1. MorePraiseforThisBook
Abrilliantlyaccessibleguidetodevelopingtrainingthatworks!Thisbookbringsthebestofcurrent
academicthoughttothepractitionerinaconversational,practical,andusableformat.Theendnotesarea
phenomenalresourceforanyonewhowantstodigdeeper.Simplysuperb.
BonnieBeresford VicePresident,ClientServices,CapitalAnalytics Ive
been recommending this book for years to my staff, my students, and
friends who work for
nonprofits.Itsthemostaccurateandeasy-to-readbookforanyonewhowantstohelpsomeonelearn.The
new section on technology is especially helpful for those of us
involved in online learning. And my
doctoralstudentswilllovethisupdatedversionwithmorethan300references.
PettiVanRekom
Professor,TrainingandPerformanceImprovement,CapellaUniversity
DirectorofOnlineLearning,IowaWritersOnline
Itishardtoimproveontheiroriginal,wonderfultrainingguide,butStolovitchandKeepshavemanaged
todojustthat.ThiseditionofTellingAintTrainingidentifieschangesorganizationsmustmaketomeet
modernworkplaceskillandknowledgeimprovementchallenges.Theendnotesareexceptional.Whata
treasuretroveofscientificandprofessionalresourcesforadditionalresearchandreading!TellingAint
Trainingisanessentialresourcefortrainers. ConnieDenicola
InstructorDevelopmentManager,
NationalCenterforBiomedicalResearchandTraining
PraisefortheFirstEdition
Acriticaltopicdeliveredinacompellingway.Icanseehowthisbookwillelevatetheconversation
aboutlearningandperformance. AllisonRossett
ProfessorofEducationalTechnology,SanDiegoStateUniversity
Thispractical,innovative,andwell-researchedbookonhowwealllearnisaninvaluabletoolforall
learningandperformanceprofessionals.Asaformervicepresidentoftrainingandchangemanagement,I
wouldhavemadethebookmandatoryreadingfortrainers,coaches,andmanagers,haditexisted.Well
done! MichelDesjardins SeniorVicePresident,BDCConsultingGroup,
BusinessDevelopmentBankofCanada
Thisisagreatbookthatwillchangeyourperceptionsaboutteaching.Ihavealwayslistenedcarefullyto
what Harold and Erica have to say on this subject. Now I have what
I always wanteda readily
accessibleHaroldandErica.Aconvincing,fun,andinterestingread.
2. J.KimballDietrich
AssociateProfessor,FinanceandBusinessEconomics,
UniversityofSouthernCalifornia
IbelieveinTellingAintTrainingsomuchthatIhaveorderedfivecopiesandamgoingtodoabook
studywiththefivetrainerswehaveinourdistrict.Iamsoexcitedtogettheopportunitytosharethe
informationfromyourbookwithmytrainers.Ifeeltheywillbenefitandbebroughtuptothenextlevel.
KenyonBoswell
TechnologyTrainingSupervisor,KatyIndependentSchoolDistrict
Iwantedtoletyouknowhowyourbook,TellingAintTraining,haspositivelytransformedacompanys
trainingprogramandme!Themostexcitingparthasbeenthecommentsfromthenewhireswhohave
gonethroughthetraining:Itssoorganized,Itssoeasytounderstand,ThisisthebesttrainingIve
everbeenthrough.Themostincrediblepartisthefeedbackfromthecurrentstaffconcerningthehigh
levelofthenewhiresaftertrainingandalsothefactthatthecurrentemployeesaresointriguedwiththe
new training that they want to go through it themselves! Thank you
for such an enlightening, easy-to- understand,transformationalbook!
PamelaSullivan RecognitionandRetentionConsultant,PSSullivan&Co.
I have just finished reading your book Telling Aint Training, and I
wanted to drop you a note to
commendyouonanexcellentbook.Ihavebeenreviewingconsiderableliteratureforthepastfewyears,
andIthinkyourpublicationisoneoftheclearest,moststraightforwardpublicationsIhavecomeacrossin
alongtime.Iamrecommendingthateveryoneinourtrainingorganizationreviewitbecauseitservesasa
greattooltobringeverythingtogether. SteveSniderman
PerformanceImprovementConsultant,GlobalEducation&Training,
GlobalSalesDivision,Amway
ReadersShareHowTellingAintTraining,FirstEdition,WasUsedinTheirOrganizations
AtMerckSharpandDohme(NewZealand),wedrewtogetheragroupofpeoplewhoareinvolvedin
the training and education of others and began monthly forum
sessions based around Telling Aint Trainingand Training Aint
Performance. The main changes have come from the growing awareness
withinthegroupthattheyshouldbeperformancebasedandlearnercentered.Ithassignificantlychanged
thewaytheyseetheirroles,and,inparticular,causedthemtogobacktothedrawingboardtolookat
whattheyaretryingtoachieveandwhy.Inalmostallcases,mygrouphaschangeditsapproachfrom
beingtrainerstoimproversofperformance.Whentheydoputtogethertrainingtheynowcarefully
considerhowtobestenablepeopletolearnasopposedtojustattendingacourse.
Weusedtohaveacalendaroftypicaltrainingworkshopsthateitherconsistedoftoomuchmaterial
being transmitted or too many activities that were superfluous and
didnt result in performance
improvement.Soourtrainersarenowstartingwiththelearnersandwhattheyneedtoknowanddoand
arethendesigningtrainingandotherperformancesupporttoenableit.Theresulthasbeenlessbutmore
3.
relevanttraining,lessmoney,andthecontentandstructurematchtheperformanceoutcomesrequired.
Ilaminatedasimple,brightlycoloredcardforeachpersonthatsimplyreadsPerformanceBasedand
LearnerCentered.Ivenoticedthateveryonehasitabovetheirdeskasareminderfortheireducational
effortsandworkplaceconversations.Wevealreadyseennewlearner-centeredmaterialsbeingproduced
togetherwithshortermodulesinformatsthatmaximizeretentionandlearning.Thankyouforacoupleof
outstandingbooksthathavebeenwritteninawaythatwalksthetalk!
RobBialostocki
LearningandDevelopmentManager,MerckSharpandDohme(NewZealand)
IamateacherofdevelopmentalEnglishatBaltimoreCityCommunityCollege.Mystudentsoftenhave
deficitsinmoreareasthanjustgrammarandmechanics.Theirskilldeficitsoftenincludethebehavioral
notsomuchbadbehavior,butlackofself-esteem.Fewofmystudentsfeelcomfortableworkingina
group.Evenfewerknowhowtoaddressaspeakerorformagoodquestion.
WhenIreturnedfromtheArlington,Virginia,TellingAintTrainingworkshop,Iimmediatelyemployed
thePressConferencetechniqueinmyclass.TheonlymodificationImadewasthatIcoachedstudents
ontakingturnstoaskquestionsandinwaystoposequestionspolitely. The
technique demonstrated a remarkable amount of potential in my
students. They were far more
comfortableworkingingroupsandaskingquestionsaftertheyparticipatedintheexercise.Ifeelthat,with
morepractice,Iwillbeabletoapplythetechniqueinmyclasswithaplomb.Thankyouforteachingme
howtoconductPressConferencesinthetraining/instructionalclassroom.
CaroleQuine
AssociateProfessor,English,BaltimoreCityCommunityCollege(USA)
Iorganizedabookclubforabout25trainersdispersedthroughoutmycompany.Becausetrainingisvery
decentralized here, we dont really have many opportunities to share
experiences or learn from one
another.BychoosingTellingAintTrainingforourinauguralmeeting,Ihopedtoinstillafoundationfor
futurediscussions.Wehadalivelydialoguearoundthisrelevantbook.Iamcurrentlydesigningaclass
that is PowerPoint free where the focus is on the learner. Less is
indeed more! Thanks for the inspiration. JanetDiVincenzo
SeniorInstructionalDesigner,FulfillmentTraining,
NewCenturyMortgage(USA)
IhaveusedwhatIhavelearnedfromTellingAintTraininginperhapsmoresubtlewaysthanchangesto
trainingcoursesthemselves:
Ihavepurchasedcopiesformembersofthecorporatelearningleadershipteamtoopentheirthinking
to fundamentals and challenge the way we often think about training
(for example, basic understanding of when training is even relevant
or the most effective means of addressing
performancegapsorknowledge/skillgaps).
Icreatedmyownfour-pagesummaryandshareitwithcolleagueswhencertaintopicscomeup(for
4.
example,someonerecentlystressedtheimportanceofjust-in-timetrainingandthatalittleofthe
rightstuffismoreeffectiveandoftenmuchcheapertocreatethanlargevolumesofcontent).
TwokeyoverallmessagesthatIhavepromotedare
theconceptoflearner-centeredsimplebutpowerful,easytoexplainandhaveothersthink
differentlyaboutwhattrainingshouldprovideandhowweofferit the
understanding of the human learner and the way our senses work,
including filter mechanisms;itexplainssomuch.
ThanksforthebookIuseitweeklyinmanyways! MickThomas
LearningLeader,DowChemical
5. 2011theAmericanSocietyforTraining&Development
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ASTDPressisaninternationallyrenownedsourceofinsightfulandpracticalinformationonworkplace
learning and performance topics, including training basics,
evaluation and return on investment,
instructionalsystemsdevelopment,e-learning,leadership,andcareerdevelopment.
Orderinginformationforprintedition:BookspublishedbyASTDPresscanbepurchasedbyvisiting
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10.
Itisdifficulttobelievethatnearly10yearshavepassedsincewesatdowntowritethefirsteditionof
Telling Aint Training. We thought then that we were done. However,
when we were approached to
produceanupdated,expanded,andenhancedversionofTellingAintTraining,ideasbegantobubbleto
the surface. How could we decline such a tempting offer? So much
has happened since Telling Aint
Trainingwasfirstpublished.Yet,somuchstillremainsthesame.Whattosay?Whatchoicestomake?
ResponsetothefirsteditionofTellingAintTrainingwasoverwhelming.Weheardfromhundredsof
readersabouthowthebookhadaffectedthewaytheyandtheirorganizationsapproachtraining.Wealso
heardfromschoolteachers,professors,andparentswhosawhowtheprinciplesandstrategiesofTelling
Aint Training could be applied in their settings. Examples and
testimonials poured in. We were so
pleasedwhenourreadersaskedformore.Andmoreiswhattheygot! In 2004,
the American Society for Training & Development (ASTD)
published our companion book, Training Aint Performance, which
addresses the more expansive nature of what we do to improve
humanperformanceintheworkplace.In2005and2006,respectively,welaunchedourtwofieldbooks,
Beyond Telling Aint Training Fieldbook and Beyond Training Aint
Performance Fieldbook. These
publicationsfurthersupportedtheimplementationofourapproachinorganizationsworldwide.
TheAintseriesofbooks(whichiswhatthegroupoffourisoftencalled)werenottheonlymeansof
spreadingtheword.Infact,basedonthepopularityofTellingAintTraining,ASTDinvitedustoconduct
Telling Aint Training mini conferences throughout the United
States. This then led to Telling Aint Training events in ASTD and
International Society for Performance Improvement (ISPI) chapters;
the
CanadianSocietyforTrainingandDevelopment(CSTD);andcorporations,governmentagencies,and
nonprofitsthroughouttheworld.WhocouldhaveimaginedthatTellingAintTrainingwouldbedelivered
live,onaverage,20timesayear?
ThefirsteditionofTellingAintTrainingwasawonderfullyenjoyablebooktowrite.Itwasntatypical
book for us but more of a conversation about training. We have
devoted our professional lives approximately 80 years combinedto
teaching, designing instruction, helping organizations create
learning and performance support solutions, and conducting research
on learning and workplace
performance.Wehavespenttheseyearsinboththeacademicandcorporateworlds.Weveproduced
manyprofessionalandscientificpublications.TellingAintTrainingwastotallydifferentfromanything
elsewehadeverwritten.ThiseditionofTellingAintTrainingupdated,expanded,andenhanced
remainstruetotheapproachandstylesetintheoriginalpublication.
Aswiththefirstedition,wehavedoneawaywithmanyoftheconventionswenormallyapplytoour
writing.Exceptforafewreferencestospecificindividualsfromwhomwehavedirectlyborrowedideas
orwords,wehaveeliminatedtheusualcitationpractices.Instead,wehaveplacedattheendofthebook
11.
asectioncalledForFurtherReading(updatedandgreatlyexpandedinthisedition)thatyoucanconsultto
digmoredeeplyintosomeaspectofwhatwepresent.Inthissecondedition,wealsoprovideendnotesto
not only cite references, but also position them. The endnotes
expand Telling Aint Trainings depth.
Huntingforresearchreferencesandcitationstobringtheneweditionuptodate,enhanceit,andaddmore
evidencetosupportorupdateitscontentwasanintensivetwo-yearactivity.Butwhatanexcitingand
enlighteningoneitwas!Readingarticles,manuscripts,reports,researchabstracts,meta-analysisstudies,
books,andeveninterviewsummariessignificantlyexpandedourownhorizons.Wearehappytoshare
whatwediscoveredaswescouredtheuniversefornewmaterial.
Justasinthefirstedition,wehavemaintainedaconversationalalmostspeakingtoneinourwriting.
Wevealsousedcontractions,dialogue,asides,funexercises,teasers,challenges,andanyothertechnique
wefeltwouldkeepthisbookasreader-friendlyaspossible. To create
Telling Aint Training: Updated, Expanded, and Enhanced, we took
what accumulated research and well-documented professional
procedure have demonstrated to be sound and desirable
practicesfortraining-learning(thatis,thedeliberateactionstakentotriggerdesirableskill/knowledge
acquisitionandtheoutcomesoftheseactions)andmadethemmoreapproachablethantypicallypresented
in the scientific and professional journals. Our purpose was to
make the best principles of training
availabletobothnewlyappointedtrainersandmoreexperiencedpractitionerssearchingforexplanation
andconfirmationonwhycertainthingswork(orperhapsdont).Innocasehavewedumbeddownthe
researchfindings.Wehaveworkeddiligentlytomaintaintheintegrityofthevariousresearchersand
authors works while modifying the language (never the ideas or
findings) to make their discoveries
accessibletoabroadtrainingaudience.Inthislatestedition,wealsospendmoretimeandspaceonhow
the basic principles of training-learning play out in a changing
worldone that has experienced the terrorist attacks on September
11, 2001; a major economic downturn; and the advent of many
technological advances such as e-learning, webinars, social media,
e-readers, and virtual worlds.
Workplacelearninghasbeentransformedinwayswecouldhavenotimaginedwhenwewrotethefirst
edition. With respect to technology and training, we felt that the
best way to include content about this ever-
changingscenewouldbebydeferringtosomeonewithgreaterexpertisethanwepossess.Fortunately,our
colleagueandfriend,MarcJ.Rosenberg,whohasauthoredexcellentbooksone-learningandtheuseof
technologytoimprovehumanperformanceatwork,acceptedourinvitationtobecomepartofthewriting
team.Heco-authoredthesectionofthisbookcalledTraining-LearningWithTechnologyandBeyond.
This section consists of two chapters. The first provides a
historical perspective and conceptual framework for using
technology in training-learning. The second is more pragmatic and
includes rich
examplesoftechnologyatwork.Weareextremelygratefulfortheknowledgeandwisdomhehasshared
toexpandandenhancethissecondeditionofTellingAintTraining.
Youwillnoticethatwehavedividedthebookintofivesectionscontaining13chapters.Thefirsttwo
chaptersdescribethecontentsandlayoutaroadmapforwhatliesahead.Theensuingchaptersprovide
youwithbothsubstanceandtoolstobringTellingAintTraining:Updated,Expanded,andEnhancedto
life.Eachchapterstartswithabriefoverviewofitshighlightstohelpyouprepareyourselfforthecontent
that follows. To avoid too much telling, which is almost inevitable
in a book, and one-way
communication,whichiswhatwereaskingyounottodo,everychaptercontainsactivitiesthataremeant
toengageyouinmeaningfulways.Theexercisesmanyofthemfun,severalofthemtimedtoincreasethe
challengeofferopportunitiesforyoutointeractwiththelearningcontent.Allofthechapters(exceptthe
12.
firstone)concludewithbrief,summaryexercisesandactivitiesthatpromptyoutorecallwhatyouve
learnedandhelpyouretainkeypointswhenyouvefinishedreadingthebook.Alongthewayyouwill
encounterthefollowingicons:
Thisiconsignalsanimportantfactforthereader.
Thisiconidentifieskeypointsforusingtheinformationwevesupplied.
Thisiconaccompaniesareviewofthemajortakeawayknowledgeineachchapter.
WewouldliketothankformerASTDPressacquisitionseditorMarkMorrowforinvitingustocreatethe
originalTellingAintTrainingandforsupportingussoenthusiasticallythroughitspreparationandthe
otherbooksintheAintseries,includingthisupdated,expanded,andenhancededition.
OurthanksalsogotoJustinBrusino,ASTDPressacquisitionseditor,whowastheprojectmanagerfor
the second edition of Telling Aint Training. His assistance,
guidance, and support were most appreciated.
OursincereappreciationgoestoToraEstep,formerASTDPressseniorassociateeditor,forcleaningup
ourtextbeautifullywithoutstrayingfromourcentralmessageorstyle.
Thereisnowaywecouldhavecompletedthisbookwithouttheconstantsupportofourverydearright
and left hand, Barbra Hellwig, who took care of all the hard stuff
while we wrote. Barbra, we are eternallyinyourdebt.
WehavenowordstoexpressourdeepestappreciationtoSamanthaGreenhill,whocollaboratedonthis
fifthbookintheAintseries.Herabilitytoworkwithus,tolerateourunendingdemands,andnotflinch
fromourtighttimelinesneverceasestoamazeus.Calmly,sheabsorbswhatwesendher,alongwithour
crypticinstructions,andturnsitallintosomethingcoherent.Astonishing!
In creating this book, we thought especially about the countless
workers and managers who find
themselvesthrustintotheroleoftrainer,oftenwithnoformalbackgroundintrainingandlearning.Our
hopeisthattheseindividualsfeelguidedandsupportedbythispublication.
Oneofthegreatestjoysofwritingabookinwhichyousharewhatyouhavelearnedwithreadersisthat
of sharing the experience with a co-author you admire. We are not
just co-authors; we are also
professionalcolleaguesandlifepartners.Toeachother,then,thanksforcontinuingthejourneytogether.
HaroldD.StolovitchandEricaJ.Keeps LosAngeles,May2011
15.
Readthesequenceagainasyoutrytoretainthenumbers.Thetotalofthetworeadingsshouldtakeabout
60seconds.
Now,oncemore,coverthenumbers.Take30secondsnomoretowritedownthesequencein
thespacebelow.Go! Andheresthecorrectanswer:
4seasonsinayear;12monthsinayear;52weeksinayear;7daysinaweek;24hoursinaday;60minutesinanhour;60secondsinaminute;31,30,or28daysinamonth
Howdidyoudothistime?Inourtestswithvariouslearners,mostdofarbetterwhentheyactivelywork
outthecluesthanwhentheyjuststudythenumbers.Theresareasonforthisonethatwellexplainlater.
Challenge2
Upforanotherchallenge?Theotherdaywereceivedthefollowinginvitationtoapartyinacitywehad
never visited. Please read it through without trying to memorize
it. You should spend about 30 to 45
secondsonit.Thencoverthenoteandanswerthequestionsthatfollowtheinvitation.
Hi,herearethedirections:Fromtheairport,taketheroadthatleadsoutoftherentallotandfollow
itpastthebarrieraroundthelotuntilyougettotheendwhereyouconnectupwiththeroadout.Take
theroad,andjustbeforeitveersright,youllseeatriplefork.Ifyoutaketheleftbranch,youllhead
westandawayfromthelake.Dontdothat!Straightputsyouundertheviaductandreallyofftrack.
Taketherightbranchandbearrightatthenextforktotheroundaboutwhereyougonotquitehalfway
aroundtothesecondroad.Its379East,althoughitreallygoessouth,sodontworry.Fromthenon,
itsastraightshot.Cheers,Andr
Answerthesequestionswithoutreferringtothenote: 1.
Wherestheparkinglot?
18. book. WhatIsThisBookAbout?
Enoughteasing.Letsseewhatthisbookisallabout.Alotoftraditions,myths,andmisguidedalthough
well-intentionedprinciples and activities in training create
barriers to effective learning. We have
producedthisbookfortwomainreasons:todispelthesecounterproductivebeliefsandpracticesthat
harmtheinstructionalprocessandtohelpyoutobethemosteffectivetrainerorinstructoryoucanbe.
HeretheniswhatTellingAintTraining:Updated,Expanded,andEnhancedoffersyou:
Separationofmythsfromresearch-basedfindingsaboutlearningandtraining.Wehavedonethis
inanonacademicwayusinglotsofexamplesandexercises.Thegoalistomakeyoureflectuponand
rejecttheill-foundedmythsthatmanypeopleintheteaching-learningworldperpetuate.
A breezy and friendly style that we believe will get our message
across better than a formal
approach.Butdontletthestylefoolyou.Everythinginthisbookisbasedonwhatthebestresearch
evidencetellsusabouthowtohelppeoplelearn. Lots of endnotes that
offer additional reading and useful references to support what we
have
coveredinthebook.Asyouread,youwillcomeacrossnumbersinsuperscript.Theserefertothe
endnotesatthebackofthebook.Theyservefourpurposes:tobeasinobtrusiveaspossibleand
hencenotinterferewithyourreading;tosubstantiatewhatwesayandallowyoutobackupany
argumentsyoumaymaketoothersbasedonthisbook;sometimestoelaborateonwhatisinthetext;
and,finally,tosuggestadditionalreadingsifyouwishtopursueaparticulartopic.
Lotsofinteraction.Asyouvealreadyseen,yougettodothingsandthinkaboutthem,notjustread
words.Tomakeourmessagemeaningfulandcredible,wewanttouseanapproachthatisconsistent
withwhatweareproposing.Allhumanbeingsandthatincludesyouanduslearnthroughactive
mentalengagement.Inthisbook,wemakeeveryefforttoengageyoumentallyinmeaningfulways.
Practicalanddown-to-earthcounsel.Oneofusauthorshasdevotedhisalmost50-yearcareerto
studying and conducting research about learning and then
translating findings into practical
application.Theotheroneofushasspentcloseto40yearsinbusinessmanagingthelearningand
performanceofpeople.Together,thetwoofusfocusonwhatitreallytakestohelppeoplelearn.
Aboveall,asharingwithyouofwhatwehavelearnedinourlifetimes.Thegoalisforyouto
becomehighlyeffectivetrainersmuchmorequicklythanwedidbyinteractingwiththecontentsof
thisbook.
Areyouconvinced?Evenfiredup?Thenletusturntothebeginningtheintroduction.
19. AnIntroductiontoSomeFamiliarTerms Chapterhighlights:
Vocabularylessononfamiliarterms Underlyingphilosophyofthebook
Applicationtovariousmedia Overviewofthebookscontents.
BasicVocabularyTheTermsoftheTrade
Traininginstructioneducationlearning.Thesearewordsweoftenuseinterchangeably.When
we analyze the words, however, we discover that each conveys a
unique meaning. Individually and combined, these four activities
give us power to build different types of skills and knowledge.
Lets examineeachofthesewordsandbegintobuildavaluablevocabulary.
Training
Youaretryingtogetyourdogtositatyourcommand.Checkofftheexpressionbelowthatbest
describeswhatyouaredoing: trainingyourdog instructingyourdog
educatingyourdog. You probably chose training your dog because it
seems to fit best. The other two sound somewhat
strangewhenappliedtoanimals.Ifwedigdeeper,werealizethatwhentrainingadogwhatwewantis
forittoperformsomethingspecificandprecise.
Wealsowantthedogtodoitoncommandandwithoutvariation.Yousay,sit,andthedogsits.The
moreeffectivethetraining,themoreaccuratelyandrapidlythedogresponds.Intraining,ourpurposeis
tocreateachangeinlearners(includingdogs)thattheyconsistentlyreproducewithoutvariation.Through
intense training, the learner becomes increasingly able to
reproduce the learned behavior with fewer
errors,greaterspeed,andundermoredemandingconditions.Examinethelistbelowandcheckallthe
itemsforwhichyoubelievetrainingisappropriate: typing
assemblingarifle statingarule
20. executingacomplexskatingmaneuver
recitingmultiplicationtables selectingtherighticononascreen
applyingallthestepsoftheemergencyshutdownprocedure.
Ifyoucheckedalltheitems,youwereright.Soundsmechanical?Thatsallright.Learningthingsthatyou
applyautomaticallyandinvariablyisoftenanecessarypartoflearning.Howmuchvariationdoyouwant
innamingobjects,slicingatomato,orloggingontoacomputer?Beingabletoexecutementalorphysical
procedureswithoutthinkingisimportantinourlives(forexample,shiftinggearsinacar,brushingour
teeth,andrecognizinglettersandwords).Itcutsdownonourcognitive(thinking)load.Traininghelps
makeourliveseasier. Instruction
Instructionhelpslearnersgeneralizebeyondthespecificsofwhatistaught.Theabilitytoreproduce
unconsciously what we have learned is absolutely insufficient to
make us complete as human beings. Therefore,weaddinstruction.
Heresanexample:InFrench,theinfinitiveformsofregularverbsalwaysendiner.Forinstance,the
verbdonner(togive)isaregularverb.Soisdemander(toask).WhichoftheseverbsareFrenchregular
verbs? choisir(tochoose) chanter(tosing) nommer(toname)
vendre(tosell) apporter(tobring) vouloir(towant)
EventhoughyoumaynotknowmuchaboutFrench,youprobablywereabletotaketheruleandthetwo
examples above and generalize to new instances. If you checked
chanter, apporter, and nommer, flicitations(congratulations)! In
work settings, we require a lot of instruction. Lets take, for
example, safety issues. We provide
examplesofworkplacehazardsandmeansfordealingwithdifferenttypesofdangeroussituations.Butno
matterhowmanyexamplesandrulesweprovide,weallknowthatwemayrunintomanynovelinstances
notcoveredduringinstruction.Theexpectationisthatlearnerswillbeabletogeneralizebeyondwhat
wastaught.
Justasfortraining,thepurposeofinstructionistobuildnewskillsandknowledge.Thekeydifferences
arepresentedintable2-1.
Table2-1.DifferencesBetweenTrainingandInstruction
Trainingallowsyouto Instructionallowsyouto
reproduceexactlywhathasbeentaught actautomatically
applylearningwithoutvariation,regardlessofconditions.
generalizebeyondwhathasbeentaught actthoughtfully
adaptlearningtoeachnewsetofconditions. Just to be sure youve got
it, place a T beside each action below that you believe to require
trainingandanIbesidethosethatseemtofitwithinstruction.
21. 1. _____Lightalighter. 2.
_____PronouncetheFrenchwordmanger. 3.
_____Selectanappropriateproductforacustomer. 4.
_____Respondtoacomplaint. 5.
_____Placeaspecificcomponentinthemotherboard. 6. _____Tieareefknot.
Items 1, 2, 5, and 6 are all tasks for training (reproduce without
variation). Items 3 and 4 require
instructionbecauseeachnewcustomerwillbedifferent,aswilleachcomplaint.Thoseactionsdemand
generalizationoflearningandadaptationofbehaviors. Education
Thethirdkeyvocabularytermiseducation.Asyouprobablyalreadysense,educationconveysamore
long-termandbroaderconnotationthandotrainingandinstruction,whicharegenerallyshort-termand
narrowlyfocused.Educationistheresultofavarietyoflifeexperiencesandhighlygeneralizedlearning
principlesandevents.Mucheducationderivesfromimplicitmessagestransmittedthroughthebehaviors
ofrolemodelsratherthanfromexplicitlystatedones.Thepurposeofeducationistobuildgeneralmental
modelsandvaluesystems. Lets place this in a work context and
continue with the safety example: Training enables us to build
specificsafetybehaviors,suchassetoffanalarm,activateafireextinguisher,orselecttherightnumber
to call. Instruction allows us to acquire the skills to identify
new safety hazards or to act when an
emergencyoccursthatwehavenotencounteredbefore.Finally,educationenablesustoadoptasafety
outlookonlife.Weautomaticallytakeprecautionsandproactivelyapplymeasurestoavoidaccidents.We
foreseepossibledangers,andweadvocatesafeworkingconditionsandbehaviors.
Inourworkasparents,teachers,andworkplacetrainingprofessionals,wedoallthree:train,instruct,and
educate.Allthreeactivitieshavetheirplace.Oneisnotmoreimportantthananother.Allthreework
together.Imagine,forexample,thatyouareresponsibleforbuildingskillsandknowledgeinatechnical
servicecenterwherecustomersupportspecialistshelpcallerssolvetechnicalproblems.Considerthelist
ofrelevanttaskspresentedbelowandplaceaTbesideeachitemrequiringtraining,anIbesidethe
instructionitems,andanEbesidethoseappropriateforeducation. 1.
_____Logacall. 2. _____Probetoclarifytheproblem. 3.
_____Fillinfieldsinacustomerrecord. 4.
_____Displayempathyforcustomersfrustrations. 5.
_____Statestepsforaspecifictroubleshootingprocedure. 6.
_____Drawoutfromthecustomerwhatsheorhealreadyhasdoneinattemptingtocorrectthe
problem. 7. _____Selecttypeofcallcodebeforefilingthereport.
22. Items 1, 3, 5, and 7 are most likely tasks to be trained.
Item 2 probably is one best handled through
instruction.Item6islargelyinstructionbuthassomeaspectsofeducationinit.Youhavetolearnhowto
goaboutdrawinginformationfromacustomerandapplyinglisteningskills.Therapportyoucreatecan
makeallthedifferenceinthequalityofcustomerresponsesyouobtain.Youcanacquirethetechniques
throughinstruction,butthenuancesofhelpfullyinteractingwiththecustomerdrawfromtheeducationof
the customer support specialist. Finally, item 4, displaying
empathy, is a subtle skill not inherent in everyone. Empathy
derives from the support specialists own life experiences plus the
models and implicit messages he or she communicates through
actions. A person requires education to become
empathicwithcustomers. To conclude our vocabulary drill, training,
instruction, and education all aim to build knowledge and
skillsinlearners.Eachoffersauniqueanddistinctapproach,andallarenecessarytohelppeoplelearn.
Theyseldomremainpure.Theycanbemixedsothatevenwhiletrainingforaspecificbehavior,we
maybeeducatingbyattitudeandbytheexamplewecreateforourlearners.
Learning
Learningischange.Dontforgetthatthewholereasonfortraining,instruction,andeducationistoenable
peopletolearn.Inchapter3,wewillinvestigatelearningmoredeeply.Sufficeittosayatthispointthat
weareseekingtotransformourlearners.Ifwetrainthegeneraltermcommonlyusedinthework
setting for all three sets of activitieswe do not simply transmit
information. We change people. We
transformlearnersinwaysthataredesirablebothforthemandfororganizations.
Today, most organizations have moved from traditional training
departments to learning and
developmentgroupsorevenworkplacelearningandperformanceteams.Theemphasisontraininghas
givenwaytoaclearfocusonlearninganditsimpactonproducingbetterresults.1
23. TwoKeyPrinciples:YourMantraasaTrainer(Instructor,Educator)
Weareseatedinacircleonthefloorwithourlegscrossed.Oureyesareclosed,andwearerelaxed.The
lightisdim.Werepeatoverandoveragain,learnercenteredperformancebasedlearnercentered
performancebased.Whythismantra?Becausethesetwotermsarethekeystotransforminglearners.
Letsexamineeachofthetermsindividually. LearnerCentered Imagine you
are an accountant and have been asked to conduct a session next
week for a group of
technicalandprofessionalpersonnelrecentlypromotedtomanagers.Yourmandateistoteachcashflow
managementtothesenonfinancialmanagers.Whatwillyoudotoprepare?Behonestandcheckoffwhich
ofthefollowingtwoscenariosmorecloselydescribesactionsyouwouldtake.
A. Gather materials on cash flow management. Examine documents for
key concepts and terms.
Createanoutlineofthecontentinlogicalsequencesothatyouensureyouhitallthefundamentals.
Studyupandrehearsesothatyouappearcredibleandcanansweranycontentquestionsthelearners
raise.Puttogetherinformationandexercisesthatclarifywhatcashflowisandhowitworks.Verify
thatallofyourcontentisaccurateandstateoftheart. B. Gather
information on the prospective learners jobs with respect to cash
flow. Gather information on the learners backgrounds and
experiences concerning cash flow management. Investigate to
identify problems new managers encounter and create with respect to
cash flow.
Gatheralistoforganizationalexpectationsofthesenewlyappointedmanagersconcerningcashflow
management. Create realistic scenarios and tools to help the
learners acquire expected
competencies.Createalistofbenefitstothemandtotheorganizationwhentheymanagecashflow
well.
Fromexperience,wehavefoundthattheoverwhelmingmajorityofpeople,whenplacedinthisposition,
optforA.Theygoforthecontent.Themoreappropriateanswer,however,isB.Focusonthelearners
withtheirneeds,concerns,desires,fears,frustrations,andcharacteristics.OptionAleadstotellingand
transmission.Theemphasisisontheinstructorsabilitytopresentagreatdealofinformation.OptionB
leadstotrainingandtransformation.Thefocusisonthelearner.
PerformanceBased
Ifyouexaminemostcoursenotes,eitherthoseofthetrainerorinstructororoftheparticipants,youlikely
24.
willfindthemfilledwithlotsofcontent.Thereisanimpressionthatmoreisbetter.Howoftendoyou
heartrainerscomplain,Ididnthaveenoughtimetocoverthecontent?
Heresasimplechoice:Youhaveagroupoftechnicianswhohavetolearnaboutatotallynewapproach
todiagnosingaproblem.Checkoffyourresponsebelow.Doyouwantthemto
knowaboutthenewapproach? dothejobcorrectly? The obvious choice is
do the job correctly. You probably wouldnt mind them knowing about
the
approach,butthepriorityisclear.Wewantthemtobeabletoperform,notmerelytoknowandtalk
about.Thefirstchoiceleadstoacontent-basedapproach.Thesecondisperformancebasedbeingable
toactandtoachieveworthwhile,verifiableresults.2
Learnercenteredperformancebased.Thatsthemantraofthisbookandtheheartofourmessage.
Instructor-centered and content-based efforts lead to telling and
transmission. Learner-centered and
performance-basedeffortsresultintrainingandtransformation.
LiveorTechnologyBased:ItsAlltheSame
Perhapsyourimpressionisthateverythingwehaveincludedthusfarappliesexclusivelytolive,face-to-
faceinstruction.Oneareaofresearchonlearninghasnotvariedinitsfindingsformorethan50years
mediaandinstructionaldeliveryoptions.Tosummarizehundredsofstudies,theeffectivenessofmessages
aimedatlearningisnotboundupinthedeliveryvehiclebutratherinhowthemessageitselfisdesigned.3
Themessagedevelopedtotransformyouwilleithersucceedorfailbasedonhowwellwehavedesigned
it,notonwhetherwebringittoyoulive,throughthepagesofthisbook,inavideo,orviacomputer.4
ThemessageandprinciplesofTellingAintTraining:Updated,Expanded,andEnhancedare
equally valid for e-learning, live instruction, or any form of
mediated instruction (for example, video based,
computerbased,orsimulationlab).Tellinginanyformengenderspassivity.Itisone-waycommunication.
Itiscontentfocused.Itistransmission.Truelearner-centeredandperformance-basedtraining,instruction,
oreducationrequiresdialogueandexperienceengagingconversation5andmeaningfulinteraction6to
transform.Self-pacedprintorsophisticated,electronicallydeliveredinstructionisonlyaseffectiveasthe
instructionaldesignprinciplesthatareapplied.
Later,inchapters10and11,wewillfocusspecificallyontrainingwithtechnology.Wewillbringyouup
to date on the latest trends in technology use for learning and
help you wisely select the form of
technologythatmakessensetouseinyoursetting. WhatsinThisBookandWhy?
Wehavegivenagreatdealofthoughttothecontentofthisbookandtothewaywevepresentedit.The
followingpointshavebeenourguidingprinciplesinchoosingmaterialtodiscussandinselectingthe
meanstoportraythatmaterial:
25.
Startwiththelearnerandneverlosethatfocus.Weassumethatyouareinteractingwiththisbook
becauseyouwanttolearnsomething.Wereexcitedaboutthis.Youarethereasonforourefforts,
andweneverforgetthat.Thanksforcontinuingtheconversation.
Presentprinciplesthatapplytoalltypesoflearning:mental(cognitive),physical(psychomotor),
emotional (affective), and, of course, combinations and mixtures of
these. Although the emphasis
mayvaryfromchaptertochapter,werecognizethatalltypesoflearningareimportant.Youwillfind
numerousexamplesforeachtypeoflearning,aloneorincombination. Provide
a training session structure that you can apply universally and
that is based on learning research. As an added bonus, this
user-friendly model even lets you retrofit existing training
programsandinstructionalmaterials.Chapter6isdevotedtothismodelandreturnstoitfromtime
totime.
Includelearningstrategiesandactivities,completewithexamples,thatyoucanapplyandadaptright
away.Youwillnoticethatwepreferthesimple.Ifcheapcandothejob,whycomplicatethings?
However,somecircumstancesrequiremoresophisticatedtoolsandtechnologies.Complexdecision
making,handlingofdelicateordangerousequipment,orlife-or-deathproceduresareinstancesthat
maydemandtrainingtoolsandmethodsthatemployresourcesfarbeyondtheusual.
Layoutpracticaltoolsfordesigningyournexttrainingsessionwithahighprobabilityofsuccess.
Almostalloftheseareeasytoapplyoradapttomeetyourneeds.
Presenthelpfulwaystoevaluateyourtrainingeffectiveness.Theresacompletechapter(chapter9)
ontesting,alongwithjobaidsforselectingandcreatingteststhatverifylearning.
Provideaccesstotheworldoftechnologyforlearninginamannerthatiseasytounderstandand
allowsforintegrationoftraining-learningfundamentals.Acompletechapteronthis(chapter11)gets
youstartedonconsideringtechnologyforyoursetting.
Presentbothmythsandscience-basedfindingsabouttrainingandlearningsothatyoucanseparate
ineffective (and often counterproductive) lore from what research
has shown leads to a high
probabilityoflearningsuccess.Thisdifferentiationoftruthandfalsehoodshouldhelpstrengthen
yourowncompetenceandconfidenceandshouldprovideyouwithammunitiontocombatpractices
thatwasteorganizationaltime,energy,andresources.
Concludewithsomepracticalwisdomandthoughtsaboutapplyingandmaintainingwhatyougain
fromthisbookinyourpracticethattellingreallyainttrainingandthatyourgoalistransformation
ofthelearnerratherthantransmissionoftheinformation. RememberThis
Training,instruction,educationuseallofthesetotriggerlearning.
Thewholepurposeoftraining,instruction,andeducationistoenablepeopletolearn.Yourmission
isnottotransmitinformationbuttotransformyourlearners.
Yourmantraasatrainer,instructor,oreducatorislearnercenteredperformance-based.Any
approachshortofthisleadstoone-waytransmissionanduncertainresults.
Liveortechnologybased,itsallthesame.Themediumisnotthemessage.Theprinciplesinthis
book are valid regardless of the delivery vehicle you select. Focus
on meaningful interaction to transformyourlearners.
26. TheHumanLearner Chapterhighlights:
Tripthroughthebodyandbrainofthelearner Explanationofwhatlearningis
Capacityandlimitationsofthehumanlearner.
Welcometoavoyagethroughthebodyandbrainofyourlearner.Whyundertakesuchavoyage?Two
reasons.First,ifyouarereallydedicatedtotransformingpeopleinwaysthatbenefitthemandthosethey
serve,doesntitmakesensetoknowasmuchaspossibleaboutthecharacteristicsandcapabilitiesof
theseindividuals?Thischapteroffersyouinformationandinsightsintothehumanlearner.1Itincreases
yourabilitytoadaptyourinstructionaleffortsformaximumeffect.Second,mostwritingsabouttraining
focusoninstructionalstimuluselements,thatis,whatyoushoulddotobeagreattrainerordesignerof
instruction.Theyrarelyexplainhowthelearnerdealswithandinternalizesthesestimuli.Withoutaclear
understanding of how humans access, treat, and retrieve what we
transmit to them, we decrease the probability of successful learner
transformation. Lets begin our study of the learner by defining
learning. WhatIsLearning?
Beforeweshareourdefinition,stophereforamomentandcomeupwithyourownwordstodescribe
learning.Writethemhere:
Basically,learningischange,adaptation.Allorganismsaregeneticallycodedtoreproducetheessential
characteristicsoftheirspecies:Daffodilsbegetotherdaffodils.Humansarenodifferent.Weareallmore
orlessthesame.Wediscriminateeasilybetweenourselvesandnonhumansbecause,ashumans,weshare
somanycharacteristics.Buteachindividualmemberofaspeciesisdifferentfromallothermembersof
thespeciesinsubtleways.Thesevariationsarecriticaltooursurvival.Asenvironmentalconditions
change,theindividualvariationsresultinsomemembersofthespeciesadaptingbetterthanothers.This
allowsspeciestosurviveandevolveovertime. Humans have an enormous
capacity for learning, a capacity genetically coded into us. This
learning capability permits us to change as we receive information
from the environment. The most adaptable
individuals,especiallyinprimitivetimes,learnedmorerapidlythandidothersabouttheopportunities
anddangerssurroundingthem,andtheypassedthislearningabilityontotheiroffspring,whoeventually
passeditontous.Today,wehumansareincrediblelearningorganisms.Nootherspeciesonearthdoesit
better.Thatsthegoodnews.
27. The bad news is that we are genetically programmed for an
environment that no longer exists. In the
naturalworld,ittakesthousandsofgenerationstoalteraspeciessignificantly.(Wecanspeedthingsup
throughdeliberatebreedingprograms,butthisisnothowitworksinnature.)Thinkaboutit.At25years
pergeneration(theaveragetimetoreproduceandgrowareplacementhuman),howmanygenerations
havetherebeensincetheyear1A.D.? 2,000years25=________
Eightygenerations!Notenoughtomakeevenamilddentinourevolution.Butimaginehowdifferentthe
worldfacingtodaysyoungstersisfromthatof2,000yearsago.Even10,000yearsrepresentsonly400
generations.Hardlyadropintheevolutionarybucket. Remember that we
are speaking of learning as changethe ability to adapt to new
information.Learningisaninnatecapabilityofallhumans,butlikeheightorbodybuild,itvariesby
individual.Thisiskeytoyourworkasatrainer,instructor,educator,instructionaldesigner,ortraining
manager. Your job is to help people learnto help them change. Your
job is to facilitate that transformation,nottotransmitinformation.
Herearetheresultsofthreetrainingsessions.Inyourview,whichonewasthemostsuccessful?Placea
checkmarkinthatsessionsbox.
Session1:Thetraineesleftthesessionchucklingoverwhatthetrainerhadtoldthemaboutthenew
products.Theythoughtshewaswittyandhadbeenentertainingandfun.
Session2:Thetraineesleftthesessionwithanarmloadofmanualsandastrongimpressionthat
soontheywouldbedealingwithalotofnewproducts.
Session3:Thetraineesleftthesessionabletopositionthearrayofnewproductsandsellthemto
theircustomers.
Session1apparentlywasfun,buttheonlychangenotedwasanewmemoryofanentertainingpresenter.
Session2suggeststhatthechangewroughtwasanimpressionofalotofnewproducts.InSession3,
traineesleaveusefullytransformed.Theycandotwothingstheywerentcapableofdoingpriortothe
session:Theycanpositionthenewproducts,andtheycansellthem.ApplausefortheSession3trainer!
HowWeLearn:Senses,Filters,andMemory
Nowwebeginourguidedtourofthehumanbodyandbrainwithsomefascinatingpausestoviewlearning
inaction.Letsstartwiththesenses.2 SensesandPerception
Imagineyourselfasalearner.Thereyouare,surroundedbytheuniverse.Justyouandtheuniverse.
29.
Surprised?Youwontbeafteryoureasonitout.Imaginethatyoureinanopenfield.Itsacalm,clear
day.Howfarcanyousee?Probably50miles,maybemore.
Hear?Amileortwo.Smell?Tento20yardsifnowindisblowing.Touch?Armslength.Taste?A
coupleofinches.
Letstryasimpledemonstration.Closeyoureyes.Openthemforonesecond.Notehowmuchyousaw
(shape,color,texture,depth,space,position,andsoforth).Ifyoulistenedtoanorchestraplaying,would
youperceiveasmuchcomplexityandindividualityinthesameonesecond?Whataboutsmell?Touch?
Taste?Thisdemonstrateshowpowerfuloursenseofsightis.Hearingprocesseslessinformationinthe
sametimeframe.Smell,lessthanhearing.Touch,evenless.Tasteisverylimited.
Its important to remember that the human learner has multiple
senses, each with different processing
capacities.Sight,obviously,isextremelyimportantforlearningbecauseitissuchamajorsense.Hearing
is also enormously important because through our hearing we acquire
language, especially in early
childhood.Languageprovidesuswiththewordsandconceptstonameandexplainphenomena.Together
thesetwopowerfulsenseshelpusperceivemuchofwhatsurroundsus.Thefivesensesaretheportals
throughwhichtherawmaterialsforlearningenterourbodies.
Themoreofthelearnerssensesweengageinorganizedandmeaningfulways,themoreeasily
learningcanoccur.
Anoteofcaution,however.Numerousadvocatesofmultimediainstructionaimedattargetingmultiple
senseshypesystemsandmethodsthatusecombinationsofmediaandassertthatthesearehighlyeffective
forlearning.Thistypeofoversimplifiedandwholesaleadvocacyisnotsupportedbyresearch.Whilethe
notionofmultisensoryinstructionmaypleaselearnersinitially,especiallythecombinationofauditory
plus visual presentation, research evidence suggests that this may,
in fact, overwhelm learners
informationprocessingcapabilities.Useofattractive,seductiveelementsoftendoesnothingmorethan
addirrelevantnoisetothelearnersinformationprocessingsystem.3Thereisamajordistinctionbetween
spatiallyandtemporallyintegratedmultisensoryinputversusmixturesofnotwellconnectedaudiovisual
(andevenother)sensorymessages.Theevidenceindicatesthattheformerhasabeneficialeffectwhereas
30.
thelattertendstoproduceadecremental(negative)effectonlearning.4
Filtering the Stimuli: The Brain Stem, the Autonomic Nervous
System, and the EndocrineSystem
Informationisconstantlybombardingoursenses.Doweperceiveallofit? Yes
No
Testyourself.Beforeweaskedthisquestion,wereyouevenawareofthesensationsyourblouseorshirt
wascreatingonyourbody?Didyouheareverysoundaroundyou?Whenyouwereconcentrating,did
noisesseemtofadeout?Ourhumanmakeupissuchthatweselectivelyperceiveenvironmentalstimuli.
Weonlynoticewhatappearstoberelevant.Inyouropinion,isthatgood? Yes
No
Fromasurvivalperspective,theanswerisaresoundingyes.Ifweperceivedeverythingaroundus,we
wouldnotbeabletoeliminatetheirrelevant.Thatlionbearingdownonusshouldcommandallofour
attention,andtheprettyblueflowernearbyshouldnotdistractus.
Asaninformationprocessingorganism,wearehardwiredwithanautomaticabilitytofilteroutperceptual
irrelevancies.Itispartoftherolethreekeysystemsinthehumanbodythebrainstem,theautonomic
nervous system,5 and the endocrine systemplay. These automatically
adjust our awareness to environmental stimuli. They create what is
scientifically referred to as arousal, which triggers the
releaseofadrenalinetoincreaseheartrateandthuspumpmoreoxygentothemusclesandbrainforfight
orflight.Inparticular,theautonomicnervoussystemmanagesrespiration.Itcausesourattentiontobe
alertandarousedbyenvironmentalinformationortoignoreit.Figure31depictsthisgatekeeperfunction.
Attention,likebreathing,tendstobeautomaticallycontrolled.Youcantakechargeofbothforashort
time, but as soon as you cease consciously controlling them, they
revert to automatic. From a traininglearning perspective, that is
very important. Whether it be a live trainer, a computermediated
learningprogram,oravideoclipinaDVD,ifthelearnerunconsciouslyfeelsthattheinformationisnot
Figure3-1.TheAutonomicNervousSystemFiltersExternalStimuli
31.
vitaltohisorherneeds,theautonomicsystemmayraisethethresholdofsensoryinputandfilteroutwhat
isbeingtransmitted.Asaresult,thereisnoperceptionandnolearning.
Short-TermMemory:TimeandCapacity Information that passes our
perceptual filters enters our shortterm memory. Thats not a place;
its an
informationtreatmentfunction.Theinformationisexaminedandeitherdroppedorpassedintolongterm
memory.Howshortisshorttermmemory?Imaginereceivingapieceofinformationinatrainingsession.
What would you estimate to be the length of time that shortterm
memory will hold that piece of
information,ifleftuntreated,beforeittotallydisappears?
10to15seconds onetotwominutes onetotwohours. If untreated,
information in shortterm memory begins to disappear almost
immediately and is gone in
somewherebetween10and15seconds.Shorttermmemoryislikeabufferzone.Itfillsuprapidlyand
thenquicklyempties.Thisisduetoaprocessknownasendocytosis,whichcausesshorttermmemoryto
decay.Fromapracticalperspective,thisisalsobecausesurvivalrequiresyoutotreat,sort,eliminate,or
storeinformationatgreatspeed.Thankthoselonggoneancestorswhosesuperiorlearningcapabilities
enabledthemtoliveenoughyearstopassthosewonderfulcharacteristicsontous.
Howmuchinformationcanweholdinshorttermmemory?Notmuch.Foralongtime,researchsuggested
thatfivetonineitems(orchunks)ofinformationcanbeaccommodatedatatime.Thesizeofachunk
dependsonthepriorknowledgeofthelearner.Forexample,is213oneitemorthree?Theansweris,it
depends.Ifthosearethreeindividualdigitstoberetained,theyarethreeitems.Ifyouseethethree
numbersasaLosAngelestelephoneareacode,youprocessthecodeasasinglechunk.Morerecent
research suggests that more individual variability exists than
previously thought.6 More than likely,
however,formostpeople,aroundfourchunksmaybemoreaccurate.Frightening,isntit?
Fortrainingandlearningpurposes,regardlessofcapacity,itsimportanttocreatemeaningfulchunksthat
32. condense several pieces of information into one. This
facilitates perception, learning, and retention. Heresanexample:
Thefourcardinalpointsofacompassarenorth(N),east(E),west(W),andsouth(S)(fouritemsto
storeinmemory). Rememberthisacronym:NEWS(oneitemtostoreinmemory).
Bycreatingasinglechunk,wereducetheshorttermmemoryload.Themorenavethelearneris(thatis,
thelesspriorknowledgesheorhepossessesforagiventopic),themorerapidlyshorttermmemoryfills
up.Whenlearnersareininformationoverloadmode,itdoesntmatterhowmuchdatayoutransmit.They
cannolongerefficientlylearnandretain.
Long-TermMemory:TimeandCapacity
Ifthelearnerviewstheinformationinshorttermmemoryasimportantforstorage(usuallyanunconscious
decision),thentheinformationenterslongtermmemory.Howlongislongtermmemory?Thinkofwhen
youwereachildandofafriendorafavoritetoyyouhavenotthoughtaboutinyears.Canyoupicture
thatfriendortoy?Yourabilitytodosoindicatesthatlongtermmemoryreallymeanslong.Dependingon
howwestoreinformationinourlongtermmemorywarehouse,wemayretrieveitmanyyearslater.Ifitis
notadistinct,highlyuniquememory,itmaybecomeblendedandconfusedwithothers,butwellorganized
andstoredinformationcanberetrievedthroughoutyourwholelifetime.
Forfun,letstestyourlongtermmemory.Fillintheblanksinthefollowingstatements.Ofcourse,youwill
notrecallanyofthesethatyoudidntoriginallylearn. 1.
Thefirsthumantosetfootonthemoonwas_________. 2.
Thereare_________daysinSeptember. 3.
Thesquareonthe_________ofaright-angledtriangleisequaltothesumofthesquaresontheother
twosides. 4. 939=_________. 5. EinsteinsfamousformulaisE=_________.
Thatwasafactrecallexercise.Herearethecorrectanswers: Answers: 1.
NeilArmstrong 2. 30 3. hypotenuse 4. 81 5. mc2
Howwelldidyoudo?Mostofourtestsubjectsscoredfourorfiveoutoffiveeventhoughtheyhadnot
33. usedthesefactsformanyyears.Theinformationwaswellretained.
Withrespecttocapacity,longtermmemoryispracticallylimitless.Thehumanbrainhasthepotentialto
storehugeamountsofinformation.Neverworryaboutfillingitup.Theproblemisnotinthestoragebut
ratherintheretrieval. WhatDoesThisMeanfortheLearnerandtheTrainer?
Learnersgenerallywanttolearn;trainerswantlearnerstolearn.Thedisconnectarisesinthewhatand
the how of learning. By understanding that learners are
informationtreating organisms with sensory capacities,
informationprocessing constraints, and memory load limits, and by
attending to their
informationhandlingandstoragecapabilities,wecanfacilitatewhatbothlearnersandtrainerswant
effectivelearning.Rememberthesetwokeypoints:
Learningischange.Thischangebeginswithreceivinginformationfromasmanysensesaspossible
inanintegrated,reinforcingmanner.Iftheinformationistransmittedinameaningful,organized,and
relevantway,itwillpassthroughthelearnersfiltersandenterhisorhershort-termmemory.
Informationthatischunkedandorganizedappropriatelytothelearnersabilityandexperiencelevel
ismoreeasilystoredinlong-termmemoryand,mostimportant,morereadilyretrieved.
Learningischangeinmental(cognitive)structures,changeinthepotentialfornewbehaviors.Thelearner
istransformed.Thelearnersmindisnolongerthesameasitwasbeforethelearningtookplace.The
transformationprovidesthelearnerwiththeabilitytoactinnewways.
RememberThis
Weclosethischapterwithabriefreviewchallenge.Selectthewordorphraseinparenthesesthatbestfits
eachofthefollowingstatements: 1. In designing and delivering
training, it is more important to focus on the characteristics of
the (learner/trainer)thanofthe(learner/trainer). 2.
Learningmeans(memorizing/change). 3.
Humanshavea(small/large)capacitytolearn. 4.
Ourlearningcharacteristicshavebeenprogrammedfor(todaysenvironment/anenvironmentthat
nolongerexists). 5.
Thepurposeofexcellenttrainingis(transformationofthelearner/transmissionofclearcontent).
6. Eachofoursenseshas(thesame/different)processingcapacities. 7.
Most of the time, the environmental information we attend to and
how much we focus on it are
34.
governedbyour(consciouswill/unconsciousbrainandnervoussystems). 8.
Theshort-termmemoryofanovicelearnerfillsup(rapidly/slowly). 9.
Chunkinginformationrequiredforlearning(facilitates/impedes)retentionandretrieval.
10.
Themainchallengewithinformationinlong-termmemoryis(retrieval/storage).
Herearetheanswersandcomments: 1.
Indesigninganddeliveringtraining,itismoreimportanttofocusonthecharacteristicsofthelearner
thanofthetrainer.Asanygoodsalespersonwilltellyou,startwiththecustomer.Ourlearnersare
the starting point. We are merely the means for achieving success
that they and the organization value. 2.
Learningmeanschange.Thechangeoccursinthelearnerscognitivestructures,whichresultsinthe
potentialforbehaviorchange. 3.
Humanshavealargecapacitytolearn.Wehavenotyetcalculatedjusthowgreatitisandperhaps
neverwill.However,wemustrespecttheinformationprocessingcapacitiesofourhumanlearners.
4.
Ourlearningcharacteristicshavebeenprogrammedforanenvironmentthatnolongerexists.Humans
haveevolvedovermillionsofyears.Wearebornwithanabilitytoadapttoourenvironment.The
modernclassroomandworkplacearecompletelydifferentfromtheenvironmentsofourancestors.
Weuseourcharacteristicsthatfavorlearning,andwemanagethosethatconflictwithit.
5.
Thepurposeofexcellenttrainingistransformationofthelearner.(Enoughsaidalready!)
6.
Eachofoursenseshasdifferentprocessingcapacities.Althoughtheyvaryagreatdeal,allthesenses
areimportantfordifferentlearningrequirements.Taste,thelowly1percentsense,canbecriticalfor
survivalindealingwithfood. 7. Most of the time, the environmental
information we attend to and how much we focus on it are governed
by our unconscious brain and nervous systems. These nonvoluntary
mechanisms are criticaltosurvivalinahostileenvironment. 8.
Theshorttermmemoryofanovicelearnerfillsuprapidly.Unfamiliaritywithnewsubjectmatteror
skills produces numerous tiny chunks of information bombarding
shortterm memory. The novice
learnerissoonininformationoverload,andthelearningsystemfalters.Theresultisconfusionor
turnoff. 9.
Chunkinginformationrequiredforlearningfacilitatesretentionandretrieval.Chunkingassembles
individualitemsintoasingle,comprehensibleunit.Forexample,BMW(thefamiliarnameofa
carmanufactureronechunk)isalsoamnemonicfortheorderinwhichyouplaceobjectsonatable
fromlefttorightwhendoingapropersetting:bread(plate),main(courseplate),water(glass):
BMW. This helps a novice server set a table correctly and takes up
far less space in shortterm
memorythanthefullsevenwordsofthesequence. 10.
Themainchallengewithinformationinlongtermmemoryisretrieval.Puttingthingsintolongterm
memoryismucheasierthanfindingthingsyoustoreddays,weeks,months,orevendecadesago.As
trainers,ourchallengeistoorganizeforstorage/retentionandfacilitatewithpracticeforretrieval.
37. NoviceCA: HowdoIknowwhomtocall? ExperiencedCA:
Byaccessingthecustomerdatabaseandmatchingtheaffectedtransmissionlineswiththeappropriatecustomerelectricaladdress.
NoviceCA:
AndhowdoIknowwhichtransmissionlinesareaffected?Also,wheresthedatabase?
ExperiencedCA:
(losingpatience)Fromtheworkorders.Andthedatabaseisinthecomputer.
NoviceCA: WillIfindtheirstreetaddressesandphonenumbersthere?
ExperiencedCA:
(exasperated)No.Onlytheirelectricaladdresses.Youknow,thealphanumericcoderelatedtoatransformerorcut-offpoint!
NoviceCA: Huh?
Letsanalyzewhathappenedinthosethreescenes.Youcancompareyouranswerstothequestionswe
askedyouupfrontwithouranswers.
Whyisntthisworking?Inallofthescenes,itisobviousthatlearningisntadvancingveryquickly.In
eachcase,wehadatruesubjectmatterexpert(commonlyknownasanSME)andanovicelearner.You
wouldthinkthatiftheseSMEsknowsomuch,theyshouldhavenotroublemakingtheotherpersonlearn.
Butitsnothappeningbecauseexpertsandnovicesdonotprocessinformationinthesameway.Infact,
thegreatertheexpertise,thelesstheexpertthinkslikeanovicelearner.
Surely,youhavehadsomeonegiveyoudirectionsinatownorlocationthatyouvenevervisitedbefore.
Thedialoguegoessomethinglikethis: Direction giver:
YougetonMillCreekHighwayandheadwestforafewmilesuntilyouseeSchoolRoad.Getoffandtakeitnorthfor,oh,acoupleofmilestotheFairlanestripmall.Justablockbefore,youllturnintoasmalllaneitsabithardtosee
becauseofthetrees,buttheresaJohnnysPizzajustbehindit. Direction
taker: (headswimming)WheresMillCreekHighway? Direction giver:
YoureonMillCreekHighway. Direction taker: ButitsaysHighway10.
Direction giver:
Yep.ThatsMillCreekHighwayallright.Justfollowmydirections,andyoucantmissit.
Andhaveyoumissedit?Youcanseethathowtheexpertdirectiongiverviewshisworlddiffersfromthe
waythenovicedirectiontakerseesit.Standbytheproblemsintensifybeforewefinallynavigateour
waythroughthem.
Isitanyonesfault?Thesuccinctanswerisno.Ineachscene,includingthislastone,bothparties
desire a successful outcome. Both are fully motivated and actively
engaged in the teachinglearning process,butsomehowthingsfallapart.
Whatwastheresult?Learningbreakdown.Wehaveyettomeetsomeonewhohasnotparticipatedinone
ofthesefrustratingepisodes.Thereisaprevalentbeliefthatthebestwaytolearnsomethingistoaskan
expert,despitethefactthatresearchdemonstrates,timeandagain,howdifferentlyexpertsandnovices
viewtheworldand,morespecifically,howsomethingshouldbelearned.1
Heresagoodexample:Inaclassicresearchstudy,noviceandexpertchessplayerswereshownchess
gamesinprogress,withpiecesspreadallovertheboard.Theboardandpieceswerethenhiddenafter
severalseconds,andboththeexpertsandthenoviceswereaskedtosetupthechesspiecestoreproduce
exactlywhattheyhadseen.Whodoyouimaginemoreaccuratelyplacedthechesspieces?
expertchessplayers novices. The experts did far better. They
perceived patterns, chunked the information, and didnt clutter
their
38.
shorttermmemorieswithdetail.Novices,focusingonindividualpieces,faredpoorly.Thetwogroups
viewedtheworldinmarkedlydifferentways.2
DifferentTypesofKnowledge:DeclarativeandProcedural
Heresachallengeforyou.Youmostlikelyliveinanapartmentorhouse.Yourethereeveryday,orat
leastfrequently.Toacertainextent,youareanexpertonyourhome.Intheboxbelow,writethenumberof
windowsinyourhome.Ifyouareathome,dontgoaroundphysicallycounting.Accessthisinformation
fromyourmemory.Accuracyisimportant,sotakeyourtime.
Unlessyourecentlyreplacedorboughtcoveringsforallofyourwindows,youprobablydidnthavethe
answerinstantaneously.Inourexperimentswefindthatpeoplecomeupwiththeanswerthesameway
youprobablydid.First,youpicturedyourhome.Thenyouwanderedthroughitmentally.Iftherewere
levels,youwentfloorbyfloor.Ifwewerewatchingyou,weprobablywouldhaveseenyoureyesgoout
offocusandthenactuallymoveasyoulookedinwardandwalkedthroughyourhome.Wemighteven
haveseenyourlipsmovingasyoucountedwindows.Thatisverynormal.Butwhycouldntyousimply
statethenumberofwindowsinstantaneously?Afterall,youreanexpertonyourhome.Theanswertothat
questionaddressesthecoreofthemajorproblemineachoftheearlierscenes.Keepreadingtodiscover
why.
Becomefamiliarwiththesetwoterms:declarativeknowledgeandproceduralknowledge.They
arekeytounlockingmanylearningmysteries.3
Thehumanbrainisamazing.Itisanintricatesystemofmillionsofindividualelements,eachdoingits
ownthing.Yet,somehowitallworks.Thebrainisnotacoherentlydesignedandengineeredorgan.We
arebornwithabrainthatcarriesoutmyriadsimultaneousandindependentactivities.Mostpartsofthe
brainaretotallyobliviousoftheactivitiesgoingoninotherparts.Amongtheactivitiesthebrainconducts
istheprocessingofinformationforlearning.Thatinformation,whichcomesfromtheoutsideworld,is
takeninandtransformedintoknowledge.Theknowledgewepossessthatallowsustoname,explain,and
talkaboutmattersiscalleddeclarativeknowledge.Nootherspeciesonearthevenvaguelycomesclose
tohumansinourabilitytolearnandusedeclarativeknowledge. Look at
these four items and put a checkmark beside the actions you imagine
require declarative knowledge: 1.NamethecapitalofFrance.
2.Rideabicycle. 3.ExplainthecausesofWorldWarII.
4.Navigateadatabase.
Items1and3areexamplesofdeclarativeknowledge(name,explain,and/ortalkabout).Items2and4are
examplesofanotherimportantcategory:proceduralknowledge.Thattypeofknowledgeenablesustoact
39.
anddothings,toperformtasks.Unlikedeclarativeknowledge,whichisalmostexclusivelyrestrictedto
humansinanysophisticatedform,proceduralknowledgeisreadilyavailabletoallanimals.
So,howrelatedaredeclarativeandproceduralknowledge?Letsfigurethisoutforourselves.Naming
thenumberofwindowsinyourhomerequireddeclarativeknowledge.Althoughyouareanexpertabout
yourhome,youdidnthavethenumberreadilyavailableindeclarativeform.Instead,yourexpertiseisin
walkingthroughyourvariousroomsandlocatingwindowsproceduralknowledge.Youcando,but
notreadilysay.Thisisbecausehumansprocessdeclarativeknowledgeandproceduralknowledgevery
differently.
Canyourideabicycle?Canyoumaintainyourbalanceonthebicycle?Mostpeopleansweryestoboth
questions.Nowexplainexactlywhatyourbodydoestokeepthebicyclefromfallingdown.Youmight
mentionpedaling,movingfromsidetoside,holdingontothehandlebars,andsoforth.Whenweprobe
bicycleridersaboutexactlywhattheydotokeepthebikesteady,however,theyendupsaying,Icant
explainit.Ijustdoit.
Mostexpertisedevelopsthatway.Themajorityofwhatwehavelearnedtodohasbeenacquiredwithout
words.Bytrialanderrorovertime,wesimplyhavebuiltupthecapabilitytodoit.Andhereswherethat
presents a problem in training: Organizations commonly approach
someone who knows how to do
something(aninformaldefinitionofanexpert)andaskhimorhertoteachnoviceshowtodoit.
Nowforaparadox:Theseexpertshaveacquiredtheircapabilityovertimeandwithpractice.Inother
words,theypossessmostoftheirexpertiseintheformof (selectone):
declarativeknowledge proceduralknowledge.
Inalmostallcases,theirexpertiseisintheformofproceduralknowledge.Butwhenaskedtotrainothers,
usuallyinashortamountoftime,theyareexpectedtotransmittheirknowledgebyexplaining,giving
examples,andprovidingcontextsandcases.Inotherwords,theyteach(selectone):
declaratively procedurally. The experts deliver declaratively. Then
the learners have to convert the declarative knowledge from
trainingbackintoproceduralknowledgetomeettheexpectationofbeingabletodothingsinanew
way.Simpleandvividexamplesofthisarewhenagolfprotellsyouhowtohitagolfballstraightora
skatingcoachtellsyouhowtomakeaquickstopwhenrollerblading.Mucheasiersaid(declarative)than
done(procedural)! Research on learning tells us that what we learn
declaratively cannot be readily transformed into
proceduralknowledgeunlesswealreadypossesssimilarproceduralknowledge.Thereverseisalsotrue.
Proceduralknowledgedoesnoteasilyconverttodeclarativeknowledge.Therefore,althoughyouknow
40.
yourhomewellandyoumentallywalkedthroughittocountthewindows,youstillmayhavemisseda
few.
Thisconversiondifficultyalsoaccountsfortheproblemsinourearlierscenes:
Daddy cant convert his cardriving knowledge (acquired procedurally)
to the right declarative
language.Evenifhecould,Gailcantreadilyabsorbhisdeclarativeexplanationsandconvertthem
intoproceduralcapabilities.
Grandmaknowshowtobakeacherrypie,butcantrecitetherecipe.
Theexperiencedcustomeragentcaninformcustomersofelectricalshutdowns,buthasobviously
confusedhisnovicelearner.
Thelocalresidentcantreadilyspeakthecleardirectionsthatwillhelpthetouristfindhiswayfrom
MillCreekHighway.
Heresafunexercisethatdemonstrateshowexpertisethatletsusdothings(proceduralknowledge)
simplydoesnotprovideallthedeclarativedetails.Infact,weoftendontevenhavea(declarative)
explanationforhowtodoitright(procedurally).
Correctthegrammarinthesetwosentences:
WhenIwereinParis,Iateacroissantwitheverymeal.
_________________________________________________
IfIwasinParis,Iwouldeatacroissantwitheverymeal.
_________________________________________________
Youmostlikelychangedeachonecorrectly.(WhenIwasinParis,Iateacroissantwitheverymeal.IfI
wereinParis,Iwouldeatacroissantwitheverymeal.)Unlessyouareagrammarspecialistandhavethe
declarativeknowledge,itisunlikelythatyoucanexplain(declaratively)whyyoucorrectedeachofthe
above(procedurally). Here is the declarative explanation: When I
was in Paris states a fact. This requires use of the
indicativemoodin English grammar. The form was is the correct first
person singular past perfect indicative form. Yay! However, If I
were states a possibility, which in formal English grammar requires
use of the subjunctive mood and I were is the correct first person
form. You did it
(procedurally)!Didyouknowallofthis(declaratively)?Ahwell,bethatasitmay,youprobablygetthe
point.4
Inourtestingofthisexercise,veryfewpeopleknewwhyeachformwasright.Severalknewaboutthe
subjunctiveorspokeaboutconditionalsituations,butnooneabsolutelynaileditdespitethehighrateof
proceduralsuccess.(Incidentally,intheUnitedStatessaying,IfIwasisinformallyacceptableinthe
spokenformmoredeclarativeinformation.)
Withanawarenessofthekindofknowledgewewantourlearnerstoacquiredeclarativeorprocedural
wecanadjustthewaywepresentlearningmaterialtothem.Ifitstalkaboutknowledge(forexample,
what or why information, fact recall, or names), we can create
activities that provide what must be
learnedandhaveourlearnerspracticedeclaratively.Ifwewantthemtoacquiredoandusetypesof
41. knowledge, our strategy changes to a more handson approach.
The bottom line is to match what our
learnershavetolearnwiththemodeoftraining/instruction/educationweemploy.(Wellcoverthisina
moreplannedandorganizedfashioninchapter6.)
Onefinalnoteonthesetwotypesofknowledge.Gainingproceduralknowledgeeventuallyallowsusto
gainfluencyindoingthingswithouthavingtothinkaboutwhatweareengagedin.Runningaphotocopier
orprocessinganinsuranceclaimareproceduraltasksthatwecanexpertlydealwiththroughpractice.
However,whatifwechangethemodelofphotocopiertoamorecomputerizedversion,withbuttonsand
viewingpanelsindifferentplaces,orwhatiftheinsuranceclaimformschangeandtherulesgoverning
howtheyaretobehandledalter?
Methodstoproduceefficientproceduralknowledgeresultinrapidfluency,solongastheconditions
remain the same. Declarative knowledge allows us to generalize to
new circumstances through
explanations.Itmayslowdowntheperformance,butitpermitsadaptationtonewrequirements.Wemay
wantoursoldierstoassembleanddisassembleacertainmodeloffirearmtheyregularlyusetothepoint
ofautomaticity(actperfectlywithoutthinkingaboutit).Whatiftheysuddenlyfindthemselvesonthe
battlefieldwithadifferentfirearm?Withoutsomeformofdeclarative,mentalrulesabouthowavarietyof
modelswork,theymaygetlosttryingtomakesureitworks,flounderaboutinconfusion,andexpose
themselvestoincreasedrisk.
Thebottomlineisthatwhileeachtypeofknowledgerequiresaspecificformofinstructionfordesired
performance,oftenacombinationofbothexplanationandpracticeworkstoproduceamoreeffective
result.5
42. KeyIngredientsforLearning
Cognitivepsychologyresearchsuggeststhatthreemajorfactorsinfluencehowmuchandhowwellwe
learn:ability,priorknowledge,andmotivation.Letsexamineeachoftheseindetail.6
Ability
Thecapacitywithwhichwewerebornthatenablesustoacquirenewskillsandknowledgevariesamong
individuals.Justlikeheightormusculature,wearriveonthescenewithacertainmental(orlearning)
potential.Itmaybeunfairbutsomeofusareborntaller,slimmer,morephysicallyattractive,orableto
learnmorequicklythanothers. This general learning ability is the
intellectual capacity with which we are genetically endowed. It
strongly influences our overall capability to learn. Note the word
general. Those who have greater
generalabilitygraspmorequickly,comprehendmoreeasily,andrecallmoreefficientlythanothersdo.
Theyseemtogetitfasterandplayitbackorevenenhanceitbetterthanthosenotasintellectuallyable.
Recently, many nuances have been added to the construct ability and
its almost synonymous cousin,
intelligence(usuallydefinedastheabilitytothinkaboutideas,analyzesituations,andsolveproblems,
whichismeasuredthroughvarioustypesofintelligencetests).Whilegeneralabilityisusuallybroken
downintononverbalability,concretereasoningability,andabstractreasoningability,researchershave
stretched further into multiple intelligences.7 Educational
psychologists now view individuals as
multifacetedandhavecreatedteststomeasureverballinguistic,mathematicallogical,musical,visual
spatial,bodilykinesthetic,interpersonal,naturalistic,andevenexistentialintelligences.Inallcases,
theseappeartobeconsideredinherentcharacteristics.
Obviously,likemusculature,thewayinwhichabilityisfosteredandtrainedcanseriouslyaffecthow
wellonescerebral(andother)capabilitiesgrowanddevelop.Astrainers,itisimportantforustonote
that learners vary in their ability to learn. We have to be aware
of the differences in ability and
compensateforthosewhodonotlearnasrapidlyasothers.Wealsohavetokeepthemoregenerallyable
learnersconstantlystimulatedandchallengedtomaintaintheirfocus.
Althoughweallpossessgeneralintellectualability,wealsoareendowedwithspecificabilitiesatbirth.
An ear for music, a golden voice, athletic agility, and artistic
talent are extremely valuable specific learning abilities that are
more important than general intellectual capability in certain
instances. The
innate,specificabilitiesofMichaelJordaninbasketball,BarbraStreisandinmusic,andPabloPicassoin
arthaveplayedenormousrolesinallowingthoselearnerstoachievefarbeyondotherswhomayhave
receivedthesametraining.8 PriorKnowledge
Generalandspecificabilitiesgreatlyinfluencelearning,buthowmuchapersonalreadyknowsabout
whatheorsheisbeingtaughtalsostronglyaffectslearning.9
Abrilliantphilosopherormathematician may not learn as well as a
less intellectually gifted carpenter when receiving some new piece
of instruction about carpentry. Prior knowledge helps the learner
acquire additional knowledge or skills morerapidly.
43.
Letstestthatassertion.BelowaretwoFrenchverbsonearegularverb,theotherirregular.Whichone
istheirregularverb? danser tenir.
Inchapter2,youlearnedthatFrenchregularverbsendiner.Ifyoupickedthatupthen,youprobably
correctlyselectedtenirastheirregularverbabove.Yourpriorknowledgehelpedhere.Ifyoumissedit,
thatsOK.Youdidntpossessthepriorknowledge,andyouhadtoworkharder.So,themoreyouknow
aboutsomething,theeasieritistoacquireadditionalknowledgeandskillsinthatsubject.
Motivation
Weallhaveseenthepowerofhighmotivationthedesiretoachievesomething.Wealsohaveseenthe
reverse: Those who dont care, have no drive, or seem to lack
interest in learning rarely achieve
proficiencyinnewknowledgeandskills.Weoftentalkaboutmotivationanditsimportance,butwhatis
it?Motivationappearstobeaffectedbythreemajorfactors:value,confidence,andmood.
Value.Themorewevaluesomething,themoremotivatedweareaboutit.Infigure41,wehaveplaced
motivationontheverticalaxisandvalueonthehorizontal.Noticethatasthelearnerattributesagreater
valuetowhatistobelearned,motivationincreases.Ifyouvaluebeingseenassomeonewhoknows
operaorfootball,youwillbecomemoreinspired(thatis,motivated)tolearnaboutit.Thehigherthe
valueattributedtowhatistobelearned,thegreaterthemotivation.
Confidence.Ifyoufeeltotallyineptinyourabilitytolearnsomething,howmotivatedareyoutotry?
highlymotivated unmotivated.
44. The answer, of course, is unmotivated. Low confidence in
learning is strongly correlated with low
motivation.Astheconfidenceofthelearnerincreases,sodoesthemotivation,asillustratedinfigure4-2.
Overconfidence,however,leadstoadeclineinmotivation.Ifthelearnerfeelsthatthisissoeasy,Idont
evenneedtotry,motivationplummets,asshowninfigure4-3.
Theoptimalpointofmotivationiswherethelearnerhasenoughconfidencetofeelsheorhecansucceed,
butnotsomuchthatthedesiretolearndeclines.This
highpointofmotivationisoneofchallenge(Ihavetoworkatittosucceed)andsecurity(ifIdowork
atit,IknowIcansucceed).
Mood.Weallknowthatifwerenotinthemood,ourmotivationtolearngoesdown.Personalfeelings
affect our mood as does the atmosphere of the learning and working
environment. A positive learningworking environment tends to
improve a persons mood and, hence, his or her motivation as
illustratedinfigure44.Butafrivolousormanicmoodmighthavebizarreandunpredictableeffectson
motivation. A positive mood is one in which you are open and
optimistic without being flighty or euphoric.10
45. To summarize this section on the three key factors that
affect learningability, prior knowledge, and
motivationtrainersaregenerallycontentpeopleplacedintheroleofhelpingpeopleacquiresufficient
knowledgeandskillstoperformsomethingtheydontknowhowtodo.Askingthemtostepoutsideof
theirareaof expertise and become totally customer focused, that is,
learner centered, is a challenge. However,
trainerscanderiveenormoussatisfactionwhentheyseethattheirchargesgetit.Bywatchinglearners
andsizinguphowwelltheycanabsorbwhatthetrainerprovides,byacknowledgingandshoringupprior
knowledge,andbyexemplifyinghowworthwhileitistoachievewhatthetrainerishelpingthemtoattain
heorshewillexperiencethehighthatcomesfromtheirsuccesses.Iftrainingwerejustatellingtask,
everyonewouldexcelateverything.11
AdaptingforDifferencesinAbility,PriorKnowledge,andMotivation
Ability, prior knowledge, and motivation strongly affect learning.
Can we, as trainers, instructors,
educators,ormanagersoflearninginfluenceallofthese?Fortunately,theanswerisyes.
Ability
Althoughwecantalterapersonsability,wecanobserveanddetecthisorherstrengthsandweaknesses.
Asaresult,wecanadaptthelearningsystembytakingthefollowingmeasures:
adjustingtheamountoftimeforlearning
providingmorepracticeforthosewhorequireit simplifying and breaking
learning into smaller chunks for those who are experiencing
learning difficulties providingadditionalsupportforthosewhoneedit
includingactivitieswithgreaterchallengeforthosewholearnmorequickly
providingalternativelearningpaths.