CHAPTER ONE The Meaning, Scope and Evolution of Public Administration 1.Meaning and ScopeLack of consensus on the scope of public administration has led to different approaches in the definition of the subject.As Ferrel Heady (1966) put it "Despite several decades of development, consensus about the scope of public administration is still lacking, and the field has been described as featuring heterodoxy rather than orthodoxy".

contdTherefore, different writers have variously defined the subject. Some have a broader view about public administration. For them public administration includes both policymaking and policy execution. Public administration is any kind of administration in the public interest which in other words simply means governmental administration.

contdWhereas others emphasize the role of public administration as only the executive branch of government. Those who advocate the latter approach include reputable writers such as Woodrow Wilson (labeled as a father of public administration), L.D.White, Marshal E.Dimock, Herbert Simon and John M. Pfiffner.

PA as executive branchFor instance, L.D. White views "Public administration as a field consisting of all those operations having the purpose of fulfilling or enforcing public policy." Similarly, according to Woodrow Wilson, public administration is detailed and systematic application of law.

contdIn the words of Marshal E. Dimock, "Public Administration is the fulfillment or enforcement of public policy as declared by a competent authorities Public administration is a law in action. It is the executive side of government"

ContdHerbert Simon on his part says public administration is the government action, which coincides with the activities of the executive or administrative branch only.Ferrel Heady views public administration as a "field concerned primarily with the carrying out of public policy decisions made by authoritative decision makers in the political system".

contdPublic administration is concerned with the activities of all the three branches of government, but the widely accepted view is that public administration is connected with the activities of the executive branch only. In the words of Morstein Marx:

ContdAt its fullest range, public administration embraces every area and activity under the jurisdiction of public policy By established usage, however the term 'Public Administration' has come to signify primarily the organization, personnel, practices and procedures, essential to effective performance of the civilian functions entrusted to the executive branch of government.

ContdProf. Woodrow Wilson in 1889 drew a sharp distinction between politics and administration and opined that the later must steer clear of the former. It was said that politics was concerned with policy-making while administration was concerned with policy implementation.

ContdThe politics-administrative dichotomy had writers such as Woodrow Wilson, Willoughby, White, Luther Gullick, Henry Fayol and Urwick to discover principles of Public Administration. These principles laid emphasis on economy and efficiency as the sole goal of administrative activity and regarded administration a mechanical organisation.

Contd

Taylors scientific management movement in the last quarter of the 19th century emphasized the fact that administration was nothing but management and it should be possible to discover the best principles of managing public affairs.

ContdIn the words of Dr. Appleby, The heart of administration is the management of programmes designed to serve the general welfare.

1.2. Is public administration an art or a science?

Public administration as an aspect of governmental activity existed as long as political systems have been functioning.Public administration lends itself to two meanings.

contdFirst, it stands for the activity of administering governmental affairs. Secondly, it is an academic discipline. The first is decidedly an art. But is public administration, as a subject of study of governmental affairs, a science? Art is a know-how. It is the application of personal judgment, skill in a unique situation.

ContdScholars are divided into two: some say PA is a science like any other science discipline where as others say PA is not a full-fledged science. It is a combination of both science and art. It is an evolving science because it is still affected by environmental variables such as culture, politics, technology etc.

ContdIt is well documented that when it comes to the development of an independent administrative discourse, the Americans take the lead around 1900 (Rutgers, 1997). Frank J. Goodnow and Woodrow Wilson are generally considered the founding fathers.

ContdDuring this period Public administration was conceived of as the management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purposes of the state (White, 1926 p.2).

Contd As Wilson explained, Public administration is detailed and systematic execution of public law. Especially, Woodrow Wilson, the pioneer of public administration as a subject of study, called it the 'Science of Public Administration' as early as 1887.

Contd

By the same token, W.F. Willoughby (1926) asserted that in administration there are certain fundamental principles of general application analogous to those characterizing any science.

Contd In 1937, a collection of papers on the subject made appearance under the significant title of 'Papers on the Science of Administration' edited by Luther Gulick and L. Urwick. It is the existence of a body of principles in a discipline which entitles it to claim the status of science.

ContdIf public administration can prove that it has developed a set of principles, it, obviously qualifies to be rated as science. Does public administration have a set of such principles?

ContdThe essential characteristics of science are the presence of normative (or ethical) value, predictability of behavior, and finally universal application. All these three features are as yet imperfectly present in public administration.

ContdAccording to Rumki Basu, Public Administration is called a science if the following three conditions are fulfilled. First, the place of normative values in public administration should be clearly identified and made clear. Second, greater understanding should be gained of human nature in the field of public administration.

ContdAnd third, the principles of administration could be derived from a body of cross-cultural studies, thereby making them relatively free from cultural bias.

ContdThe last hundred years have however seen a remarkable development of the science of public administration. The transformation of the laissez faire state into the modern welfare state has enlarged its sphere, added to the functions of government and aroused interest in the problem of efficiency in government.

ContdIndustrial engineers like F.W. Taylor, pioneered the scientific method with its emphasis on experimentation, observation, collection of data, classification and analysis, and the formulation of laws and principles. The subsequent progress of the scientific method added substantially to such facets of administration as organization, planning, personnel administration and budgetary control.

ContdThe last decades have witnessed mushrooming of writers on administration and management like Metcalfe, Henry Fayol, Harrington Emerson, Mary Parker Follett, Mooney, Peter Drucker and others. Gradually the contributions of these sources have been unified into the science and art of public administration.

ContdPfiffner writes that public administration is concerned with 'the what' and 'the how' of government. The 'what' is the subject matter, technical knowledge of a field which enables an administrator to perform his tasks. The 'how' is the technique of management. The major divisions of the subject matter fall naturally into some groupings:

ContdWhat a government does, determination of objectives, internal administrative policies and plans and a range of governmental business.How a government organizes its staff, and finances its work, that is the structure of government organization.

ContdHow administrators secure cooperation and team-work? study of such problems as administrative responsibility, leadership, direction, coordination, delegation, headquarters field relationships, supervision and public relations.

ContdBy common consensus, the essential components of administration are:(1) planning, (2) organizing,(3) staffing, (4) initiating,(5) delegating, (6) directing

Contd(7) overseeing (8) coordinating, and (9) evaluating. The various activities forming part of the scope of public administration are indicated by POSDCORB, a word coined by Luther Gulick.

1.3. The Evolution and Growth of public Administration

Public administration as an activity is as old as civilization but public administration as an academic discipline is not much more than a hundred years old. This, however, does not mean that thinkers in earlier ages had never said anything significant about public administration.

ContdMany factors have contributed towards the growth of the study of public administration.Firstly, the development of modern sciences and technology made an impact on the life of the people and the functioning of the government. industrialization gave birth to large scale organizations with complex problems of coordination and cooperation.

ContdRapid technological development created large scale social dislocations which made state intervention imperative and desirable.

ContdSecondly, the scientific Management movement founded by F.W. Taylor which began in the USA towards the end of the 19th century, gave great impetus to the study of public administration. Taylor's ideas had a revolutionary impact not only in the US but also throughout the world.

ContdA third factor which significantly helped in the growth of the subject of public administration was the gradual evolution of the concept of welfare state. The philosophy of state functions everywhere has now decisively shifted from the traditional notion of laissez faire to that of social welfare.

ContdLastly, the movement for governmental reform gathered momentum in the USA from the early years of the present century when intellectual efforts were systematically made for the steady development and growth of an autonomous and specialized field of knowledge.

1.4 Public and Private Administration

Public administration is a combination of two words: public and administration. There are two approaches in the definition of administration. Wider approach and managerial approach. 1.According to Theo Haimann, Administration means overall determination of policies, setting of major objectives,

Contd the identification of general purposes and laying down of broad programmes and projects. It refers to the activities of higher level because it lays down basic principles of organization. 2. Administration is about rational organisation and the management of men, women and material to accomplish some agreed purpose through the allocation of functions and responsibilities in organisation.

Contd According to Newman, Administration means guidance, leadership & control of the efforts of the groups towards some common goals.

Contd It is the efforts and capacities of individuals and groups engaged to secure the desired objective with the least friction and the most satisfaction to those for whom the task is done and those engaged in the enterprise.

What makes public administration "public"?

The public-ness of public administration depends on two conceptual versions. The first conceptual version derives from public goods whereas the second involves public interest.

1. Public goodsThere are goods called public in which private enterprise does not involve because of inexclusivabilty. For example, if street lighting is provided in a neighbourhood, it is not possible to exclude benefits of the service to those individuals who do not pay. These individuals 'free ride'. They create the problem of free-rider.

ContdAnother example of a public good is the armed forces for the defence of the country. Once defence cover is provided, it is not possible to exclude those who do not wish to pay for it.The response to this problem has generally been to provide them by governments and pay for it by taxation.

2. Public interestPublic in Latin publicus means:Having to do with the affairs of all people as opposed to private group.Public in generalPublic interest means:The well-being of the general publicThe general well-fare and rights of the public that are to be recognized, protected and advanced.It can mean what is considered beneficial to the public.

ContdHowever, scholars such as Henry Fayol and others, focus on the similarity of administrative principles than the differences. for them, it is difficult to clearly demarcate the spheres of the two types of administrative activity.

ContdThough the activities performed by government agencies are defined as public administration, there are many private agencies which also perform tasks which are strictly public service or welfare oriented.

ContdConversely, there are many tasks performed by the government bureaucracy which may be of a private nature.

ContdSecondly, methods and work procedures may be common to both public and private administration. Accounting, statistics, office management and procedures and stocktaking are problems of administrative management common to both public and private administration.

DifferencesHowever important the similarities may be, it cannot be denied that there still remain fundamental differences between the two. The major points of difference are in the spheres of "uniformity and impartiality, responsibility, accountability and serviceability". According to Josiah Stamp the principles which differentiate public from private administration are:

Contduniformity; external financial control; ministerial responsibility;marginal return. urgency of services and tendency to monopolysize and objective

ContdThe popular idea of pubic administration is that it is bureaucratic, characterized by red tape, inefficiency and inertia, whereas private administration is efficient and businesslike. The following are major differences between the two types of administration.

1. Political Direction or Ministerial Responsibility

Unlike private administration, public administration is subjected to political direction in most policy matters. It is the minister who lays down broad policy outlines, under which the bureaucrat has to implement the policy.

2.Profit Motive or Marginal Return:

Public administration is service oriented and profit-making is not its major goal. A businessman will never undertake a venture which is not likely to yield any profit to him. In public administration, there is no correlation between income and expenditure. The primary motive is always public service.

3. Social Necessity:

Public administration caters to social needs and public utilities. For example, it maintains: 1. transport to facilitate movement of goods and passengers; 2. the post and telegraph network facilitates communication; 3. hospitals and pharmacies are meant to provide medical aid and public health services to the people. The scope of private administration is narrower than this.

ContdBesides, the nature of some of the government services is so wide, comprehensive and expensive that no private administration can undertake them, e.g., maintaining a vast network of police, army, railways or post and telegraph.

4. Public Responsibility:

Public administrators are trained and duty-bound to respect the wishes of the public and cater to their needs. In the words of Appleby, "Government administration differs from all other administrative work by virtue of its public nature, the way in which it is subject to public scrutiny and outcry.

5. Uniformity of Treatment:

Public administration should be consistent in procedure and uniform in its public dealings. This principle is more applicable to public administration than the other, because the former is mostly regulated by common and uniform laws and regulations.

6. External financial control

Public administration is subject to the principle of external financial control. Government revenues are controlled by the people's representatives through the legislature.

7. Conformity to Laws and Regulations

Public administrators cannot do anything contrary to, or in excess of legal power. It has to function within the legal framework, it can never break law. If it does so, its actions can be declared invalid or, ultra-vires by the courts. Private administration has no such responsibility.

1.5.Ecology of Public AdministrationPublic Administration cannot operate in vacuum. It has to interact with the social, political and economic environment and above all with the people.Public Administration can be taken as a sub-system of the overall social system and has to interact with other sub-systems.

ContdIt is affected by and affecting the economic,political and socio-cultural sub-systems of an environment in which it operates. A study of such interaction would constitute what has come to be known as ecological approach to the study of public administration.

ContdThe interest in the ecology of public administration emerged as comparative Public Administration in the newly independent nations(of Africa, Latin America and Asia) during post World War II period.

ContdIt was realized that the administration of these countries could not be understood in terms of the then existing theories which developed in a totally different setting, mainly in the USA.

ContdThis interest in the study of Comparative Public Administration (CPA) in the developing countries was encouraged by the following factors:

ContdThe emergence of a large number of developing countriesThe extension of technical assistance to these countries Involvement of academicians in the administration of these assistance programmes, and Rapid growth of behavioral sciences in general and comparative politics in particular.

1.5.1 The impact of political System

The influence and impact of political system on administration is great due to close relation between policies and administration in most societies. Politics is where a government makes choices over public policy where as administration serves people by implementing and executing decisions and laws without participating in active politics.

ContdHowever, there is a continuing academic debate in public administration regarding the relationship between the two.

Contdthe activities of policymaking and policy execution are not entirely separate. Much legislation originate in the executive departments and the administrators play an important role in policy formulation by their expert advice, suggestion and supply the required information to the ministers concerned.

Contd Paul Appleby elaborated the relationship between politics and administration as follows. ''Society has certain needs and demands and governments are the most important institutions to meet these needs.

ContdSocietal needs when accepted eventually become law. Administration is the application of these laws in a constantly unfolded process.

1.5.2 Economic FactorsIn a market economy:Rationality of the market mechanism is carried over into the administrative bureau, where recruitment obviously takes place on the basis of merit for the job to be performed.On the same count, the performance Budgeting has been introduced in the Government.

Contd3. On the other hand the market needs administrative-services forenforcement of contracts for regulating trade practices, forprovision of infrastructural facilities etc.

ContdThe money to run these administrative services is, in turn, provided by the economy. The inter-dependence between the economy and public administration thus becomes obvious.

ContdThe economy could not survive without the administrative system which in turn was shaped by the needs of the economy.

1.5.3 Cultural factors Administrative behaviors are the product of a particular cultural setting. In this regard Geert Hoftede identified four factors:Power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism and masculinity. 1. Power distance is about human inequality in which a less powerful group accepts that power is distributed unequally.

A high Power Distance A high PD score indicates that society accepts an unequal distribution of power and people understand "their place" in the system.

Characteristics of PDCentralized companies.Strong hierarchies.Large gaps in compensation, authority, and respect. Low PDFlatter organizations.Supervisors and employees are considered almost as equals.

2. Avoidance of uncertaintySome cultures avoid risk while others accept it.Uncertainty is not tolerated in risk phobic culture where as it is taken as a source of innovation in other cultures.

ContdAvoidance of uncertainty relates to the degree of anxiety society members feel when in uncertain or unknown situations. High UA scoring nations try to avoid ambiguous situations whenever possible. They are governed by rules and order and they seek a collective "truth".

CharacteristicsVery formal business conduct with lots of rules and policies.Need and expect structure.Sense of nervousness spurns high levels of emotion and expression.Differences are avoided.

3. IndividualismThis describes the relation between an individualist and collectivist approach. It refers to the strength of the ties people have to others within the community. A high IDV score indicates a loose connection with people.

ContdIn countries with a high IDV score, there is a lack of interpersonal connection and little sharing of responsibility, beyond family and perhaps a few close friends.A society with a low IDV score would have strong group cohesion, and there would be a large amount of loyalty and respect for members of the group.

CharacteristicsHigh valuation on people's time and their need for freedom.An enjoyment of challenges, and an expectation of rewards for hard work.Respect for privacy.Emphasis on building skills and becoming masters of something.

4. MasculinityIt refers to the society where patriarchic culture dominates.This refers to how much a society sticks with, and values, traditional male and female roles. High MA scores are found in countries where men are expected to be tough, to be the provider, to be assertive and to be strong.

ContdIf women work outside the home, they have separate professions from men.This has impacts on the administrative practices in terms of division of labour and role differentiation between men and women.

CharacteristicsMen are masculine and women are feminine.There is a well defined distinction between men's work and women's work.

Chapter 2Administrative ThoughtAdministrative theories have evolved and undergone changes from time to time. They have continuously adopted new thoughts and replaced old ones as time evolves.It began with the universal theory of early 20th century which later on followed by a range of other theories.This chapter deals with some of these theories.

2.1 Types of administrative thoughtsThere are many theories of organizations. The major ones are the following: 1. Classical Theory 2. Human Relations Theory3. Systems Theory 4. Development Administration 5. Contingency Theory6. OD7. New Public Management

2.2 Classical TheoryClassical Theory is divided in to: Scientific ManagementAdministrative organization theory andBureaucratic Theory Main idea:There is one best way to perform a task. It focuses on:the management of work and workers andhow overall organization should be structured.

2.2.1 Scientific mgt

There are four principles in scientific management:1. Standardization of work methods,2.Scientific selection and training of workers, 3.Equal division of work between management and workers and 4.Mutual collaboration of the workers and management.

1. Standardization of workTaylor's first principle related to the development of a scientific method for each task which would replace adhocism and selection of work procedures.

Contd This could be achieved, he said, by scientifically investigating the working conditions and the total quantum of work to be undertaken in any enterprise in a given period; and then fixing daily assignments so that the workers may work in a planned way.

Contd The goal of good management should be either higher productivity or lower unit cost. To achieve this goal, the management must pay high wages. If the output of the worker achieved an optimum level under desirable conditions, the worker should be rewarded, but conversely, if he failed in increasing his output, penalty should be imposed on him.

2.2.2 Scientific selection and training of workers Taylor's second principle related to the selection, placement and training of workers in a scientific manner. Standardization of working conditions will be crucially served by selecting and placing workers on jobs for which they are best suited by their physical and intellectual abilities.

ContdMoreover, it is the duty of the management to train workers for their tasks and provide them all facilities for development of their personalities.

3. Equal division of work between management and workers

Taylor's third principle was an open advocacy of an equal division of work and responsibility between management and workers. Taylor had noted in his observations the unhealthy trend of the managers to place increasing burden on the workers, while assuming for themselves only minimum responsibilities.

ContdIn this context Taylor advised that half of the workers' work should be taken over by the management. The management should undertake the functions for which it was best suited, i.e., planning, organizing, controlling and determining the methods of work.

4. Mutual collaboration of the workers and managementThe last Taylorian principle was that there should be active cooperation and cordial relations between management and workers. There should be mutual faith and trust. Efficiency and productivity can be best promoted by creating a healthy and congenial environment in the organization which is the joint responsibility of both workers and the management.

ContdBy maximizing the productive efficiency of each worker, scientific management would also maximize the earnings of workers and employers. Hence all conflict between capital and labour would be resolved by the findings of science. The combination of these four principles constituted the base of scientific management.

ContdViewed in the context of its own times, scientific management was a revolutionary concept. It brought a drastic change in the whole approach to industrial management.

2.3 Classical organization Theory/administrative mgt theory

The classical theory of organization is also known as the structural theory and its foremost proponents have been Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick, L.F. Urwick, J.D. Mooney, A.C. Reiley, M.P. Follett and R.Shelton. The most important concern of the classical theory is the formulation of certain universal principles of organization.

contdIt deals primarily with formal organizational structure. The theory assumes that there are certain fundamental principles on the basis of which an organization can be established to achieve a specific objective.

Contd

Henri Fayol (1841-1925) observed that management was an undertaking common to all human activities. He enunciated certain basic concepts and principles of management and viewed management as a teachable theory dealing with planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling work processes.

contdFayol's is often considered the first complete theory of management. Fayol was primarily concerned with the job of the chief executive and pinned his faith in the principle of unity of command.

ContdFayol divided all activities in an organization under six groups: technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting and administrative. In his book, General and industrial Administration, he propounded fourteen principles of organization listed below:

Principles of mgt 1.Division of work 2. Authority and responsibility 3.Discipline4. Unity of command 5. Unity of direction 6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest 7. Remuneration of personnel 8. Centralization 9.Scalar chain 10. Order 11. Equity 12. Stability of tenure of personnel 13. Initiative 14. Esprit de corps

2.2.3 Bureaucratic Theory

Max Weber's bureaucratic model continues to be the dominant paradigm in administrative studies. The term 'bureaucracy' as Morstein Marx points out, was first used in the French form 'bureaucratic' by a French Minister of commerce in the eighteenth century to refer to the government in operation.

contdClassical writings on bureaucracy can be traced to several sources. The major contributions have come from Marx, max Weber and Robert Michels. In his earlier writings Marx made an attempt to conceptualize the role of the bureauracy in the corpus(main part) of state organization.

contdWhile trying to develop a critique of the political economy of capitalism in 19th century Europe, Marx has been a sensitive and keen observer of contemporary European public administrative organizations.

contdHis writings on 'administration' are scattered over numerous books, monographs, letters, and editorial comments. It was never his purpose to build up a theory of public administration as such.

The bureaucratic form of organization is distinguished by the following structural and behavioral characteristics: Division of Labor: This involves a specified sphere of competence which has been marked off as part of a systematic division of labour in the organization. Each office holder is the incumbent of an office as long as he holds it. His job placement is based on his qualifications and/or special training.

HierarchyHierarchy is the second fundamental characteristic which is the feature of any bureaucratic form of organization. There is a clear separation between superior and subordinate offices, i.e., each lower office is under the control and supervision of a higher one.

ContdRemuneration is fixed in accordance with the nature of the job and the grade of responsibility. Promotion and career advancement is on the basis of seniority and merit.

RulesThirdly, bureaucracy operates in accordance with a consistent system of abstract rules laid down regarding the performance of official jobs.

ContdThe role of rules has been stressed by Weber so that personal favoritism, arbitrariness or nepotism may not hinder the working of an organization. Every act of personal direction of officials must be justified by impersonal ends.

ContdRationality and impersonality are mainly achieved through formulation of rules and procedures which clearly define official spheres of authority and conduct, which the employees are to rigidly maintain in discharging their duties.

ContdWeber's ideas on efficiency and rationality are closely related to his ideal typical model of bureaucracy. He observed that bureaucracy is the most rational known means of achieving imperative control over human beings.

ContdIt is capable of attaining a high degree of control over human beings. It is capable of attaining a high degree of efficiency since the means used to achieve goals are rationally and objectively chosen towards the desired ends.

ImpersonalityAn added factor of efficiency is that personal whims of the leaders and traditional pressures are no longer effective in such a system; there is a clearer demarcation between personal an official affairs.

ContdThe bureaucratic form has no place for personal whims, fancies or irrational sentiments. Official activity is conducted in a businesslike manner with a high degree of operational impersonality.

NeutralityBureaucracy is supposed to be apolitical and neutral in its orientation and support to the political regime it serves. It is also value-neutral committed only to the work it is meant to perform.

ContdThe bureaucratic form, according to Weber, is the most efficient organizational form for large scale, complex administration that has been developed in the modern world so far.

Criticism towards bureaucracyWeber's ideal has evoked much criticism of his statement that a bureaucratic type of organization is, at least from a technical angle, capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency. Weber has also been criticized for not paying adequate attention in his theory to human behavior, relations, morale and motivational factors.

ContdHis theory has been called a 'machine-theory' and a closed system model overemphasizing the formal rational aspects of bureaucracy while ignoring the whole range of socio-cultural environment and behavioral characteristics of large formal organizations.

ContdAccording to Laski, bureaucracy is characterized by a passion for routine in administration, the sacrifice of flexibility to rule, delay in the making of decisions and a refusal to embark upon experiments. In his New Despotism, Lord Hewart argued that citizen rights and liberties are now in jeopardy because the typical bureaucrat has lately come to exercise a lot of discretionary power which is strictly against the principles of democratic administration.

ContdR.k. Merton has argued that bureaucracy as an organizational form is characterized by rigidity, overemphasis on rules and regulations rather than on goals and objectives, and marked by lack of public relations and class consciousness on the part of bureaucrats.

ContdThe Weberian model, the critics point out, can best function in a stable environment with routine and repetitive tasks.

ContdThe model is dysfunctional in terms of development and also in terms of jobs involving innovation and creativity. In the developing countries where rapid change is required to bring about socio-economic transformation, the traditional structure of bureaucracy is ill-equipped to meet the tasks it is called upon to perform.

ContdIts limitations in performing developmental tasks have often been pointed out. The bureaucratic model is too rigid and inflexible to suit dynamic change oriented situations.

Chapter 3 PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATIONIn the field of administration , PRINCIPLE is considered as a fundamental truth. PRINCIPLE is considered as a law, a doctrine, a policy, or deep-seated beliefs which governs the conduct of various types of human activities. For administrators, it is very important to have good principles, because these will serve as their guide in their thinking and action.

ContdPrinciples promote shared understanding of administration.Principles eliminate much of the trial and error practices. Through them, we can avoid waste of time because they give us direction or point of destination.

ContdOliver Sheldon, in his work Philosophy of Management (1923), mentions that management is a matter of principles, primarily both scientific and ethical."It is important, therefore, that we should devise a philosophy of management as a code of principles, scientifically determined and generally accepted to act as a guide based on reason.

ContdIt is true that the principles of mgt cannot claim the exactness of the principles of physical sciences. They are at best generalizations based on observation of administrative situations. However, there need to be a principle which guides the mgt of organizations. The following are some of the administrative principles:

1. Hierarchy The distribution of functions and responsibilities can be both horizontal and vertical in an organization. When additional levels are added in an organizational structure, it is called vertical expansion. Vertical distribution creates levels like Top Management, Middle Management and first level management.

ContdHierarchy consists in the universal application of the superior subordinate relationship through a number of levels of responsibility formed from top to the bottom of structure. Mooney and Reiley call it the "scalar process/chain".There is a hierarchy in every administration. This may change from place to place and organization to organization, but the basic principle of hierarchy remains the same.

ContdUsually the hierarchy is in the shape of a pyramid with the leader of the organization or the head is at the top and followers at the lower part of the pyramid.

2. Span of Control Span of Control is simply the number of subordinates or the units of work that an administrator can personally direct. In the words of Dimock, "The span of control is the number and range of direct, habitual communication contacts between the chief executive of an enterprise and his principal fellow -officers.

ContdThis concept is related to the principle of "span of attention" described by V.A. Graicunas. However, there is no consensus as to the exact number, but there does exist a general agreement that the shorter the span, the greater will be the contact, and consequently, more effective control.

3. Unity of Command It means that an employee should receive orders from one superior only. The concept of unity of command requires that every member of an organization should report to only one leader.

ContdThat means, each employee should be answerable to only one person. If there are two different people who a person needs to answer, then there will be confusion

4. SpecializationEach employee should be made to do a particular kind of work. If he is made to do many different kinds of work, then the individual will not be able to concentrate on a particular kind of job leading to inefficiency.

5.CoordinationOrganizations are divided into a number of departments, services and agencies, which are further sub-divided into administrative units to facilitate work.

ContdWhile the diversity of tasks in organizations necessitates division of work in accordance with the principles of division of labour, there is a need to streamline tasks to create harmony among them to achieve organizational goals.

ContdIn order to see that these various units, agencies and departments work in harmony with each other coordination becomes necessary. In the words of White, "Coordination is the adjustment of the functions of the parts to each other, and of the movement and operation of parts in tune so that each can make its maximum contribution to the product of the whole.

Contd"Coordination" says Mooney, "is the orderly arrangement of group effort, to provide unity of action in the pursuit of a common purpose".

ContdManagement must link up all its practitioners into one body, pursuing a common end, conscious of a common purpose, actuated by a common motive, adhering to a corporate creed, governed by common laws of practice, sharing a common fund of knowledge.

6. DelegationDelegation means the entrusting of one's occupational authority to another, usually a subordinate, to facilitate work in the organization.According to Mooney, delegation is the transfer of authority by a superior person to his agent or subordinate, subject to his supervision and control.

ContdThis implies that legally the delegated powers still rest with the principal, to be exercised in practice by the subordinate or agent.Delegation is exercised by all organization.Delegation of authority is a common feature in all types of large organizations.

In summary, delegation involves:

Assignment of dutiesTransfer of authorityCreation of obligationControl and evaluation

7.Efficiency and effectivenessEfficiency:Economic utilization of resourcesMeasure of output in relation to inputCost minimizationProcess efficiency to reduce time, cost and energy.

contdAccording to Misterik et.al. (1992), an increase in productivity can be aused by five different relationships of input and output:

contdOutput and input increases, but the increase in input is proportionally less than increase in output;Output increases while input stays the same;Output increases while input is reduced;Output stays the same while input decreases;Output decreases while input decreases even more.

EffectivenessMission accomplishment as conceived by stakeholdersSuccessful achievement of objectives both quantitatively and qualitativelyMeeting public purposeSome organizations use quality instead of effectiveness when customer needs are emphasized.

8. Responsiveness and accountabilityAcct. refers to the assumption of the consequences of ones own act. These consequences imply the imposition of sanctions-resignation, dismissal, disciplinary penalty, and compensation for the damages caused.

AccountabilityIt is useful to think of an accountability relationship as having up to four sequential stages:1.Standard-setting: setting out the behaviour expected of the accountee, and thus the criteria by which they might validly be judged.2. Investigation: exploring whether or not accountees have met the standards expected of them.

Contd3. Answerability: a process in which accountees are required to defend their actions, face skeptical questions, and generally explain themselves.4. Sanction: a process in which accountees are in some way punished for falling below the standards expected of them (or perhaps rewarded for achieving or exceeding them).

Responsiveness Responsiveness call for institutions and processes to be sensitive to public needs as per the law.

CHAPTER 4SOME IMPORTANT AREAS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration is composed of some major areas such as public policy, public personnel administration, financial administration, comparative public administration, and organization theory . The following selected areas will be discussed :Public policyPublic personnelFinancial administration

4.1The Meaning of Public Policy 1. Policy

Policy is a decision(s) taken by actors or group of actors concerning the selection of goals and the means of achieving them within a specified situation. Policy has been defined as "a matter of either the desire for change or the desire to protect something from change" (Barber (1983:59).

ContdBarber further added, "Policy making occurs in the determination of major objectives, in the selection of methods of achieving these objectives, and in the continuous adaptation of existing policies to the problems that face the government".

Public policy1.Public policy is a choice made by government to undertake some course of action(Howlett and Ramesh, 1995).2.Public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do. Dye: 1998Some definitions also consider the complexity of developing policies.

ContdPublic policy is both an art and a craft. It is an art because it requires insight, creativity, and imagination in identifying societal problems and describing them, in devising public policies that can alleviate them, and then in finding out whether these policies end up making things better or worse. Dye, 1998.

Components of policyPolicy involves:1. identifying a problem 2. design(formulation)3. implementation and4. evaluation

Problem identificationThe first step in the public policy process is to outline the problem. This involves not only recognizing that an issue exists, but also studying the problem and its causes in detail. This stage involves determining how aware the public is of the issue, deciding who will participate in fixing it and considering.

Policy Design/formulationAfter identifying the problem, a public policy is formulated. This step is typically marked by discussion and debate between government officials, interest groups, and individual citizens to identify potential obstacles, to suggest alternative solutions, and to set clear goals and list the steps that need to be taken to achieve them.

Implementing the PolicyA policy must be put into effect, which typically requires determining which organizations or agencies will be responsible for carrying it out.

ContdClear communication and coordination, as well as sufficient funding, are needed to make this implementation success.

Some issues to be considered in implementation Though defining optimal implementation is difficult due to socioeconomic circumstances, there are some steps to be followed:Policies must not face insurmountable external constraints.There must be an adequate time frame and resources Cause and effect relationships must be analyzed.

EvaluationThis step usually involves a study of how effective the new policy has been in addressing the problem. It also includes reviewing funds and resources available to ensure that the policy can be maintained.

4.2 Public personnel administration

Public personnel administration refers to the administration and controlling of people, line or staff, engaged in civil services. In other words, public personnel administration refers to the administration of civil service.

Contd

2.Felix Nigro defines public personnel administration as the art of selecting new employees and making use of old ones in such a manner that the maximum quality and quantity of output and service are obtained from the working force.

Contd 3.Dimock and Dimock defined public personnel administration as the staff function which advises and facilitates the work of the program manager in matters relating to the recruitment, deployment, motivation, and training of employees, so as to improve the morale and the effectiveness of the service.

Contd4. Goel, S.L. and others defined public personnel administration asbranch of public administration which can help an organization in the management of personnel resources with the practices and rationalized techniques in selecting, retaining, and developing personnel for the fulfillment of organizational objectives, systematically and scientifically.

Components of PPARecruitment and selectionOrientation and placementPerformance evaluationTraining and developmentJob analysis: 6.1 job description 6.2 job specification 6.3. position classification6. Compensation, leaves and benefits7.Exit( retirement)

Job analysisIt is a step at which jobs are analyzed in order to determine what tasks and responsibilities a job includes, the relation between a job and other jobs, the conditions under which the job is performed, and personal capabilities required to perform the job.

Job descriptionJob description is the immediate product of job analysis process. As its title indicates, this document is basically descriptive in nature and constitutes a record of existing and pertinent/relevant job facts.

ContdJob description is a series of concise statements about the job. It is a systematic summary of jobs performed and the responsibilities involved.

Job specificationIs the profile of a person who performs the job. It describes the human characteristics of the job i.e. the factor required of a person who performs the job. These requirements include: experience, education, physical demands (fitness), mental fitness, the skills and efforts required.

The following are used in developing job specification

Job title______Department: ___________________Code: _________________________Physical factors : - health- appearance- etc Mental factors: -intelligence - numerical ability - verbal ability

Education

- Primary education- Secondary education- Tertiary education Experience Training - short term training- medium range training- long range training Personality factor Specific Circumstances

Financial AdministrationFinancial administration is an important facet of public administration. It encompasses the entire 'budgetary cycle', that is, formulation of the budget, execution of the budget, accounting and auditing.

Definition of F. administration It refers to the mgt of finance of state or a public authority endowed with taxing and spending powers. It is the process of identifying, mobilizing, allocation, executing and evaluation of financial resources.

Objectives of financial adminTo collect sufficient resources from the economyTo allocate resources in accordance with government prioritiesTo utilize resources in an effective and efficient manner to ensure that services are delivered, programs are implemented cost effectively.

Actors involvedThere are four agents involved:The executives which need and spends the funds( e.g. council of ministers)The legislatives which approves fundsThe finance ministry which controls fundsThe audits which oversees the spending

CHAPTER 5 New Public Admin Movement in USALike many other disciplines in social sciences public administration was also shaken and influenced by the social turbulence.

ContdThe first incident is the crisis-ridden period of the sixties where the evolving discipline of public administration has come to be enriched by the emergence of what has come to be known as the 'New public Administration'.

ContdThe major landmarks in the growth and emergence of new public Administration are:The Honey Report on Higher Education for Public Service, 1967, in USA.The Philadelphia Conference on the Theory and Practice of Public Administration, 1967, in USA.

Contd3. The Minnowbrook Conference, 1968, in USA.4. Publication of Toward a New Public Administration: The Minnowbrook Perspective, edited by Frank Marini, 1971;

Contd5. Publication of public Administration in a Time of Turbulence edited by Dwight Waldo, 1971.

ContdThe literature on new public administration lays emphasis on four major themes: relevance, values, equity and change. In word of Dwight Waldo neither the study nor the practice of public administration was responding suitably to escalating turmoil and complications.

RelevanceThe new public administration movement pointed out that the discipline had little to say about contemporary problems and issues and was therefore becoming irrelevant.

Series of questions askedWho defines our questions and priorities for us?To what extent are we aware of the social and moral implications of public administrative action?What are the uses of public administration as a social and administrative science?Does public administration presently yield knowledge useful to certain institutions in society?

ValueThe NPA movement rejected the value neutral position. Value-neutrality in public administration was declared impossibility and the discipline championed the cause of the disadvantaged sections in society. It says value-neutrality in Public Administration is an impossibility.

Contd The new public administrator should be:less generic and more public, less descriptive and more prescriptive,less institution-oriented and more client-impact oriented,It is less neutral and more normative.

ChangeTo serve the cause of social equity is to actively work for social change. This is the motto of new public administration. The attack is on the status quo and remedying the bureaucratic tendencies of big organizations.

Social equityThe goal of the public action should be the reduction of economic and social disparities and the enhancement of life opportunities for all social groups. Writers like Fredrickson take a bold action-oriented stance inviting public administrators to work for the removal of the wrongs of society and openly side with the socially deprived groups.

5.1 Public Administration in Industrial Societies

The term 'industrial' societies here is used to mean all those developed countries of Western Europe and the USA where industrialization has produced an identifiable change in economic structure and growth followed later by political and administrative modernization.

Contd'Development' and modernization' both imply in a broad sense societal transformations involving a complex economic, social and political changes.

Features of administrative systemsGovernment organization is highly differentiated and functionally specific and the allocation of roles are based more on achievement criteria than on ascriptive ones.

Laws and political decisions are largely rational. Traditional elites have lost real power, if any, to affect public policy making.

Government and administration have become all pervaisve, affecting all major spheres of the life of citizens. 4. There is high correlation between political power and legitimacy since popular interest and involvement in public affairs is widespread.

5.2 Public Administration in the Third World

Some of the major features of the socio-political systems of these countries appear to be as follows: A relatively widespread consensus on developmental goals. Some of the common goals are introducing changes in almost all the sectors of the economy.

Contd2. A great degree of reliance on the state and bureaucracy for achieving developmental goals. Many developing countries have evolved structures that have a socialist orientation; 3. Social disorganization, economic backwardness and political instability; and 4. A wide gap between the modernizing and the traditional elites, who very often differ in social background, orientation towards change.

Five indicative of general administrative patterns found in the Third World1. the basic pattern of public administration is imitative rather than indigenous. All countries, including those that are not ex-colonies have consciously tried to introduce some version of the bureaucratic model borrowed from the west.

Contd 2. The bureaucracies are deficient in the requisite skills necessary for developmental programs. The shortage is in trained administrators, with management capacity, developmental skills, and technical proficiency.

Contd3. Much bureaucratic activity is channeled towards the realization of non-developmental goals.Riggs refers to this as a bureaucrats personal expediency against principled public interests.The value attached to status based on ascription rather than achievement explains much of this behavior.

Contd Non-merit considerations greatly influence promotions, assignments, dismissals, and other personnel practices. Corruption is also widespread. Another popular practice is that of using the public service as a substitute for a social security or to relieve the problem of unemployment. As the result, there is always a surplus of employees in the public services.

Contd4. The widespread discrepancy between form and reality. Riggs called this "formalism". The gap between expectation and reality can be partially filled by enacting laws that cannot be enforced, adopting personnel regulations that are quietly by-passed, announcing a programme for delegation of administrative authority while keeping tight control.

Contd5. Colonialism caused a rule by an unresponsive authoritarian bureaucracy. Groups capable of competing for political influence or of imposing close controls over the bureaucracy are present.

Development AdministrationPublic administration becomes the main agency of socio-economic change, requiring the formulation and implementation of long term plans of industrial and agricultural development, the establishment and formation of modern institutions, organizations and skills necessary for sustaining devt.

ContdThis was the result of the identification of administration as the primary obstacle to development rather than economic (Stone, 2005) in developing countries.

ContdAccording to Donald C. Development administration, is concerned primarily with the tasks and processes of formulating and implementing the four Ps:Plans,Policies,Prgramsprojects.

The Roles of DAThe challenging role of developmental administration demands three different functions:

Contd

1. Institution-building for sustaining and promoting an industrial revolution for carrying on industrial devt and other public utility services for the people, 2. Manpower planning and development which requires the cultivation of technical, professional and managerial skills for running devt programs3. Human development which would involve changing the very attitudes and temperaments of people.

Development administration has also the following characteristics:(i)Change-orientation, that is, bringing about socio-economic change rather than maintenance of status-quo.

(ii)Goal-orientation, that is, achieving progress in social, economic, political and cultural goals, (result orientation).

(iii)Commitment, that is, high morale and motivation in work situation to achieve the development goals,

Contd(iv) Client orientation, that is, meeting the needs of the specific target groups like small farmers children and so on. (v)Temporal dimension, that is, completing development programmes within a time limit (time orientation).

Contd(vi)participation orientation, that is, enlisting popular support and involvement in the formulation and implementation of development programmes. (vii)Innovativeness, that is, replacing or improving the administrative structures, methods and procedures for the effective realization of developmental goals.

(viii)Ecological perspective, that is, interaction between developmental bureaucracy and its economic and political environment.

Contd(ix)Effective coordination, that is, achieving coordination between the multiple specialized units and programmes involved in the developmental tasks (high degree of integration).

Early approachesThese early approaches, which are elitist and ethnocentric, include the following:

(i) Economic ApproachesThese approaches suggested that third world countries should save more and invest it as capital. They emphasized economic growth through industrialization.

(ii) Diffusion Approach As explained by scholars, diffusion is a process by which a third world country adopts capital, technology, and social structure from western industrialized countries.

(iii) Psychological Approaches These approaches are explained in terms of the presence of some individual personality traits like achievement-motivation, change-orientation, less authoritarian and so on.

(iv) Dependency TheoryAndre Gunder Frank, the major exponent of this theory, argued that the persistent poverty of the third world countries is a reflection of their dependency on the western industrialized countries due to colonialism and neo-colonialism.

Contemporary Approaches Since the 1980s the development theorists have been focusing on context-based (and not universal) approaches to development.

ContdConsequently, there is no single comprehensive theory of development. According to Arvind Singhal, the contemporary theoretical approaches to development are:

Contd (a)Pluralistic, recognizing many pathways to development; and (b)less western in their cultural assumptions (less elitist, less eurocentric and more indigenous).

Contd He identified the following as key elements in contemporary development approaches:(i) Greater equality in distribution of development benefits.(ii)Popular participation, knowledge sharing and empowerment to facilitate self-development by individuals, groups, and communities.

Contd(iii)Self-reliance and independence in development, emphasizing the potential of local resources.(iv) Limiting growth of population.(v) Integration of 'appropriate' technology with 'big' modern technologies.

New Public ManagementBy the end of 70s the new changes and concepts began to acquire a shape in public administration.The challenge to Weberian bureaucracy assumed a number of names. According to Richard Common, New Public Management is used to describe a vast range of contemporary administrative changes.

ContdThe commonly used terms/phrases are: new public management by (Hood 1991); market-based public administration by (Lan, Zhiyong and Rosenbloom 1992);the post-bureaucratic paradigm by (Barzelay 1992); entrepreneurial government by (Osborne and Gaebler 1992); and managerialism by (Pollit 1993).

NPMA management philosophy used by governments since the 1980s to modernize the public sector.The main hypothesis in the NPM-reform: more market orientation in the public sector will lead to greater cost-efficiency for governments, without having negative side effects on other objectives and considerations.

ContdNPM, compared to other public management theories, is more oriented towards outcomes and efficiency through better management of public budget. achieved by applying competition, as it is known in the private sector, to organizations in the public sector, emphasizing economic and leadership principles.

Contdaddresses beneficiaries of public services like customers, and citizens as shareholders.

NPM: later developmentssplitting large bureaucracies into smaller, more fragmented ones, competition between different public agencies, and between public agencies and private firms incentivization on more economic lines digitalization (fully exploiting the potential of digital storage and Internet communications to transform governance).

Characteristics of NPMOrientation towards economy, efficiency and effectivenessMarket principlesEffort to impose values and techniques of private sector management into the public sector

ContdThe new buzz words are down sizing, resource-squeeze, effectiveness, efficiency, economy, privatization, outsourcing, marketization, quasi-markets, contractulization, atomization, agencification, so on.

ContdThis whole array of methods and techniques employed to reform public administration since the early 1980s is given the broad label of NPM.

NPM contdThus, NPM has become a very popular concept, its secret lies in its appeal as an attractive solution to the problems of big and inefficient government.The term was coined by Christopher Hood in 1991 and used in his paper on A Public Management for all seasons, published in public administration (Volume 69, Issue:1). He has listed the main doctrines of the NPM:

1. Hands-on professional mgt Hands-on professional management of public organizations, i.e., managers are provided high autonomy to manage their organizations. This is expected to contribute to sufficient accountable administration.

2. Explicit standards Explicit standards and measures of performance i.e., goals are well defined and performance targets set (later defined as performance indicators). This is also expected to enhance efficiency and ensure accountability.

3. Greater emphasis on output Greater emphasis on output controls i.e., resources are directed to areas according to measured performance, because of the need to stress results rather than procedures and inputs.

4. Shift to disaggregation Shift to disaggregation of units in public sector, i.e., breaking up large corporatized units around products, funded separately and dealing with one another on an arms length basis.

5. Shift to greater competition Shift to greater competition in public sector, i.e., move to term contracts and public tendering procedures, as rivalry is always the key to lower costs and better standards.

6. Stress on pvt sector stylesStress on private-sector styles on management practice, i.e., military style bureaucracy is discarded. There should be more flexibility in hiring and rewards limiting compliance costs to business.

7. Stress on greater discipline Stress on greater discipline and parsimony(cost-cutting) in public sector resource use, which means cutting direct costs raising labor discipline, resisting union demands.

Reinventing GovernmentThe argument about the paradigm shift was taken up by the book of David Osborne and Ted Gaebler Reinventing Government published in 1992 in USA and popularized in the phrase of reinventing government.

Ten principles of ReinventingOsborne and Gaebler proposed ten principles in order to fullfill this objective which might be summarized as follows (Painter, 1997: 50):

1- Catalytic Government:Governments should delegate their powers to agencies ensuring that something is done but not doing it directly(= steering, routing, navigating rather than rowing-propelling).

2- Community-Owned Government:Governments should not engage in provision of services but they should enable private sector or voluntary organizations in which community can act like entrepreneur. That is to say, empowering rather than serving (= enabling government).

3- Competitive Government:In order to provide an efficient and customer oriented public service, the provision of services and the institutions of governments should be exposed to the competition by the means of competitive tendering and market testing.(= injection of competition into service delivery).

4- Mission-Driven Government:According to this, governments should focus on their goals rather than rules and regulations. (=transforming rule-driven organizations focusing on organizational purpose and underpinning values, i.e. a strategic orientation).

5- Result-Oriented Government:Governments should be evaluated in terms of their performance in out-puts rather than their inputs through performance measurement system (= funding outcomes not inputs and rewarding success rather than failure and with appropriate performance indicators in place).

6- Customer-Driven Government:Government institutions should consider citizens as the customer of their services. (= meeting the needs of customer not the bureaucracy).

7- Enterprising Government:Governments should not only spend money for services, but they should also earn revenues from the provision of services aiming at profit maximization. (= earning rather than just spending).

8- Anticipatory Government:Governments should foresee probable situations in order prevent waste and inefficiency (=prevention rather than cure).

9- Decentralized Government:Governments should decentralize their responsibilities whenever possible so as to provide an environment for the public participation and democracy.(= from hierarchy to participative teamwork).

10- Market-Oriented Government:Government institutions should perform through the market values, which are conceived more efficient, effective and economical way of public service provision. (=leveraging-introducing change through the market).

Key elements of NPM Performance managementFrom ex ante control to ex post controlDeregulation, liberalizationSingle-purpose organizationsSeparation of policy and operations(Separation of the strategic from the operative level)Managerial autonomy Contract, privatization, market-orientationCustomer choice

ContdNPM is a theory of governance that is heavily influenced by market theory and economic decision-making, public choice, principal agent theory and transaction cost economics in particular (Hood, 1991; Kaboolian, 1998), rather than civic choices.

Approaches in NPM1. The Public Choice TheoryAs Aucoin (1990) argued, the public choice constitutes basic components of the new public management consisting of various schools.

ContdThe public choice is a political economy theory that aims at providing an alternative for market failure discourse of the Keynesian welfare state asserting governmental failure.

1.1 Market orientedParallel to neo-liberal policies, public choice theory emphasizes the priority of free market economy and rejects the state intervention.

Contd It favors the self-regulating economy with the claim of state intervention to the market and collectivism would distort the activation of economy.

1.2 IndividualismIndividualism is considered as the ontological(theory of existence) premise for the public choice theory. As Muller argued, man is egoistic and rational so as to maximize his utility (Muller, 1976:395).

1.3 Bureaucracy vs. public choice TheoryPoliticians and bureaucrats act according to their self-interests such as income, power, prestige and maximization of bureau rather than public interest.

Contd The main objective of a politician is to be re-elected and this opportunist and populist policies cause expansion of public expenditures and public services having distorting effects on private property and individuals economic rights.

ContdSimilarly, bureaucrats work for maximizing their bureaus and budgets, which in turn increases public expenditures.According to the theory, due to the existence of self-seeking politicians and bureaucrats, it is inevitable to fail for the public sector.

ContdIn this sense, public choice might be characterized by the loss of trust to politicians and bureaucrats as well as favor of free market economy and minimal state.

ContdAs a response to these drawbacks of public sector, the public choice proposes minimal state, reduction of bureaucracy, privatization of public services and withdrawing political and bureaucratic authorities.

2. ManagerialismManagerialism constitutes other theoretical dimension of new public management besides the public choice theory.

ContdIn contrast to the public choices interest , managerialism concentrates on public organizations and particularly executive branch of these organizations.

ContdDue to this, managerialism is considered as a technical expertise that stresses on the role of the managers of public organizations.

ContdAs argued by Aucoin (1990:118), the term management refers to private sector experience, and the main concern of it is the use of resources to achieve results in contrast to focus of administration on the adherence to formalized processes and procedures

Chapter 6 Public sector PerformanceJackson and Broom et al. (1999) define performance management as a method of measuring the progress of a public programs, projects and activities in achieving the results or outcomes that clients, customers, or stakeholders expect.

Components of Performance ManagementThe specification of clear and measurable organizational objectives.The systematic use of performance indicators to assess organizational output.The application of the performance appraisal of individual employees.The use of performance incentives.Regular review at the end of each planning cycle of the extent to which goals have been achieved.

Types of measuresPublic Sector Productivity is the extent to which the output of goods and services of a specific quality is produced by various public sector agencies using a set of inputs (human resources, machinery and equipment, supplies, etc).

ContdIt is a measured relationship between the quantity and quality of results produced and the quantity of resources required for production.

ContdMeasuring productivity of an organization, program, or individual is particularly problematic in the public sector because of the problem of defining outputs and of quantifying measures of efficiency, effectiveness, and impact.

Contd

It is expressed as a ratio given as:

good/services produced of a given quality ---------------------------------------------- resources (inputs) used

ContdProductivity Growth is concerned with reaching the highest level of output performance with the lowest possible expenditure of resources over time.

Effectiveness Effectiveness represents the degree to which the output performance of an agency achieves specific objectives (i.e., output accomplishment).Show how well a public agency is achieving its prescribed goalsMay include equity or distributional concerns, hence these measures are also called outcome or impact measuresExamples: jobs created per employee hourNumber of error-free tax returns completedNumber of project reports completed per employee hour

Efficiency

Efficiency relates to the degree of economy in the use of resources to achieve the agencys objective (i.e., input usage).compares the resources (e.g., human resources) used by an agency with the output it producesshows how the agencys output changes with the resources being used

Examples:

tons of solid waste collected per employee hourletters delivered relative to the cost of deliveryratio of trained unemployed workers to the number of staff hours usedgallons of water sold per employee hour or labour costs.

Other types of measureOperational-type measureconcern with the internal workings of the agency, that is, the work activity itself rather than its resultsExamples:number of passports received and processed per daynumber of audits planned and completednumber of samples received and tested

Quality as a measure of successAccording to IBM (1991), quality is some thing equal to customers satisfaction. For others quality can not be defined in such a simplistic way. It is a complex concept to define neatly.

Greens views of quality Green (1994) views quality in a wider dimension. He found out five approaches in considering quality.Quality as exceptional(highest standards)Quality as conforming to standardsQuality as fitness for purposeQuality as effectiveness in achieving organizational goalsQuality as meeting customers stated or implied needs

ContdAccording to Lazr Vlsceanu et. al (2004), quality management emphasizes assessment that is undertaken against: (i) defined objectives or standards (set internally or by external bodies); (ii) measures of customer satisfaction; (iii) expert and professional judgment; and (iv) Comparator organizations(benchmarking).

ContdOne may have difficulty in specifying the nature of quality. quality could cover both the content and process of service.Quality covers both these components of a service, and so can be defined in two ways.

The content dimensionThis is called FFP. For the industrial producer the measurement of this is relatively straight for ward.

ContdFFT specifies the characteristics of a quality product in an objective manner. Thus, if a car engine part is not with in say, 1/100 cm of the required standard, it is of poor quality. That is the component is not FFP (fit-for-purpose).

The process definitionThe second definition of quality is not to do with the purpose of a service, but with the process of its delivery. This is more subjective than FFP might be, because it needs the evaluation of the subjective experience of a service by its users.

ContdIt is better to think of this characteristic of quality as having to do with its EIE (excellence in experience).To take an example, if you eat in a restaurant, no matter how good the quality is (how fit for its purpose it is), you might define the meal as a bad experience, because of the rude and poor service that you received.

Moment of truthPerceived quality is realized at the moment of truth, when the service provider and the service consumer confront one another in the arena. At that moment they are very much on their own .What happens then can no longer be influenced by the organization.

Contd In the public services, both these characteristics of quality are important. The service must both be FFP and offer an excellent experience.

Another view of quality

Other writers view quality with slight differences and elaborations. Here, quality is believed to possess several distinct dimensions.

ExampleThe Federal Quality Institute (FQI) in USA identifies primary dimensions of quality and several secondary dimensions.Primary dimensions: reliability, durability, conformance, availability and timeliness (FQI, 1991:2 quoted in Lawrence, 1993:27).

Contd

The secondary dimensions include accessibility, timeliness, consistency, humanness and result (outcome). Some of these dimensions refer to products and services, others to the employees who provide the services and still others refer to the facilities and equipment used in the provision of the services.

Contd Many other scholars agree that service quality can be decomposed into two major dimensions (Grnroos, 1983; PZB (1985). The first dimension is concerned with what the service delivers and is referred to by PZB (1985) as outcome quality and by Grnroos (1984) as technical quality.

Contd The second dimension is concerned with how the service is delivered: the process that the customer went through to get to the outcome of the service. PZB (1985) refer to this as process quality while Grnroos (1984) calls it functional quality.

Quality Measurement SERVQUAL as an instrument of service quality measure.This school of thought believes that quality is the difference between service perception (experience) and expectations. Satisfaction is the difference between the two. Thus, their proposition is formulated as Q= P-E, where:A. Q stands for quality, B. P stands for perception andC. E stands for expectation.

Contd This shows that if ones perception is greater than his expectation, the service rendered is of a high quality.

Attributes of service qualityTangibles include the company's or service provider's physical facilities, equipment, dress of their employees, decor and communication materials.Reliability refers to the ability of the service providers to perform the service accurately and dependably, as promised. Assurance refers to the knowledge and courtesy of the company's employees and their ability to inspire trust and confidence in the customer towards the service company.

Contd4. Responsiveness refers to the willingness of the firm's staff to help customers and to provide the requested service promptly.5. Empathy refers to the ability of the service provider to provide a caring and personalized attention to each customer.

SERVPERF

Critics such as Cronin and Taylor (1992) have responded to the work of PZB, stating that SERVQUAL and the underlying gaps model are conceptually wrong. Likewise, Buttle points out how SERVQUAL fails to draw on established economic, statistical and psychological theory (1996).

ContdThese scholars state that the literatures hesitance to treat perceived service quality as an attitude is one of the key reasons why the theory is difficult to put into operation. Cronin and Taylor (1992) on the other hand, found in their research that service quality is indeed an attitude.

Contd

SERVQUAL recognizes the possibility that the customers familiarity with the service can play a role in setting his or her expectations. While this seems like sound advice, it still does not make up for the scenario where a user, after having 8 of 16 experienced a service of low quality, has lowered his expectations of future service encounters.

ContdThe result might be that management will mistakenly interpret the SERVQUAL scores in the next testing period as a signal that their service quality has increased when, in fact, it is only the customers expectation that decreased. This shortcoming has been identified by other critics such as Buttle (1996).

Contd Based on these findings, Cronin and Taylor (1992) proposed a tool they call SERVPERF. They state that the performance-based scale developed (SERVPERF) is efficient in comparison with the SERVQUAL scale b/c it measures only the perceived service process performance and disregards expected service process level.

ContdThe rationale for doing so is because: a)measuring the customers expected service level before the service is rendered is not always possible, leaving the firm to measure it instead at the end of the service and b) measuring the expected service level after the service has been rendered is inaccurate as the customers expectation, by then, has already been biased by the service rendered.

Chapter 7 Public Administration in Ethiopia 7.1 Public sector Reform As soon as the current government came to power, it started rigorous reforms (first phase reforms from 1991 to 1995) in three fronts:Economic reform from central planning to market economyPolitical reform federalism, regional state creation and fiscal decentralizationconstitutional reform enacting the Ethiopian constitution

7.2 Civil service ReformIn Ethiopia, deficiencies in human resources and institutional capacity as well as deficiencies in working system and process were among the causes constraining administrative efficiency and effectiveness in the public sector.

Contd There were numerous administrative barriers, including excessive documentation requirements, inadequate information on rules and regulations, lengthy registration or ratification periods, redundant and complex formalities, complicated processes requiring multi-level or multi-agency approval and unsupportive attitudes from public employees.

Contd These have typically been reflected in inefficient service delivery characterized by poor working environment and processes,inappropriate conception of the roles and responsibilities of civil service (PMO, 1996). Addressing these deficiencies has thus been a concern of the incumbent government since mid 1990s.

Contd Thus,the government adopted Civil Service Reform Program in 1996 with a focus on five major streams of work: Top Management Systems; Human resource management; Service Delivery; Expenditure Management and Ethics (CSRP, 1996).

ContdThe overall objective of service delivery sub-program is to improve the scale, efficiency, and responsiveness of public service delivery at the federal, regional and local level, empower citizens to participate more effectively and promote good governance and accountability.

Contd The major objectives of CSRPO include: designing and implementing enabling policies and legislative frameworks; building customer oriented service delivery culture; advance modern personnel management systems; promote sound finance and material resources management; and training and development of civil servants.

ContdCSRPO was housed in the then Ministry of Capacity Building which is mandated to coordinate the over all reform program in the public sector.

Contd The reform picked up a momentum in 2001 following national public sector capacity building program (PSCAP, 2008). The national capacity building program comprises fourteen programs of which PSCAP is concerned with six.

ContdThe six priority areas selected under the PSCAP are: (i) Civil Service Reform; (ii) District-Level Decentralization; (iii) Urban Management Capacity Building; (iv) Tax Systems Reform; (v) Justice System Reform; (vi)Information and Communications Technology. PSCAP is intended to accelerate the rate of reform, and increase the scale of transformation in the civil service.