A theory-based framework for

evaluating exergames as persuasive

technology

CCenter for enter for WWireless & ireless & PPopulation opulation HHealth ealth SSystemsystems

UC San DiegoUC San Diego

Exergames

Video games that use exertion-based interfaces.

Platforms include Nintendo Wii, XaviX, Sony EyeToy.

Common games include tennis, bowling, boxing, golf, dance.

Exergames

Games that use exertion-based interfaces

e.g., • DDR• Wii Sports• Wii Fit • Xavix• Gamercize• PC Gamerbike• Eye toy• Shadow Boxing• Plug-ins

Exergames

Exergames

Xavix controllers are shaped like sports equipment.

Xavix

http://www.acefitness.org/getfit/studies/WiiStudy.pdf

““The take-home The take-home message is that imessage is that itt’’s better than s better than sitting aroundsitting around”” Dr. John Porcari.Dr. John Porcari.

Exergame Potential

Promote physical activity

Replace sedentary time

Motor skill development

Provide safe environment for activity

Allow player to engage in sports that have barriers (e.g., elderly can bowl in home)

Background

Games are rich microsuasion environments (Fogg, 2003, Oblinger, 2004; Science, 1/2/2009).

What’s attractive about games? Why does game play decline over time?

Limited understanding of theory-based behavior change principles used in exergames.

Madsen et al. , 2007Madsen et al. , 2007

Study Aims

The proposed study:

Quantifying behavior change principles within a set of games (Phase 1).

Correlating behavior change principles with adolescents’ experiences (Phase 2).

Determining if games with theoretical behavior change principles increase and sustain physical activity in the home setting (Phase 3).

Operant Theory

http://www.flickr.com/photos/kubina/347687569/

Operant/Learning Theory

Antecedent Behavior Consequence

Repeated interaction w/contingencies shapes behavior.

Contingencies within exergames not formally evaluated.

StimuliStimuli StimuliStimuli

Methods and Framework

Aim – to identify and code learning theory principles

Develop operational definitions

Develop coding methods

Lay descriptions of contingencies

Technical analysis of contingencies

Qualitative & quantitative summaries

Behavior

Behavior

Conventional video games - mainly thumb and finger movements.

Exergames - walking, running, sliding, jumping, throwing, and hitting — gross motor skills that are considered the building blocks of complex movement patterns required in many ‘real world’ sports and exercises.

Measureable Dimensions of Behavior

Form – topography of behavior

Frequency - # responses

Rate - frequency/time

Intensity – force of response

Duration – continuous bout of behavior

Latency – time between signal and response

*Games aim to increase or decrease these dimensions using contingencies.

EXAMPLE – XAVIX POWERBOXING

Level Hits Time Rate per second1 20 10 2.00

Rate

Rate

Level Hits Time Rate per second1 20 10 2.002 25 10 2.503 45 15 3.004 55 15 3.675 80 20 4.006 90 20 4.507 125 25 5.008 140 25 5.609 180 30 6.0010 200 30 6.67

Consequences

Persuading with Consequences

Reinforcing Stimuli*Positive Reinforcers Gain points Praise or affirmations Positive sounds (applause, coins) Positive images (thumbs up) Vibrations assoc. w/success Visual effects Advance to the next level Access to special areas/items Add time Improvements in skill Bonus lives

Negative Reinforcers Slow down game Remove obstacles Avoidance of losing Remove built-up columns/rows Decrease opponent’s life force Avoid losing your life force

Aversive Stimuli*Penalties and Punishers Lose points Critical or negative messages

(Failed!) Negative sounds (zaps, boos, other) Negative images (thumbs down) Vibrations assoc. w/failure Visual effects Penalized a level Present obstacles Lose time Lose skills Speed up game

*Meant to be a partial list

Persuading with Consequences

Positive and negative reinforcement increase the probability of behavior.

Penalties and punishment decrease the probability of behavior.

Withholding reinforcement decreases the probability of behavior

Qualities of Consequences

1. Magnitude of reinforcement

White pin = 1 point, Gold pin = 100 points

2. Immediacy of reinforcement

<1 sec in video games. Standardized.

Unlike real life. Not an issue within games.

Qualities of Consequences Cont.

3. Schedules of reinforcement – protocol for determining when responses will be reinforced.

Continuous – every punch is rewarded Fixed schedules – every 5th punch Variable schedules – every 5th punch on average

Variables schedules add unpredictability to games.

4. Differential reinforcement and shaping reinforcing certain responses and not others

EXAMPLE – XAVIX POWERBOXING PUNCHFAST

GAME

•For each punch on the boxing bag, the game presents:-1 point increase- Audible “punching” noise - Visual red halo around glove–bag connection- A shaking screen

 •For each punch that does not hit the boxing bag, the game presents:

- No point increase- No audible sound - No visual halo- No shaking screen

 

EXAMPLE – XAVIX POWERBOXING

PUNCHFAST GAMELevel 1 – 20 punches in 10 sec. (rate = 2 punches/sec.)

If player passes level requirement, the game presents:• Visual text “Succeeded” •“Victory” sound• Applause sound• Gold star for that level• Image of Jackie Chan with his thumbs up saying one of the following comments:

o How can you be so fast handed!?o You are better than I expected.o Cool! Go ahead and make your opponents feel your power.

If the player does not pass the level requirement, the game presents:• Visual text “Failed” • “ernt, ernt, ernt” sound• Gray star for that level• Image of Jackie Chan with either his fists up OR his hands on his head saying one of the following comments:

oTake a deep breath and try one more time.oKeep your punches tight and accurate!oSpeed up!

Antecedents

Persuading with Antecedents

Antecedents Behavior Consequences

Instructions, rules, behavioral modeling, visual or auditory stimuli Teach or demonstrate new behavior

Prompt a response

Signal change in the consequences - Evoke different behavior

CASE EXAMPLE – BEHAVIORAL

MODELING

CASE EXAMPLE – BEHAVIORAL

MODELING

CASE EXAMPLE – INSTRUCTIONS

Actual Play

Contingencies

Each time the player knocks down one white pin, the game: Presents an increment of 120 points (Pos. Reinforcement)

Each time the player knocks down one gold pin, the game: Presents an increment of 240 points. (Pos. Reinforcement) Presents an ‘energizing sound’. (Pos. Reinforcement) Presents “SUPERMODE” (Pos. Reinforcement) Presents music associated with SUPERMODE (Pos. Reinforcement) Decreases game pace (slows down) (Negative Reinforcement) Presents cumulative count of pins (Pos. Reinforcement)

Each time the player knocks down one black pin, the game: Presents “Penalty” (Pos. Punishment) Decrease of 1 ball in stock (Negative Punishment) Presents “do do do” sound. (Positive Punishment) During SUPERMODE (Antecedent - SD) , each time a player knocks down a white pin, the

game: Presents an increment of 150 points Adds more time to SUPERMODE play (resets the time counter) (Pos. Reinforcement) Adds 1 point to the cumulative count of pins (Pos. Reinforcement) Adds 1 point to bonus fraction (when fraction = 1, bonus ball awarded) (Pos.

Reinforcement – FR5)

Layering of Contingencies

Many many contingencies exist

Multiple behavior-consequence relationships

Moment-to-moment

First discrete break in game play

Second discrete break

3ed, etc.

Hierarchy of contingencies based on aggregate behavior

Qualitative Analysis

Term Construct   Details Raw datab topo left jabb topo right jabb topo left hookb topo right hookb rate Increases the rate of punches per second across levels

c pr cr For each punch on the boxing bag, the game presents 1 point increasec pr cr For each punch on the boxing bag, the game presents an Audible “Punching” noise

c pr crFor each punch on the boxing bag, the game presents a red visual halo around glove – bag connection

c pr cr For each punch on the boxing bag, the game presents a shaking screen.c wr dr For each punch that does not hit the boxing bag, the game presents no point increase

KEY: KEY: b = behavior; c = consequence; topo = topography/form; pr = positive b = behavior; c = consequence; topo = topography/form; pr = positive reinforcement; nr = negative reinforcement; wr = withholding reinforcement; reinforcement; nr = negative reinforcement; wr = withholding reinforcement; dr = differential reinforcement; cr = continuous reinforcementdr = differential reinforcement; cr = continuous reinforcement

So What?

Evaluate on EE & Behavior change principles

Which principles used for microsuasion?

Which principles are not used for macrosuasion aim?

1) Low EE High Fidelity 2) High EE Low Fidelity 3) Low EE Low Fidelity / High EE Low Fidelity

Recommendations for other populations:

Parents – which games promote exercise adoption?

PE teachers – which games promote generalization (from simulations to real world)?

Physicians - cardiac rehabilitation – which games promote exercise adherence?

Thanks for your Attention!

CCenter for enter for WWireless & ireless & PPopulation opulation HHealth ealth SSystemsystems

UC San DiegoUC San Diego

Marc.Adams@asu.eduMarc.Adams@asu.edu