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What is What is
Representation?
Representation?
Which other Key Which other Key Concepts do we need Concepts do we need
to consider?to consider?• Media Language (Media Language (howhow the representation is the representation is
created/ mediated, denotation and connotation)created/ mediated, denotation and connotation)
• Institution and audience (Institution and audience (whowho is doing the is doing the representation and representation and whowho is it aimed at?) is it aimed at?)
• Theories and ideology (Theories and ideology (howhow can we deconstruct can we deconstruct the representation and the representation and howhow can we make sense can we make sense of it?)of it?)
What do we need to What do we need to know?know?
Who is being represented?Who is being represented?
• • In what way?In what way?
• • By whom?By whom?
Why is the subject being represented in this way?Why is the subject being represented in this way?
• • Is the representation fair and accurate?Is the representation fair and accurate?
• • What opportunities exist for self-representation by What opportunities exist for self-representation by the subject?the subject?
MediationMediation
Every time we encounter a media text,
Every time we encounter a media text,
we are not seeing reality, but someone's
we are not seeing reality, but someone's
version of it. This may seem like an
version of it. This may seem like an
obvious point, but it is something that is
obvious point, but it is something that is
easily forgotten when we get caught up
easily forgotten when we get caught up
in enjoying a text.
in enjoying a text.
MediationMediation
The media place us at one remove
The media place us at one remove
from reality: they take something
from reality: they take something
that is real, a person or an event
that is real, a person or an event
and they change its form to produce
and they change its form to produce
whatever text we end up with. This
whatever text we end up with. This
is called mediation.
is called mediation.
Mediation – three Mediation – three things to look out forthings to look out for
1.1. SelectionSelection
• Whatever ends up on the screen or in the paper, much more will have Whatever ends up on the screen or in the paper, much more will have been left out- any news story has been selected from hundreds of been left out- any news story has been selected from hundreds of
others which the producers decided for you were less interesting, any others which the producers decided for you were less interesting, any picture has been chosen from an enormous number of alternatives.picture has been chosen from an enormous number of alternatives.
2. Organisation2. Organisation
• The various elements will be organised carefully in ways that real life The various elements will be organised carefully in ways that real life is not- in visual media this involves mise-en-scene and the is not- in visual media this involves mise-en-scene and the
organisation of narrative, in the recording of an album the production organisation of narrative, in the recording of an album the production might involve re-mixing a track. Any medium you can think of will might involve re-mixing a track. Any medium you can think of will have an equivalent to these. This organisation of the material will have an equivalent to these. This organisation of the material will
result in…….result in…….
3. 3. FocusingFocusing
• Mediation always ends up with us, the audience being pushed towards Mediation always ends up with us, the audience being pushed towards concentrating on one aspect of the text and ignoring others. If you are concentrating on one aspect of the text and ignoring others. If you are watching a film the camera will pan towards an important character, watching a film the camera will pan towards an important character,
in a tabloid the headlines will scream, for your attention. It can be in a tabloid the headlines will scream, for your attention. It can be easy to ignore how different from our everyday lives this is. If you are easy to ignore how different from our everyday lives this is. If you are walking through a field, you are unlikely to see a sign saying "look at walking through a field, you are unlikely to see a sign saying "look at this amazing tree." You make your own decisions about what is worth this amazing tree." You make your own decisions about what is worth our attention. The media text, through mediation, tries to do this for our attention. The media text, through mediation, tries to do this for
us.us.
Soci
ety
, th
e
Soci
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, th
e
indiv
idual a
nd
indiv
idual a
nd
repre
senta
tion
repre
senta
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It is too simple to talk
It is too simple to talk
just about the media
just about the media
mediating reality and
mediating reality and
creating representations-
creating representations-
we need a more subtle
we need a more subtle
understanding of the
understanding of the
process. To get this we
process. To get this we
will look briefly at some
will look briefly at some
different ideas people
different ideas people
have had about how
have had about how representation works. You
representation works. You
could broadly separate
could broadly separate
these into three:
these into three:
Three views of Three views of representationrepresentation
ReflectiveReflective According to this view, when we represent something, we are taking its According to this view, when we represent something, we are taking its
true meaning and trying to create a replica of it in the mind of our true meaning and trying to create a replica of it in the mind of our audience- like a reflection. This is the view that many people have of how audience- like a reflection. This is the view that many people have of how news works- the news producers take the truth of news events and news works- the news producers take the truth of news events and simply present it to us as accurately as possible.simply present it to us as accurately as possible.
IntentionalIntentional This is the opposite of the Reflective idea. This time the most important This is the opposite of the Reflective idea. This time the most important
thing in the process of representation is the person doing the thing in the process of representation is the person doing the representing- they are presenting their view of the thing they are representing- they are presenting their view of the thing they are representing and the words or images that they use mean what they representing and the words or images that they use mean what they intend them to mean. According to this theory, if you see a picture of an intend them to mean. According to this theory, if you see a picture of an attractive person drinking a can of Coke in an advert, it will have the attractive person drinking a can of Coke in an advert, it will have the same meaning to you as the advertiser intended- go away and buysame meaning to you as the advertiser intended- go away and buy
ConstructionistConstructionist This is really a response to what have been seen a weakness in the other This is really a response to what have been seen a weakness in the other
two theories. Constructionists feel that a representation can never just two theories. Constructionists feel that a representation can never just be the truth or the version of the truth that someone wants you to hear be the truth or the version of the truth that someone wants you to hear since that is ignoring your ability as an individual to make up your own since that is ignoring your ability as an individual to make up your own mind and the influences of the society that you live in on the way that mind and the influences of the society that you live in on the way that you do so.you do so.
Any representation is a mixture of:Any representation is a mixture of:
1 The 1 The thingthing itself itself
2 The 2 The opinionsopinions of the of the peoplepeople doing the doing the representationrepresentation
3 The 3 The reactionreaction of the of the individualindividual to the to the representationrepresentation
4 The 4 The contextcontext of the of the societysociety in which the in which the representation is taking place.representation is taking place.
Dom
inant
Dom
inant
Ideolo
gie
sId
eolo
gie
s
The group of ideas that
The group of ideas that
make up the dominant
make up the dominant
ideology in Britain are not
ideology in Britain are not
something that remains
something that remains
static- they change as
static- they change as
new ideas enter the are
new ideas enter the are
encountered and people
encountered and people
discuss them. For
discuss them. For example the dominant
example the dominant
ideology in Britain used
ideology in Britain used
to be to be anti-black
anti-black but this but this
seems to be changing at
seems to be changing at
the moment.
the moment.
Many constructionists believe that this itself has Many constructionists believe that this itself has an effect on what the dominant ideology actually an effect on what the dominant ideology actually is - after all the dominant ideology is only the is - after all the dominant ideology is only the belief of the majority of people so if you and belief of the majority of people so if you and others like you end up even more sure that men others like you end up even more sure that men in responsible positions should control their in responsible positions should control their behaviour as a result of seeing the article, then behaviour as a result of seeing the article, then the dominant ideology has become a bit stronger.the dominant ideology has become a bit stronger.
You could see the whole process that the You could see the whole process that the constructionists describe as being a kind of constructionists describe as being a kind of negotiation. Over the years representations are negotiation. Over the years representations are accepted or rejected by the majority of people accepted or rejected by the majority of people and the dominant ideology is gradually changed.and the dominant ideology is gradually changed.
Dominant ideology is a key aspect of MarxismDominant ideology is a key aspect of Marxism
Dominant IdeologiesDominant Ideologies
Ste
reoty
pes
Ste
reoty
pes
It's worth now looking in
It's worth now looking in
more detail at what is
more detail at what is
going on in the other
going on in the other
parts of the process- the
parts of the process- the
individuals and the
individuals and the media and their
media and their relationship with what is
relationship with what is
being represented. This
being represented. This
brings us on to the
brings us on to the question of stereotypes-
question of stereotypes-
another word which is
another word which is
maybe worth a
maybe worth a dictionary definition.
dictionary definition.
StereotypesStereotypes
A standardised, usually oversimplified, A standardised, usually oversimplified, mental picture or attitude that is held in mental picture or attitude that is held in
common by members of a groupcommon by members of a group..
A stereotype is a simplification that we A stereotype is a simplification that we use to make sense of a real person or use to make sense of a real person or group which is much more complicated.group which is much more complicated.
The four parts of a media stereotypeThe four parts of a media stereotype
How can the media build a stereotype?How can the media build a stereotype?
With any group of people, there will obviously With any group of people, there will obviously be an enormous number of things that can be be an enormous number of things that can be used in a stereotype, but because stereotyping used in a stereotype, but because stereotyping is a form of simplification, normally the most is a form of simplification, normally the most obvious things are used. These are:obvious things are used. These are:
1.1. Appearance- this can include, physical Appearance- this can include, physical appearance and clothing as well as the sound of appearance and clothing as well as the sound of the voice. e.g. "all teachers wear dreadful old the voice. e.g. "all teachers wear dreadful old clothesclothes““
2. Behaviour - typical things that people in this 2. Behaviour - typical things that people in this group might do. "Grannies like to knit"group might do. "Grannies like to knit"
The four parts of a media stereotypeThe four parts of a media stereotype
These first two features of media stereotypes are the same These first two features of media stereotypes are the same when we make our own stereotypes. They simply involve us when we make our own stereotypes. They simply involve us thinking of something that may be true of some of the group in thinking of something that may be true of some of the group in question and applying it to all.question and applying it to all.
The third feature of media stereotyping is peculiar to the The third feature of media stereotyping is peculiar to the media:media:
3.3. The stereotype is constructed in ways that fit the particular mediumThe stereotype is constructed in ways that fit the particular medium
This is more difficult to understand but it is crucial for you to This is more difficult to understand but it is crucial for you to look for it. If you watch a film such as Silence of the Lambs and look for it. If you watch a film such as Silence of the Lambs and then look at the tabloid coverage of Fred West, you are seeing then look at the tabloid coverage of Fred West, you are seeing the same stereotype ( the typical Serial Killer) being used, but the same stereotype ( the typical Serial Killer) being used, but there are obviously big differences which will depend on the there are obviously big differences which will depend on the specifics of the media used.specifics of the media used.
The film will use close ups of the killer's leering face, The film will use close ups of the killer's leering face, soundtrack music and reaction shots of terrified victims to soundtrack music and reaction shots of terrified victims to create their version of the stereotype.create their version of the stereotype.
The four parts of a media stereotypeThe four parts of a media stereotype
4.4. There will always be a comparison whether real or imaginary with "normalThere will always be a comparison whether real or imaginary with "normal”” behaviour. behaviour.
The features which make up a stereotype are always those which The features which make up a stereotype are always those which seem somehow different from every-day behaviour. In fact you could seem somehow different from every-day behaviour. In fact you could almost start any stereotyped description by saying: "this group are almost start any stereotyped description by saying: "this group are different because they…….different because they…….““
Of course the idea of what is normal in any society is an absurdity and Of course the idea of what is normal in any society is an absurdity and therefore in order to make it clear to us that the stereotyped therefore in order to make it clear to us that the stereotyped characters are not behaving "normally" there will frequently be characters are not behaving "normally" there will frequently be "normal" people used to act as a contrast to them."normal" people used to act as a contrast to them.
So, to use the earlier example, Jodie Foster is used in Silence of the So, to use the earlier example, Jodie Foster is used in Silence of the Lambs to give the audience someone to compare Lecter's behaviour Lambs to give the audience someone to compare Lecter's behaviour with. On the news, tales of striking workers (another stereotype) are with. On the news, tales of striking workers (another stereotype) are always contrasted with interviews with "normal" people who are always contrasted with interviews with "normal" people who are suffering as a result of their actions.suffering as a result of their actions.
The normal person will act as a representative of us in the text- at the The normal person will act as a representative of us in the text- at the same time reflecting what we might feel, or telling us what to feel same time reflecting what we might feel, or telling us what to feel depending on your point of view.depending on your point of view.
Changin
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Counte
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In the Sci-Fi blockbuster film
In the Sci-Fi blockbuster film
Independence Day there is a
Independence Day there is a
character played by Will Smith
character played by Will Smith
who is clearly intended to be a
who is clearly intended to be a
positive and strong hero. As
positive and strong hero. As
such, he goes against many of
such, he goes against many of
the previous negative
the previous negative
stereotypes of black people in
stereotypes of black people in
American films. In one crucial
American films. In one crucial
scene from the film we see him
scene from the film we see him
responding to the danger of an
responding to the danger of an
alien's attack by simply kicking
alien's attack by simply kicking
it.it. In another blockbuster Sci-Fi film
In another blockbuster Sci-Fi film
- Mars Attacks - there is also a
- Mars Attacks - there is also a
black hero who also responds to
black hero who also responds to
the attack of a bunch of aliens
the attack of a bunch of aliens
by punching one of them. Both
by punching one of them. Both
of these films were made
of these films were made
virtually simultaneously.
virtually simultaneously.
How can we explain the fact that
How can we explain the fact that
they end up containing what are
they end up containing what are
almost identical scenes?
almost identical scenes?
Changin
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In both cases, the
In both cases, the
representation of black
representation of black
people in these films has
people in these films has
probably resulted from the
probably resulted from the
very best of intentions. The
very best of intentions. The
films' producers were
films' producers were
probably tired of years of
probably tired of years of
negative stereotyping of
negative stereotyping of
black people in the movies
black people in the movies
and wanted to create a new
and wanted to create a new
representation.
representation. So, instead of showing black
So, instead of showing black
people as criminals or as
people as criminals or as
animals they have
animals they have
represented them as noble
represented them as noble
heroes who get straight to
heroes who get straight to
the point and take no
the point and take no
nonsense. They have also
nonsense. They have also
emphasised the humour of
emphasised the humour of
these characters and have
these characters and have
made sure that they are
made sure that they are
attractive enough to act as
attractive enough to act as
macho role models.
macho role models.
Changin
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One analysis of this would be to
One analysis of this would be to
say that they have created a
say that they have created a
new kind of stereotype – a
new kind of stereotype – a
positive stereotype which could
positive stereotype which could
be called a countertype. In the
be called a countertype. In the
same way as a traditional
same way as a traditional
stereotype was made by
stereotype was made by
selecting the negative behaviour
selecting the negative behaviour
of some members of the group,
of some members of the group,
the countertype homes in on
the countertype homes in on
some features which are
some features which are
positive.positive. However the countertype is still
However the countertype is still
very much a stereotype -- it is
very much a stereotype -- it is
still a simplification of the
still a simplification of the
enormous diversity that must
enormous diversity that must
exist in the population of black
exist in the population of black
Americans. As such, although it
Americans. As such, although it
is an improvement on a negative
is an improvement on a negative
stereotype, it is still not the
stereotype, it is still not the
whole truth and many black
whole truth and many black
people would probably still find
people would probably still find
it very annoying in the way that
it very annoying in the way that
it limits their behaviour.
it limits their behaviour.
Can w
e e
ver
Can w
e e
ver
avoid
avoid
st
ere
oty
pes?
stere
oty
pes?
You will probably be able to find
You will probably be able to find
Countertypes whenever there is
Countertypes whenever there is
a group being represented
a group being represented
positively for the first time by
positively for the first time by
the media. It seems as if the
the media. It seems as if the
media find it difficult to adapt
media find it difficult to adapt
to change and will always use
to change and will always use
the old techniques of
the old techniques of
simplification even if they're
simplification even if they're
trying to be nice about
trying to be nice about
someone.someone. This has led some people to
This has led some people to
question whether it is ever
question whether it is ever
possible to create a
possible to create a
representation that is free of
representation that is free of
stereotypes. If you think back
stereotypes. If you think back
to implicit personality theory, it
to implicit personality theory, it
should be clear how natural the
should be clear how natural the
process of stereotyping is to us
process of stereotyping is to us
and how attractive we find this
and how attractive we find this
simplified view of the world.
simplified view of the world.
However, if we are aware of
However, if we are aware of
this tendency in our own minds,
this tendency in our own minds,
we must be able to at least try
we must be able to at least try
to avoid it and to recognise it in
to avoid it and to recognise it in
the media texts that we are
the media texts that we are
presented with.
presented with.
