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Rent Race: The growing unaffordability of rent in Metro Vancouver
Highlights• InMetroVancouver,rentingisincreasinglyviewedastheanswertoskyrocketingrealestateprices,butrenting
isprovingtobeincreasinglyunaffordable.Thishasthepotentialtoadverselyimpactthequalityoflifeforrenters,reducethelabourpoolforbusinessesandimpactservicesthatBritishColumbiansrelyon.
• Rentersaccountformorethanone-thirdofhouseholdsinMetroVancouverandamajorityofresidentsintheCityofVancouver(51%).Millennials(bornbetweenabout1980to2000)areoverrepresentedamongrenterhouseholds,constituting33%ofthetotal.
• Rentershaveahigherlabourparticipationrate(69.1%)thanhomeowners(64.9%),andaredispersedthroughouttheentireeconomy,despitecommonperceptionsofrentersbeingprimarilyemployedinlow-wageservicejobs.
• Rentersplayacriticalroleinmaintainingadynamiceconomybybeingmorelikelytomoveintimesofeconomicchange(representingtwo-thirdsofallmovesbyallhouseholds)thantheirhomeownercounterparts,inturnsupportinglabourfluidityacrosstheregion.
• Whileweeklymedianwagesgrewby6.6%inB.C.between2011and2015,rentsincreased11.4%onaverageinMetroVancouver.
• Highaveragerents($1,144permonth)andlowvacancyrates(0.8%)areincreasinglylimitingtheoptionsofwhereyoungerandlower-incomehouseholdscanliveandwork.
• Theaveragemillennialrenterhousehold(includesallfamilytypes)earnedanestimatedmedianincomeof$40,300in2015.Consideringtoday’saveragerentalrates,thesehouseholdsarepricedoutofmuchoftheCityofVancouver,NorthVancouver(cityanddistrictmunicipality),WestVancouver,RichmondandBurnaby.
• Renterworkersmakingamedianincomeinfieldsasdiverseasconstruction,educationalservices,healthcareandsocialassistancefacetheveryrealpossibilityofbeingpricedoutofthecommunitiestheycallhome.ThistrendhaspotentialtoleaveMetroVancouverwithalimitedpooloflabourtodrawfrom.
• Byprotectingexistingrentalstockandstimulatingcreationofnewsupply,governmentcanhelpexpandandstrengthenthiscriticalformofworkforcehousing.Rentersthemselvescanbemindfuloftransportationcostswhenassessingaffordabilityforrentals,andbusinessescansupportworkersthroughadvocacy,locationefficiencyanddirectinvestmentinaffordablehousing.
Make Good Money (TM) is a trademark of Vancouver City Savings Credit Union.
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AshighlightedinpreviousVancityreportsonhousingaffordability,home-ownershipprospectsformillennialandworkinghouseholdsareincreasinglyoutofreach.iAsthemostrecentexampleofskyrocketingrealestatepricesinMetroVancouver,betweenMay2015andMay2016,theaverageresidentialpriceintheregionincreasedmorethan30%to$786,500,faroutpacingtheaveragehousehold’scapacitytoaffordownership.iiInlightofdecliningaffordabilityintheownershipmarket,recentmediacommentaryhassuggestedthatrentalhousingisaviablealternativetobuyingformillennialhouseholds.
Unfortunately,thisreportshowsthattherehasalsobeengrowingunaffordabilityandproblematicallylowvacancyratesinrentalmarketsacrossMetroVancouver,makingthisoptionunreliableforyoungerandpoorerhouseholds.Whilethesehouseholdsusedtolooktowardthesuburbstofindaffordableandavailablerentals,transportationcostshavethepotentialtoerodethisaffordability,furtherexacerbatingtheissueacrosstheregion.
Theaffordabilityandavailabilitycrunchintherentalhousingmarkethasimplicationsthatnotonlyimpactthequalityoflifeforrenters,butmayalsoimpactthefutureprosperityandgrowthoftheregion.Whilerentersfrequentlygounnoticedinpolicydiscussionsandpopularcommentaryabouttheeconomy,theyareakeycontributortotheeconomicfabricofMetroVancouver.Rentersaccountformorethanone-thirdofhouseholdsacrosstheregionandconstituteamajorityofresidentsintheCityofVancouver.InMetro,rentersalsodisplayhigherparticipationrates,beingmorelikelytobeengagedinthelabourforcethantheirhome-owningcounterparts.Despitethecommonperceptionthatrentersareinvolvedinonlyafewformsoflaboursuchasretailandrestaurantwork,theyareemployedinallsectorsoftheeconomyandarecrucialtothesharedprosperityofourcitiesandregions.BusinessesdependonthemandBritishColumbiansdependontheservicestheyprovide.
Whilerentersaretiedtoadynamic,productiveandprosperouseconomy,thisreporthighlightshowincreasinglyunaffordablerentalhousingisrestrictingwheretheseindividualsandfamiliescanliveandwork.Inturn,thelackofaffordablerentalhousingoptionsposesadangertooureconomiccompetitiveness,asrentersareincreasinglyforcedintotheoutersuburbs,furtherandfurtherawayfromcentresofemployment.Ifcurrenttrendscontinue,workingrenterhouseholdswillbepricedoutofthecommunitiesthatrelyonthemforeconomicgrowthandprosperity.
Millennials in the rental marketThefutureofMetroVancouverrestsonyoung,mobile,andhighlyeducatedmillennialhouseholds.Thisreportbeginsbyexaminingtheabilityoftheaveragemillennialhouseholdtofindaffordablerentalhousing.Usingadataseriesbasedonthe2011NationalHouseholdSurveythatexaminesrenterhouseholdincomeformillennialsinMetroVancouver,thereportestimatestheir2015incomeusingthemedianweeklywageincreaseforallindustriesinBritishColumbiabetween2011and2015.iii
ThereportcomparestheseincomestotheaveragerentsandvacancyratesofvariousgeographicalzonescontainedintheCMHC2015Fall Rental Market Survey.ivThisanalysisprovidesageographicallookatwhatareasareaffordableandavailabletotypicalmillennialrenterhouseholdsacrossMetroVancouver.vThepurpose-built,condo,andsecondaryrentalmarket(e.g.,basementssuites)arealsofactoredintotheanalysiswheredataisavailable(showninthetablesasVancouverCensusMetropolitanArea(CMA)condo/secondary).Thevacancyratewasincludedintheanalysisgiventhatahouseholdcanrentaunitonlyifthereisavailablesupply,aswellastohighlighthowmanyrentalmarketsacrosstheregionfallbelowa“healthy”vacancyrateof3%.
Thereportalsoestimatesanaveragehousehold’stransportationcostsusingMetroVancouver’sHousing and Transportation Cost Burden study.viOtherreportshavesuggestedthatahousehold’saffordablehousingandtransitcostshouldequalnomorethan45%ofhousehold’sgrossannualincome.vii
Asawhole,millennialrenterhouseholdshadanestimatedadjustedmedianincomeof$40,300in2015.viiiThisfigureincludesallhouseholdtypessuchassingles,couples,andcouplewithchildren,andisreflectiveofhouseholdsaged15to34yearsold.Usingthestandard30%ofgrosshouseholdincomeasanaffordabilitybenchmark,thesehouseholdscanafford$1,005inrentpermonth.
Whencomparedtoaveragerents,millennialshaveadifficulttimeaffordinganaveragerentalaccommodationacrosstheregion(Table1).MillennialsarepricedoutofmostneighbourhoodsinVancouver,aswellasNorthVancouver(districtmunicipalityandcity),WestVancouverandRichmond.Theyarealsopricedoutofthecondoandsecondarymarket.ThegeneraltrendisthathousingaffordabilityappearsinsuburbancommunitiesacrosstheregioninareaslikeSurrey,DeltaandtheTri-Cities.
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Average rent Vacancy rate
(%)
Is this neighbourhood/municipality affordable
and available?
UniversityEndowmentLands $1,712 0.1 No
WestVancouver $1,673 0.5 No
VancouverCMA(Condo) $1,421 0.9 No
Westside/Kerrisdale $1,390 1.6 No
Downtown $1,361 0.6 No
WestEnd/Downtown(Zones1-3) $1,350 0.5 No
EnglishBay $1,341 0.3 No
WestEnd/StanleyPark $1,336 0.5 No
VancuverCMA(Secondary) $1,300 Nodata No
Kitsilano/PointGrey $1,285 0.6 No
SouthGranville/Oak $1,264 0.6 No
NorthVancouverDistrictMunicipality(DM) $1,257 0.5 No
CityofVancouver(Zones1-10) $1,233 0.6 No
NorthVancouverCity $1,158 0.4 No
Richmond $1,152 0.9 No
VancouverCMA $1,144 0.8 No
SoutheastVancouver $1,118 1 No
NorthBurnaby $1,082 1 No
MountPleasant/RenfrewHeights $1,076 0.4 No
CentralPark/Metrotown $1,045 1.3 No
Burnaby(Zones12-14) $1,031 1.2 No
EastHastings $1,002 0.6 Yes
Tri-Cities $951 1.2 Yes
NewWestminster $933 0.9 Yes
Marpole $928 1 Yes
Delta $920 0.6 Yes
WhiteRock $918 0.8 Yes
SoutheastBurnaby $905 1.2 Yes
LangleyCityandLangleyDM $895 1.5 Yes
Surrey $874 1.9 Yes
MapleRidge/PittMeadows $827 1.6 Yes
Table 1 – Housing affordability and availability for millennial households
Source:CMHC2015,VancouverandAbbotsford-MissionCMAs,FallMarketSurvey
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Iftransportationcostsarefactoredin,thesehouseholdscanafford$1,510permonth(basedon45%ofthemedianmillennialincome).Whilesomeaffordabilityexistsinthesesuburbancommunities,transportationcostsarealsotypicallyhigherintheseareas.Ifrentalhousingisnotlocatedneartransit,thesehouseholdswillhavetodependoncars,whichareexpensivetomaintain.Assuch,whenaveragetransportationcostsarefactoredin(includingcaruse),thesemunicipalitieslosetheiraffordability(Table2,above).
Affordablerentalhousingforyoungerhouseholdsiscrucialforthefuturegrowthandprosperityoftheregion.Figure1belowdemonstrateshowyoungerhouseholdsconstituteahigherproportionofrenterhouseholdsthantheirolderpeers.Thisisdueinlargeparttotheseyoungerhouseholdsleavingthefamilyhometocreatenewtenanthouseholds.Withoutaffordablerentalhousingtobuildalife,youngerhouseholdsmaydelayfamilyformation,liveinparents’homesforlongerormoveawaytomoreaffordabledestinations.
Average rent
Average transportation cost
(estimate)
Sum of housing and transportation cost
Vacancy rate (%)
Is this neighbourhood/municipality affordable
and available?
WestVancouver $1,673 $1,086 $2,759 0.5 No
NorthVancouverDM $1,257 $1,086 $2,343 0.5 No
LangleyCityandLangleyDM
$895 $1,362 $2,257 1.5 No
NorthVancouverCity $1,158 $1,086 $2,244 0.4 No
Delta $920 $1,314 $2,234 0.6 No
Richmond $1,152 $1,069 $2,221 0.9 No
VancouverCMA $1,144 $1,025 $2,169 0.8 No
MapleRidge/PittMeadows
$827 $1,331 $2,158 1.6 No
WhiteRock $918 $1,224 $2,142 0.8 No
Tri-Cities $951 $1,152 $2,103 1.2 No
Surrey $874 $1,224 $2,098 1.9 No
CityofVancouver(Zones1-10)
$1,233 $749 $1,982 0.6 No
Burnaby(Zones12-14) $1,031 $928 $1,959 1.2 No
NewWestminster $933 $928 $1,861 0.9 No
Table 2 – Estimated housing and transportation cost for millennial households
Source:CMHC2015FallMarketSurveyandMetroVancouver“HousingandTransportationcostburdenstudy”
Figure 1 – Age groupings of renter households, 2015
Millennials (aged 15-34)
Gen X (aged 35-49)
Boomers (Aged 50 - 70)
Silent Generation (Aged 70 +)
Source:BCNPHARentalHousingDemandprojections
33%
11%
30%
26%
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Who are renters and where do they work?Thispressureintherentalmarketextendsbeyondmillennialhouseholds,impactingallagegroupsacrosstheregion(Figure1,p.4).Rentaldemandprojectionsshowthatifcurrenttenurepatternshold,rentaldemandinMetroVancouverwillgrowby41%by2036.Thismeansanadditional135,000unitsofrentalhousingwillneedtobedevelopedoverthenext20years.ix
Notonlyarerenterhouseholdsrepresentedinallagecategories,buttheyarealsoemployedinallsectorsoftheeconomy.Comparingthetop10jobsectorsforrentersandownersdemonstratesthatbothareemployedinsimilarsectors,withonlyslightvariationintheorderofthecategories(Table3).Whileownersearnhigherincomesthanrentersinthesamejobcategories(datanotshown),localeconomiesrelyonthepresenceofbothrentersandowners.
Renters and the economyTheaffordabilitycrunchintherentalhousingmarketmayalsohaveaneffectontheregionaleconomy,throughreshapingthelabourforce’sabilitytomoveandsettleforwork.
Researchhasdemonstratedhowrentalhousingreinforcesandsupportsdynamiclabourmarkets.xRentershavebeenshowntobemoremobilethantheirhomeownercounterparts,whichprovidethemwithmoreflexibilitytomoveaslabourmarketdemandsshift.OneresearchhighlightfromCanadaMortgageandHousingCorporation(CMHC)foundthatmore
thantwo-thirdsofhouseholdsthatmovedduringasix-yearperiodwererenters,eventhoughtheyrepresentedonlyone-thirdofallhouseholds.xiMobilerentersareabletofillcriticallabourmarketgapsastheyarise,movingtodifferentlocationsasjobscomeup.Forinstance,ifayoungfamilyinHalifaxfindsanemploymentopportunityinVancouver’stechindustry,theabilitytofindaffordablerentalhousingwillplayacriticalroleintheirdecisiontomovehere.Thedecisiontopurchasewilllikelyoccuraftersettlement,whenthefamilyhashadtimetodeterminetheneighbourhoodormunicipalitybestsuitedtotheirneeds.
Relatedtothis,skilledworkerscomingtoCanadaindependentlyarerarelyabletopurchasehomes,andthereforemostarefoundintherentalmarket.xiiMostofB.C.’seconomicgrowthmovingforwardwillstemfromimmigrationandinter-provincialmigration,andwillrequireanaffordableandaccessiblerentalmarket.Whileaffordablerentalhousingisneededtoattractworkers,italsosupportsresiliencyintheeconomybyallowingpeopletomoveintimesofunemployment.xiiiRegionsandcitieswitharobustrentalsectorarebetterabletoadapttochangingeconomiccircumstancessuchasjoblossorgrowthinparticularsectors.
Beyonditsimportancetolabourmarkets,buildingrentalhousingisgoodfortheeconomy.Previousstudiesonrentalhousingandtheeconomyhaveshownhowcrucialthesectoristogrossdomesticproduct(GDP).OnerecentstudyconductedbyKPMGestimatedthatB.C.’srentalhousingindustrycontributed$12.25billiontoCanada’sGDP,generated82,851full-timepositionsandcreated$2.99billioningovernmentrevenuesin2013.xiv
Top 10 job sectors of renters in Metro Vancouver Top 10 job sectors of owners in Metro Vancouver
Industry Industry
1 Restaurantsandhospitality 1 Healthcareandsocialassistance
2 Healthcareandsocialassistance 2 Professional,scientificandtechnicalservices
3 Professional,scientificandtechnicalservices 3 Restaurantsandhospitality
4 Retailtrade 4 Retailtrade
5 Construction 5 Educationalservices
6 Educationalservices 6 Construction
7 Administrativeandsupport,wastemanagementandremediationservices
7 Manufacturing
8 Manufacturing 8 Transportationandwarehousing
9 Otherservices(exceptpublicadministration) 9 Financeandinsurance
10 Transportationandwarehousing 10 Publicadministration
Table 3 – Comparison of top 10 job sectors for owners and renters, Metro Vancouver
Source:BCNPHA2011NHSCustomDataRequest
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Renters are more engaged in the workforceAcrucialfactthatfurtherunderscorestheneedformorerentalhousingisthatthelabourparticipationrateforrentersinMetroVancouveris69.1%,comparedto64.9%forhomeowners.xvHigherparticipationratesamongrentersdemonstratesthattheyaremorelikelythanhomeownerstobeengagedinthelabourmarketandalsoprovidesacompellingreasontofocusonmaintaininganaffordablerentalsupplytoensurethesecurityofthelabourforce.
Where can typical renter households afford to live?WhilerentersaredispersedthroughoutMetroVancouver’seconomy,theyareincreasinglyunabletofindaffordablerentalaccommodation,inturndecreasingtheirlabourmobility.Akeyreasonforunaffordableaccommodationisthatrentshaverisenmuchfasterthanincomesinrecentyears.Whileweeklymedianwagesgrewby6.6%between2011and2015inB.C.,rentsincreased11.4%onaverageinMetro(Figure2).Wagegrowthisnotkeepingupwithrisinghousingcostsintherentalmarket.
ToexaminetheeffectofthistrendonrentersinMetroVancouver,thisreporthasdevelopedfourscenariosoftypicalrenterhouseholdssearchingforaccommodationusingtheincomedatainTable4below.Table4updates2011NationalHouseholdSurveyincomedatato2015usingtheLabourForceSurvey(LFS)estimates.LFSestimatesmeasurethechangeinmedianweeklywagebyNorthAmericanIndustrialClassificationSystem(NAICS)sectorsinBritishColumbiaforbothmenandwomenbetween2011and2015.xviWhilethereareissueswithdirectcomparisonthatarediscussedfurtherinthemethodology,theLFSprovidesausefulproxytomeasurewagegrowthacrosslabourcategories.Medianincomeswereselectedtogiveamorerealisticsenseofrenterwagesacrosssectors,giventherearemanyjobtypeswithineachcategory.xviiInaddition,thetableisreflectiveof“totalincome”forindividualsover15yearsofage,whichincludesincomefromsourcessuchasgovernmenttransfers,socialassistance,childbenefitsandemploymentinsurance.
Theincomes(Table4)arecomparedtoCHMC’s2015Fall Market Surveywhichprovidesup-to-datedataonrentsandvacancyrates(a“healthy”vacancyrateisconsideredtobe3%).Inaddition,theCMHC’sNationalOccupancyStandardswereusedasaguidefordetermininghousingsuitability,whichisbasedonfamilycompositionandsize.xviii
Figure 2 – Cumulative change, median weekly wage (B.C.) and average rent (Metro)
Change in median weekly wage (all NAICS industries), B.C.
Change in average rent Vancouver CMA
Period
%
Endof2012
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0Endof2013 Endof2014 Endof2015
1.9%
1.3%
3.9%
6.9%
5.2%
11.0%
6.6%
7
Median total income, individual renters, 2015 (estimate) – Males
Median total income, individual renters, 2015 (estimate) – Females
Allindustries(customdefined)-NorthAmericanIndustryClassificationSystem(NAICS)2007
$37,980 $31,458
Agriculture $20,420 $20,562
Forestry $46,296 $37,783
Fishing,hunting,trappingandsupportactivitiesforagricultureandforestry
$26,512 $16,967
Mining,quarrying,andoilandgasextraction $56,314 $62,546
Utilities $73,873 $56,390
Construction $36,483 $30,706
Manufacturing $41,418 $32,569
Wholesaletrade $41,248 $40,215
Retailtrade $28,367 $24,223
Restaurantsandhospitality $21,164 $20,369
Transportationandwarehousing $44,619 $43,773
Informationandculturalindustries $44,657 $40,602
Financeandinsurance $53,025 $45,456
Realestateandrentalandleasing $40,908 $38,064
Professional,scientificandtechnicalservices $47,526 $40,056
Managementofcompaniesandenterprises $52,615 $34,266
Administrativeandsupport,wastemanagementandremediationservices
$27,634 $24,147
Educationalservices $38,653 $40,007
Healthcareandsocialassistance $44,818 $38,760
Arts,entertainmentandrecreation $24,863 $21,694
Otherservices(exceptpublicadministration) $37,553 $23,610
Publicadministration $61,691 $48,615
Table 4 – Median total incomes, individuals, male and female
Source:BCNPHA2011NHSCustomDataRequest,CANSIMTable282-0072
8
2-bedroomVacancy rate for 2-bedroom
apartments (%)
Is this neighbourhood/municipality affordable
and available?
WestVancouver $2,171 0.5 No
UniversityEndowmentLands $1,986 0 No
WestEnd/StanleyPark $1,975 0.4 No
Downtown $1,968 0 No
WestEnd/Downtown(Zones1-3) $1,951 0 No
EnglishBay $1,908 0 No
Westside/Kerrisdale $1,824 1 No
Kitsilano/PointGrey $1,732 1 No
SouthGranville/Oak $1,698 1 No
CityofVancouver(Zones1-10) $1,643 0.7 No
VancouverCMA(Condo) $1,543 0.9 No
NorthVancouverDM $1,451 0.6 No
VancouverCMA $1,368 0.9 No
MountPleasant/RenfrewHeights $1,367 0 No
NorthVancouverCity $1,367 0.5 No
SoutheastVancouver $1,327 0.5 No
Richmond $1,296 0.5 No
CentralPark/Metrotown $1,272 1.2 No
EastHastings $1,268 0.3 No
NorthBurnaby $1,258 1 No
Burnaby(Zones12-14) $1,222 1.3 No
NewWestminster $1,159 0.8 No
Marpole $1,157 1 No
VancouverCMA(Secondary) $1,131 Nodata No
WhiteRock $1,087 0.3 No
Tri-Cities $1,086 1.3 No
Delta $1,051 0.5 No
SoutheastBurnaby $1,037 1.6 No
LangleyCityandLangleyDM $997 1.1 Yes
Surrey $954 2 Yes
MapleRidge/PittMeadows $940 1.6 Yes
Table 6 – Housing affordability and availability (Scenario 1)
Source:CMHC2015,VancouverandAbbotsford-MissionCMAs,FallMarketSurvey
Scenario 1 ThefirstscenarioexaminesJoanna,asinglemotherwhoworksintheeducationalservicesfield,hasafive-year-oldchildandhasanadjustedincomeof$40,000in2015.Shecanafford$1,000permonthinrentandneedstofinda
two-bedroomapartmenttohouseherselfandherchildsuitably.Table6belowshowswhereJoannacanaffordtolivewithouttransportationcostsfactoredin.
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Ascanbeseenfromtheanalysis,thereisvirtuallynoaffordabletwo-bedroomaccommodationsforJoannaandherchildacrossMetroVancouver.WhileSurreycomesclose,theonlytrulyaffordablecommunitiesareSurrey,theCityofLangley,LangleyDistrictMunicipality,andMapleRidgeandPittMeadows.
Iftransportationcostsarefactoredin,Joannacanafford$1,500permonth(basedon45%ofherincome).
Average rent
Average transportation cost (estimate)
Sum of housing and transportation cost
Vacancy rate (%)
Is this neighbourhood/municipality affordable
and available?
WestVancouver $2,171 $1,086 $3,257 0.5 No
NorthVancouverDM $1,451 $1,086 $2,537 0.6 No
NorthVancouverCity $1,367 $1,086 $2,453 0.5 No
VancouverCMA $1,368 $1,025 $2,393 0.9 No
CityofVancouver(Zones1-10)
$1,643 $749 $2,392 0.7 No
Richmond $1,296 $1,069 $2,365 0.5 No
Delta $1,051 $1,314 $2,365 0.5 No
LangleyCityandLangleyDM
$997 $1,362 $2,359 1.1 No
WhiteRock $1,087 $1,224 $2,311 0.3 No
MapleRidge/PittMeadows
$940 $1,331 $2,271 1.6 No
Tri-Cities $1,086 $1,152 $2,238 1.3 No
Surrey $954 $1,224 $2,178 2 No
Burnaby(Zones12-14) $1,222 $928 $2,150 1.3 No
NewWestminster $1,159 $928 $2,087 0.8 No
Table 7 – Housing and transit costs (Scenario 1)
Source:CMHC2015,VancouverandAbbotsford-MissionCMAs,FallMarketSurveyandMetroVancouver“HousingandTransportationcostburdenstudy”
Factoringintransportationcostsmeansallofthesecommunitieslosetheiraffordabilitybyasignificantmargin(Table7),giventhatJoannawouldlikelyhavetooperateacartogetby.ThechoiceforJoannaistofindworkinthemunicipalitywhichisaffordabletoher(ifajobisavailable),orspendadisproportionateshareofherincomeonhousingandtransportation.
City of Vancouver and Burnaby (Zones 1-14)
11
6
5
10
7
84
9
1
2 3
14
12 13
10
3+ bedroomVacancy rate for 3+ bedroom
apartments (%)
Is this neighbourhood/ municipality affordable and
available?
VancouverCMA(Condo) NoData 0.9 N/A
WestVancouver $3,485 Nodata No
WestEnd/StanleyPark $3,156 0 No
Kitsilano/PointGrey $2,978 0 No
WestEnd/Downtown(Zones1-3) $2,904 1 No
EnglishBay $2,854 3.8 No
Downtown $2,656 0 No
UniversityEndowmentLands $2,510 1.5 No
Westside/Kerrisdale $2,470 0 No
SouthGranville/Oak $2,166 0 No
CityofVancouver(Zones1-10) $2,070 0.4 No
VancuverCMA(Secondary) $1,661 Nodata Yes
CentralPark/Metrotown $1,638 1.6 Yes
MountPleasant/RenfrewHeights $1,619 0 No
VancouverCMA $1,615 1.4 Yes
Richmond $1,596 0.7 Yes
WhiteRock $1,592 0 No
NorthVancouverCity $1,567 0 No
NorthVancouverDM $1,542 0 No
NewWestminster $1,478 0 No
Burnaby(Zones12-14) $1,431 2.3 Yes
NorthBurnaby $1,427 3.1 Yes
EastHastings $1,319 0 No
SoutheastBurnaby $1,270 1.4 Yes
Marpole $1,269 0 No
SoutheastVancouver $1,235 1.8 Yes
Tri-Cities $1,212 5.6 Yes
Delta $1,194 0 No
LangleyCityandLangleyDM $1,137 0 No
Surrey $1,098 1.9 Yes
MapleRidge/PittMeadows $1,070 2 Yes
Table 8 – Housing affordability and availability (Scenario 2)
Source:CMHC2015,VancouverandAbbotsford-MissionCMAs,FallMarketSurvey
Scenario 2 ThenextscenarioexaminesBethandJames,acouplewithoneboyandonegirlagedsevenandnine.Jamesworksinconstructionandhasanadjustedannualincomeof$36,500(basedonmedianincomesforrentersinthesectorasawhole),whileBethworksinhealthcareearning$39,400.Theircombinedincomeis$75,900in2015andtheycan
affordamonthlyrentof$1,900.Theiraffordablehousingandtransitcostis$2,845,basedon45%oftheirhouseholdincome.Theyneedtofindathree-bedroomapartmenttohousethemselvesandtheirchildrensuitably.Table8showsrentalavailabilityandaffordabilitywithouttransportationcostsfactoredin.
11
3+ bedroomAverage
transportation cost (estimate)
Sum of housing and transportation
cost
Vacancy rate for 3+ bedroom apartments (%)
Is this neighbourhood/municipality affordable
and available?
WestVancouver $3,485 $1,086 $4,571 Nodata No
CityofVancouver(Zones1-10)
$2,070 $749 $2,819 0.4 Yes
WhiteRock $1,592 $1,224 $2,816 0 No
Richmond $1,596 $1,069 $2,665 0.7 Yes
NorthVancouverCity $1,567 $1,086 $2,653 0 No
VancouverCMA $1,615 $1,025 $2,640 1.4 Yes
NorthVancouverDM $1,542 $1,086 $2,628 0 No
Delta $1,194 $1,314 $2,508 0 No
LangleyCityandLangleyDM
$1,137 $1,362 $2,499 0 No
NewWestminster $1,478 $928 $2,406 0 No
MapleRidge/PittMeadows
$1,070 $1,331 $2,401 2 Yes
Tri-Cities $1,212 $1,152 $2,364 5.6 Yes
Burnaby(Zones12-14) $1,431 $928 $2,359 2.3 Yes
Surrey $1,098 $1,224 $2,322 1.9 Yes
Table 9 – Housing and transportation costs (Scenario 2)
Source:CMHC2015,VancouverandAbbotsford-MissionCMAs,FallMarketSurveyandMetroVancouver“HousingandTransportationcostburdenstudy”
Whilethereisstillsomeaffordabilitythroughouttheregionforthree-bedroomsuites,alackofsupplymakesitdifficultfortheirfamilytofindaccommodationintheCityofVancouver,NewWestminster,NorthVancouver
(districtmunicipalityandcity),DeltaandWhiteRock.BethandJames’familywilllikelyresideinBurnaby,SurreyortheTri-citiesinordertofindacombinationofavailabilityandaffordability(Table9).
12
2-bedroomVacancy rate for 2-bedroom
apartments (%)
Is this neighbourhood/municipality affordable and
available?
WestVancouver $2,171 0.5 No
UniversityEndowmentLands $1,986 0 No
WestEnd/StanleyPark $1,975 0.4 No
Downtown $1,968 0.2 No
WestEnd/Downtown(Zones1-3) $1,951 0.3 No
EnglishBay $1,908 0.3 No
Westside/Kerrisdale $1,824 1.1 No
Kitsilano/PointGrey $1,732 0.8 No
SouthGranville/Oak $1,698 1.1 No
CityofVancouver(Zones1-10) $1,643 0.7 No
VancouverCMA(Condo) $1,543 0.9 No
NorthVancouverDM $1,451 0.6 No
VancouverCMA $1,368 0.9 No
MountPleasant/RenfrewHeights $1,367 0.3 No
NorthVancouverCity $1,367 0.5 No
SoutheastVancouver $1,327 0.5 No
Richmond $1,296 0.5 No
CentralPark/Metrotown $1,272 1.2 No
EastHastings $1,268 0.3 No
NorthBurnaby $1,258 1 No
Burnaby(Zones12-14) $1,222 1.3 No
NewWestminster $1,159 0.8 No
Marpole $1,157 1.1 No
VancuverCMA(Secondary) $1,131 Nodata No
WhiteRock $1,087 0.3 Yes
Tri-Cities $1,086 1.3 Yes
Delta $1,051 0.5 Yes
SoutheastBurnaby $1,037 1.6 Yes
LangleyCityandLangleyDM $997 1.1 Yes
Surrey $954 2 Yes
MapleRidge/PittMeadows $940 1.6 Yes
Table 10 – Housing affordability and availability (Scenario 3)
Source:CMHC2015FallMarketSurvey
Scenario 3ThethirdscenarioinvolvesRitaandPenny,twofemaleroommateslivingtogether.Ritaworksinretailtradeandheradjustedannualincomefor2015is$23,500.Pennyworksintherestaurantandhospitalityindustryandheradjustedincomewas$20,050in2015.Theircombinedincomeis
$43,550andtheiraffordablerentis$1,090permonth.Theiraffordablehousingandtransportationcostis$1,630,basedon45%oftheirhouseholdincome.Theyneedtofindatwo-bedroomapartmenttobehousedsuitably.
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Table 11 – Housing and transportation costs (Scenario 3)
Source:CMHC2015FallMarketSurveyandMetroVancouver“HousingandTransportationcostburdenstudy”
Overall,RitaandPennywillhaveadifficulttimefindingrentalhousinginMetroVancouver,beingpricedoutoftheCityofVancouver,mostareasofBurnaby,NewWestminsterandRichmond(Table10).Theycouldlook
foraccommodationinthesuburbsofDelta,WhiteRock,theTri-CitiesorSurrey,butwhentransportationcostsarefactoredin,thesesuburbshavethepotentialtolosetheiraffordability(Table11).
2-bedroomAverage
transportation cost (estimate)
Sum of housing and transportation cost
Vacancy rate for 2-bedroom apartments (%)
Is this neighbourhood/municipality affordable
and available?
WestVancouver $2,171 $1,086 $3,257 0.5 No
NorthVancouverDM $1,451 $1,086 $2,537 0.6 No
NorthVancouverCity $1,367 $1,086 $2,453 0.5 No
VancouverCMA $1,368 $1,025 $2,393 0.9 No
CityofVancouver(Zones1-10)
$1,643 $749 $2,392 0.7 No
Richmond $1,296 $1,069 $2,365 0.5 No
Delta $1,051 $1,314 $2,365 0.5 No
LangleyCityandLangleyDM
$997 $1,362 $2,359 1.1 No
WhiteRock $1,087 $1,224 $2,311 0.3 No
MapleRidge/PittMeadows
$940 $1,331 $2,271 1.6 No
Tri-Cities $1,086 $1,152 $2,238 1.3 No
Surrey $954 $1,224 $2,178 2 No
Burnaby(Zones12-14) $1,222 $928 $2,150 1.3 No
NewWestminster $1,159 $928 $2,087 0.8 No
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Bachelor Vacancy rate (%)Is this neighbourhood/municipality
affordable and available?
VancouverCMA(Condo) Nodata Nodata Nodata
UniversityEndowmentLands $1,307 Nodata No
WestVancouver $1,114 1.2 No
Downtown $1,084 0.5 No
WestEnd/Downtown(Zones1-3) $1,059 0.4 No
WestEnd/StanleyPark $1,028 0.6 No
EnglishBay $1,021 0 No
Kitsilano/PointGrey $988 0.7 No
CityofVancouver(Zones1-10) $982 0.5 No
SouthGranville/Oak $977 0.4 No
NorthVancouverDM $959 0 No
SoutheastVancouver $943 2 No
VancouverCMA $937 0.6 No
Westside/Kerrisdale $936 0.6 No
NorthVancouverCity $921 0 No
MountPleasant/RenfrewHeights $902 0.3 No
CentralPark/Metrotown $858 0.9 No
EastHastings $846 0.6 No
Richmond $843 0.4 No
Burnaby(Zones12-14) $806 0.7 No
NorthBurnaby $780 0 No
Marpole $776 0.8 No
WhiteRock $760 3 No
SoutheastBurnaby $733 1.9 No
VancuverCMA(Secondary) $726 Nodata No
NewWestminster $716 1.4 No
Tri-Cities $712 0.6 No
LangleyCityandLangleyDM $685 1.2 Yes
Delta $679 1.6 Yes
Surrey $671 3.9 Yes
MapleRidge/PittMeadows $620 Nodata Yes
Table 12 – Housing affordability and availability (Scenario 4)
Source:CMHC2015FallMarketSurvey
Scenario 4ThenextscenarioexaminesAziz,asinglemaleworkinginadministration.Basedonmedianwagesforrentersinadministrationandtakingintoaccountwageinflation,hemade$27,850in2015.Heistryingtofindabachelorsuite
wherehedoesnotspendmorethan30%ofhisincome.Hisaffordablerentis$696amonth.Table12demonstratesthedifficultyAzizwillhaveinfindingaffordableaccommodationinneighbourhoodsandmunicipalitiesacrosstheregion.
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AzizwillnotbeabletofindaffordableaccommodationinmostareasofMetroVancouver,suchasVancouver,Burnaby,NewWestandRichmond.WhilesomeaffordabilitystillexistsinSurrey,Delta,Langley,MapleRidgeandPittMeadows,whentransportationcostsareaddedintheseareasbecomeunaffordable(Table13),givenhisaffordablehousingandtransportationcostis$1,045permonth.Inordertogetby,Azizwillhavetospendalargeportionofhisincomeonhousingand/ortransportationorlookforworkinthemunicipalitiesthatareaffordabletohim.
DiscussionTheanalysiscontainedinthisreportdemonstratesthedifficultytypicalyoungerandworkingrenterhouseholdshaveinfindingaffordableaccommodationacrossMetroVancouver.Thislackofaffordablehousingcandelayfamilyformationforyoungerhouseholds,aswellasimpacttheabilityofolderhouseholdstomoveontorentalaccommodation.xixWhilethereismoreaffordabilityandvacancyinthepurpose-builtstockinsuburbancommunities,thisaffordabilityhasthepotentialtobeerodedifthedwellingislocatedfarawayfrompublictransit.
Table 13 – Housing and transportation costs (Scenario 4)
Source:CMHC2015FallMarketSurveyandMetroVancouver“HousingandTransportationcostburdenstudy”
Alackofaffordablehousinglimitsthelabourmobilityoftheserenterhouseholds.Withoutaffordableaccommodation,workingrenterhouseholdswilllikelyfeelcompelledtofindworkinmunicipalitiesthatareaffordabletothem,therebylimitingthepooloflabouravailableinmunicipalitieslikeVancouver,WestVancouver,Burnaby,andNewWest.Alternatively,theywillcontinuetospendanunsustainableshareoftheirincomeonhousingandtransitand/orovercrowdintorentalsuites,reducingtheirqualityoflifeinordertoliveinthecommunitiestheycallhome.Anaffordablesupplyofrentalhousingprovideschoiceforrenterhouseholds,therebysupportinglivabilityandadynamiclabourmarkettosupportlocalbusinessesandprovidetheservicesBritishColumbiansrelyon.
Theanalysiscontainedinthisreportalsoreinforcesfindingsinthewiderliteratureaboutpovertyincreasinglybeingpushedtowardsuburbanareasofmetropolitanregions,xxasaffordablehousingisincreasinglyfoundthere.xxi
BachelorAverage
Transportation cost (estimate)
Sum of housing and transporation Cost
Vacancy rate (%)
Is this neighbourhood/municipality affordable
and available?
CityofVancouver(Zones1-10)
$982 $749 $1,731 0.5 No
Burnaby(Zones12-14) $806 $928 $1,734 0.7 No
NewWestminster $716 $928 $1,644 1.4 No
NorthVancouverCity $921 $1,086 $2,007 0 No
NorthVancouverDM $959 $1,086 $2,045 0 No
WestVancouver $1,114 $1,086 $2,200 1.2 No
Richmond $843 $1,069 $1,912 0.4 No
Delta $679 $1,314 $1,993 1.6 No
Surrey $671 $1,224 $1,895 3.9 No
WhiteRock $760 $1,224 $1,984 3 No
LangleyCityandLangleyDM
$685 $1,362 $2,047 1.2 No
Tri-Cities $712 $1,152 $1,864 0.6 No
MapleRidge/PittMeadows
$620 $1,331 $1,951 Nodata No
VancouverCMA $937 $1,025 $1,962 0.6 No
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Recommendations IfunaffordabilityacrossMetroVancouvercontinuestoremainunchecked,workersrelyingontherentalmarketwillcontinuetobepushedfurtheroutofcentresofemployment.Evidenceinthisreportshowsthatturningtorentingasthe“affordable”optionissimplynotviableforallhouseholdswiththemarketinitscurrentstate.Tomaintainadynamicregionaleconomy,alllevelsofgovernment,stakeholdersandresidentswillneedtoworktogethertoaddresstheunaffordabilitythatrentersarefacing.
Municipal Government
• Increaseincentivesthatencouragedeveloperstobuildaffordablerentalhousing.
• Protectandencouragerentalhousingingrowthcentresandalongtransitcorridors.Researchgrowthintransitridershipwhenaffordablehousingistiedtotransit-orienteddevelopment.
• Transferownershipofmunicipal/regionallandsintocommunity-basedlandownershipmodelsandsupporttheirredevelopmentintomixed-incomerentalhousingprojects(buildingfromthelandtrustexample).
• Createamorestreamlinedapprovalsprocesstode-riskcommunity-ownedrentaldevelopmentprojects.
Provincial Government
• Targetnewhousinginfrastructurefundingbyneed,ratherthanpopulation.ThismeansthatcommunitiesinB.C.experiencingcriticallevelsofoverspendingonhousingshouldbeprioritizedfornewdevelopments.
• Negotiatewiththefederalgovernmenttomatchcontributionsforallnewhousinginfrastructurefundingwithcash,landorin-kindsupportinordertomaximizeimpact.
• Supportthecreationofa$250millionsocialFinanceInfrastructureFundthatwillleveragearegionalnetworkofimpactinvestmentfundstoprovidefinancingforhousingdevelopmentandotherdurablesocialinfrastructure.
• Providetaxincentives(creditsordeferrals)forprivatelyownedrentalhousingdevelopment.
• Supportthenewdirectiontakenbycommunitylivingorganizationsaroundintegratedhousingoptionsandcommunitybuildingthroughdesign,tenure,supports(i.e.integraterentalhousingintodevelopmentsowned/operatedbysocietiesprovidingsupportsforpeoplewithdevelopmentaldisabilities).
• RepairdeterioratingrentalhousingunitsinB.C.topreventfurtherlossofexistingstock.
• Alignhousingpolicy:Economicdevelopment,transportation,healthcare,immigration,refugeeservices,aboriginalaffairsandotherareasofsocialpolicyareallintimatelylinkedtohousing.Theprovinceshouldworkcollaborativelyacrosstheseportfolios.
• Establishaprovincialhousingregistry(notjustforBCHousingclients,butforallrentalhousing).
• Providegrantstohelpstimulateprivatepurpose-builtrentalproduction.
• Alongtransitcorridors,allowcautiousre-developmentofrentalbuildingstoprotectandincreasethesupplyofaffordablerentalhousing.
• Useaportionofthepropertytransfertaxtofundprovincialaffordablehousinginitiatives.
• Providecapitalgrantstosupportnewsocialhousingconstructionandoperatingdollarstorunitlong-term.
Federal Government
• IncreasefundingfortheInvestmentinAffordableHousing(IAH).
• Providetaxincentivestoownersofpurpose-builtrentalhousingthatmakerentalpropertiesascompetitiveonthemarketascondominiums.
• Allowroll-overofCapitalGainsuponthesaleofrentalhousingwhenproceedsarere-investedinnewrentalhousingproperties.
• DeliverlowinterestloansthroughtheCMHC’sDirectLendingFacilitytosupportnewrentalhousingconstruction.
• Prioritizesurplusfederallandforaffordablehousing.
• Increasefundingforlong-termaffordablesocialhousing.
• ProvideGSTrebatesonnewrentaldevelopmentandinvestigateothertaxincentivestostimulatethedevelopmentofprivaterentalhousing.
• Considermatchingcontributionsforallnewhousinginfrastructurefundingwithcash,landorin-kindsupportinordertomaximizeimpact.
• Supportthecreationofa$250millionsocialFinanceInfrastructureFundthatwillleveragearegionalnetworkofimpactinvestmentfundstoprovidefinancingforhousingdevelopmentandotherdurablesocialinfrastructure.
• WorkwiththeprovincetorepairdeterioratingrentalhousingunitsinB.C.topreventfurtherlossofexistingstock.
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Businesses
• Inthemediumterm,considermovingofficestohigherdensitybusinesscoreswellservicedbypublictransit.
• Advocateforaffordablehousing.Theabilityofworkerstofindandsecureaffordablerentalunitswillaffectthepooloflabourtodrawfrom.
• Businesses,eitheraloneortogether,couldexploreoptionsforinvestinginaffordablehousingfortheirworkforce.Thiscouldgenerateaninvestmentorrevenuestreamatthesametimeasprovidingreducedcostsforworkers.
• Ifeconomicallyfeasibleforyourbusiness,payalivingwage.
• Realestatedevelopersshouldbringtheirdevelopmentexpertisetocommunity-ownedlandassetstodeliverrentalprojects(inreturnfordevelopmentfeesandconstructioncontracts).
• Financialinstitutionsshouldallocateparttheirlendingportfoliotothedeliveryofaffordablerentalhousing,withfavourabletermsthathelptode-risktheproject.
Individuals
• Determineyouraffordablerentandtakethecostoftransportationintoconsiderationwhenlookingforaffordableandavailablerentals.
• Consideradvocatingtolocalandseniorgovernmentsabouttheneedforaffordablehousing.
MethodologyThedataforthisreportwascompiledfromavarietyofsources.TheprimarysourceisacustomdatarequestownedbytheBCNon-ProfitHousingAssociation(BCNPHA)basedonthe2011NationalHouseholdSurveywhichprovidesincomedataforindividualsovertheageof15bytenurefortheNorthAmericanIndustrialClassificationSystem(NAICS)employmentcategories,bysex.NAICSprovidescommondefinitionsandstatisticalframeworkforindustrystructureinCanada,theUnitedStatesandMexico.IncomeanalysisformillennialhouseholdswasobtainedfromStatisticsCanadatabulation99-014-X2011028,usingdataonprimaryhouseholdmaintainerforbothcensusfamilyandnon-censusfamilytypes.
Toupdatetheanalysisto2015,medianwagegrowth(usingmedianweeklywages)fortheparticularNAICScategorieswascalculatedandappliedtotheparticularjobsectorinthecustomdatasetusingCANSIMTable282-0072.WhileTable282-0072doesnotprovideabreakdownofwagesbytenuretype(rentersversusowners)orbytheVancouverCensusMetropolitanArea,itprovidesbreakdownbysexfortheprovinceofBritishColumbia.Althoughitisnotaperfectcomparison,thetableprovidesausefulproxytomeasuremedianwagegrowthacrossdifferentsectors.Themedianweeklywagegrowthbetween2011and2015ofeachrespectivesectorwasappliedtothelabourcategoriesinBCNPHA’scustomdatarequest,providingadjustedincomefigures.WhereadirectfitbetweenBCNPHA’scustomNAICScategoriesandthecategoriesinTable282-0072werenotpossible,theclosestcategorywasselected.
Itshouldalsobenotedthatmedianwageswereusedtoprovideamorerealisticpictureofincomesofrentersacrossjobcategories,giventhathigherearningindividualscanpushtheaverageincomeup.Thereportuses“totalincome”,whichincludesfactorslikegovernmenttransfers,socialassistance,andchildbenefits,butexcludesfactorslikecapitalgains.
Once2015medianwageestimateswerecalculated,thescenariosweredevelopedbycreatinghypotheticalhouseholds.Thesewerebasedonvariousfamilyandlife-cyclescenariosthatarecommonforrenterhouseholds.The“affordablerents”forthesehouseholdswerecalculatedbasedonhouseholdincomeusingthe30%gross-incomebenchmarkandthencomparedtotherentalzonesinCMHC’s2015FallMarketSurvey.TheFallMarketSurveyprovidesup-to-datefiguresonrentsandvacancyratesbybedroomsizeforvariousgeographiesinMetroVancouver.Assuch,itprovidesanuancedpictureofaffordabilityintherentalmarketforrenterhouseholds.
Tocalculatetransitcosts,MetroVancouver’sHousingandTransportationCostBurdenStudywasused.Monthlycostswerecalculatedfromtheannualfiguresprovidedinthereportandthenappliedtothevariousscenarios.WhilethestudyprovidesaveragetransportationcostsforownersandrenterscombinedandhasslightlydifferentgeographicalboundariesfromtheCMHCFallMarketReport,itstillprovidesausefulproxyformeasuringaveragetransportationcostsforworkinghouseholds.
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Referencesi. DownsizingtheCanadianDream:HomeownershipRealitiesforMillennialsandBeyond.
www.vancity.com/SharedContent/documents/News/Downsizing_Canadian_Dream_March2015.pdf . Help wanted: salaries, affordability and the exodus of labour from Metro Vancouver. https://www.vancity.com/SharedContent/documents/News/Help_Wanted_May_2015.pdf
ii. RealEstateBoardofGreaterVancouver.StatisticsPackageMay2015.
iii. CANSIMTable282-0072.Medianincomeswereusedintheanalysisbecauseaveragescanbeskewedbyhigh-incomeearnerswithintheparticularsector.Themethodologysectionprovidesmoredetailontheanalysis.
iv. TheFallMarketSurveyprovidesup-to-datenumbersonrentsandvacancyratesforthepurpose-builtrentalstockforvarioushousingmarketsacrossCanada.
v. Affordabilityistakentobe30%ofthehousehold’sgrossmonthlyincome.
vi. MetroVancouver,TheMetroVancouverHousingandTransportationCostBurdenStudy:aNewWayofLookingatAffordability,(2015)www.metrovancouver.org/services/regional-planning/PlanningPublications/HousingAndTransportCostBurdenReport2015.pdf
Thesecostsareestimatesonly.
vii. Otherstudiessuggest45%ofgrosshouseholdincomeasanaffordabilitymetric:www.smartgrowthamerica.org/smartgrowthusa/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/pennywise.pdf
viii. CalculatedusingStatisticsCanadadatatable99-014-X2011028andCANSIMTable282-0072.Basedonmedianincomefortheprimaryhouseholdmaintaineraged15to34.
ix. BCNon-ProfitHousingAssociation,OurHome,OurFuture:ProjectionsofRentalHousingDemandandCoreHousingNeed,GreaterVancouverRegionalDistrictto2036,(2012)http://bcnpha.ca/wp_bcnpha/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/15_Greater_Vancouver_1209211.pdf
x. AndrewOswald,“TheHousingMarketandEurope’sUnemployment:ANon-technicalPaper,”inHomeownershipandtheLabourMarketinEurope,ed.CaspervanEwijk,&MichielvanLeuvensteijn(Oxford:OUPOxford,2009).
xi. CanadaMortgageandHousingCorporation,ResearchHighlight:2001CensusHousingSeries:Issue10–Aging,ResidentialMobilityandHousingChoices,(February2006)www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/odpub/pdf/64992.pdf?fr=1465928305778
xii. MarkusMoosandAndrejsSkaburskis,“TheGlobalizationofUrbanHousingMarkets:ImmigrationandChangingHousingDemandinVancouver,”UrbanGeography31,no.6(2010).
xiii. OECD.HousingandtheEconomy:PoliciesforRenovation,(2011)www.oecd.org/newsroom/46917384.pdf
xiv. KPMG,EconomicImpactAssessmentStudy–BritishColumbia’sRentalHousingSector,(2014)http://udi.bc.ca/sites/default/files/news/files/KPMG%20Rental%20Housing%20Impact%20Final%20Report%202014.pdf
xv. Theparticipationratemeasuresthetotallabourforce(employedandunemployed)expressedasapercentageofthetotalpopulation.
xvi. CANSIMTable282-0072.Medianincomeswereusedintheanalysisbecauseaveragescanbeskewedbyhigh-incomeearnerswithintheparticularsector.Themethodologysectionprovidesmoredetailontheanalysis.
xvii. FormoreinformationonjobcategoriescontainedintheNorthAmericanIndustrialClassificationSystem,seehere:www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p3VD.pl?Function=getVD&TVD=118464
xviii.MoreinformationontheNationalOccupancyStandardcanbefoundhere:http://cmhc.beyond2020.com/HiCODefinitions_EN.html#_Suitable_dwellings
xix. PaulKershawandAnitaMinh,CodeRed:RethinkingCanadianHousingPolicy,(Spring2016)https://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/gensqueeze/pages/107/attachments/original/1464150906/Code_Red_Rethinking_Canadian_Housing_Policy_Final_2016-05-24.pdf?1464150906
xx. J.DavidHulchanski,TheThreeCitieswithinToronto:IncomePolarizationamongToronto’sNeighbourhoods,1970-2005,(2007)www.urbancentre.utoronto.ca/pdfs/curp/tnrn/Three-Cities-Within-Toronto-2010-Final.pdf
xxi. DavidLeyandNicholasLynch,DivisionsandDisparitiesinLotus-LandSocio-SpatialIncomePolarizationinGreaterVancouver,1970-2005,(October2012)http://neighbourhoodchange.ca/documents/2012/10/divisions-and-disparities-in-lotus-land-socio-spatial-income-polarization-in-greater-vancouver-1970-2005-by-david-ley-nicholas-lynch.pdf