Ethics and Moral ValuesEthics and Moral Values

Clark WolfClark WolfIowa State UniversityIowa State University

Philosophical approaches to Philosophical approaches to ethical choice and reflection…ethical choice and reflection…

““The problems of philosophy involve questions in The problems of philosophy involve questions in which we are all (or should all be) deeply which we are all (or should all be) deeply interested at the most basic level. They are interested at the most basic level. They are important to us as we make decisions about what important to us as we make decisions about what to believe, and how to be critical of our own to believe, and how to be critical of our own naively held beliefs. Philosophical investigation naively held beliefs. Philosophical investigation may help us to determine what kinds of choices may help us to determine what kinds of choices we should make, and what kind of person to be. It we should make, and what kind of person to be. It may help us to understand and justify our belief may help us to understand and justify our belief (or disbelief) in God. It may help us to form a (or disbelief) in God. It may help us to form a rational life plan, and to better understand our rational life plan, and to better understand our own motives and fears. Philosophical questions own motives and fears. Philosophical questions are important to us as we try to understand what are important to us as we try to understand what we are and to determine our place in the scheme we are and to determine our place in the scheme of things. And they are important to us as we try of things. And they are important to us as we try to choose right actions in a complicated and to choose right actions in a complicated and difficult world, and to find meaning in our lives. difficult world, and to find meaning in our lives. These are not trivial projects.”These are not trivial projects.”

Identifying Ethics: Identifying Ethics: Principles of ethics Principles of ethics should provide us guidance as we make should provide us guidance as we make choices in a complicated world. Ideally, an choices in a complicated world. Ideally, an account of ethics should help us to identify account of ethics should help us to identify moral principles and morally relevant features moral principles and morally relevant features of the choices we face.of the choices we face.

There is no simple “recipe” for There is no simple “recipe” for ethical decision making. ethical decision making. Philosophical and religious Philosophical and religious theories about ethics do not theories about ethics do not remove our need (obligation?) to remove our need (obligation?) to exercise deliberative judgment exercise deliberative judgment and to evaluate alternative values and to evaluate alternative values that are at play in concrete cases.that are at play in concrete cases.

Ethics:Ethics: Ethical codes of conduct Ethical codes of conduct instruct us on what we ought or instruct us on what we ought or ought not to do. Typical ethical ought not to do. Typical ethical theories or ethical codes include theories or ethical codes include basic principles that are intended basic principles that are intended to be used to guide conduct. to be used to guide conduct.

Values:Values: Values underlie ethical Values underlie ethical codes. For any ethical code, we codes. For any ethical code, we can evaluate it by considering can evaluate it by considering the values that support it. the values that support it.

Values and Wants:Values and Wants: The things The things we want are usually among the we want are usually among the things we value, but values and things we value, but values and wants are different. It is possible wants are different. It is possible to want what one does not value, to want what one does not value, and possible to value what one and possible to value what one does not want. does not want.

Role of Religious Belief in Ethics:Role of Religious Belief in Ethics: For those of us who have religious For those of us who have religious beliefs, often these beliefs are beliefs, often these beliefs are intimately tied to our values and to the intimately tied to our values and to the ethical principles we accept. But it ethical principles we accept. But it would be a mistake to suppose that would be a mistake to suppose that ethical values are simply religious ethical values are simply religious values—at least, the relationship is values—at least, the relationship is more complex than people sometimes more complex than people sometimes realize.realize.

Any time says that we should do Any time says that we should do X because it is what God wants us X because it is what God wants us to do, it is appropriate to to do, it is appropriate to consider the reasons we have for consider the reasons we have for thinking that this is what God thinking that this is what God wants. Once we ask this wants. Once we ask this question, we’re doing philosophy. question, we’re doing philosophy.

Question:Question: Are Ethical Judgments Are Ethical Judgments Relative, Subjective, and Relative, Subjective, and Incomparable? Incomparable?

Relative: Relative: Different people make Different people make different judgments, and the different judgments, and the evaluative judgments people evaluative judgments people make are wholly relative to the make are wholly relative to the values that they hold. values that they hold.

Subjective:Subjective: “Different people just “Different people just have different values, and there is have different values, and there is no way to argue or reason about no way to argue or reason about the evaluative assumptions that lie the evaluative assumptions that lie behind different ethical judgments behind different ethical judgments or choices. There are no evaluative or choices. There are no evaluative facts in the way that there are facts facts in the way that there are facts about the physical universe.” about the physical universe.”

Incomparable:Incomparable: There is no way There is no way to compare the judgments of to compare the judgments of different people, and no one's different people, and no one's evaluative judgments are any evaluative judgments are any better than the evaluative better than the evaluative judgments of anyone else. judgments of anyone else.

Claim:Claim: If it were true that ethical If it were true that ethical values are all relative, subjective, values are all relative, subjective, and incomparable, then talking and incomparable, then talking about ethics would be useless. about ethics would be useless.

Why might one believe this? Why might one believe this? Is it true?Is it true?

Claim:Claim: Because we have many Because we have many values in common, discussions in values in common, discussions in ethics often involve appeals to ethics often involve appeals to commonly shared values.commonly shared values.

Claim: Claim: Often discussions in Often discussions in ethics involve appeals to values ethics involve appeals to values one believes that others accept, one believes that others accept, or values one believes that others or values one believes that others have have reason reason to accept. to accept.

Ethical argument and discussion Ethical argument and discussion requires an informed and requires an informed and sympathetic understanding of sympathetic understanding of other people’s values and other other people’s values and other people’s point of view. We get no people’s point of view. We get no where if we simply preach our where if we simply preach our own values without making an own values without making an effort to understand others.effort to understand others.

One Form of Ethical Argument: One Form of Ethical Argument: Elicit a value judgment by coming Elicit a value judgment by coming to an understanding of some of to an understanding of some of the values another person holds. the values another person holds. Then show that the value in Then show that the value in question has implications that are question has implications that are not consistent with the persons not consistent with the persons actions.actions.

Example: Robert Nozick on Example: Robert Nozick on Vegetarianism. (Hand-out.)Vegetarianism. (Hand-out.)

Ethical ArgumentsEthical Arguments

Argument: A set of statements, Argument: A set of statements, some of which serve as some of which serve as premises,premises, one of which serves as a one of which serves as a conclusion,conclusion, where the premises where the premises are intended to provide are intended to provide evidenceevidence for the conclusion.for the conclusion.

When presented with an When presented with an argument, one may eitherargument, one may either

1) Accept the premises and the 1) Accept the premises and the conclusionconclusion

2) Reject the premises2) Reject the premises

3) Argue (or show) that the 3) Argue (or show) that the conclusion does not follow from conclusion does not follow from the premises.the premises.

Ethical Arguments

An Example of an An Example of an Ethical Argument: Ethical Argument: Hand-out: Argument for Vegetarianism Hand-out: Argument for Vegetarianism

and Limitations on Animal Testingand Limitations on Animal Testing

Do you accept the premises? If not, Do you accept the premises? If not, which premise do you reject or find which premise do you reject or find questionable?questionable?

Does the conclusion follow from the Does the conclusion follow from the premises?premises?

Example: Peter SingerExample: Peter Singer

1) Suffering and death from lack of food, 1) Suffering and death from lack of food, shelter, and medical care are bad. shelter, and medical care are bad.

2) Singer's Principle: Two versions. 2) Singer's Principle: Two versions. Version i) If it is in our power to prevent Version i) If it is in our power to prevent

something bad from happening, without something bad from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything of comparable thereby sacrificing anything of comparable moral importance, we ought, morally, to do moral importance, we ought, morally, to do it. it.

Version ii) If it is in our power to prevent Version ii) If it is in our power to prevent something very bad from happening, without something very bad from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything of moral thereby sacrificing anything of moral significance, we ought, morally to do it.significance, we ought, morally to do it.

Example for Singer’s Principle: If Example for Singer’s Principle: If I'm walking past a shallow pond, I'm walking past a shallow pond, and I see a child drowning in it, I and I see a child drowning in it, I ought to wade in and pull the child ought to wade in and pull the child out. out.

COST: Muddy Clothing. COST: Muddy Clothing. BENEFIT: Child's Life.BENEFIT: Child's Life.

Extending the Argument: Extending the Argument: ““Whenever we spend on Whenever we spend on ourselves or our loved ones ourselves or our loved ones money we could use to address money we could use to address the more pressing moral issue of the more pressing moral issue of absolute poverty, we are absolute poverty, we are violating a moral principle that we violating a moral principle that we accept.” accept.”

Notice that Singer’s argument is Notice that Singer’s argument is an appeal to our an appeal to our integrity. integrity. He is He is not simply preaching his values not simply preaching his values and applying them (perhaps and applying them (perhaps inappropriately) to us.inappropriately) to us.

Basic v. Derivative Basic v. Derivative ObligationsObligations Some obligations derive from Some obligations derive from

other more basic obligations. For other more basic obligations. For example, obligations of example, obligations of citizenship may be based on our citizenship may be based on our obligation to be fair, responsible, obligation to be fair, responsible, and respectful of other people and respectful of other people with whom we interact. with whom we interact.

Basic and Derivative Basic and Derivative ObligationsObligations When obligations can be derived When obligations can be derived

from others, the more basic from others, the more basic obligations have a kind of obligations have a kind of “priority” over the derived “priority” over the derived obligations.obligations.

Basic and Derivative Basic and Derivative ObligationsObligations Question: Is there an identifiable Question: Is there an identifiable

set of fundamental obligations, set of fundamental obligations, such that all our real obligations such that all our real obligations can be derived from that set?can be derived from that set?

Basic Values: The Josephson Basic Values: The Josephson Proposal:Proposal:

TrustworthinessTrustworthiness RespectRespect ResponsibilityResponsibility FairnessFairness CaringCaring CitizenshipCitizenship

W.D. Ross’s List of Prima Facie W.D. Ross’s List of Prima Facie

Duties:Duties:

1) Duties that rest on previous acts of my own1) Duties that rest on previous acts of my own

a) Promises.a) Promises. b) Duty to rectify previous wrongs. b) Duty to rectify previous wrongs.

2) Duties that rest on previous acts of others 2) Duties that rest on previous acts of others (Duties of gratitude).(Duties of gratitude).

3) Duties of justice (Ross interprets this as a duty 3) Duties of justice (Ross interprets this as a duty to endeavor to bring the distribution of to endeavor to bring the distribution of pleasure or happiness in line with merit.)pleasure or happiness in line with merit.)

4) Beneficence- Duty to benefit others.4) Beneficence- Duty to benefit others.5) Duty to improve one's own virtue or 5) Duty to improve one's own virtue or

intelligence.intelligence.6) Duty not to injure others.6) Duty not to injure others.

Joel Feinberg’s List of Basic Joel Feinberg’s List of Basic Obligations: Obligations:

1) Fidelity- Obligation to keep promises.1) Fidelity- Obligation to keep promises.2) Veracity- Obligation to tell the truth, or (or better-- not 2) Veracity- Obligation to tell the truth, or (or better-- not

to tell lies).to tell lies).3) Fair Play- Obligation not to exploit, cheat, or "free load" 3) Fair Play- Obligation not to exploit, cheat, or "free load"

on otherson others4) Gratitude- Obligation to return favors4) Gratitude- Obligation to return favors5) Nonmaleficence- Obligation not to cause harm, pain or 5) Nonmaleficence- Obligation not to cause harm, pain or

suffering to others,suffering to others,6) Beneficence- Obligation to help others in distress, at 6) Beneficence- Obligation to help others in distress, at

least when this involves no great danger to oneself or to least when this involves no great danger to oneself or to third parties.third parties.

7) Reparation- Obligation to repair harms to others that 7) Reparation- Obligation to repair harms to others that are one's fault.are one's fault.

8) Obligation not to kill others (except in self-defense).8) Obligation not to kill others (except in self-defense).9) Obligation not to deprive others of their property.9) Obligation not to deprive others of their property.10) Obligation to oppose injustices, at least when this 10) Obligation to oppose injustices, at least when this

involves no great cost to oneself.involves no great cost to oneself.11) Obligation to promote just institutions and to work 11) Obligation to promote just institutions and to work

toward their establishment, maintenance, and toward their establishment, maintenance, and improvement.improvement.

Finding an appropriate list of basic Finding an appropriate list of basic obligations may seem like a obligations may seem like a philosophers’ game. But the philosophers’ game. But the business of making appropriate business of making appropriate ethical decisions is not a game. One ethical decisions is not a game. One practical goal of such a list is that it practical goal of such a list is that it may help us to make appropriate may help us to make appropriate decisions in complicated decisions in complicated circumstances. circumstances.

What more basic values are What more basic values are involved?involved?

Helping out on your father-in-law’s farm, Helping out on your father-in-law’s farm, you discover that he has ceased to use you discover that he has ceased to use appropriate environmental precautions. appropriate environmental precautions. His plow patterns are leading to His plow patterns are leading to excessive soil erosion and excessive excessive soil erosion and excessive pesticide run-off. There is reason to pesticide run-off. There is reason to believe that his unsafe practices are believe that his unsafe practices are significantly contributing to significantly contributing to groundwater contamination, and that groundwater contamination, and that erosion from his fields is erosion from his fields is

Ethics and ethical decision making are Ethics and ethical decision making are not simply the province of philosophers not simply the province of philosophers or ethicists. Our choices reveal our or ethicists. Our choices reveal our values to the world. These values are values to the world. These values are either unreflective and shallow, or either unreflective and shallow, or reflective and deep. reflective and deep.

Philosophical deliberation should help us Philosophical deliberation should help us to make our values and choices deep to make our values and choices deep and thoughtful. Maybe this makes it and thoughtful. Maybe this makes it more likely that our choices will be the more likely that our choices will be the right ones.right ones.