JIM CROW (Wikipedia)

Cover of music score for "Jim CrowJubilee," published in Boston in 1847.

Jim Crow lawsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws in the United Statesenacted between 1876 and 1965. They mandated de jure racialsegregation in all public facilities in Southern states of the formerConfederacy, with, starting in 1890, a "separate but equal" status forAfrican Americans. The separation in practice led to conditions thattended to be inferior to those provided for white Americans,systematizing a number of economic, educational and socialdisadvantages. De jure segregation mainly applied to the Southern UnitedStates. Northern segregation was generally de facto, with patterns ofsegregation in housing enforced by covenants, bank lending practices,and job discrimination, including discriminatory union practices fordecades.

Some examples of Jim Crow laws are the segregation of public schools,public places, and public transportation, and the segregation of restrooms,restaurants, and drinking fountains for whites and blacks. The U.S.military was also segregated.

These Jim Crow Laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which hadpreviously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of AfricanAmericans with no pretense of equality. State-sponsored school segregation was declared unconstitutional by theSupreme Court of the United States in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education. Generally, the remaining Jim Crowlaws were overruled by the Civil Rights Act of 1964[1] and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Contents

1 Etymology2 Origins of Jim Crow laws3 Early attempts to break Jim Crow4 Racism in the United States and defenses of Jim Crow5 World War II era6 Removal

6.1 Courts6.2 Public arena6.3 End of de jure segregation

7 Legacy7.1 Legal7.2 Political7.3 African-American life

8 Remembrance9 Examples10 See also11 Footnotes12 Further reading

Jim Crow laws - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws

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13 External links

Etymology

The phrase "Jim Crow Law" first appeared in 1904 according to the Dictionary of American English,[2]

although there is some evidence of earlier usage.[3][4] The origin of the phrase "Jim Crow" has often beenattributed to "Jump Jim Crow", a song-and-dance caricature of blacks performed by white actor Thomas D. Ricein blackface, which first surfaced in 1832 and was used to satirize Andrew Jackson's populist policies. As a resultof Rice's fame, "Jim Crow" had become a pejorative expression meaning "Negro" by 1838. When southernlegislatures passed laws of racial segregation – directed against blacks – at the end of the 19th century, thesebecame known as Jim Crow laws.[3]

Origins of Jim Crow laws

Main article: Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era

During the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal law provided civil rights protection in the U.S. South forfreedmen – the African Americans who had formerly been slaves. In the 1870s, Democrats gradually regainedpower in the Southern legislatures, sometimes as a result of elections in which paramilitary groups intimidatedopponents, attacking blacks or preventing them from voting. Gubernatorial elections were close and disputed inLouisiana for years, with extreme violence unleashed during the campaigns. In 1877, a national compromise togain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the last of the federal troops being withdrawn fromthe South. White Democrats had regained political power in every Southern state.[5] These conservative, white,Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, segregating black people from the whitepopulation.

Blacks were still elected to local offices in the 1880s, but the establishment Democrats were passing laws tomake voter registration and electoral rules more restrictive, with the result that political participation by mostblacks and many poor whites began to decrease.[6][7] Between 1890 and 1910, ten of the eleven formerConfederate states, starting with Mississippi, passed new constitutions or amendments that effectivelydisfranchised most blacks and tens of thousands of poor whites through a combination of poll taxes, literacy andcomprehension tests, and residency and record-keeping requirements.[6][7] Grandfather clauses temporarilypermitted some illiterate whites to vote.

Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures. For example, Alabama hadtens of thousands of poor whites disfranchised.[8] In Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 onthe rolls, although they comprised the majority of the state's population. By 1910, only 730 blacks wereregistered, less than 0.5 percent of eligible black men. "In 27 of the state's 60 parishes, not a single black voterwas registered any longer; in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was."[9] The cumulative effect in NorthCarolina meant that black voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904.The growth of their thriving middle class was slowed. In North Carolina and other Southern states, there werealso the effects of invisibility: "[W]ithin a decade of disfranchisement, the white supremacy campaign had erasedthe image of the black middle class from the minds of white North Carolinians."[9]

Those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. Theyeffectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, and their interests


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Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures.

were overlooked. While public schools had been established by Reconstruction legislatures for the first time inmost Southern states; those for black children were consistently underfunded compared to schools for whitechildren, even when considered within the strained finances of the postwar South where the decreasing price ofcotton kept the agricultural economy at a low.

In some cases, progressive measures intended to reduce election fraud, such as the Eight Box Law in SouthCarolina, acted against black and white voters who were illiterate, as they could not follow the directions.[10]

While the separation of African Americans from the general population was becoming legalized and formalizedduring the Progressive Era (1890s–1920s), it was also becoming customary. For instance, even in cases in whichJim Crow laws did not expressly forbid black people to participate in sports or recreation, the laws shaped asegregated culture.[3]

In the Jim Crow context, the presidential election of 1912 was steeply slanted against the interests of blackAmericans. Most blacks still lived in the South, where they had been effectively disfranchised, so they could notvote at all. While poll taxes and literacy requirements banned many poor or illiterate Americans from voting,these stipulations frequently had loopholes that exempted white Americans from meeting the requirements. InOklahoma, for instance, anyone qualified to vote before 1866, or related to someone qualified to vote before1866 (a kind of "grandfather clause"), was exempted from the literacy requirement; the only persons who couldvote before that year were white male Americans. White Americans were effectively excluded from the literacytesting, whereas black Americans were effectively singled out by the law.[11]

Woodrow Wilson, a Southern Democrat and the first Southern-born president of the post-Civil War period,appointed Southerners to his Cabinet. Some quickly began to press for segregated work places, althoughWashington, D.C. and federal offices had been integrated since after the Civil War. In 1913, for instance, theSecretary of the Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo – an appointee of the President – was heard to express hisopinion of black and white women working together in one government office: "I feel sure that this must goagainst the grain of the white women. Is there any reason why the white women should not have only whitewomen working across from them on the machines?"[12]

Wilson introduced segregation in federal offices, despite much protest from African-American leaders andgroups. He appointed segregationist Southern politicians because of his own firm belief that racial segregationwas in the best interest of black and white Americans alike.[13] At Gettysburg on July 4, 1913, thesemi-centennial of Abraham Lincoln's declaration that "all men are created equal", Wilson addressed the crowd:

How complete the union has become and how dear to all of us, how unquestioned, how benign andmajestic, as state after state has been added to this, our great family of free men![14]

A Washington Bee editorial wondered if the "reunion" of 1913 was a reunion of those who fought for "theextinction of slavery" or a reunion of those who fought to "perpetuate slavery and who are now employing everyartifice and argument known to deceit" to present emancipation as a failed venture.[14] One historian notes thatthe "Peace Jubilee" at which Wilson presided at Gettysburg in 1913 "was a Jim Crow reunion, and whitesupremacy might be said to have been the silent, invisible master of ceremonies."[14] (See also: Great Reunionof 1913)

Early attempts to break Jim Crow

The Civil Rights Act of 1875, introduced by Charles Sumner and Benjamin F. Butler, stipulated a guarantee thateveryone, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was entitled to the same treatment inpublic accommodations, such as inns, public transportation, theaters, and other places of recreation. This Act


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p y g those for black children were consistently underfunded compared to schools for whitedy p

children, even when considered within the strained finances of the postwar South where the decreasing price ofcotton kept the agricultural economy at a low.

In the Jim Crow context, the presidential election of 1912 was steeply slanted against the interests of blackAmericans.

p y q y p gs frequently had loopholes that exempted white Americans from meeting the requirements.

y q y p White Americans were effectively excluded from the literacy

law.testing, whereas black Americans were effectively singled out by the

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Washington, D.C. and federal offices had been integrated since after the Civil War. – was heard to express hisy y pp p

opinion of black and white women working together in one government office: "I feel sure that this must gop g g g gagainst the grain of the white women. Is there any reason why the white women should not have only whitey

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stipulated a guarantee thatg y j p geveryone, regardless of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, was entitled to the same treatment indy g ppublic accommodations, such as inns, public transportation, theaters, and other places of recreation.

Sign for the "colored" waiting room ata bus station in Durham, NorthCarolina, 1940

1904 caricature of "White" and "JimCrow" rail cars by John T.McCutcheon. Despite Jim Crow's legalpretense that the races be "separate butequal" under the law, non-whites weregiven inferior facilities and treatment.

had little effect. An 1883 Supreme Court decision ruled that the act wasunconstitutional in some respects, saying Congress was not affordedcontrol over private persons or corporations. With white southernDemocrats forming a solid voting bloc in Congress, with power out ofproportion to the percentage of population they represented, Congressdid not pass another civil rights law until 1957.

In 1890, Louisiana passed a law requiring separate accommodations forcolored and white passengers on railroads. Louisiana law distinguishedbetween "white", "black" and "colored" (that is, people of mixedEuropean and African ancestry). The law already specified that blackscould not ride with white people, but colored people could ride withwhites before 1890. A group of concerned black, colored and whitecitizens in New Orleans formed an association dedicated to rescinding the law. The group persuaded HomerPlessy, who was one-eighth "Negro" and of fair complexion, to test it.

In 1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket from New Orleans on the East Louisiana Railway. Once he hadboarded the train, he informed the train conductor of his racial lineage and took a seat in the whites-only car. Hewas directed to leave that car and sit instead in the "coloreds only" car. Plessy refused and was immediatelyarrested. The Citizens Committee of New Orleans fought the case all the way to the Supreme Court of the UnitedStates. They lost in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), in which the Court ruled that "separate but equal" facilities wereconstitutional. The finding contributed to 58 more years of legalized discrimination against black and coloredpeople in the United States.

Racism in the United States and defenses of Jim Crow

White Southerners encountered problems in learning free labormanagement after the end of slavery, and they resented black Americans,who represented the Confederacy's Civil War defeat: "With whitesupremacy challenged throughout the South, many whites sought toprotect their former status by threatening African Americans whoexercised their new rights."[15] White Democrats used their power tosegregate public spaces and facilities in law and reestablish socialdominance over blacks in the South.

One rationale for the systematic exclusion of black Americans fromsouthern public society was that it was for their own protection. An early20th-century scholar suggested that having allowed blacks in whiteschools would mean "constantly subjecting them to adverse feeling andopinion", which might lead to "a morbid race consciousness".[16] This

perspective took anti-black sentiment for granted, because bigotry was widespread in the South after slaverybecame a racial caste.

World War II era

After World War II, African Americans increasingly challenged segregation, as they believed they had morethan earned the right to be treated as full citizens because of their military service and sacrifices. The CivilRights Movement was energized by a number of flashpoints, including the 1946 attack on World War II veteranIsaac Woodard while he was in U.S. Army uniform. In 1948 President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order


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rights."[1exercised their new r White Democrats used their power topsegregate public spaces and facilities in law and reestablish social

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dominance over blacks in the South.

African Americans increasingly challenged segregation, as they believed they had moreg y g g g ythan earned the right to be treated as full citizens because of their military service and sacrifices.

A segregative sign on a restaurant inLancaster, Ohio, 1938

A billiard hall for "colored" people inMemphis, Tennessee, 1939

Separate "white" and "colored"entrances to a cafe in Durham, NorthCarolina, 1940

Some restaurants, such as The Choke'Em Down Lunch Room in BelleGlade, Florida, welcomed both whiteand black patrons alike, as indicated bythe advertisement "White & colored

9981, desegregating the armed services.

As the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum and used federal courtsto attack Jim Crow statutes, the white-dominated governments of manyof the southern states countered by passing alternative forms ofrestrictions.

The NAACP Legal Defense Committee (a group that becameindependent of the NAACP) – and its lawyer, Thurgood Marshall –brought the landmark case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347U.S. 483 (https://supreme.justia.com/us/347/483/case.html) (1954) beforethe Supreme Court. In its pivotal 1954 decision, the Court unanimouslyoverturned the 1896 Plessy decision. The Supreme Court found thatlegally mandated (de jure) public school segregation wasunconstitutional. The decision had far-reaching social ramifications. Dejure segregation was not brought to an end until the passage of the CivilRights Act of 1964. History has shown that problems of educating poorchildren are not confined to minority status, and states and cities havecontinued to grapple with approaches.

The court ruling did not stop de facto or residentially based schoolsegregation. Such segregation continues today in many regions. Some cityschool systems have also begun to focus on issues of economic and classsegregation rather than racial segregation, as they have found thatproblems are more prevalent when the children of the poor of any ethnicgroup are concentrated.

Associate Justice Frank Murphy introduced the word "racism" into thelexicon of U.S. Supreme Court opinions in Korematsu v. United States,323 U.S. 214 (1944).[17] He stated that by upholding the forcedrelocation of Japanese Americans during World War II, the Court wassinking into "the ugly abyss of racism." This was the first time that"racism" was used in Supreme Court opinion (Murphy used it twice in aconcurring opinion in Steele v. Louisville & Nashville R. Co. 323 192(1944) issued that day).[18] Murphy used the word in five separateopinions, but after he left the court, "racism" was not used again in anopinion for almost two decades. It next appeared in the landmarkdecision of Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (https://supreme.justia.com/us/388/1/case.html) (1967).

Interpretation of the Constitution and its application to minority rightscontinues to be controversial as Court membership changes. Observerssuch as Ian F. Lopez believe that in the 2000s, the Supreme Court hasbecome more protective of the status quo.[19]

Removal

Courts


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As the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum and used federal courtsgto attack Jim Crow statutes, the white-dominated governments of many

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restrictions.

served." overhanging the eatery in this1939 photograph. Where this wasallowed, state and local laws oftenrequired "whites" and "coloreds" beseated in separate sections.

In the 20th century, the Supreme Court began to overturn Jim Crow lawson constitutional grounds. In Buchanan v. Warley 245 US 60 (1917), thecourt held that a Kentucky law could not require residential segregation.The Supreme Court in 1946, in Irene Morgan v. Virginia ruledsegregation in interstate transportation to be unconstitutional, in anapplication of the commerce clause of the Constitution. It was not until1954 in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that the court held thatseparate facilities were inherently unequal in the area of public schools, effectively overturning Plessy v.Ferguson, and outlawing Jim Crow in other areas of society as well. This landmark case consisted of complaintsfiled in the states of Delaware (Gebhart v. Belton); South Carolina (Briggs v. Elliott); Virginia (Davis v. CountySchool Board of Prince Edward County); and Washington, D.C. (Spottswode Bolling v. C. Melvin Sharpe).These decisions, along with other cases such as McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Board of Regents 339 US 637(1950), NAACP v. Alabama 357 US 449 (1958), and Boynton v. Virginia 364 US 454 (1960), slowly dismantledthe state-sponsored segregation imposed by Jim Crow laws.

Along with Jim Crow laws, by which the state compelled segregation of the races, private parties such asbusinesses, political parties and unions created their own Jim Crow arrangements, barring blacks from buyinghomes in certain neighborhoods, from shopping or working in certain stores, from working at certain trades, etc.The Supreme Court outlawed some forms of private discrimination in Shelley v. Kraemer 334 US 1 (1948), inwhich it held that restrictive covenants that barred sale of homes to blacks or Jews or Asians wereunconstitutional, because they represented state-sponsored discrimination, in that they were only effective if thecourts enforced them.

The Supreme Court was unwilling, however, to attack other forms of private discrimination. It reasoned thatprivate parties did not violate the Equal Protection clause of the Constitution when they discriminated, becausethey were not "state actors" covered by that clause.

In 1971, the Supreme Court, in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, upheld desegregationbusing of students to achieve integration.

Public arena

Rosa Parks' 1955 act of civil disobedience, in which she refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man, wasa catalyst in later years of the Civil Rights movement. Her action, and the demonstrations which it stimulated,led to a series of legislative and court decisions that contributed to undermining the Jim Crow system.

The Montgomery Bus Boycott led by Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., which followed Rosa Parks' action, wasnot the first of its kind. Numerous boycotts and demonstrations against segregation had occurred throughout the1930s and 1940s. These early demonstrations achieved positive results and helped spark political activism. K.Leroy Irvis of Pittsburgh's Urban League, for instance, led a demonstration against employment discriminationby Pittsburgh's department stores in 1947, launching his own influential political career.

End of segregation

In January 1964, President Lyndon Johnson met with civil rights leaders. On January 8, during his first State ofthe Union address, Johnson asked Congress to "let this session of Congress be known as the session which didmore for civil rights than the last hundred sessions combined." On June 21, civil rights workers MichaelSchwerner, Andrew Goodman, and James Chaney disappeared in Neshoba County, Mississippi, where they werevolunteering in the registration of African-American voters as part of the Mississippi Summer Project. Thedisappearance of the three activists captured national attention and the ensuing outrage was used by Johnson and


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In the 20th century, the Supreme Court began to overturn Jim Crow lawsyon constitutional grounds.

court held thatf f pseparate facilities were inherently unequal in the area of public schools, effectively overturning ll P

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An African-American youth at a"colored" drinking fountain on acourthouse lawn in Halifax, NorthCarolina, 1938

civil rights activists to build a coalition of northern Democrats and Republicans and push Congress to pass theCivil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.[1]

On July 2, 1964, President Johnson signed the historic Civil Rights Act of 1964.[1][20] It invoked the commerceclause[1] to outlaw discrimination in public accommodations (privately owned restaurants, hotels, and stores, andin private schools and workplaces). This use of the commerce clause was upheld in Heart of Atlanta Motel v.United States 379 US 241 (1964).[21]

By 1965, efforts to break the grip of state disfranchisement had been under way for some time, but had achievedonly modest success overall and in some areas had proved almost entirely ineffectual. The murder of the threevoting-rights activists in Mississippi in 1964 and the state's refusal to prosecute the murderers, along withnumerous other acts of violence and terrorism against blacks, had gained national attention. Finally, theunprovoked attack on March 7, 1965, by state troopers on peaceful marchers crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridgein Selma, Alabama, en route to the state capitol in Montgomery, persuaded the President and Congress toovercome Southern legislators' resistance to effective voting rights enforcement legislation. President Johnsonissued a call for a strong voting rights law and hearings soon began on the bill that would become the VotingRights Act.[22]

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 ended legally sanctioned state barriers to voting for all federal, state and localelections. It also provided for federal oversight and monitoring of counties with historically low minority voterturnout, as this was a sign of discriminatory barriers.

Legacy

Legal

The Supreme Court of the United States held in the Civil Rights Cases109 US 3 (1883) that the Fourteenth Amendment did not give the federalgovernment the power to outlaw private discrimination, and then held inPlessy v. Ferguson 163 US 537 (1896) that Jim Crow laws wereconstitutional as long as they allowed for "separate but equal" facilities.In the years that followed, the court made this "separate but equal"requirement a hollow phrase by upholding discriminatory laws in the faceof evidence of profound inequalities in practice.

Political

Jim Crow laws were a product of the solidly Democratic South.Conservative white Southern Democrats, exploiting racial fear, attackingthe corruption (real or perceived) of Reconstruction Republicangovernments, and suppressing the black vote by violence andintimidation, took over state governments in the South in the 1870s and essentially dominated them for nearly100 years. They disfranchised most blacks through voter registration laws and new constitutions by the end ofthe nineteenth century. In 1956, Southern resistance to the Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board ofEducation resulted in a resolution called the Southern Manifesto. It was read into the Congressional Record andsupported by 96 Southern Congressmen and senators, all but two of them Southern Democrats.

African-American life


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civil rights activists to build a coalition of northern Democrats and Republicans and push Congress to pass the1965.[1Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of

to outlaw discrimination in public accommodations (privately owned restaurants, hotels, and stores, andin private schools and workplaces).

The murder of the threey p yvoting-rights activists in Mississippi in 1964 and the state's refusal to prosecute the murderers, along withg g pp pnumerous other acts of violence and terrorism against blacks, had gained national attention. Funprovoked attack o by state troopers on peaceful marchers c

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Jim Crow laws were a product of the solidly Democratic South.Conservative white Southern Democrats, exploiting racial fear, attacking

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An African-American man drinking ata "colored" drinking fountain in astreetcar terminal in Oklahoma City,Oklahoma, 1939

The Jim Crow laws and the high rate of lynchings in the South weremajor factors in the Great Migration during the first half of the 20thcentury. Because opportunities were so limited in the South, AfricanAmericans moved in great numbers to northern cities to seek better lives,becoming an urbanized population.

Despite the hardship and prejudice of the Jim Crow era, several blackentertainers and literary figures gained broad popularity with whiteaudiences in the early 20th century. They included luminaries such as tapdancers Bill "Bojangles" Robinson and the Nicholas Brothers, jazzmusicians such as Duke Ellington and Count Basie, and the actress HattieMcDaniel (in 1939 she was the first black to receive an Academy Awardwhen she won the Best Supporting Actress Oscar for her performance asMammy in Gone with the Wind).

African-American athletes faced much discrimination during the Jim Crow period. White opposition led to theirexclusion from most organized sporting competition. The boxers Jack Johnson and Joe Louis (both of whombecame world heavyweight boxing champions) and track and field athlete Jesse Owens (who won four goldmedals at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin) earned fame during this era. In baseball, a color line instituted inthe 1880s had informally barred blacks from playing in the major leagues, leading to the development of theNegro Leagues, which featured many fine players. A major breakthrough occurred in 1947, when JackieRobinson was hired as the first African American to play in Major League Baseball; he permanently broke thecolor bar. Baseball teams continued to integrate in the following years, leading to the full participation of blackbaseball players in the Major Leagues in the 1960s.

Remembrance

Ferris State University in Big Rapids, Michigan, houses the Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia, anextensive collection of everyday items that promoted racial segregation or presented racial stereotypes ofAfrican Americans, for the purpose of academic research and education about their cultural influence.[23]

Examples

Main article: List of Jim Crow law examples by State

Examples of Jim Crow laws are shown at the National Park Service website.[24] The examples includeanti-miscegenation laws. Although sometimes counted among "Jim Crow laws" of the South, such laws were alsopassed by other states. Anti-miscegenation laws were not repealed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964[1] but weredeclared unconstitutional by the 1967 Supreme Court ruling in Loving v. Virginia.

See also

Anti-miscegenation lawsBlack Codes in the United StatesDisfranchisement after Reconstruction eraDunning SchoolGroup Areas Act


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The Jim Crow laws and the high rate of lynchings in the South wereg y gmajor factors in the Great Migration during the first half of the 20thjcentury. B

Racial segregation in the United StatesSecond-class citizenSundown townTimeline of the African-American Civil Rights MovementThe New Jim Crow

Footnotes

^ Civil Rights Act of 1964(http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21)

1.

^ Craigie, William A., Sir, and Hulbert, James R.,eds. A Dictionary of American English on HistoricalPrinciples, 4 vols. Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1938–1944.

2.

^ Woodward, C. Vann and McFeely, William S.(2001), The Strange Career of Jim Crow. p. 7

3.

^ "Louisiana's 'Jim Crow' Law Valid"(http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E05EEDB1F31E033A25752C2A9649D94639ED7CF&scp=1&sq=jim+crow+December+21%2C+1892&st=p) . TheNew York Times (New York). December 21, 1892.ISSN 0362-4331 (//www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331) . http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E05EEDB1F31E033A25752C2A9649D94639ED7CF&scp=1&sq=jim+crow+December+21%2C+1892&st=p.Retrieved February 6, 2011. "New Orleans, Dec 20.– The Supreme Court yesterday declaredconstitutional the law passed two years ago andknown as the 'Jim Crow' law, making it compulsoryon railroads to provide separate cars for blacks."

4.

^ Woodward, C. Vann and McFeely, William S. TheStrange Career of Jim Crow. 2001, p. 6

5.

^ Michael Perman.Struggle for Mastery:Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908. ChapelHill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001,Introduction

6.

^ J. Morgan Kousser.The Shaping of SouthernPolitics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishmentof the One-Party South, New Haven: Yale UniversityPress, 1974

7.

^ Glenn Feldman, The Disfranchisement Myth: PoorWhites and Suffrage Restriction in Alabama, Athens:University of Georgia Press, 2004, pp. 135–136

8.

^ Richard H. Pildes, "Democracy,Anti-Democracy, and the Canon", 2000, pp. 12, 27(http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=224731) Retrieved Mar10, 2008

9.

^ Holt, Thomas (1979). Black over White: Negro10.

Political Leadership in South Carolina duringReconstruction. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.^ Tomlins, Christopher L. The United StatesSupreme Court: The Pursuit of Justice. 2005, p. 195

11.

^ King, Desmond. Separate and Unequal: BlackAmericans and the US Federal Government. 1995,page 3.

12.

^ Schulte Nordholt, J. W. and Rowen, Herbert H.Woodrow Wilson: A Life for World Peace. 1991,pp. 99–100.

13.

^ Blight, David W. Race and Reunion: The CivilWar in American Memory. page 9–11

14.

^ Gates, Henry Louis and Appiah, Anthony.Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African andAfrican American Experience. 1999, p. 1211.

15.

^ Murphy, Edgar Gardner. The Problems of thePresent South. 1910, p. 37

16.

^ "Full text of Korematsu v. United States opinion"(http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=323&invol=214) .findlaw.com. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=323&invol=214.

17.

^ Steele v. Louisville, full text of the opinioncourtesy of Findlaw.com.(http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=323&invol=192)

18.

^ Lopez, Ian F. Haney (February 1, 2007), "A nationof minorities: race, ethnicity, and reactionarycolorblindness" (http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM) , StanfordLaw Review

19.

^ "LBJ for Kids – Civil rights during the JohnsonAdministration" (http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/civil_timeline.shtm) . Universityof Texas. http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/lbjforkids/civil_timeline.shtm.

20.

^ See generally, Lopez, Ian F. Haney (February 1,2007). "A nation of minorities: race, ethnicity, andreactionary colorblindness"(http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM) . Stanford LawReview. http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM.

21.

^ "Introduction To Federal Voting Rights Laws"(http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/voting/intro/intro_b.htm) .

22.


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United States Department of Justice.^ Jim Crow Museum, Ferris State University, DetroitFree Press (http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/links/newslist/freep/)

23.^ "Jim Crow Laws" (http://www.nps.gov/malu/forteachers/jim_crow_laws.htm) . nps.gov.http://www.nps.gov/malu/forteachers/jim_crow_laws.htm. Retrieved November 17, 2010.

24.

Further reading

Ayers, Edward L. The Promise of the New South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.Barnes, Catherine A. Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Transit. NewYork:Columbia University Press, 1983.Bartley, Numan V. The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950s.Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1969.Bond, Horace Mann. "The Extent and Character of Separate Schools in the United States." Journal ofNegro Education vol. 4 (July 1935), pp. 321–327.Chin, Gabriel, and Karthikeyan, Hrishi. Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and theApplication of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asians, 1910 to 1950, 9 Asian L.J. 1 (2002)(http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=283998&high=%20Gabriel%20CHin)Campbell, Nedra. More Justice, More Peace: The Black Person's Guide to the American Legal System.Lawrence Hill Books; Chicago Review Press, 2003.Dailey, Jane; Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth and Simon, Bryant, eds. Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politicsfrom Civil War to Civil Rights (2000).Delany, Sarah; Delany, A. Elizabeth; and Hearth, Amy Hill. Having Our Say; The Delany Sisters' First100 Years. Thorndike, ME: G.K. Hall & Co., 1993.Fairclough, Adam. "‘Being in the Field of Education and Also Being a Negro…Seems…Tragic’: BlackTeachers in the Jim Crow South." Journal of American History vol. 87 (June 2000), pp. 65–91.Feldman, Glenn. Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949. University of Alabama Press,1999.Harvey Fireside, Separate and Unequal: Homer Plessy and the Supreme Court Decision That LegalizedRacism, 2004. ISBN 0-7867-1293-7Foner, Eric. Reconstruction, America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877: America's UnfinishedRevolution, 1863–1877. New York: Harpercollins, 1988.Gaines, Kevin. Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth CenturyUniversity of North Carolina Press, 1996.Gaston, Paul M. The New South Creed: A Study in Southern Mythmaking New York: Alfred A. Knopf,1970.Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth. Gender and Jim Crow Women and the Politics ... in North Carolina,1896–1920 (1996)Griffin, John Howard Black Like Me. New York: Signet, 1996.Haws, Robert, ed. The Age of Segregation: Race Relations in the South, 1890–1945 University Press ofMississippi, 1978.Hackney, Sheldon. Populism to Progressivism in Alabama (1969)Johnson, Charles S. Patterns of Negro Segregation Harper and Brothers, 1943.Klarman, Michael J. From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for RacialEquality. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004Litwack, Leon F.. Trouble in Mind: Black Southerners in the Age of Jim Crow. New York: Alfred A.Knopf: 1998.Lopez, Ian F. Haney. "A nation of minorities": race, ethnicity, and reactionary colorblindness(http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-30274716_ITM) . Stanford Law Review,February 1, 2007.Kantrowitz, Stephen. Ben Tillman & the Reconstruction of White Supremacy (2000)McMillen, Neil R. Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow. Urbana, IL: University of


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Illinois Press, 1989.Medley, Keith Weldon. We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson. Pelican. March, 2003.Murray, Pauli. States' Law on Race and Color. University of Georgia Press. 2d ed. 1997 (Davison Douglased.). ISBN 978-0-8203-1883-7Myrdal, Gunnar. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. New York:Harper and Row, 1944.Newby, I.A. Jim Crow's Defense: Anti-Negro Thought in America, 1900-1930. Baton Rouge, LA:Louisiana State University Press, 1965.Percy, William Alexander. Lanterns on the Levee: Recollections of a Planter's Son. 1941. Reprint, BatonRouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1993.Rabinowitz, Howard N. Race Relations in the Urban South, 1856–1890 (1978)Smith, J. Douglas. Managing: Race, Politics, and Citizenship in Jim Crow Virginia University of NorthCarolina Press, 2002.Smith, J. Douglas. "The Campaign for Racial Purity and the Erosion of Paternalism in Virginia,1922–1930: "Nominally White, Biologically Mixed, and Legally Negro.’" Journal of Southern Historyvol. 68 (February 2002), pp. 65–106.Smith, J. Douglas. "Patrolling the Boundaries of Race: Motion Picture Censorship and Jim Crow inVirginia, 1922–1932." Historical Journal of Film, Radio, and Television 21 (August 2001): 273–91.Sterner, Richard. The Negro's Share (1943) detailed statisticsWoodward, C. Vann. The Strange Career of Jim Crow. 1955.Woodward, C. Vann. The Origins of the New South: 1877–1913 (1951).

External links

The History of Jim Crow (http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/history.htm) , Ronald L. F. Davis – Aseries of essays on the history of Jim Crow. Archive copy (http://web.archive.org/*/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/history.htm) at the Wayback Machine

Creating Jim Crow (http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2.htm) – Origins of the term andsystem of laws. Archive copy (http://web.archive.org/*/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/creating2.htm) at the Wayback MachineRacial Etiquette: The Racial Customs and Rules of Racial Behavior in Jim Crow America(http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/resources/lessonplans/hs_es_etiquette.htm) – The basics of JimCrow etiquette. Archive copy (http://web.archive.org/*/http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/resources/lessonplans/hs_es_etiquette.htm) at the Wayback Machine

"You Don't Have to Ride Jim Crow!" (http://www.robinwashington.com/jimcrow/1_home.html) PBSdocumentary on first Freedom Ride, in 1947. Archive copy (http://web.archive.org/*/http://www.robinwashington.com/jimcrow/1_home.html) at the Wayback MachineList of laws enacted in various states (http://afroamhistory.about.com/cs/jimcrowlaws/a/jimcrowlaws.htm)Ferris University page (http://www.ferris.edu/news/jimcrow/what.htm) about Jim CrowVoices on Antisemitism Interview with David Pilgrim, founder of Jim Crow Museum(http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/voices/transcript/?content=20090423) fromthe US Holocaust Memorial MuseumJim Crow Era, History in the Key of Jazz (http://www.pbs.org/jazz/time/time_jim_crow.htm) , GeraldEarly, Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri (esp. see section "Jim Crow is Born")

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