TX Forensic Mental Health Conf. #4 Violence

Violent OffendersViolent Offenders

Anna C. SalterAnna C. Salter

AgendaAgenda

Violent ThinkingViolent Thinking

Lonnie AthensLonnie Athens

Treating Violent OffendersTreating Violent Offenders

Theories of ViolenceTheories of Violence

Loss of ControlLoss of Control

Product of Distorted ThinkingProduct of Distorted Thinking


Impulse ControlImpulse Control

Stop and ThinkStop and Think

Exit Risky SituationsExit Risky Situations


Interviews 20 Violent OffendersInterviews 20 Violent Offenders

Meaning Units = PhrasesMeaning Units = Phrases

Loss of Control Loss of Control

12%12%

(Polaschek et a., 2010)(Polaschek et a., 2010)

Violent SchemasViolent Schemas

Violence is NormalViolence is NormalNo ChoiceNo Choice

Hostile Attribution BiasHostile Attribution BiasSocial StatusSocial StatusSelf ImageSelf ImageVictim Deserved It (Widget Theory)Victim Deserved It (Widget Theory)

Violence is NormalViolence is Normal

Normal for disciplineNormal for discipline

Normal for achieving goalsNormal for achieving goals

Elway: Attacked Officer – Stabbed Elway: Attacked Officer – Stabbed in Headin Head

““I feel like it was justified. The only thing I feel like it was justified. The only thing was my objective wasn’t fully completed. was my objective wasn’t fully completed. But other than that.”But other than that.”

Q. “What was your objective?”Q. “What was your objective?”

A. “To kill him. I wasn’t stabbing him just to A. “To kill him. I wasn’t stabbing him just to be stabbing.”be stabbing.”

Elway: Effect on Victims?Elway: Effect on Victims?

A. “Probably none.”A. “Probably none.”

Q. “Why not?”Q. “Why not?”

A. “Cause none of them are dead or paralyzed.”A. “Cause none of them are dead or paralyzed.”

Q. “So it wouldn’t have any effect?”Q. “So it wouldn’t have any effect?”

A. “I think it will on certain people – like young, A. “I think it will on certain people – like young, someone 14 or probably people who live in an someone 14 or probably people who live in an area where it’s pretty much peaceful and area where it’s pretty much peaceful and nonviolent so it would be strange to see nonviolent so it would be strange to see anything violent.”anything violent.”

ElwayElway

“ “ The rest of us live in a pretty violent atmosphere The rest of us live in a pretty violent atmosphere and it’s pretty normal – anybody who works in and it’s pretty normal – anybody who works in DOC it wouldn’t have any effect unless they’re DOC it wouldn’t have any effect unless they’re dead or paralyzed or give them a big scar on dead or paralyzed or give them a big scar on their face so they have to look at it every day.their face so they have to look at it every day.

So if I attack an officer that’s what I’d try to do, So if I attack an officer that’s what I’d try to do,

so they’re dead or paralyzed or they have to so they’re dead or paralyzed or they have to see it every day and know I did it to them.”see it every day and know I did it to them.”

Hit a Man on a Bike with His Car Hit a Man on a Bike with His Car Just to See What It Would Do to Just to See What It Would Do to

HimHim

““Do I consider myself a criminal? No. Do I consider myself a criminal? No. Basically just doing stuff, just breaking the Basically just doing stuff, just breaking the law.”law.”

Why Not a Criminal?Why Not a Criminal?

““A criminal is one who terminally focuses on A criminal is one who terminally focuses on doing crime. They don’t just think about doing crime. They don’t just think about it on the spur of the moment. Criminals it on the spur of the moment. Criminals plan it more. They scheme. I don’t ever plan it more. They scheme. I don’t ever scheme.”scheme.”

Home Invasion Looking for Drugs:Home Invasion Looking for Drugs:Killed a Man and a 7 Month Killed a Man and a 7 Month

Pregnant Woman – Couple Had No Pregnant Woman – Couple Had No DrugsDrugs

“ “ It was part of the way I was living. It didn’t It was part of the way I was living. It didn’t feel right or wrong. Actually, it didn’t feel feel right or wrong. Actually, it didn’t feel wrong. It felt I was forced to do something wrong. It felt I was forced to do something I really didn’t want to do, but . . . it I really didn’t want to do, but . . . it happened.”happened.”

No ChoiceNo Choice

““She wouldn’t listen to me unless I hit her She wouldn’t listen to me unless I hit her first.”first.”

(Polaschek et a., 2010, p. 87)(Polaschek et a., 2010, p. 87)

No ChoiceNo Choice

““How else was I going to get through to him How else was I going to get through to him that schoolwork was important?”that schoolwork was important?”


Violence is NormalViolence is Normal

Meaning Units Meaning Units

46%46%

(Polaschek et al., 2010)(Polaschek et al., 2010)

Gang MemberGang Member

Q. Do you feel bad about the people you killed?Q. Do you feel bad about the people you killed?

A. I don't talk about that. . . . When the incident A. I don't talk about that. . . . When the incident first took place I didn't have no remorse at all first took place I didn't have no remorse at all because I thought it was the right thing. But I because I thought it was the right thing. But I have thought about it and I think I was wrong for have thought about it and I think I was wrong for what took place on that day.what took place on that day.

Q. Q. How do you know you were wrong?How do you know you were wrong?

A. The situation and the circumstances. Cause I didn't A. The situation and the circumstances. Cause I didn't have to do it. It was all over territory and I had to have to do it. It was all over territory and I had to prove my loyalty. I thought that was right. That's what prove my loyalty. I thought that was right. That's what I had to do to be accepted in the Gangster I had to do to be accepted in the Gangster Disciples. . . . You're the first person I ever said Disciples. . . . You're the first person I ever said anything about it to. . . . It was absolutely wrong. It anything about it to. . . . It was absolutely wrong. It was an utter mistake. was an utter mistake.

““But you have to understand that. You may have But you have to understand that. You may have grown up in a different family. But I grew up Chicago grown up in a different family. But I grew up Chicago where people die every day. In order to be in a where people die every day. In order to be in a certain organization you have to do certain things. certain organization you have to do certain things. And me being brainwashed in that way I had to do And me being brainwashed in that way I had to do that thing. And it protected me. Because I could go that thing. And it protected me. Because I could go to somebody and they would protect me. ‘Hey man, to somebody and they would protect me. ‘Hey man, let's go shoot up those n. . . . Let's take their family let's go shoot up those n. . . . Let's take their family hostage and teach them a lesson.’ That's how I was hostage and teach them a lesson.’ That's how I was taught.”taught.”

““Violent prisoners spoke of violence as a Violent prisoners spoke of violence as a routine occurrence between people that routine occurrence between people that hardly needs explaining and that could be hardly needs explaining and that could be helpful in achieving some personal and helpful in achieving some personal and social goals.”social goals.”


““Violence ‘resolves’ conflicts, ‘persuades’ Violence ‘resolves’ conflicts, ‘persuades’ others to do things, can be exhilarating or others to do things, can be exhilarating or simply make you feel better, and usually it simply make you feel better, and usually it makes others treat you with respect.”makes others treat you with respect.”


Self ImageSelf Image

““I guess when you’re young, you want to I guess when you’re young, you want to be feared, you want to be respected.”be feared, you want to be respected.”

Shot an Officer, a Deputy and Shot an Officer, a Deputy and Escaped from VehicleEscaped from Vehicle

Pride in ViolencePride in Violence

“ “I had a lot of time. I didn’t want to do the time. I had I had a lot of time. I didn’t want to do the time. I had to do something for myself. I tried to help myself. I to do something for myself. I tried to help myself. I owed that to myself to try to regain my freedom. I owed that to myself to try to regain my freedom. I was going to leave the country and never come was going to leave the country and never come back. I was quite young then, compared to what I back. I was quite young then, compared to what I am now and fearless [pride expression] -- intrepid at am now and fearless [pride expression] -- intrepid at that time --and didn’t think the way I think now. I that time --and didn’t think the way I think now. I would be more concerned about my welfare now and would be more concerned about my welfare now and my family – something happen to me what would my family – something happen to me what would they think – then I didn’t consider those things.”they think – then I didn’t consider those things.”

Violent Self ImageViolent Self Image

““I’m a man, and I want to be treated like a I’m a man, and I want to be treated like a man. . . I don’t care who a person is or who man. . . I don’t care who a person is or who they think they are either; they better not play they think they are either; they better not play around with me. I’ll show them who in the hell around with me. I’ll show them who in the hell they’re playing with. They’ll find out fast they they’re playing with. They’ll find out fast they aren’t fucking with any boy when they fuck with aren’t fucking with any boy when they fuck with me. . . I’ve ruined more than one good man in me. . . I’ve ruined more than one good man in my time, and Jack, I’ll do it again too. That’s my time, and Jack, I’ll do it again too. That’s the way I am and that’s the way I’ll be until the the way I am and that’s the way I’ll be until the day I die.” day I die.”

(Athens, 1997, p. 57)(Athens, 1997, p. 57)

““My son was getting into fights at school. So My son was getting into fights at school. So I taught both sons to box after school, so I taught both sons to box after school, so they could defend themselves. I didn’t they could defend themselves. I didn’t want my sons looking like [cowards] or want my sons looking like [cowards] or being walking [being walking [sic]sic] over by every Tom, over by every Tom, Dick, or Harry. Everyone needs respect.”Dick, or Harry. Everyone needs respect.”


Self-Images and InterpretationsSelf-Images and Interpretations

Nonviolent Nonviolent

Occasionally Violent Occasionally Violent

Continually ViolentContinually Violent

Nonviolent Self Image: Aggravated Nonviolent Self Image: Aggravated AssaultAssault

““[My husband] thought I had a lot of sense for my [My husband] thought I had a lot of sense for my age. He considered me a pretty good wife, and age. He considered me a pretty good wife, and he knew that I had enough class for him to take he knew that I had enough class for him to take me anywhere. I was intelligent and a good me anywhere. I was intelligent and a good conversationalist and hostess. . . I felt like a conversationalist and hostess. . . I felt like a lady and wanted to be treated like a lady, but lady and wanted to be treated like a lady, but my husband was getting crazy and then my husband was getting crazy and then embarrassing me in front of everybody behind embarrassing me in front of everybody behind his jealousy.”his jealousy.”

(Athens, 1997, p. 59)(Athens, 1997, p. 59)

Incipiently Violent Sex Images: Criminal Incipiently Violent Sex Images: Criminal HomicideHomicide

““I didn’t care about anything. I let myself go I didn’t care about anything. I let myself go completely. . . I was a bitter and bad-tempered completely. . . I was a bitter and bad-tempered person. . . I felt rejected and like a stupid fool person. . . I felt rejected and like a stupid fool for letting my husband mistreatment. I was for letting my husband mistreatment. I was getting fed up and easily angered by things. I getting fed up and easily angered by things. I made a lot of awful threats to people, but they made a lot of awful threats to people, but they thought it was mostly just big talk. Everybody thought it was mostly just big talk. Everybody thought that I would do little real action besides thought that I would do little real action besides get drunk, scream and cuss, and throw things get drunk, scream and cuss, and throw things at people until I passed out.”at people until I passed out.” (Athens, 1997, p. 58)(Athens, 1997, p. 58)

Violent Self ImageViolent Self Image

““I’m a man, and I want to be treated like a I’m a man, and I want to be treated like a man. . . I don’t care who a person is or who man. . . I don’t care who a person is or who they think they are either; they better not play they think they are either; they better not play around with me. I’ll show them who in the hell around with me. I’ll show them who in the hell they’re playing with. They’ll find out fast they they’re playing with. They’ll find out fast they aren’t fucking with any boy when they fuck with aren’t fucking with any boy when they fuck with me. . . I’ve ruined more than one good man in me. . . I’ve ruined more than one good man in my time, and Jack, I’ll do it again too. That’s my time, and Jack, I’ll do it again too. That’s the way I am and that’s the way I’ll be until the the way I am and that’s the way I’ll be until the day I die.” day I die.”

(Athens, 1997, p. 57)(Athens, 1997, p. 57)

Self-Image/Social StatusSelf-Image/Social Status

Meaning Units = PhrasesMeaning Units = Phrases

20 violent offenders20 violent offenders

57% of Meaning Units57% of Meaning Units

Self ImageSelf Image

(Polaschek et al., 2010)(Polaschek et al., 2010)

Victim Deserved ItVictim Deserved It

(Widget Theory)(Widget Theory)

16-Year-Old After Battery and 16-Year-Old After Battery and Attempted Homicide of Female Staff Attempted Homicide of Female Staff

Member: LeroyMember: Leroy ““It didn’t matter who was in the booth, . . I was It didn’t matter who was in the booth, . . I was

gonna go, and it didn’t matter who was there. I gonna go, and it didn’t matter who was there. I was gonna fight them and take them down. It’s was gonna fight them and take them down. It’s not very hard to take that little puny pathetic staff not very hard to take that little puny pathetic staff down. I’d rather be dead than locked up. .. . I told down. I’d rather be dead than locked up. .. . I told the staff six months ago I was gonna get out no the staff six months ago I was gonna get out no matter what, and when I got out I was gonna strip matter what, and when I got out I was gonna strip them naked and drag their assess down the hall them naked and drag their assess down the hall and put them in that room where they put us.”and put them in that room where they put us.”

LeroyLeroy

Staff alone in boothStaff alone in booth Left booth to make snack for unitLeft booth to make snack for unit His door unlockedHis door unlocked ““Don’t hurt me”Don’t hurt me” Beat her head on floor repeatedly – Beat her head on floor repeatedly –

multiple skull fracturesmultiple skull fractures Stripped her, dragged her 117’ and left herStripped her, dragged her 117’ and left her

LeroyLeroy

““I heard it crack when her head hit. At first it I heard it crack when her head hit. At first it surprised me. I told her to shut up, but she surprised me. I told her to shut up, but she wouldn’t. She cried louder. . . I slammed her dead wouldn’t. She cried louder. . . I slammed her dead down on the floor. I had a limited time to get out of down on the floor. I had a limited time to get out of there. I was running out of time. The guards were there. I was running out of time. The guards were checking every ten minutes. I slammed her head checking every ten minutes. I slammed her head against the floor four more times because she against the floor four more times because she wouldn’t shut up. I was fixing to break her neck. wouldn’t shut up. I was fixing to break her neck. Every time I slammed her head on the floor, I Every time I slammed her head on the floor, I heard her bone crack.”heard her bone crack.”

LeroyLeroy

““She was quiet for a minute after the third time She was quiet for a minute after the third time and I thought that was it, but then she started and I thought that was it, but then she started moving again, so I did it two more times. I moving again, so I did it two more times. I thought she was dead. I didn’t care. I was thought she was dead. I didn’t care. I was gonna kill any staff. It didn’t matter to me.”gonna kill any staff. It didn’t matter to me.”

LeroyLeroy

““Q. Do you know the difference in right Q. Do you know the difference in right and wrong?”and wrong?”

A. “I don’t think about right and wrong. I’m A. “I don’t think about right and wrong. I’m cold-hearted.”cold-hearted.”

LeroyLeroy

Q. “Did you think you were doing anything Q. “Did you think you were doing anything wrong?”wrong?”

A. “No, cause I was thinking I got three A. “No, cause I was thinking I got three minutes to leave before they come.” minutes to leave before they come.”

Impact on Victim: Leroy Impact on Victim: Leroy At sentencingAt sentencing

Headaches every day, sometimes excruciatingHeadaches every day, sometimes excruciating DizzinessDizziness NauseaNausea Permanent loss of smell and tastePermanent loss of smell and taste Neck and back painNeck and back pain Some days couldn’t get out of bedSome days couldn’t get out of bed Couldn’t driveCouldn’t drive Wouldn’t be aloneWouldn’t be alone Nightmares, flashbacksNightmares, flashbacks

Impact on Victim: Leroy Impact on Victim: Leroy

Sensitive to light, noise and motionSensitive to light, noise and motion Left alone for a few hours – locked self in Left alone for a few hours – locked self in

bathroombathroom

Impact on Victims:Impact on Victims:Leroy’s Response Leroy’s Response

““I’m not sure? I’m not going to go off into I’m not sure? I’m not going to go off into the guessing. I only know what they put in the guessing. I only know what they put in the files and none of that has been the files and none of that has been substantiated. . . It’s only her side of the substantiated. . . It’s only her side of the story, the side of the story that they want story, the side of the story that they want to portray. “ to portray. “

Leroy’s ResponseLeroy’s Response

““All this was is battery. I got railroaded.”All this was is battery. I got railroaded.”

Callousness: EthanCallousness: Ethan

Robbed and beat 86 year-old womanRobbed and beat 86 year-old woman

Robbed 74 year-old womanRobbed 74 year-old woman

Impact on Victim: EthanImpact on Victim: Ethan

DeterioratedDeteriorated

Unable to live aloneUnable to live alone

Incoherent within monthsIncoherent within months

Ethan: NarcissismEthan: Narcissism Q. “How do you feel about little old lady deteriorating? “ Q. “How do you feel about little old lady deteriorating? “ A. “She took a deposition. Are you sure it’s him? She A. “She took a deposition. Are you sure it’s him? She

didn’t want to say it was me. She started to waiver. She didn’t want to say it was me. She started to waiver. She was a school teacher. She knew they were going to was a school teacher. She knew they were going to hang me. She didn’t want that to happen. I believe. hang me. She didn’t want that to happen. I believe. She told a story about some horse thieves . . . the posse She told a story about some horse thieves . . . the posse came along and arrested all of them. . . a young boy came along and arrested all of them. . . a young boy was there and they tried to hang him too . . she asked was there and they tried to hang him too . . she asked the detective was this right? That’s the parable she tried the detective was this right? That’s the parable she tried to tell him. I believe it was a message to me. . . I will to tell him. I believe it was a message to me. . . I will always honor her for that as I honor all women.” always honor her for that as I honor all women.”

EthanEthan Q. “She got beaten.”Q. “She got beaten.” A. “Yes, but she resisted. This woman fought A. “Yes, but she resisted. This woman fought

me as hard as anybody could fight. I know how me as hard as anybody could fight. I know how it looks. I was not intending to use any more it looks. I was not intending to use any more force than I needed to. This woman fought me force than I needed to. This woman fought me fiercely. Never for one moment did she admit. I fiercely. Never for one moment did she admit. I was saying, ‘Lady, lady please.’ Yes, she got was saying, ‘Lady, lady please.’ Yes, she got beat but I know in my heart I didn’t do it beat but I know in my heart I didn’t do it sadistically and I didn’t do it any more than was sadistically and I didn’t do it any more than was necessary.necessary.

EthanEthan

““We are in a society that lacks mercy. We are in a society that lacks mercy. They want to punish a guy forever.”They want to punish a guy forever.”

Attacked Officers in JailAttacked Officers in Jail

That incident in the county jail it wasn’t personal. It That incident in the county jail it wasn’t personal. It wasn’t one of those things that officer so and so is wasn’t one of those things that officer so and so is working today – whoever was working – it was going working today – whoever was working – it was going to happen. . . You go into that situation knowing . . . to happen. . . You go into that situation knowing . . . Just like if you go in a robbery with a gun, you don’t Just like if you go in a robbery with a gun, you don’t think you are going to kill someone. But you know think you are going to kill someone. But you know you need to take the gun in the robbery because you you need to take the gun in the robbery because you might need to kill someone. Of course that’s wrong. might need to kill someone. Of course that’s wrong. But you don’t care. Why should I care? That’s why But you don’t care. Why should I care? That’s why you need to get to the point where you care.you need to get to the point where you care.

Shallow AffectShallow Affect

Q. “ Were you ever in love?”Q. “ Were you ever in love?”

A. “I was very much emotionally attached A. “I was very much emotionally attached to all of them in a sense. I don’t want to to all of them in a sense. I don’t want to say I was in love with them because I still say I was in love with them because I still don’t know what love is.”don’t know what love is.”

Shallow Affect (continued)Shallow Affect (continued)

““I exposed myself – I did in some sense – I I exposed myself – I did in some sense – I don’t mean any disrespect when I say this – don’t mean any disrespect when I say this – women – you demand some kind of women – you demand some kind of connection – you hunger for something more connection – you hunger for something more than a mutual friendship. Eventually they wore than a mutual friendship. Eventually they wore me down in the sense that I did tell them me down in the sense that I did tell them certain things but I did this in a way that if they certain things but I did this in a way that if they said something to someone else I would know said something to someone else I would know who said it.”who said it.”

Interaction of Genes and Interaction of Genes and EnvironmentEnvironment

Males with low MAOA activity allele Males with low MAOA activity allele (specific gene)(specific gene)

++

Childhood maltreatmentChildhood maltreatment

Increased antisocial behaviorIncreased antisocial behavior

(Beaver, 2008)(Beaver, 2008)

Genetic Contribution to Violent Genetic Contribution to Violent BehaviorBehavior

½ Variance in antisocial behavior½ Variance in antisocial behavior

Due to genetic factorsDue to genetic factors

( Beaver, 2008; Mason & Frick, 1994; Miles ( Beaver, 2008; Mason & Frick, 1994; Miles & Carey, 1997; Rhee & Wald, 2002) & Carey, 1997; Rhee & Wald, 2002)

Genetics & EnvironmentGenetics & Environment

InteractiveInteractive

(Rowe, 2002; Rutter, 2006; Walsh, 2002)(Rowe, 2002; Rutter, 2006; Walsh, 2002)

Violence Delinquency ScaleViolence Delinquency Scale

How many times past 12 months hurt someone How many times past 12 months hurt someone badly enough to require medical attentionbadly enough to require medical attention

Used a weapon to get something from someoneUsed a weapon to get something from someone

Took part in a group fightTook part in a group fight

(Beaver, 2008)(Beaver, 2008)

Violent AdolescentsViolent Adolescents

3 samples3 samples

Pretrial AssessmentPretrial Assessment

Institutional AssessmentInstitutional Assessment

Assessment Before ReleaseAssessment Before Release

(Lodewijks et al., 2010)(Lodewijks et al., 2010)

Impact of Protective FactorsImpact of Protective Factors

00 1 or more1 or more

Pretrial AssessmentPretrial Assessment

High riskHigh risk 40%40% 6% 6%

Low riskLow risk 1212 6 6


Impact of Protective FactorsImpact of Protective Factors

Institutional AssessmentInstitutional Assessment

High riskHigh risk 8686 54 54


Pre-ReleasePre-Release

High riskHigh risk 7878 33 33



Protective FactorsProtective FactorsAdolescent Violent OffendersAdolescent Violent Offenders

Prosocial involvementProsocial involvement Strong social supportStrong social support Strong attachments & bondsStrong attachments & bonds Positive attitude towards interventionPositive attitude towards intervention

and authorityand authority Strong commitment to school & workStrong commitment to school & work Resilient personalityResilient personality


Which Factors?Which Factors?

Strong social supportStrong social support

Strong attachments to prosocial adultsStrong attachments to prosocial adults

PsychopathyPsychopathy

Adolescent Psychopathy & Adolescent Psychopathy & Violence Violence

Age RangeAge Range HighHigh LowLow

Younger (13 - 15.5)Younger (13 - 15.5) 52%52% 12% 12%

Mid (15.5 - 18)Mid (15.5 - 18) 64%64% 54% 54%

Older (18 - 20.5)Older (18 - 20.5) 48% 48% 33% 33% (Forth, 1995)(Forth, 1995)

High Vs Low Psychopathy High Vs Low Psychopathy AdolescentsAdolescents

10 or More 10 or More

Violent ActsViolent Acts

High PsychopathyHigh Psychopathy 64%64%

Low PsychopathyLow Psychopathy 37%37%

(Forth, 1995)(Forth, 1995)

Psychopathic AdolescentsPsychopathic Adolescents

More criminal actsMore criminal acts More types of criminal actsMore types of criminal acts Earlier age of onset for violent & nonviolent Earlier age of onset for violent & nonviolent

offensesoffenses More likely to have threatened with a weaponMore likely to have threatened with a weapon More likely to commit robbery & arsonMore likely to commit robbery & arson More likely to commit a sexual offenseMore likely to commit a sexual offense

(Forth & Burke, 1998)(Forth & Burke, 1998)

Psychopathic Adolescent Sex Psychopathic Adolescent Sex OffendersOffenders

Threatened moreThreatened more

Used more severe violenceUsed more severe violence

(Gretton et al., 1994)(Gretton et al., 1994)

Adolescent Psychopathy & Adolescent Psychopathy & RecidivismRecidivism

N = 189N = 189

HighHigh LowLow

Nonviolent Nonviolent 66% 66% 27% 27%

ViolentViolent 31% 31% 12% 12%


Adolescent Psychopathy & Adolescent Psychopathy & RecidivismRecidivism

N = 189N = 189

HighHigh LowLow

Months to Months to

RecidivismRecidivism 16 16 2727


Protective FactorsProtective FactorsAdolescent Violent OffendersAdolescent Violent Offenders

Prosocial involvementProsocial involvement Strong social supportStrong social support Strong attachments & bondsStrong attachments & bonds Positive attitude towards interventionPositive attitude towards intervention

and authorityand authority Strong commitment to school & workStrong commitment to school & work Resilient personalityResilient personality


Health & Medicine

TX Forensic Mental Health Conf. #4 Violence