorbed and / or adsorbed. It also depends

on the solubility of the pollutants in water. At higher alkalinity, the groundwater

precipitates the heavy metals and other elements. Clay is almost impermeable

so they may trap some of the pollutants in the ground.

5.5.1 Groundwater in Granites

Granites are plutonic crystalline igneous rocks. The nature and depth of

weathering, joints, fractures and other structures mainly control the movement

and occurrence of groundwater. The geological structures like joints, faults,

lineaments, etc., in the sub-surface granites, act as conduits for the flow of

pollutants to far off distances.

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Figure 5.13 Effluents released by industries reach saturated zone, pollute

groundwater. Wells intercepting such polluted groundwater zones yield

polluted water.

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Figure 5.14 Influent drainage pollutants mixing with groundwater

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The probable dispersion patterns of polluted water are shown in Figure 5.15.

The weathered product of granite is locally known as ‘morum’, water potential is

high in such weathered zones. Wells are dug up to depths of 15 to 50 feet

below ground level (bgl) in weathered zones. The bore-wells, which reach

fractures or joints in granites, are good sources of water and even more better

if the fractures or joints are interconnected (Figure 5.16). Bore well depths in the

area, on an average in the range of 30 to 100 feet below ground level.

Sometimes water flowing in a certain fracture follows considerable distance

without any loss. Surprisingly pollutants dissolved in water also get transported

too far of without getting diluted because of such fractures (Figure 5.13(d)). The

pollutants also get trapped by dykes (Figure 5.17) and also between the open

spaces between granites (Figure 5.18). For tracking dispersion, pattern and rate

of dilution of pollutants require proper understanding of geological structures.

Basalts and laterites are mainly located in the south-western parts of

Nakkavagu basin; the percentage of basalt and laterite coverage is very less.

The groundwater potential of the three Mandals of Nakkavagu basin is given in

Table 5.20.

Table 5.20 Groundwater Potential

S.No. Name of Mandal Potential (MCM)

1

2

3

Patancheru

Sangareddy

Ramachandrapuram

22.99

25.29

7.18

Source: A.P. State groundwater department reports, 1988-1991 Hyderabad.

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Figure 5.15 Pollution trends

Radial

Oval

Linear

Following fractures or joints

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Figure 5.16 Groundwater flowing through joints and fractures

Fractures

Joints

Pollutants mixed with groundwater

Industrial effluents

precipitation

Hazardous solid waste

leachets

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Figure 5.17 Dispersion of Pollutants in the presence of dyke

Sub-surface Dyke

Water table

Granite

Borewells

Soil

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Figure 5.18 Impact of pollution on confined aquifer in granitic terrain

Granite Granite

Water table

Palaeo water reservoir

Batholith

Soil

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5.5.2 Groundwater Analytical Results

5.5.2.1 Summer Data (S-Data):

S-Data is about 6 samples of which three are borewell samples, and three are of

open wells. The primary analysis data and statistical parameters are presented

in Tables 5.21 and 5.25 respectively.

The samples are compared to the inland surface water samples of EPA (Table

5.10). TDS is high in Pocharam borewell (BP1) and the open well (OB5). COD

and BOD are also very high in all the borewells and open wells, with the

exception of open well (OB4). Hg is very high. As and Se are found high in the

open well samples OB5 and OB6.

The samples are compared to the drinking water standards (Table 5.31). Hg is

about 10 to 300 times high in all the wells. Cl is found high in all the well

samples and very high in open well samples. As, Se, SO4 are located high in the

open wells. Pb is high only in one open well sample (OB4). TDS is found

exceptionally high in all the open well samples and one borewell sample (BP1).

Cd is found high in the Borewells (BP1 and BG2) and the open wells (OB5 and

OB6). Zn is high in all the samples except in one borewell sample (BB3). Cu is

found high in BB3, OB4, OB5 and OB6. Mn is found high in BG2 and OB5

samples. Cr and Fe are within the safer limits.

The correlation matrix is given in Table 5.26. The following groups of elements

are strongly and positively correlated: TDS is strongly related to TH, B and Cr,

TH is strongly related to Cl, Cu, As, Se and Cr, Cl is related to Cu, As, Cr and Se,

B is related to Cr and Fe, Cu is related to As and Se, As is related to Se and Cr,

and the pairs of parameters are also strongly related COD – BOD, SO4 – As, F –

Se, Se – Cr.

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5.5.2.2 G1 and G2- Data

The groundwater data’s (G1 and G2) about the year 1991 is considered to

understand the dispersion pattern of pollutants on the ground.

G1-Data

G1 data of 26 samples represent 14 villages adjacent to Nakkavagu, which are

located in the polluted zone. Analysis of these samples is presented in Table

5.22, and statistical parameters are in Table 5.27. Except for three wells, all other

wells have alkaline waters. TDS and TH values are higher in many well samples,

but they are well within permissible limits for inland surface waters of EPA

(Table 5.10). SO4 and Cl are within limits. Some villages are showing high

concentrations of F and Mn. Fe concentration is high in some cases.

The data is compared to the drinking water standards in Table 5.31. In nine

samples TDS is very high which represent the seven villages Baithole, Lakdaram,

Sultanpur, Inole, Chitkul, Arutla and Ismailkhanpet. Chloride is very high in the

majority of the villages. Fluoride is around 1.5ppm in the majority of cases. Mn

is exceptionally great in Bachuguda, Pocharam, Lakdaram, Chidruppa,

Eardanoor and Baithole villages, and high in Lakdaram, Sultanpur, Peddakanjerla

and Ganapathiguda villages. Nitrate is found high in 12 cases representing 8

villages, Lakdaram, Chidruppa, Sultanpur, Inole, Chitkul, Arutla, Bollaram and

Madharam.

The correlation coefficients are shown in Table 5.28, and the correlation matrix

plot in Figure 5.19 reveals that there is a strong positive correlation of TDS, Cl,

Ca, Fe, and also between the following pairs of parameters TDS – NO3, Cl – NO3,

Ca – NO3 and Fe – NO3. This indicates that all the parameters are associated

with TDS, which were released directly, or indirectly by the industries as

effluents.

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Figure 5.19 Correlation of the parameters (GI-data)

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Figure 5.20 Clustering of the parameters (GI-Data)

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The cluster analysis, based on the similarity measures, also indicates that a

substantial grouping of all the parameters (Figure 5.20). The linkage of these

parameters shows that there is a strong relation of TDS with rest of the

parameters. The extent of groundwater pollution is also shown diagrammatically

in Figure 5.21. The distances indicate that the degree of pollution is exceeding

in one case at Peddakanjerla.

The analytical data is subjected to R-mode factor analysis. A three-factor model

is chosen for interpretation. The factor loadings plot (Figure 5.22) indicate the

following groups of parameters (TDS, Cl-, Ca, and Fe), (TH and Alkalinity (ALK)),

and (Mn and F-). NO3- can be associated with first group as it is located close to

it, SO4- and COD are slightly independent, but they are close to the first two

groups. Overall, all the above parameters are the constituents in the industrial

effluents. pH and Mg are independent. Probably Mg is contributed by the

natural hardness in the groundwaters as magnesium carbonate, in addition to

the contamination from industrial effluents. The characteristic Mn and F

association and in confirmation with the samples, which are contributed from

the industrial pollution and also the natural contamination from deep fractures,

that entered into the groundwater.

G2-Data

G2-Data is about 41 samples representing 13 villages adjacent to Nakkavagu

and its tributaries, which are located in the highly polluted zone. Basic analytical

and statistical data of the groundwater samples are presented in Table 5.23 and

5.30 respectively.

When compared to the inland surface waters (Table 5.10), the TDS values are

exceeding in 6 cases that is 2100. Carbonate Hardness (CH), CaCO3, and EC are

also high in samples with high TDS.

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Figure 5.21 Clustering of the cases having similar groundwater pollution

(GI-Data)

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Figure 5.22 Factor loading plot and screen plot (GI-Data)

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The data is compared to the drinking water standards in Table 5.31. Nitrate is

well within the limit, exceptionally high in two samples of Peddakanjerla. Nitrite

is high in as many as 11 samples representing the following villages, Eardanoor

Tanda, Arutla, Chidruppa, Lakdaram, Ganapathiguda, Kardanoor, Inole and

Peddakanjerla. TDS is also very high in about 11 samples of 7 villages Baithole

Tanda, Baithole, Arutla, Lakdaram, Kardanoor, Ganapathiguda and

Peddakanjerla. In the majority of the cases, Cl is very high, whereas F is very

high in Eardanoor and Inole villages.

Clustering of villages with similar groundwater pollution is shown in Figure 5.25.

Clustering of the associated parameters are shown in Table 5.29. There is a very

strong correlation between TDS, Electrical Conductivity (EC), Carbonate

Hardness (CH), Cl and Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). Therefore carbonates and

chlorides are the major constituents of TDS released by industries. The

dendrogram shows the association of parameters (Figure 5.24).

In the dendrogram (Figure 5.25), the degree of pollution among the samples

are showing less variation except for the last four cases, showing very high

variation from rest of the samples. The four samples are from Ganapathiguda

and Arutla and two samples are from Peddakanjerla.

In the Figure 5.26 generated after R-mode factor analysis the cluster of

parameters are grouped as (EC, TDS, CH, NO3), (Cl, TH, CaCO3), these

parameters are mainly the constituents of the industrial effluents. pH, F and

NO2 are independent. Fluoride can be attributed as mainly a geological

contaminant from deep fractures. Nitrite could be a factor contributed from

agricultural sources i.e. use of nitrogen fertilisers.

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Figure 5.23 Correlation of the parameters (G2-Data)

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Figure 5.24 Clustering of the Parameters (G2-Data)

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Figure 5.25 Clustering of the cases having similar groundwater pollution

(G2-data)

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Figure 5.26 Factor loadings plot and scree plot (G2-data)

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DISCUSSIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The causes and impacts of water pollution are direct and indirect and have

many dimensions. In this chapter, it has been tried to discuss all such

relationships. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Strategic

Environmental Assessment (SEA) which are the tools in decision making for

sustainable development are also discussed. Some of the synthesis discussed in

the following pages reflects the views of either self or the authors of the

literature from which the ideas are quoted.

6.2 ECOSPHERE

The ecosphere is part of geoecosphere or earth. Geoecosphere is defined as the

interacting terrestrial life and life-supporting systems viz. troposphere,

atmosphere, hydrosphere, pedosphere, and biosphere. The interaction of

ecosphere with life and other spheres is shown in Figure 6.1. The sustainability

of life on geoecosphere depends on the quality of all the above spheres. The

rate of change of each geoecospheric component depends on all other spheres

too (Richard, 1995). Human beings, being an inherent component of biosphere

contribute to the overall sustainability or otherwise of the entire geoecosphere

in our unique way. Industrial outfits; the manifestation of human activity, are

clustered to certain zones, very often in and around urban areas. The physical,

chemical and biological nature of ecosphere itself is altered as a result of the

activities like industrialisation, infrastructure development, etc. Industrialisation

often involves generation of different byproducts, which at times are toxic in

nature. The hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere (air) act as two important and

fast couriers for the dispersal of different waste products generated in the

above processes. The hazardous solid waste, which appears immobile, becomes

a source of water pollution through leachets. Thus, preservation, protection,

and conservation of hydrosphere and atmosphere components attain vital

significance.

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6.3 HYDROSPHERE

As discussed above, the preservation of hydrosphere is vital, and this is even

substantiated in the study area too. The hydrosphere and its interaction with

other spheres and external influences are shown in Figure 6.2. The hydrosphere

of Nakkavagu basin suffers mainly from deterioration of the quality of water.

The high degree of the presence of the pollutants in the water environment of

Nakkavagu basin during the last two decades had deteriorated the

environment of Nakkavagu basin.

6.4 ROLE OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ENVIRONMENT

The increase in the intensity of human activities with the progress of mankind is

responsible for the environmental problems on earth. The man is the dominant

species on earth in sheer numbers and capacity to change the natural

environment can be considered a geological agent of action. The impact of

man is largely seen on land and to a lesser extent on the sea. On land or at sea

the activity is limited to the surface environment only.

In biosphere there is no other species as dominant as a man. World Population

is increasing exponentially; therefore, the earth is overburdened by the present

about six billion population. The carrying capacity of earth is reaching a stage of

non-sustenance. The progress of human beings at present is at the cost of

snatching the living rights of about 30 million species, sharing the living space

on this unique planet-earth. Human activity within last three centuries wiped

out many species from this earth. Many species are getting extinct even before

their discovery.

The development and progress of human beings can be attributed to the

geological resources bestowed to human beings by the earth. The progress and

prosperity of human beings is accelerated mainly by the use of water and

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minerals (including soil). The irrigation facilities and fertile soil prospered

agricultural activity, a very old sector in existence for the past more than 5000

years. Although the development of settled agriculture is the precursor for

human development, it accelerated only with the usage of implements and

domestication of animals. Although the devastation of environment and

ecology started since the time man started agriculture, it accelerated only since

industrial revolution.

Extensive discovery and usage of minerals led to the industrial development,

which accelerated only since the 18th century, started in Europe. The raw

material for industries involves mining - stripping the earth, these minerals

excavated are then concentrated, and complex chemicals are formed out of

them. In the process of production, only minor part of the raw material turns

into the finished product, rest of the chemicals is released as waste into the

environment. The hazardous chemicals let into the environment are the cause

of concern.

6.5 WATER CONTAMINATION

Inorganic, Organic and Synthetic chemical wastes released by industries in

Patancheru are the leading causes of water pollution. Synthetic chemicals are

the substances never produced in nature, many of these chemicals are so stable

that they cannot be broken down by the existing Common Effluent Treatment

process.

Ponds, tanks, lakes, streams, and rivers are the natural chemical laboratories for

all kinds of chemical reactions. The presence of sunlight, the wind, convection

currents in the water, and the potential energy of the stream mixes and stirs the

water. Creation of harmful chemicals from harmless chemicals in the natural lab

is taking place on a wider scale. In routine test’s thousands of complex organic

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and inorganic chemicals, those resulting from reactions in the natures lab, are

not analysed. The impact of all those chemicals on biota dependent on those

waters are never known. In situations where the degree of toxicity of chemicals

is beyond the detection capability of human senses, the gravity of the problem

is occasionally revealed by the death of domestic animals, fish, etc., as it is

happening in Nakkavagu basin. In the past two decades hundreds of cattle,

sheep, and other domestic animals died after consuming polluted waters, such

incidents are reported in the press from time to time.

6.6 INDUSTRIES AND POLLUTION

The environment is being polluted by the release of many hazardous

substances by the industries into water, air and soil (Figure 6.8). Many of the

substances that are found in the polluted environment, were not involved in the

evolution of life, therefore they are toxic. Among the 108 elements in the

periodic table, 80 are metals and only 17 of these are toxic viz. Be, Se, Os, Cd,

Pb, Hg, As, Tl, Sb, V, Cr, Te, Ni, Co, Zn, U and Mn. Among the above following

metals are analysed Se, As, Cd, Pb, Hg, Cr and Zn of which Hg, As, Se and Pb are

found to be polluting the water environment of Nakkavagu basin (Ref: Chapter

– V).

The man knows more than seven million chemicals and some 80,000 are in

common use. The carbon-based chemicals account over 90 percent of world

production of organic chemicals and a large proportion of fertilisers. About 800

to 1000 new chemical compounds are introduced each year. The presence of a

large number of pharmaceutical and chemical industries in and around

Patancheru is responsible for releasing organic chemicals into the environment.

Water is an important medium for spreading toxic substances in the

environment. Water also helps in chemical reactions among dissolved

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substances; therefore water is a kind of chemical reactor in nature’s lab, which

can alter the chemical composition and thereby the toxicity of many

substances. Water molecules cause ionisation. Ions are reactive and form

different substances, which could be more or less, toxic, dissolvable, volatile and

able to bioconcentrate. The less oxygen combined with the metal and the more

acid in the water, the more dissolvable the metal. Dissolved metals are easily

taken up by plants and ingested by animals.

The industrial pollution can be broadly classified into inorganic and organic

pollution. Inorganics from industrial sources can be broadly divided into metals,

salts, and acids and bases. The metals are usually found in low concentrations

near localised sources of pollution, but this is balanced by their high human

toxicity. Because they are adsorbed onto minerals, their mobility is restricted.

Trace metals are the metals present in the environment or the human body in

very low concentrations, such as Copper, Iron, and Zinc. Heavy metals are those

trace metals whose densities are at least five times greater than water, such as

cadmium, lead, and mercury. Toxic metals are all those metals whose

concentrations in the environment are now considered to be harmful at least to

some people in some places. Once mobile, metals find their way by many ways

into the biotic systems through, water, food, and air. Chronic poisoning by

long-term exposure to low levels of metals is of more concern than acute

effects. Organo-metallic compounds are more poisonous than the simple

inorganic compounds as they are highly soluble for example alkyl mercuric

compounds.

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Figure 6.2 A simplified model of environmental pollution Holdgate, 1979

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179

Industrial processing often involves derivation of salts as various by-products.

Anions from salts are very mobile and move with the groundwater, cations are

less mobile and undergo ion exchange or adsorption. Some salts contribute to

pollution primarily by their high concentration levels; other salts like arsenic

contribute to pollution because of their toxicity. Acids and bases in the

groundwater are neutralised by aquifer rocks resulting in a salinity increase. Salt

incrustations are commonly found along the banks of Nakkavagu and

Pamulavagu and also in the fields using polluted waters for irrigation.

6.7 INDUSTRIES AND MICRO-CLIMATE

The air pollution has far-reaching impact on the environment; the pollutants

transported by air as a suspended particulate matter or aerosols or in the form

of various gases ultimately return to earth elsewhere, through precipitation or

dry deposition. There is every chance that such pollutants find their way into

the water environment directly or indirectly. Smog formation and acid rains,

which are the two mechanisms of air pollution, have the tendency to alter the

microclimate of the region. Heat island effect is one of the direct / indirect

symptoms of air pollution.

6.7.1 Smog

In the study area, the diurnal temperature variations are usually high.

Occasionally on clear and calm winter night’s temperature, inversions are

witnessed that leads to condensation just above the ground surface called fog.

Particles of smoke and poisonous gases such as sulphur dioxide, oxides of

nitrogen, carbon monoxide;, etc., released from the industries couple with fog

to form smog. The smog is a health hazard. The smog is more common in

Patancheru industrial area especially in the low-lying areas during winters.

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6.7.2 Acid rains

Acid rains are indirect sources of water pollution through the air. The normal

rain is slightly acidic (about pH 5), due to dissolved carbon dioxide and other

naturally occurring acids in the atmosphere. Rain with pH less than normal

values in a region is called acid rain. The air pollutants like sulphur dioxide,

nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, etc., are released into the

environment in an industrial area. Under dry conditions in the atmosphere, the

gases react chemically with sunlight results in photochemical smog, it is a foul

smelling yellowish haze rich in ozone, running eyes and noses, coughing is the

symptoms, sometimes can lead to death. The photochemical smog cannot be

ignored. Under wet conditions in the atmosphere, like the presence of clouds,

precipitation leads to acid rains. The acidity of rainwater, flowing into streams

and lakes is reduced by rocks containing calcium which neutralises the acid. The

granite rocks in Nakkavagu basin, which contain little calcium, do not neutralise

acid rain, so the acids enter rivers and destroy the ecosystem. pH less than 5.5

leads to a reduction in fish numbers, and fish death occurs below pH 5. Acid

rainwater releases aluminium from rocks, which is poisonous to fish and plants.

Acid rain kills forests over large areas called ‘forest dieback.' The archaeological

monuments like temples, mosques, and graveyards plastered by mortar are

etched or eaten away. The archaeological sites in and around Patancheru

several hundred years old are under threat. Acid rains in and around industrial

areas have the tendency to pollute surface water and groundwater resources.

6.7.3 Heat island

Industries contribute to the rise in atmospheric temperature called ‘Heat Island’;

this phenomenon is experimentally proved for many large cities. Industrial areas

such as those concentrated in Nakkavagu basin too contribute largely for raise

in temperatures and changes in the local climatic conditions.

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The heat in the industrial areas released by the machinery, exothermic chemical

reactions, and vehicles, burning of fossil fuel, wood and from other heat energy

sources. The continuous release of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide,

nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's), etc., creates a bubble-like shield of

several square kilometers around an industrial area and the surrounding rural

areas. There is usually high dust content in the air released by the various

processes in an industrial area. The greenhouse gases and the dust allow the

solar radiation but they prevent the outgoing long radiation, therefore heat is

trapped. Consequently, the microclimate in and around an industrial area would

be warmer then the surrounding open countryside. The dust particles and the

gases like sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, chlorine, fluorine, bromine, carbon

monoxide, etc., are hygroscopic in nature encourage condensation, that leads

to cloud cover, the clouds again act as heat blanket.

6.8 TOXICITY

The quantum of pollutant to which each individual is exposed is called the dose,

and the amount of health damage is called the response. The dose is usually

expressed in one of the three ways, a) The amount of substance actually in the

body. b) The amount of the material entering the body (usually in food,

drinking water, or the air). c) The concentration in the environment (John et al

1991). Toxicity of pollutants is shown in hypothetical dose-response curve

(Figure 6.9)

The assimilation of xenobiotic chemicals within organism at sub-lethal or lethal

levels may induce a sequence of biological effects. These range from molecular

interference with biochemical mechanisms and interactions with cellular

organelles (e.g. DNA and RNA molecules), through to pathological changes at

the cellular, tissue, and organ levels. Finally, these result in an integrated

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functional or behavioural response, experienced at the whole organism level,

which may be reversible or irreversible (Des and Gregory, 1984).

Figure 6.3 Hypothetical dose-response curve a) the observed effects of a

substance essential to life at low concentrations b) the effects of a non-essential

substance, Duffus, 1980.

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Biomagnification is an indirect route of pollutants reaching species at higher

trophic levels, through an endless cyclic transfer of food material from life to

life. Often the victims are identified lately and by the time of discovery a large

community is under the impact of pollution. This kind of pollution requires a

thorough study of all the paths of food chains. Ultimately the estimation of

impact of pollution on human beings is possible through epidemiological

studies. It is the search for statistical associations between the occurrence of

disease in a population and the factors suspected of causing the disease.

6.8.1 Toxics Found in Nakkavagu Basin

The following are the toxicants, which are being used by the industries in the

production. Many of these toxicants would be consumed in part only for end

product, rest of the chemicals are released as wastes, would pollute the water

environment of Nakkavagu basin. The health and environmental impacts

discussed are from Harte et al., 1991.

Acetone:

Other names: Dimethyl ketone,~ 2propallone; pyroacetic ether; ketone

propane.

Health Effects:

Inhalation of very high concentrations can depress the central nervous system,

causing dizziness, weakness, and loss of consciousness The presence of large

amounts of acetone

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Ammonia:

Other names: Ammonia water; ammonium hydroxide.

Health effects:

The symptoms of ammonia exposure are a burning sensation (in the eyes, nose

and throat), pain in the lungs, headache, nausea, tearing, coughing and an

increased breathing rate. Concentrations are shown in table below~

Health Effect Concentration

Throat irritation

Cough

Life threatening

High mortality

400 ppm

1700 ppm

2400 ppm

>5000 ppm

Environmental effects:

Ammonia (NH3) adds nitrogen to the environment, In areas that cannot handle

the added nitrogen, disruptions to the ecosystem will result, These include toxic

effects on plants, Birds, and animals and changes in the balance of species,

Although ammonia is a base, it actually acidifies soil by its rapid conversion to

nitrate (NO3), releasing hydrogen ions just like other acids

Arsenic:

Physical and chemical properties: Arsenic and selenium are antagonistic toxins

exposure to one reduces the adverse effects of the other.

Health effects:

Lung cancer from inhaling arsenic and skin cancer from swallowing it are the

two most dangerous effects of arsenic exposure for the general population.

Inorganic is considered as the highest category of cancer-causing chemicals.

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Acute Arsenic Poisoning is characterised by severe gastrointestinal damage

resulting in vomiting and diarrhea and general vascular collapse leading to

`shock, coma, and even death.

Environmental Effects:

Arsenic is toxic to plants in high concentrations Eventually the trees may

become totally unproductive.

Benzene:

Other Names Benzol,_ carbon otl,` coal tar naphtha; cycLohexatriene,_ phenyl

hydride; pyrobenzole

Health effects: Acute exposure following ingestion or excessive inhalation

depresses the central nervous system resulting in a headache, dizziness, nausea,

convulsions, coma, and possibly death. It is considered as a carcinogen.

Leukemia -induced death rate of 95 per 1000 workers based on an assumed

lifetime occupational exposure.

Environmental effects: Benzene is a long-term contaminant of groundwater

because it cannot readily evaporate underground, and since little microbial

activity occurs in underground water, it is not degraded

Cadmium:

Health Effects:

Inhaled cadmium is associated with lung cancer in people. Chronic exposure to

low levels of cadmium may also result in progressive lung diseases such as

emphysema and chronic bronchitis Chronic exposure to cadmium is also

associated with a wide range of other diseases, including heart disease, anemia,

skeletal weakening, depressed immune system response, and kidney and live

disease.


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Organisms strongly accumulate cadmium at all levels. Cadmium has the

Potential to concentrate in the food chain.

Copper:

Health Effects:

Copper deficiency leads to anemia, growth retardation defective keratinization,

hypothermia, mental deterioration, etc. Excess copper leads to diseases like

hePatitis, cirrhosis tremor, kayser fleisher rings and renal dysfunction

Chromium:

Health Effects:

Chromium metal appears to be biologically inert, and no harmful effects have

been reported. Chromium compounds are responsible for the majority of all

adverse effects of chromium. Chromium can produce liver and kidney damage,

internal haemorrhage, dermatitis, respiratory damage, and lung cancer, Longer-

term exposures to the respiratory tract and skin can produce perforated and

ulcerated nasal septa, inflammation of the nasal passages, frequent nose

bleeds, and skin ulcers.

Dioxane:

Other Names: /, 4-Dioxane,` pdiomn,` di(ethylene oxide); diethyLene dioxide;

diethyLene ether; diethylene oxide. Dioxane is a synthetic organic compound

Health effects:

Chronic exposure to dioxane is also hazardous. Prolonged skin exposure can

cause a rash or bump Repeated exposure to levels that do not cause symptoms

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can lead to slowed central nervous system function and liver and kidney

damage. These symptoms may be delayed because the chemical has a

tendency to accumulate in body tissue, When dioxane is present in chlorinated

water, a highly toxic compound is formed Its toxicity is 1000 times.


Dioxane could pose a toxic threat to the groundwater supplies if concentrations

are high enough, because of slow microbial degradation and it cannot

evaporate easily from groundwater.

Ethylene Dichloride (EDC):

Health effects:

Central nervous system and gastrointestinal problems such as dizziness, nausea

headache, vomiting, diarrhea, dilated pupils, weak pulse, cyanosis, and

unconsciousness. Kidney and liver damage. In mammals metabolism of EDC

produces metabolites (including chloroacetaldehyde, chloroacetic acid, and

chloroethanol) that appear to be several times more toxic than the parent

compound The metabolic products bind strongly to DNA than does EDC such

binding reactions are involved in the development of mutations, birth defects,

and cancers

Environmental effects

Groundwater contaminant as evaporation rates from underground water is low,

Fluoride:

Health Effects:

The intake of small recommended amounts of fluoride provides partial

protection against tooth decay (dental caries). There is also evidence that small

doses of fluoride can help stimulate bone growth in patients with osteoporosis.

Over-consumption leads to gastrointestinal illness, nausea, and vomiting.

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Long'-term exposure to high levels of fluoride in drinking water can lead to a

serious condition called severe skeletal fluorosis, or crippling fluorosis In this

disease, fluoride causes irregular bone deposits to form, which can lead to

severe pain in joints and eventual crippling Mouling of the teeth (dental

fluorosis) is the most widespread effect of fluoride. As tooth enamel forms in

childhood

Formaldehyde:

Other Names: Formalin,' Methyl aldehyde.

Highly water soluble, colourless gas with a pungent odour and irritant

properties Health effects: Formaldehyde is a possible carcinogen. Health effects

at various concentrations are given in the table below.

Effect Concentration (in

ppm)

Neurophysiological effects

Eye irritation

Upper respiratory irritation

Lower airway and pulmonary effects

Pulmonary edema, inflammation, pneumonia

Death

0.05-1.05

0.05-2.0

0.10-25

5.0-30

50.0-100

>100

Iron:

Health Effects:

Iron deficiency leads to anemia, but exposure to excess iron leads to hepatitic

failure diabetes and testicular atrophy etc.

Lead:

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Health Effects:

Lead affects the human nervous system, the production of blood cells, kidneys,

reproductive system, and behaviour. The risks of lead poisoning are greatest in

children and pregnant women, Health effects at various blood lead levels are

given in the table below.

Health Effect

Blood Lead

Concentration

(ppb/100ml)

Level of concern for fetal effects

Blood enzyme changes

IQ deficiencies in children

Clinical anemia, children

Clinical anemia adults

Reproductive effects in adults

Mental losses (writing and speech problems and

mental retardation)

Irreversible brain damage

10-15

15-20

<25

40

50

50

50-60

100

Manganese:

Health Effects:

Deficiency leads to bleeding disorder whereas excess leads to diseases such as

encephalitis, psychosis, Parkinson syndrome and pneumoconiosis

Mercury:

Other Name: Quicksilver

Health Effects:

In addition to pure mercury compounds of mercury can also be harmful,

Methylmercury accumulated in fish by biomagnification, is rapidly absorbed by

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people who eat such fish and can readily pass through the placenta of pregnant

women, exposing developing fetuses, and through the blood-brain barrier into

the brain. High exposure leads to damages to the nervous system, Memory

losses, tremors, emotional instability (anxiety and irritability), insomnia, and loss

of appetite characterise milder exposures. Introversion appears to be the most

prominent personality trait in affected people. At moderate exposures, more

significant mental disorders and motor disturbances as well as kidney damage,

are seen.


-Inorganic mercury discharges by industry are converted by bacteria water and

in sediments to organic methylmercury~ The organic form, methylmercury

accumulates in the aquatic food chain through the process of biomagnification.

-Acid rain and the increasing acidification of surface waters, more acidic

conditions shift the organic mercury to forms that are more readily absorbed by

fish (dimethyl to monomethyl mercury), thus raising the levels in fish to which

humans are ultimately exposed

-Freshwater species are more vulnerable than marine species because selenium

in seawater provides partial protection against mercury's effects

Methylene Chloride:

Other Names: Dichloromethane,' methane dichloride,' methylene dichloride

Health effects:

Methyl chloride is a common pollutant of air and groundwater. The main

exposure is through inhalation. Methyl chloride readily absorbed once inside

the lungs' Absorbed methylene chloride is distributed throughout the body and

easily crosses the blood-brain barrier and the placenta It can also be found in

the breast milk of exPosed women' Once inside the body, methylene chloride is

rapidly converted to carbon monoxide' although it can also be stored in body

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fat. People exposed to high levels of methylene chloride show decreased

manual performance and attention lapses. Heart arrhythmias and death have

been ascribed to excessively high levels of the solvent in air. Methylene chloride

may cause cancer.


Methylene chloride stays in the groundwater for many years. It does not stick

well to soil particles and thus allowing it to move great distances in an aquifer

following its release into soil.

Nitrogen dioxide:

Health effects: Some health effects of Nitrogen Dioxide Exposure

Effect Concentration

Airway resistance increases in chronic bronchitis

Symptoms in asthmatics (nasal discharge,

headaches,

dizziness, and labored breathing)

Infections in young children

1.6 (3-minute exposure)

0.5 (2-hour exposure)

0.15-0.30 (repeated peak

exposure)


Nitric acid, the end product of nitrogen dioxide chemical reaction is the end

product in air. Acid min is a threat to plants and freshwater fauna

Selenium:

Health Effects:

Selenium is the metallic element required in small amount for human health,

but which in large quantities can be toxic, Chronic selenium poisoning results in

loss of hair and fingernails, with disorders of skin, nervous system, and teeth

also reported Selenium has shown to reduce the toxicity of cadmium, inorganic

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and dimethyl mercury, thallium, and silver by altering the way these metals

react in the body.

Environmental Effects

Selenium intoxication of farm animals is a well-known condition that

accumulates selenium from soils rich in the substance. Chronic ingestion over

periods of weeks or months can produce two conditions the blind staggers-

affected animals have impaired vision and alkali disease-signs include liver

cirrhosis, hoof malformations, loss of hair and emaciation.

Sulphur Dioxide:

Health effects:

Effect Concentration (ppm)

Lung function in resisting asthmatics

1-2

Lung function changes in asthmatics with light to

moderate exercise

0.6-0.75

Lung function changes in asthmatics with

moderate to heavy exercise

0.4-0.6

No effects in free-breathing asthmatics at fight

exercise and insignificant effects at moderate

exercise

0.1-0.3


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The most severe damage is caused by the conversion of sulphur dioxide to

sulphuric acid in the atmosphere and its subsequent deposition as acid rain and

dry acid particles

Toluene:

Other Names: Methylbenzene,' methyl benzyl; phenylmethane; toluol.

Health effects:

Upon inhalation, the vapours aggravate the respiratory tract, depress the

central nervous system, and damage the liver and kidneys Exposure of pregnant

women to toluene has been associated with damage to the unborn child

Environmental Effects

In the atmosphere, toluene contributes to the problem of photochemical smog

Natural plant and animal populations are likely to be at risk from industrial and

vehicle-related releases of toluene because natural levels are very low in

comparison

Zinc:

Other Names: Chinese white,_ flowers of zinc; philosophers wool;

Health Effects:

Zinc is required for human health over-consumption of zinc may impair heart

function. It is the most common metal found in Human tissues after iron. Much

zinc can result in a condition called zinc toxicosis Over consumption of zinc

leads to stomach distress, cramps, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea.


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Zinc is more a hazard to aquatic organisms than to humans In areas around

smelters and mine runoff plant growth is depressed and aquatic life and

waterfowl are impaired The effects of zinc are greater in soft water than in hard

water.

6.9 PEOPLE

Nakkavagu basin and surrounding areas are being inhabited for more than 2

million years. These indigenous peoples life is in jeopardy at this juncture of

history, the development that claims the progress of life and mankind also acts

against it. The sons of the soil are nowhere safe on this earth, more unlikely

near the industrial areas. Pollution does not have limits; the cause and effect

can reach any distances, by any media and means.

The traditional knowledge has little meaning in the modern industries.

Industrialisation is meaningful if it brings real development in the lives of

indigenous people. In the name of development of backward Districts as in the

case of Medak District, industrialisation is alone not justified. The agricultural

activity with options of irrigation sources falls under zone one and two of

intensive agriculture of Von Thunen’s five agricultural zones that is intensive

dairy farming and horticultural activity. Around Hyderabad this is the only

region best suitable for the intensive agricultural activity, having the finest

watershed management.

Patancheru is the sub-urban part of Hyderabad; this region is prosperous in

comparison to other interior parts of the District which are backward, the

development of those parts would have been justified if at all there is any

interest to develop the backward Medak District.

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The industrial activity is secondary which requires skilled persons and literates,

or else it becomes an attractive place for the immigrants and in real terms of

development little does the local people will be benefited directly in the form of

jobs. With the proximity to Hyderabad, in fact, the industrialisation benefited

the immigrants and other residents in securing jobs than the rural indigenous

population. The Medak District overall got benefited very little. The industries

are thriving at the cost of environmental degradation. It 's hard to evaluate and

estimate the total losses to property and life, due to pollution. The

industrialisation in this part of Medak District benefited the local population

very little, but it could have earned riches for the state and the nation in the

form of foreign exchange and taxes. The bulk drug industries are providing

succour to millions of people elsewhere but same industries causing diseases

and / or death of the local people. These industrialists have not taken any major

social service work for the local people, though it is the social and moral

responsibility of industrialists towards them. The industrialisation in this part of

Medak District has given more sufferings to the indigenous people then

prosperity.

6.10 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES

As far as human beings are considered, developmental activities in a region are

weighed by positive and negative Socio-economic parameters. Any

developmental activity is meaningless unless a majority of the local population

is benefited out of it. Socio-economic impact is equally important as

biophysical impact, but in the majority of Environmental Impact Assessment’s

less importance is given for Socio-Economic impact. It is often found that

industrial pollution and its impact on the biophysical environment are

overlooked if socio-economic benefits are considerable.

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The social and economic impacts are determined by the type of projects and

upon the host environmental characteristics of the region. Socio-economic

impacts are of various types. The direct impact is the creation of employment

opportunities for local and non-local people. The educational and industrial

training institutes at local level provide opportunities for the local population in

the skilled sector. The attraction of higher wages leads to some people shifting

from less promising traditional occupations. Industrial development also leads

to a shortage of agricultural labour, as they shift to industries for work, which

provides higher wages. The leakage from multiplier benefits would lessen if the

percentage of local labour employment were high. The cause-effect diagram for

the local socio-economic impacts due to industrial development is shown in

Figure 6.3.

6.11 LANDSCAPE

The industrialisation and other developmental activities in Nakkavagu basin

brought changes in the landscape by the construction of buildings, laying of

roads, the release of pollutants, etc. The landscape is an important national

resource and an outstanding natural and cultural inheritance, which is widely

appreciated for its aesthetic beauty and is important contribution to regional

identity and sense of place. Although it is subject to evolution and change, the

landscape is recognised as a resource of value to future generations. (DOT

1993). The following is an initial list of factors that contribute to landscape (CC,

1993).

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Figure 6.4 Cause and Effect diagram for local socio-economic impacts of

industrial development (Redrawn and modified figure, Glasson et al. 1987)

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Physical: geology, landform, climate, and micro-climate, drainage, soil,

ecology

Human: archaeology, landscape history, land use, buildings and settlements

Aesthetic:

Visual, e.g. proportion, scale, enclosure, texture, colour, views

Other senses e.g. sounds, smells, tastes, touch

Associations:

Historical, e.g. history of settlements, special events

Cultural, e.g. well-known personalities, literature, painting, music.

The indigenous people associated with the local landscape since childhood will

find it difficult to appreciate the changed landscape. For the youngsters who

are born after the establishment of industries between 10 to 20 years of age,

there is no comparative landscape of any kind in their minds, as they have not

experienced anything better landscape since their birth. The elderly persons

were nostalgic when asked to compare the landscape that they witnessed

before and after industrial development.

Nakkavagu was the center of activity for the people of Bachuguda village;

people were seen taking a bath in the waters, catching fish, washing clothes,

etc. It was also the place for domestic animals for drinking water and taking a

bath in those waters. Such scenes in the landscape of Nakkavagu are missing at

present.

The pollution of environment will lead to mental disturbance too. The pitch

dark polluted waters with floating oils and grease and the bad odour

emanating from the water repel people from approaching them. The change in

the composition of plant species brought a total change in the landscape of the

area. Birds are appearing less in numbers they have migrated elsewhere, at very

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few non-polluted lakes large population of several birds are seen, example

Lakdaram tank. Aesthetics of the region is spoiled completely by the industrial

pollution.

6.12 CONCEPTS OF EIA AND SEA

Environmental impact can be defined as any change in the environment that is

caused by an activity or a factor. The change caused by an activity may be

physical, chemical, biological, social or economic. (Ramaswamy et al., 1990).

History of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is given in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1 History of developments in Environment and EIA.

1947 Representatives of 24 nations and many private societies met at Switzerland to

propose the creation of an ‘International Union for Conservation of Nature’

(IUCN) which came into being in 1948 under UNESCO.

Mid-1960’s Warning from scientists – climate change – increasing carbondioxide.

Late 1960’s Environmental awakening.

1962 Rachel Carson – ‘Silent Spring’ – About the use of pesticides – a great impact

on masses.

1969 National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA), USA, launched EIA and EIS.

Pre 1970 Legislation’s enacted by many countries – air and water pollution, soil erosion.

1970’s A decade of response and action.

1971. World Bank – Environmental Unit – Environmental reconnaissance on hydro

projects and guidelines on EIA.

1972 UN conference on Human Environment, Stockholm, Sweden.

1974 UN conference on the Population.

1976 U. N. conference on Human Settlements.

1987. Asia Development Bank (ADB) – Environmental unit – guidelines on EIA.

1990 Resource Management Act, New Zealand – Principle of sustainability.

1994 EIA is made mandatory for 29 categories of industries by Govt. of India.

The EIA is having a role in achieving the sustainable goals. Sustainable

development is that development which meets the needs of the present

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without compromising the ability of future generations to achieve their needs

and aspirations’ (Brundtland Commission, World Commission on environment

and Development (WCED), 1987). The concept of sustainable development can

be made operational in the form of carrying capacities. EIA is a way of assessing

the carrying capacity, which is a function of some variables, area of the region,

resources under threat, nature of resources, value of the resources and limits of

capacity.

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) aims to prevent environmental

degradation by giving decision-makers better information about the

consequences that development projects could have on the environment. The

benefits of EIA are widely recognised, yet the approach has been applied

primarily to individual projects such as industrial installations or power stations,

rather than to the earlier policy decisions that often strongly influence decisions

concerning projects. The emerging context of EIA is given in Figure 6.5.

Integration of EIA into project cycle is shown in figure 6.6.

Increasingly, Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is being used to assess

the consequences of policies, plans and programmes (PPP’s) at the earlier

stages of decision-making. Before going for regional development plans, such

as industrialisation of a region, etc., Strategic Environmental Assessment is

important only after such an assessment, individual proposed projects

assessment should be done. As a result, SEA is likely to become the most direct

method for implementing sustainability. The potential benefits of SEA are given

in Table 6.2. The direct and indirect effects of policies and programmes are

shown in figure 6.4.

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Figure 6.5 The emerging context of EIA, Sadler, 1994

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Figure 6.6 Integration of EIA into project cycle

Source : United Nations Environment Programme, 1998)

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Figure 6.7 Direct and indirect effects of policies and programmes

Source: Federal Environmental Assessment Review Office, 1994)

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Table 6.2 Potential benefits of strategic environmental assessment (Wood

and Djeddour, 1992)

Encourages the consideration of environmental objectives during policy, plan and

programme-making activities with in non-Governmental organisations

Facilitates consultations between authorities on, and enhances public involvement

in, evaluation of environmental aspects of policy, plan and programme formulation.

May render some project EIAs redundant if impacts have been assessed

adequately.

Allows formulation of standard or generic mitigation measures for later projects.

Encourages consideration of alternatives often ignored or feasible in project EIA.

Can help determine appropriate sites for projects subsequently subject to EIA.

Allows more effective analysis of cumulative effects of both large and small

projects.

Encourages and facilitates the consideration of synergistic effects.

Allows more effective consideration of ancillary or secondary effects and activities.

Facilitates consideration of long range and delayed impacts.

Allows analysis of the impacts of policies, which may not be implemented through

projects.

Current SEA processes vary considerably. They may be formal / informal,

comprehensive or more limited in scope and closely linked with or unrelated to

either policy or planning instruments (Prasad, 1998). Regarding SEA, India has

little experience, and it is yet to be considered as a mandatory procedure for

every regional development policies, plans, and programmes.

Strategic environmental assessment and Project Environmental Impact

assessment differ in five ways. (Wood, 1995).

1. The precision with which spatial implications can be defined is less.

2. The amount of details relating to nature of physical development is less.

3. The lead-time is greater.

4. The decision-making procedures and the organisations involved may

differ, requiring a greater degree of co-ordination.

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5. The degree of confidentiality may well be greater.

EIAs followed by SEA is important for achieving the sustainable development of

a region. India is one of the first developing countries in the world to bring out

various legislative measures for the protection of the environment. As these two

tools are the recent developments, India should set an example by strictly

implementing the EIA and SEA for various developmental projects for achieving

sustainable development.

The legislative measures brought by Government of India for the protection of

Environment are given below.

- Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

- Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

- Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977

- Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

- Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

- The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

- The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991

Environmental Impacts

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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Environmental impact may be defined as any changes in environmental

conditions or creation of a new set of environmental conditions, adverse or

beneficial, caused or induced by the action or set of actions under

considerations.

Environmental impacts can be of three types as, primary, secondary and

tertiary. Primary impacts are the result of direct actions and, secondary and

tertiary impacts are indirectly induced and typically include the associated

investment and changed patterns of social and economic activities by the

proposed action.

All the impacts have been comprehensively assessed or discussed in this

section. Many of the impacts were covered in detail in the previous chapters.

7.2 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

7.2.1 Geology

a) The granitic terrain of Nakkavagu basin being acidic in nature does not

buffer the acidic waters directly released by industries.

b) Joints and fractures in the Granites act as conduits for carrying the

effluents to far off places.

c) Deep well disposal practice in Nakkavagu basin is not recommendable.

As Nakkavagu basin is located over hard rock area (Peninsular granites

and gneisses), effluents do not have any chance to penetrate deep into

the ground and get restricted to shallow zones. With the result,

groundwater of the area gets polluted.

d) It is possible that some of the pollutants identified in water and soil

samples are contributed by the geology of the area. It can be seen that


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pH of some of the surface water bodies is acidic, which leaches and helps

in the movement of certain elements. These elements get deposited

under favourable conditions.

7.2.2 Topography

The slope of the basin is in the NW direction, while most of the industries are

located in the south-east quarter of the basin. Consequently, effluents flow all

the way across the basin. This increases the residence time for the toxicants.

The increase in residence time of effluents leads to the spread of pollution in

the basin, covering a larger area.

The construction of industries and other ancillary structures has resulted in a

change in the topography of the area mainly in the south-eastern quadrant of

Nakkavagu basin where the majority of the industries are located.

7.2.3 Soils

a) Black cotton soils are predominantly rich in clay content (up to 50

percent) and are less permeable. They hinder percolation of effluents

entering into groundwater.

b) Clay of brick making grade that is available at Patancheru is also a

hindrance for the percolation of pollutants. The clay also adsorbs some

of the hazardous elements.

c) Industrial pollution had degraded the soil quality, as can be seen in

Figure 7.1.

d) The salts dissolved and deposited in the valleys resulted in salt

incrustations in the soils adjacent to Nakkavagu. Saline soils lead to

relatively poor germination and leads to physiological drought, thereby

effecting the growth of the plants.

e) The polluted and non-productive fields are being used for the mining of

sand (recent alluvium along the banks of Nakkavagu), and the clay of


208

brick making grade for the construction industry had resulted in loss of

top fertile soil and presently these fields are turned into badlands.

f) The mining of sand along Nakkavagu also results in easy movement of

pollutants further into new areas along Nakkavagu.


209

Figure 7.1 Impact of Pollution on Soil – A visualized diagram


210

7.2.4 Climate and Meteorology

Temperature conditions and evaporation rates are relatively high in tropical

climatic conditions. Such a condition results in a concentration of the pollutants

in the effluents. Concentrated effluents are more toxic than diluted effluents.

Similarly, as this area receives just about 80cms of annual rainfall, the dilution

factor is very less. The problem of formation of salt incrustations increases in

areas with high temperature and less rainfall. And also the residence time of

pollutants would have been less in the case of areas with high rainfall, as the

pollutants would be flushed out with the rainwater.

Wind speed and direction is important in understanding the impacts of air

pollution. The Pre-monsoon south-eastern winds in the evenings have an

impact on the residents of Hyderabad. The winter winds, which move in the

east and southeast direction mostly, are the most hazardous to the residents of

Hyderabad. In October (23rd and 24th) and November (15th) 1998, the gas such

as methyl mercaptan (it is a heavy gas and it is easily detectable even in

miniscule amounts) was released by one of the three industries in Nakkavagu

basin, reached as far as Jubilee hills and Panjagutta in Hyderabad. This gas

which is easily detectable was the cause of annoyance and protest by the public

(Venkateshwarulu, 1998). The Hazardous gases released by the industries and

which cannot be detected by human beings would have an impact on the

health of Hyderabad population residing in the north-western part of

Hyderabad. The heavy gases would accumulate in the narrow and valley like

parts of the city, especially during the winters, as the air would be cool and

heavy. This would be part of the usual smog, and mist observed during the

winters. As the annual wind patterns are rare in the southern and south-western

directions, the rural people are relatively safer as compared to the larger

population residing in Hyderabad to the east and south-east.


211

Due to heavy air pollution, acid rains are possible. However, air pollution from

NOx, and SO2 is not a major threat presently to the resident population in the

area. But there is another threat from the volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

like Benzene, Toluene etc., as these chemicals are being used in large quantities

in the industries. Absence of forests and other vegetation coverage, the

problem of particulate matter is high especially in Patancheru.

7.3 BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT

7.3.1 Flora

The region has a rich bio-diversity of plant species, meeting the needs of the

people in different ways for the past several centuries. People are well aware of

the use of this invaluable resource. However, pollution in the region had

drastically reduced the incidence of natural species. Due to the presence of

polluted waters, soil, and air, under the new environmental conditions, many

plant species is reduced to few numbers and are limited to few pockets. The

resistant species such as Acacia fernugia is seen in more numbers in all the

highly polluted parts of the basin, in the industrial areas, and all along polluted

Isukavagu, Pamulavagu, and Nakkavagu. Industrial pollution also affected the

agriculture sector in some areas of Nakkavagu basin. This relationship is shown

in Figure 7.2.

7.3.2 Fauna

There is very little wild fauna in the region, as the percentage of forest cover is

very less, and presently appears in pockets only. The major threat is to existing

fauna mainly domestic animals, and birds. The impact of pollution on domestic

animals such as disease and death lead to direct economic losses to the

farmers. The appearance of birds, resident and migratory, is decreasing

drastically. In fact, even the sparrows are seen in less numbers in the area. The

perennial water tanks located in the south and south-eastern part of the basin,


212

where the majority of Industries are located. The industrial effluents entering

into such tanks made the water toxic, has an impact on the aquatic life, which in

turn affects the aquatic birds.


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Figure 7.2 Impact of Pollution on Agriculture


214

Manjira wildlife sanctuary is located close to this region; the majority of the

industries in Nakkavagu basin are well within 25 to 30 kms of this sanctuary. As

per the environmental guidelines for industries (MoE & F, 1994), all the

polluting industries located well within 25 kms from the ecologically sensitive

areas which includes Sanctuaries should be shifted to a safer distance. Birds not

constrained by geographical barriers, birds visiting this sanctuary would also

visit Nakkavagu basin wherein they are likely to be exposed to various kinds of

pollutants.

7.3.3 Flora and Fauna of Surface Waters

The surface waters include the tanks and streams of Nakkavagu basin. The

impacts are mainly due to the pollutants released by industries into the surface

water bodies. Isukavagu, Nakkavagu and Manjira River (after the confluence of

Nakkavagu) do not support any significant life. Similarly, Khazipally cheru,

Gandigudem cheru, Krishnareddipet cheru, Mukta kunta, Bollaram cheru,

Khazipalli village cheru, Saka cheru, Isnapur cheru and Chitkul cheru are the

most polluted and support very little aquatic life. Whereas Nagula cheru,

Aminpur cheru, Mutangi cheru and Lakdaram cheru, and Manjira River before

the confluence with Nakkavagu are less polluted, hence they support a good

number of aquatic species (Ref: Table 3.3 in Chapter–III).

7.4 Socio-Economic and Cultural Environment

For the socio-economic and cultural environment impact assessments

Patancheru, R.C.Puram, Jinnaram and Sangareddy Mandals are considered in

which Nakkavagu basin exists.

7.4.1 Population

Because of the proximity to Hyderabad, industrial development and the passing

of N.H-9 are the factors responsible for the development of R.C.Puram and


215

Patancheru. One of the reasons for less development of Patancheru in

comparison to R.C.Puram is because of water pollution and obnoxious smell.

Female ratio per 1000 males is less for Patancheru and other three Mandals as

single bachelor's immigrated from elsewhere, for working in the industries at

the cost of the local population.

The population structure of most polluted villages, which are located close to

the industrial areas and the polluted streams such as Ismailkhanpet, Arutla,

Chidruppa, Bythole, Eardanoor, Indrakaran, Lakdaram, Chinnakanjerla,

Peddakanjerla, Sultanpur, Krishnareddipet, Indresham, Inole, Bachuguda,

Chitkul, Isnapur, Kardanoor, Muttangi, Pocharam, Khazipalli and Bollaram. The

percentage of the rural population is around 80% in some villages, which

means not many people are taken in jobs in spite of industrialisation. Only

around 20% of the population is literate that reduces the job opportunities.

Around 20% of the population being below 6 years of age are sensitive to

pollution.

7.4.2 Education

As the literates and the educated local population is low in comparison to a

large number of educated people in a city like Hyderabad which is located in

the suburbs, local people are getting less employment opportunities.

7.4.3 Health

Many of the polluted villages in Nakkavagu basin along polluted streams have

no safe drinking water supply. In 1997 High Court passed an interim order in

the Public Interest Litigation (W.P.No. 26336 dated 5.7.97), asking the

government to provide and continue water supply to the pollution affected

villages in and around Patancheru and Bollaram industrial areas. The villages

include Kalabgur, Kandi, Rudraram, Isnapur, Chitkul, Muttangi, Pocharam,


216

Patancheru and Ramachandrapuram. The domestic animals such as cattle and

sheep, upon drinking the polluted waters either got effected and some of them

died in many instances. Moreover, the crops grown in such a polluted

environment could be phytotoxic. Therefore the polluted water, air and food

would have an adverse impact on the lives of people and other life in

Nakkavagu basin. The present Public Health Centers and Veterinary services

provided by Government are inadequate.

7.4.4 Land – use

The increase in the fallow lands and less percentage of net sown area in

Patancheru, Sangareddy, Jinnaram and R.C.Puram Mandals can be related to

the developmental activities and the pollution of the environment by industries.

7.4.5 Agriculture

Many farmers have shifted to dryland farming where the surface and

groundwater sources are polluted. Some of the farmers are leaving their fields

fallow even up to 20% as in case of Pocharam and Bachuguda villages.

The polluted tanks and the wells to the south-east and southern part of the

basin and the wells along Nakkavagu rendered water unfit for irrigation, either

the crop yields would be very low or occasionally the whole crop would wither

and die. The pollution of water and soil has an adverse impact on the majority

of the local population still dependent on agriculture especially would affect the

majority of marginal farmers.

7.4.6 Employment

Industrialisation did not help the local people in getting alternative

employment opportunities because of the most competitive people in

Hyderabad. Therefore there is a large-scale migration of `skilled’ people into

this region. As the residential areas are located towards Hyderabad away from


217

the industrial area because of the polluted environment in Patancheru area and

other disadvantages of services. As a result, the indirect employment

opportunities are less, therefore, the multiplier economic benefits are also less.

7.4.7 Cultural Properties

The relics of cultural and other heritage sites existing in and around Patancheru

area were neglected due to industrialisation. Innumerable ancient sculptures,

engravings, etc., found in the region have been abandoned and are never taken

care of nor reported to the Archaeology department.

7.5 WATER ENVIRONMENT

7.5.1 Nakkavagu Basin

Drainage System

The drainage system of Nakkavagu was altered through many centuries by the

interference of human activities, like the construction of tanks and channels,

etc., and also with the recent developmental activities especially in the south-

eastern quadrant of the basin. The drainage system is altered and obstructed,

therefore these kinds of activities will act against the free flow of pollutants, and

hence the residence time of pollutants in the basin increases.

Tanks

The presence of water storage tanks in the south and south-eastern part of the

basin are acting as solar evaporation ponds for the pollutants entering them for

example Isnapur tank, Peddacheruvu, Saka cheruvu, Krishnareddipet tank, etc.

As these tanks are located on the non-permeable rocky area. The excellent

water harvesting and storage facilities constructed in Nakkavagu basin are

acting like traps against the free flow of pollutants thereby increasing the

residence time of the pollutants in the basin.


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7.5.2 Industrial Pollution in Nakkavagu Basin

The majority of the industries located in Nakkavagu basin are the bulk-drug or

pharmaceutical industries. Some of the chemical compounds which are used as

raw material in the production of drugs are Acetone, Acetyl chloride, Ammonia,

Aniline, Benzene, Bromine, Chlorine, Chlorosulphonic acid, Dimethylcaromyl,

Dioxane, Ethylene dichloride, Formaldehyde, Hexane, Hydrochloric acid, Maleic

anhydride, Methylene chloride, Nitrobenzene, Nitrogen dioxide, Nitrogen

oxides, Phenol, Phenyl glycidal ether, Sodium cyanide, Sulphuric acid, Thionyl

chloride, Toluene, Triethylamine etc. Tonnes of such chemicals are used in the

production are hazardous. In a case study of 10 such industries on an average

about 4.3 times of hazardous raw material is utilised for every unit of the

product produced (Ref. Table 5.1). These industries are using organic and

inorganic hazardous chemicals which when released in the process are

hazardous to the life in Nakkavagu basin.


219

Figure 7.3 Economic leakages by non local workers


220

Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs)

The two CETPs, which were established in Patancheru and Bollaram, to treat the

effluents of member industries, are the major contributors to water pollution in

Nakkavagu basin. The effluents released by CETP-Patancheru are toxic and

hazardous, as the effluents are only partially treated. The sludge that is derived

as a waste product in the treatment process of both the CETPs has no place for

secure disposal, which is again a potential source of water contamination.

Therefore CETPs which are industries by themselves are the major contributors

to water pollution in Nakkavagu basin.

7.5.3 Surface water

The ranges of pollutants found in the water environment of Nakkavagu basin

are shown in (Figure Summary of chemical analysis).

Flowing waters

In general, the quality of effluents in Nakkavagu are deteriorating as observed

over a period (Ref: Table 5.8).

The Nakkavagu and Pamulavagu waters are alkaline. TDS, TH, TSS, COD, BOD,

SO4, Pb, Hg, As, Se are found to be high in the samples collected from,

Nakkavagu, Pamulavagu, and CETP. CETP is releasing the effluents with very

high concentration of all the above parameters and including Cd, Zn, Cu, B, Mn,

Cr and Fe. These waters are not fit for releasing into the inland surface waters

(Table Summary).

TDS, COD, and BOD of the effluents of Nakkavagu are only partially reduced

over a distance of about 22kms. As the chances of dilution in Nakkavagu is less

as the rainfall in this region is about 80cms only. Therefore Nakkavagu mainly

acts as an influent stream, which contaminates the groundwater on either side

of the stream.


221


222

In rainy season, the level of pollution in Nakkavagu is supposed to be low,

considering the factors of dilution. However, contrary to this belief, the early or

first monsoon showers also add to the pollution of Nakkavagu. Leachets from

solid waste dumps enter into Nakkavagu stream. Salts from salt incrustations in

the soil and or other precipitates would directly or indirectly reach Nakkavagu.

Some of the pollutants may enter Nakkavagu by accident or illegal release of

effluents from `solar evaporation ponds’. They usually overflow, since they

remain uncovered and get filled by rainwater, and also there will be little

evaporation because of cloud cover during monsoons. In spite of dilution, it

was observed during the peak of the rainy season (1997) a particular paddy

field irrigated from Nakkavagu waters at Ismailkhanpet Bridge turned brown

and withered. However, after heavy rains in the later part of the rainy season,

the levels of pollution in Nakkavagu are less, because of dilution. Therefore

nowhere and at no time of the year, Nakkavagu is fit for irrigation right from

Kardanoor village to the confluence point at Gaudcherla (about 25 kms stretch).

Tanks

Tanks were built for conserving water and recharging groundwater. But now

they have become a hindrance to free flow of pollutants in the basin. As a

result, the residence time of the pollutants increased, causing damage to the

environment and ecology in Nakkavagu basin. Industrial effluents polluted

many tanks located in different villages on Pamulavagu tributaries; they are

Khazipally cheru, Gandigudem cheru, Krishnareddipet cheru, Mukta kunta,

Bollaram cheru and Khazipalli village cheru. Some tanks located on the

tributaries of Nakkavagu are also polluted such as Saka cheruvu, Isnapur and

Peddacheruvu. The tanks in isolation and away from industrial areas are less

polluted, and some are best preserved, they are Nagula cheru, Aminpur cheru,

Mutangi cheru and Lakdaram cheru. Almost all the major tanks of Nakkavagu

basin are located to the south-east quadrant of the basin as the industries are


223

also located in the same region, therefore the majority of the tanks are polluted

by the industrial effluents released into them. These polluted tanks have

become secondary sources of pollution of streams, tanks, and the groundwater.

7.5.4 Groundwater

Groundwater is polluted on either side of the Nakkavagu and the waters are not

useful for drinking. TDS, COD, BOD, Cl, and Hg are found to be high in the

groundwater samples collected at Pocharam, Ganapathiguda, and Bachuguda

villages. Open wells, which are close to Nakkavagu, are highly contaminated in

comparison to the borewells.

The pollutants also contaminated the drinking water sources of the following

villages: Baithole, Baithole Tanda, Lakdaram, Sultanpur, Inole, Chitkul, Arutla,

Chidruppa, Ismailkhanpet, Peddakanjerla, Kardanoor, Eardanoor and Eardanoor

Tanda. Some of the pollutants such as F, Mn could have been partially entered

into borewells through deep fractures and also the pollutants such as NO2 and

NO3 could have been the result of use of nitrogen fertilisers by farmers. Overall

the groundwater is contaminated, up to a distance of 500 to 1000 meters on

either side of Nakkavagu, from Kardanoor to Ismailkhanpet.

7.6 ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ON NAKKAVAGU BASIN

WITH AND WITHOUT INDUSTRIES

This is an exercise to quantify the impacts based on the checklist developed by

the Environmental Evaluation System (EES) at the Batelle Columbus

Laboratories, USA (Dee et al., 1973) is used with some modifications, for final

evaluation of impacts with and without industries. In this assessment, 36

parameters are selected (ref. Figure 1.5). Parameter importance weights (PIW)

represent the value of importance of each environmental parameter. The

weights have been given to the 36 environmental parameters based on the


224

degree of the impact caused by the establishment of industries and associated

developmental activities over the last 40 years (industrialisation started in

Nakkavagu basin about 40 years back). Similarly, the weights were given

assessing the degree of alteration of environmental parameters that would

have happened over the last 40 years, even without industries in Nakkavagu

basin.

Impact assessment is a comparative exercise. In the absence of industries too

there ought to be changed in the environment, mainly because of four factors:

a) The growing population in Nakkavagu basin and associated

developmental activities like housing, road networks and other services.

b) The modernisation of agriculture (increasing use of chemical pesticides

and fertilisers)

c) Influence of growing Hyderabad City and the expansion of the city along

NH-9 axis

d) The impact of NH-9, pollution by vehicles, increase in a number of

vehicles, etc.

The resultant weights were given to all parameters (Tables 7.1 (a), (b), (c), (d)

and (e)). The difference and the total weights are also presented in the tables.

The quantification of the impacts is through personal judgement after going

through all methods of assessment of impacts.

The reasons for impacts without industries are comprehensively discussed

below. Patancheru was traditionally an intensive agricultural zone. In

comparison, there is enormous water potential in the area. Further, being

nearer to Hyderabad, the market plays a vital role in defining the orientation of

agricultural practices. Thus, there should be a decreasing preference among the

farmers to leave the lands fallow.


225


226


227


228

There would have been a slight change in cropping pattern from traditional

crops like paddy to commercial crops. In such a situation, there would have


229

been a corresponding increase in the consumption of pesticides and fertilisers

to maximise yields. The residual chemicals lead to agricultural pollution from

inorganic and organic chemicals. Natural growth of population in the region

will increase pressure on the natural resources like construction material for

housing, etc. Energy consumption also increases. People dependent on

firewood would deplete the existing flora in the common lands. Water, health

and sanitation are also of prime concern. In the absence of industries, the

community structure and participation in social and cultural activities would be

strong. As it is close to Hyderabad City, some people would prefer to shift to

the city for residential purpose. Vehicular traffic on the highway passing

through Patancheru increases the incidence of air and noise pollution leading

to adverse environmental impacts. NH-9 is one of the busiest highways.

The impact assessment studies of this area indicate that there is a considerable

impact on the environment. There is a two-fold increase when compared to the

ratios to ‘No industries.' When viewed for ‘No industries’ it would have retained

80% of the environment unaffected. Whereas with industries, it is observed that

the loss to the environment is to the extent of 60%. Overall the differences

show that there is a limited advantage for human interest such as generation of

jobs but the value of losses to the environment, ecology and aesthetics cannot

be accounted due to the industries. The results should be viewed seriously

otherwise the basin would further become unsuitable for any kind of activities.

Conclusions

230

CONCLUSIONS AND MITIGATIONS

The Nakkavagu basin has been thoroughly studied for Environmental Impact

Assessment(EIA) by considering the physical, biological, socio-economic and

cultural, and water environments Based on the studies and discussions made in

the preceding chapters the following conclusions are drawn and certain

mitigation measures are suggested

8.1 CONCLUSIONS

1. Industrial activities including infrastructure and other associated

developmental activities are concentrated in certain zones especially to

the south-eastern quadrant of the basin. Polluted effluents and noxious

gases being released and hazardous solid waste being dumped in the

region. Consequently, physical, chemical and biological nature of surface

environment was altered by these industries. Accumulation of pollutants

over a period of time, and with the expansion of existing industries

coupled with the establishment of new industries in the region increased

the impacts of pollution on the inhabitants of Nakkavagu basin.

2. The surface water and groundwater of Nakkavagu basin is polluted. Large

traces of toxic elements like Hg, As, Se and Pb and high values of TBS,

BOD and COD found in the polluted waters of Nakkavagu basin confirms

this When these elements in various compounds form get transferred

through the food chain is dangerous to the life.

3. Effluents in Nakkavagu polluted the groundwater sources around

industrial areas and along the course of the streams. The contamination

of groundwater resource has affected the agricultural sector. The ground

water is polluted to the maximum on either side of the Nakkavagu, to a

distance of 500 to I OOOm.

Conclusions

231

4. The increase in the number of anaerobic tanks point to escalation of

toxicity levels of the sediments getting deposited by the polluted waters.

5. The high industrial concentration ( a diverse set of industries) release

different byproducts into the stream as hazardous wastes. These

pollutants are a threat to the life in Nakkavagu basin.

6. There is a gross misuse of the concept and facility of CETP in Nakkavagu

basin. The hazardous sludge's dumped or consolidated in the open lands

by these cost or infrastructure intensive treatment plants stand testimony

to this.

7. Increased in-migration rates and the corresponding preponderance of

natives to agriculture and allied practices indicates that the welfare of local

people has not exactly been on the positive side.

8. The loss of biodiversity and the emergence of the dominance of

Xerophytes such as Prosopis Juliflora species strongly point to land

degradation within no major timeframe.

9. The distribution of various industrial clusters in the study area goes

diagonally to the concept of industrial land development mooted by

Central and State governments under the name _Patancheru industrial

area'. The irregular distribution of industrial units irrespective of their

nature of operations or requirements at the same place confirm improper

execution of the development of Patancheru industrial area

10. The concept of modem, pollution free industrial development through

minimal or all effluents release is unknown to the residents of Nakkavagu

basin, the industrial entrepreneurs of Nakkavagu basin and the planners

and administrators looking after the industrial development in Nakkavagu

basin.

Conclusions

232

8.2 MITIGATIONS

1. Resistant plant species among the indigenous plant species should be

identified through research, for planting them all along the polluted

streams, on either side. A circular vegetative screen of diverse species

should be planted around all the villages so as to decrease dust and air

pollution. And all along the village roads, a green belt can be raised.

2. Farmlands have become saline and toxic because of the use of polluted

waters, which are rich in salts. Reclamation of saline soils is possible by

two means: a) treatment of fields with gypsum and b) flooding of fields

continuously with unpolluted water. So that the salts and other toxic

elements will be washed away with the excess waters. Throughout the

year at no time, fields should not be exposed to harsh sun, and should

be covered with vegetation. If they are exposed, salts from lower levels

will move to the surface by capillary action and again form as

incrustations.

3. Presently, there are chances of contamination of food crops due to

pollution. Instead, for the time being, raising commercial crops like jute,

cotton, timber plants, etc., should be taken up.

4. The lack of zoning of industries increased the risk of pollution. Zoning

the industries by categories the impact of environmental pollution can

be reduced. Patancheru has a heterogeneous mix of industries, which

complicates the problem of pollution. Effluents from varied industries are

being treated at common effluent treatment plants. There is no effective

method to treat such a complex of effluents.

5. Solid waste generated in industrial processing should be disposed of

safely at secured landfill sites. There is a need for creation of such a

facility near Patancheru, and right now there is no such facility.

Conclusions

233

6. Analysis of effluents through parameters like pH, Total solids, Total

suspended solids, total dissolved solids, chlorides, sulphates, COD, BOD

and DO, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cr, Cu and few other parameters is not adequate.

Organic and synthetic pollutants are a major threat in this area but are

rarely analysed. Therefore Pollution Control Boards (PCB’s) need to be

better equipped with effective instruments for better monitoring and

evaluation of pollution.

7. Prevention of water pollution is better than remedial action. Prevention

of pollution at the source should be given top priority. By taking

necessary steps, harm to human health and the environment can be

lessened.

8. Industries are releasing untreated or partially treated effluents into the

tanks. Such practices should be completely avoided. Catchment area

protection and some measures should be taken for recovering the tanks

as suggested below:

Prevention of industrial effluents into the tank, diversion of

effluents by laying pipeline system to a safer place. Protected,

lined sewerage system lessens dispersion of pollutants. This

system could follow natural drainage system. And also trenching,

bunding and diversion channels across for preventing the

effluents entering into tanks from probable drains.

A green belt covering the periphery of the tank beyond full tank

level should be maintained.

Dredging or desilting the polluted tanks, emptying the tanks

during summer. Followed by the whole tank should be subjected

to lime treatment. This activity is to be finished before the

monsoon. Whenever fresh rainwater gets accumulated during the

rainy season, indigenous aquatic species of flora and fauna from

Conclusions

234

the unpolluted tanks should be reintroduced, after checking the

quality of the water. They should be monitored for one year,

before handing it over to the water users committees of the

respective villages.

The sludge removed from the tanks should be safely disposed off

as per ‘Hazardous Waste (Management and Handling) Rules,

1989’.

9. Instead of providing compensation to the farmers regarding money for

crop losses due to pollution, State government should take necessary

steps to reclaim the polluted lands and in providing the irrigation

facilities from unpolluted sources.

10. Location of industries at Patancheru is never justifiable, as this region is

rightly suitable for agriculture. Most polluting industries and all those,

which are not complying with the rules under various environmental Acts

and Rules, should be closed immediately.

11. Pollution cess should be collected from each polluting industry, right

from the inception, so as to compensate the potential victims of

pollution and in case of any major industrial hazard.

12. Polluter pays’ principle should be made mandatory to make the polluters

responsible. All the polluted villages must be provided free drinking

water to cater to the needs of people and their domestic animals,

payable by the polluting industries.

13. To monitor the local climate, a meteorological station should be

established at Patancheru or Bollaram, to measure other than normal

parameters like air pollution, the acidity of rain, smog, etc. The air

pollution would also contaminate the hydrological system.

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