CHAPTER 8 ~ PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT AND MENTAL HEALTH

A. THE HEALTHY PERSONALITY

Definition and characteristics of personality

o from Latin term Persona meaning “masks”

o Hi lgard defines personality as: “the arrangement or configuration of individual adjustment to his environment. It i s an a ll-

inclusive term that covers appearances, abilities, motives, emotional reactivity and experiences that have shaped him to his

present person.

o Is the totality of one’s physical or inherited attributes as well as those psychological factors that determine one’s characteristic

behavior

o Involves characteristics like:

1. Phys ical: bodily build, height, weight, texture of the skin, shape of the lips, etc.

2. Mental: range of ideas, mental alertness, ability to reason, to conceptualize, etc.

3. Emotional: one’s temperament, moods, prejudices, bias, emotional responses, like aggressiveness, calmness, etc.

4. Social: relations with other people, likes, dislikes, social responsiveness, co ncern for others, etc.

5. Moral : his positive or negative adherence to the do’s and don’ts of his society, his value systems, moral

principles, etc;

6. Spiri tual: his faith, beliefs, philosophy of life, etc.;

Factors in Personality Development

a. Inherited Predisposition : means that we are only predisposed, through heredity, to develop

patterns of personality which are not set or fixed but which are only tendencies

b. Abi l ities: may be inherited or acquired.

c. Family and Home environment: play a most vi tal role in personality development.

d. Culture: The set-up of families is shaped by cul ture.

Theories of Personality

1. TYPE THEORIES or Constitutional Types – postulate that human subject can profitably be classified into a smaller number of classes

or types :

A. Phys ique (Body Types)

i . William Sheldon (1899) bases his theory on the three layers of tissue in the human embryo – the endoderm,

mesoderm and ectoderm.

a . Endomorphy: tends towards roundness, heaviness and a preponderance of visceral development.

b. Mesomorphy: tends towards s tockiness and good muscular development

c. Ectomorphy: tends towards a long, s tringy, skinny body.

Sheldon believes that he has found evidence that the three basic bodily builds are related to three primary

temperaments l ike:

a . Visceratonia: love of physical comfort, enjoys companionship, eating, deep sleep, relaxation under

a lcohol, orientation toward childhood and family relations.

b. Somatotonia: assertiveness, love of adventure, need and enjoyment of exercise, love or ri sk, physical

courage, indifference to pain, aggressiveness under alcohol, orientation toward youth.

c. Cerebrotonia: restraint in posture, overly fast reactions, hypersensitivity to pain, sensitivity, avoidance

of social contacts, resistance to a lcohol

Note: the average individual is rated 4-4-4. (Each of these temperamental and bodily components i s measured on a 7-point

sca le)

ii . Ernest Kretschmer (1888) – a German psycho-artist. His four types of techniques and their related characteristics

are:

a . Pyknic: rounded full face, short neck, stocky build, short limbs, mood fluctuations and a

tendency to extroversion and manic-depression.

b. Asthenic: thin and angular, introverted and a tendency to schizophrenia

c. Athletic: strong, solid muscular build and comparable introverted tendencies.

d. Dysplastic: characterized by bodily disharmony and temperamentally introverted.

Schizophrenia i s the name for psychotic reactions characterized by withdrawal, disturbances in emotional

and affective l ife, and depending upon the type, the presence of hallucinations, delusions, negativistic

behavior and progressive deterioration.

A manic-depressive psychosis i s a severe mental disorder characterized by cycl ic swings in emotion or mood.

B. Behavior

i . Carl Jung (1875 – 1962) – a Swiss psychoanalyst and founder of Analytical Psychology. He classified personality

types according to the following:

a.) Atti tude types

(1) Extrovert – a tendency to direct the personality outward rather than inward toward the self.

(2) Introvert – orientation inward toward the self; pre-occupied with his own thoughts, avoid

social contacts and tends to run away from reality.

b.) Function Types (based on analysis of the chief varieties of human expression: 1.

Thinking 2. Feeling 3.Senstaion 4.Intuition)

8 principal classes of personality are indicated:

1. Extraverted thinking type – concerned with facts and their classification.

2. Extraverted feeling type – wishes to be in harmony with the outside world and is

able to achieve close sympathy with others.

3. Introverted-feeling type – chiefly concerned with internal harmony and tends to

depreciate the influence of other factors.

4. Sensation – principally influenced by pure pleasure and pain

5. Intuitive types – dominated by indirect judgments or “hunches” , ei ther e xtroverts

or introverts.

Other Assertions:

1. More than one of the four main functions may be important and that an

individual may be extroversive in one function and introversive in another

2. If the “conscious” is extraverted in any one line, the “unconscious” attitude is

introverted and vice versa

3. Al l persons belong definitely to one or another class and these differences are

assumed to be inborn. They can be modified.

C. Phys iology or Body Chemistry

i . Hippocrates (400 b.c) – la id the foundation for the doctrine of temperament based on the humors (fluids) of the

body.

Galen (167 A.D.) – A Greek Phys ician, elaborated on this.

TEMPERAMENTS HUMORS

Quick-strong (choleric)

(easily angered, quick to react) Yel low bile

Quick-weak (sanguine)

(Generally warm-hearted, pleasant,

Had a prominence of blood) Blood

Slow-strong (melancholic)

(suffers from depression and

Sadness, much black bile) Black bile

Slow-weak (phlegmatic)

(l i stless and slow) Phlegm

ii . R.J. Williams (1956) “Biochemical Individuality”. Each person has his own distinctive pattern of endocrine

activi ty. Endocrine activi ty is a kind of endocrine symphony”

iii. Macey, Bateman and Van Lehn (1952). “Individuals may demonstrate quite specific patterns of physiological

response”

2. TRAIT THEORIES

A. Gordon W. Allport (1937 – 1961) Theory of Personal Dispositions

Two kinds of traits:

1) Common Tra its: traits comparable among people and are apparaised by comparing one with another

according to preferred va lues (theoretical, economic, esthetic, social, political, religious)

2) Personal Dispositions: tra its unique for the person.

(a) Cardinal Disposition: characteristics so pervasive influencing all aspects of behavior, i.e.,

“reference personalities”: a sexy individual i s called a Marilyn Monroe; the stronger one, a

Superman etc.

(b) Centra l Tra its: a few traits that centrally describe their personalities, i .e., if someone is described

as being sensible, vivacious, sociable etc.

(c) Secondary Tra its: traits expressing relatively i solated interests or modes of responding, i .e.,

shaving the right side of the face before he left every morning is a particular mode of

responding.

B. Raymund B. Cattell (1905) – American psychologist who formulated the Theory of Surface and Source Traits or the

Factorial Theory of Personality). He defines personality in terms of “what a person will do in a given situation” and believe s

that predictions can be achieved by the identification and measurement, through objective tests and rating scales.

Surface tra its – independent factor loadings identified as fundamental modes of behavior

Surface tra its verified are: a) sizothymia vs . affectothymia; b) general mental ability vs . mental defect c) emotional stability

vs . emotional instability and d) dominance vs . submissiveness

3. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

A. Sigmund Freud’s “Psychoanalytic Theory”

i. Three Divisions:

1. Theory of Personality Structure:

Three basic aspects of personality:

1) Id – the repository of unconscious wishes primarily l ibidinal and aggressiveness; a ll the animal -like impulses the

individual experiences. The urge to kill is an impulse of the Id.

2) Ego – the mediator between the demands of the Id and the outer forces to reality.

3) Superego – this maintains the s tandard of personality. It corresponds to one’s conscience.

2. Theory of Personality Development:

The five psychosexual s tages:

1) Oral - (the first 2 years of life). The infant finds gratification through stimulation of the lips and mouth region as in

sucking and nursing.

2 phases: Oral-receptive phase (involves i ntake of food for body use or pleasure) and the Oral-aggressive phase

(bi ting to represent displeasure)

2) Anal – (Between 12 – 30 months). Toilet training is related to this period.

2 phases: Anal phase (related to tension related to expelling waste) and Retentive phase (related to pleasurable

s timulation from retaining feces)

3) Phal lic (Between the third and sixth year of l ife) – The child demonstrates instinctual attraction for the opposite-sex

parent.

Oedipus Complex – the attraction and fear (son-mother relationship)

Electra Complex – represents the daughter-father relations

4) Latency (period of repressed sexual activity between 6 and puberty) – There is increased activity with the same-sex

peers which corresponds with a decrease in heterosexual activity

5) Genital (stage of normal adulthood) - This s tage is characterized by attraction to opposite sex

Fixation – occurs when there is arrested development or inability to pass to the next stage.

3. Theory of Personality Dynamics – a ims at the motivational and emotional components of personality.

According to Freud, man inherits the life instinct and the death instinct (libido and mortido)

o Li fe instincts – include urges which have to do with the survival of the organism. They derive their energy from the

l ibido – a word meaning all the mental energy available to the individual

o Death instincts – the destructive urges in man

Cathexis – the investment of l ibidinal energy in an idea, memory, object or activity

B. E.H. Erickson and the “Psychosexual Stages”

Eight Stages of Psychosexual Development

Stages (with approximate ages)

Psychosocial crises Radius of Significant relations

Psychosocial modalities

Favorable outcome

I . Birth through first year

II . Through second

year III . Third year through

fi fth year

IV. Sixth to onset of

puberty

Trust vs . Mistrust Autonomy vs . shame,

doubt Ini tiative vs . guilt

Industry vs . inferiority

Maternal person Parental persons

Bas ic family

“Neighborhood”; school

To get To give in return To hold (on)

To let (go) To make (going after) To “make like” (playing)

To make things (competing) To make things

Drive and hope Sel f-control and

wi l lpower Direction and purpose

Method and competence

V. Adolescence

VI. Early adult

VII. Young and middle

adult VIII . Later adult

Identity and

repudiation vs . identity di ffusion

Intimacy and solidarity vs . i solation

Generativity vs . self-absorption Integrity vs . despair

Peer groups and

outgroups models of leadership

Partners in friendship, sex, competition, cooperation

Divided labor and shared household “Mankind” “My Kind”

together To be oneself (or not to be)

To share being oneself To lose and find oneself in another

To make be

To take care of To be, through having been To face not being

Devotion and fidelity

Affi l iation and love

Production and care Renunciation and wisdom

SOURCE: Erickson (1959), p. 166; Erickson (1963), p. 274; s lightly modified from original

4. LEARNING THEORIES

A. Karen Horney’s “Anxiety Theory” (1885 – 1952)

Karen Horney – American psychoanalyst

This theory has i ts central concept, social influences in the development of the child which the child deals with in certain ways forming a pattern of

“neurotic needs”

The neurotic need for affection and approval is developed i f the child learns to cope with anxiety by running to mother for affection and appro val.

B. Alfred Adler’s “Superiority and Compensation Theory”

Ways of Improving Personality

1. Sel f-appraisal – l isting down and evaluating your physical, intellectual, social and emotional traits in terms of

effectiveness, ineffectiveness or partial effectiveness.

PERSONALITY RATING SHEET Excel lent Good Average Fa ir Poor

1. Dress 2. Grooming 3. Physical Vigor 4. Health 5. Posture 6. Mannerisms 7. Facial Expressions 8. Quality of Laughter 9. Intellectual

Alertness 10. Expression of Ideas 11. Qualities of

Leadership 12. Conversation 13. Study Habits 14. Reading Skills 15. Grammar 16. Vocabulary 17. Enunciation 18. Variety of Interests 19. Influence on

Others 20. Sense of Humor 21. Friendliness 22. Cheerfulness 23. Manners 24. Sincerity 25. Loyalty 26. Cooperation 27. Integrity

28. Unselfishness 29. Tact 30. Promptness 31. Poise 32. Self-Control 33. Decisiveness 34. Motivation 35. Realistic Attitude 36. Maturity 37. Dependability

38. Ability to accept criticism

1. Effective regulation of emotional l ife – One must develop a high degree of control over

one’s emotions and not a llowing one’s emotions to control you.

2. Social relations – One should be capable of social intimacy – forming friendships and

participating in social relations that are deeper than mere acquaintances.

3. Work – One must be committed to some form of work that is satisfying as well as

economically good.

4. Love and sex – One must be able to forego personal gratification, even sexual gratification,

to satisfy the loved one.

5. Sel f – One must have a positive regard of one’s self as a distinguished part of the world he

l ives.

6. Phi losophy of Li fe – One should l ive by philosophy of l ife that should give direction to one’s

actuations.

B. CONFLICT, FRUSTRATION, ADJUSTMENT

Frustration – results from the blocking or thwarting of goal-directed behavior resulting in an unpleasant state of tension, anxiety and

heightened sympathetic activity.

-i s a condition in which a course of action cannot be carried out or brought to i ts conclusion for some reason or another.

Frustrating s ituations may be:

1) Social – results from social conditions or those that have to do with relations with people

2) Non-social – arise from conditions beyond your help

3) Personal

4) Internal – occurs in the mind of the person.

Kinds of Conflicts

1. Approach-approach Conflict

Confl ict occurs when two positive goals, both equally attractive, are presented at the same time.

2. Avoidance-avoidance Conflict

The individual is attracted at the same time to two goals which are incompatible to each other.

Two kinds of conflict are likely in this conflict:

a. Vaci llation – as one nears the negative goal, he finds i t increasingle repelling and withdraws. When he does this, he nears the

other negative goal

b. The tendency to run away from the conflict situation

3. Approach-avoidance Conflict

The person is both attracted and repelled by the same goal object.

4. Double-approach-avoidance Conflict

Two goals have both positive and negative signs.

Consequence of Frustration

A. Restlessness and Tension

a . In this manifestation, there is excess movement as the result of homeostatic change generally referred to as “general adaptive

syndrome”

B. Aggression and Destructiveness

a . Frustration always precedes all kinds of aggression

Scapegoat – the person who is the victim of a displaced aggression.

C. Apathy

a . Characterized as indifference, inactivity, inattention.

D. Fantasy

a . The individual tries to seek escape in a dream world of his own creation.

E. Stereotype

a . There is a tendency to blind, repetitive, fixated behavior.

F. Regression

To regress – to move backward and is the opposite of progress

Retrogressive Behavior – the person returns to modes of behavior as in early childhood where in the midst of insecurity, he returns to

behavior characteristic of seeking security

Primitivation – the chi ldish behavior is s imply of a more primitive quality i .e., in solving a problem; a child may result to fist fighting. A gi rl

may turn into hair-pulling

Abnormal Behavior

Viewpoints:

1. Normative View: Anybody who is different from one making the judgment i s said to be abnormal

2. Statistical View: Anybody is abnormal who diverges very much from the average

3. Social Viewpoint: The normal person is the one who is adjusted to his environment, to such an extent that he finds life enjoyable –

and the abnormal one is unadjusted – the one who would like to escape from reality.

4. Generally speaking, the individual i s recognized as normal i f he has some socially acceptable goals around which his activities are

integrated, if he finds the pursuit of his goal worthwhile and if in general, he gets pleasure out of living. The person with no soc ially-

acceptable goals, is at cross-purpose within himself and his group, and doesn’t enjoy life as i t is but tries to shut himself from i t, is

abnormal.

An abnormal behavior is a neurosis or a psychoneurosis, a benign mental disorder characterized by: a) incomplete insight into

the nature of the difficulty; b) conflicts; c) anxiety reactions; d) partial impairment of personality; e) often, but not necessarily, the presence of

phobias, digestive disturbances and obsessive-compulsive behavior.

The classification of psychoneurosis generally includes the following types of behavioral disturbances: anxiety, dissociative

reaction, phobic reaction, obsessive-compulsive reaction, hypochondriasis, neurasthenia and another category which is a “wastebasket” in the

sense that neurotic disturbances not otherwise classifiable can be dumped into i t.

1. Anxiety Reaction: The person is continually uneasy, with secondary complaints l ike insomnia, inability to concentrate, and other

autonomic nervous system signs of chronic disturbance. Anxiety reactions may be: chronic or acute. In the acute anxiety reaction or panic

s tate, the person senses an impending danger without being able to specify i ts nature. In the chronic anxiety reaction, the person has

never developed a reasonably successful defense mechanism for dealing with his conflicts unlike the panic reaction where a previously

successful defense has broken down.

2. Neurasthenia: This is an early classification of anxiety reaction characterized by physical and mental fatigue as well as anxiety.

3. Hypochondriasis: an anxiety about peculiar organic symptoms or sensations.

4. Dissociative Reactions: There are neurotic reactions which include amnesias, fugues, multiple personalities, and somnambulism’s. The

common quality is a dissociation of disturbing memories or thoughts, from the rest of the personality.

a . Amnesia – a condition where the person cannot recall certain past experiences of his life.

b. Fugus States – characterized by a general amnesia for the person’s entire past, including who he is and where he lived

c. Multiple Personalities – i t i s as if several parts of personality have not been successfully integrated so they become separated or

dissociated from each other and the person frequently shifts from one to the other.

d. Somnambulism – certa in thoughts become so strong during sleep as to determine the person’s behavior

5. Conversion Reaction: Here the person suffers from physical symptoms with no organic basis. It could be in the form of anesthesia where

the person does not feel any pain, or even hysterical blindness, deafness, convulsions and inability to ta lk or to swallow.

Cohen, Hilgard and Wendt (1933) – found experimental proof that such disorders had psychological basis rather than

neurological ones

La Bel le Indifference (beautiful indifference) one type of reaction here the patient apparently presents no overt

anxiety over his stress and that he i s simply suffering from some symptom that he wants cured.

6. Phobias: These are reactions characterized by intense and chronic fear of something. According to the Psycho-analytic theory, phobias

are acquired form a shameful impulse or act early in l ife of which had been too ashamed or frightened to talk about and which had been

repressed.

Some of the common phobias are: Claustrophobia – fear of enclosed places; Acrophobia – fear of high places; Zoophobia – fear

of animals or some particular animal; Hydrophobia – fear of water; Misophobia – fear of germs; Thanatophobia – fear of death;

Pathophobia – fear of disease; Photophobia – fear of light; Monophobia – fear of being alone; Agoraphobia – fear of open places, etc.

7. Obsessive-Compulsive Reactions:

Obsession i s a useless or i rrational thought that persists (example: a tune that keeps repeating itself in the mind; or b eing impelled to do

a ri tualistic act like drumming his fingers in some rhythmical pattern)

Compulsions are useless irrational acts which one is impelled to carry out. (Example: the hand washing s tance, stepping over cracks on

s idewalks, doing things by twos, counting the steps of the stairs in regular fashion etc.)

Kinds of Adjustment

Adjustment mechanisms – changes in our environment require adjustment responses.

A. Motives for Adjustment

There are three possible motives to reduce anxiety:

1) His goal-directed behavior is blocked; he i s frustrated.

2) There is a conflict between motives.

3) There is an increase in intensity of a motive.

B. Types of Adjustment Mechanisms

1) Repression – the dismissal from consciousness of a thought or feeling which is too painful to experience or recall.

If we consciously avoid thinking of something, i t is suppression.

2) Projection – instead of accepting an impulse as one’s own, one may attribute it to someone else. This is believed to be the defense mechan ism

of the paranoid individual who believes that others are seeking to injure him when actually, he has injurious thoughts toward them.

3) Identification – This is a defense mechanism by which an individual enhances self-esteem by behaving in fantasy or in actual conduct as if he

were another person – the one with whom he identifies.

4) Reaction Formation – i s concealing a motive by giving s trong expression to the opposite.

5) Rationalization – the process of justifying one’s conduct by offering plausible or socially acceptable reasons in place of real reasons. The excuses

are made up to hide or disguise the true motive.

Rationalization may take two forms:

(a ) Sour-grapes mechanism – pretending to dislike what one really l ikes

(b) Sweet-lemon mechanism – pretending to l ike what one really dislikes

6) Substitution or Compensation – This is l ike the reaction formation but the cover behavior i s an unrelated one rather than the opposite. The

individual replaces specially disapproved activi ties or goals with socially-acceptable ones.

Freud ca lled this Sublimation whereby the unconscious process of the libido or the sex instinct i s transformed into a more acceptable

from as artistic, scientific, social work, religious activi ties and the like.

7) Intellectualization – Here, a person gains detachment from a threatening event in order to remain untouched by it emotionally.

8) Withdrawal or Escape Responses – One from of withdrawal is Negativism characterized by a purposeful rebellion against requests or wishes of

others .

Defense Mechanism: Advantages and Disadvantages

o Success refers to whether or not the self-deception is convincing to the person

o Adaptiveness refers to whether i t aids or harms him in his transactions with the environment

o Defense i s a distortion of reality but i t does not usually succeed in altering the actual ci rcumstances.

Values or Advantages

1) They help us meet the anxiety

2) One may learn new ways of behaving by assuming parts of the observed role of others as in Identification.

3) It may lead to a more consistent and va luable view of one’s self.

4) The resultant behavior may have a potential value as in sublimation or substitution.

Disadvantages of defense mechanisms

1) Defense mechanism usually work to circumvent problems rather than to face them directly; hence, they tend to be self -deceiving

2) Their excessive use may lead to greater personal or social difficulty.

3) The roles adopted may remain unrealistic as in identification or work through the exploits of others as in compensation

4) They do not generally solve the problem which required their use and th erefore are not fully tension-reducing.

C. MENTAL HEALTH AND PSYCHOTHERAPY

Definition of Mental Health

o Is a s tate of good adjustment with a subjective state of well-being, zest for l iving and the feeling that one is exercising his talents and

abi lities.

1. Adjusted – a mentally-healthy person is not unduly distressed by conflicts he handles his conflicts in a realistic manner. He faces and

accepts his problems.

2. Productive – he has spontaneity in work and play. He uses his potential to the full. He does not waste time worrying what cannot be

helped.

3. Zest for living – he has a high energy level and can do hard work with enthusiasm. He is not easily discouraged.

4. Sensitive – he is sensitive of his own needs, motives, potentials and dose not make demands on others . He is able to give and to

receive.

Personality-Appraisal Techniques

1. Personality Inventories – this method requires to answer “yes” or “no” to printed questions or s tatements

MMPI – Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

Sample statements:

1. I do not l ike everyone I know

2. At times I feel like swearing

3. Chi ldren should be taught all the main facts of sex

4. Someone had been trying to rob me

5. I bel ieve in a life hereafter

6. I am troubled by attacks of nausea and vomiting

7. I have been told that I walk during sleep

Val idation Scales:

Hs – Hypochondriasis – abnormal concern for bodily functions D – Depression – mood state of pessimism and depression Hy – Hysteria – using physical symptoms to cover up conflicts

Pd – Psychopathic deviancy – a moral and a social personality disorder Mf – Masculinity – presence of delusional beliefs Pa – Paranoid – presence of delusional beliefs

Pt – Psychasthenia – obsessions, compulsions and abnormal fears Sc – Schizophrenia – withdrawal, delusions, and disorientation Ma – Hypomania – over activity and emotional excitement

2. Projective Tests

a) The Rorschach Ink-Blot Test: consists of ten cards, each displaying a rather complex ink blot.

b) The Thematic Apperception Test requires imaginative s tories about relatively ambiguous pictures of peopl e in situations.

3. Rating Scale

This is a device by which a rater can record his judgment of another person according to the traits defined by a scale.

4. Case History

This is an attempt to summarize and define a person’s personality in terms of his past actions, ancestry, experience, health record, etc.

5. Behavior Tests

This tests individuals in actual situations. Examples of such tests include the behavior test used by Marston (1925) who

s tudied behavior of children in a museum, charting introverted and extroverted behavior in terms of s tops and distances traversed by the

chi ldren.

Parents rated in terms of 1) type of control used (democratic or autocratic), 2) severity of control (degree of control exerted),

and 3) source of control (one or both parents)

6. Free Association and Dream Analysis

In Free Association, the patient is asked to say anything that comes to his mind, occasionally being directed by the therapist by

some questions. In dream analysis, the patient simply tells about his dreams and the therapist analyses them in terms of motivation and

other aspects.

Psychotherapy and Psychotherapeutic Procedures

o Psychotherapy – Appl ication of specialized techniques to treat mental disorders or to everyday problems of adjustment.

Derived from the Greeks, meaning literally “to serve” or “to treat (medically)”

It refers to the application of psychic or psychological methods to remedy diseases or disorders

Sigmund Freud – formulated his Psychoanalytic Theory

Josef Breuer – Freud’s colleague who believes that constitutional weakness is the cause

1. Free Association : a procedure where the patient relaxes, and is allowed to let his thoughts wander as he muses without any apparent

preconceived goal or prodding from the therapist

Three main experiences can be the cause of the patient’s cure:

a) Abreaction or catharsis – when the patient experiences a kind of emotional cleansing because of the free

expression of his feelings.

b) Ins ight – has to do with gradual self-understanding. The patient must understand his feelings and feel what e

understands

c) Working-through - i s a lengthy process of re-education and problem-solving. He learns to face reality, to become

more mature and becomes s tronger to face the threats without anxiety.

2. Cl ient-Centered or Nondirective Therapy: this is the method devised by Carl Rogers and his associates where the task of the therapist is to

provide a warm, pleasant atmosphere wherein to explore his attitudes and feelings.

3. Psychotherapy Based on the Learning Theory

a) Principle of Counter-conditioning – this is a technique whereby maladaptive responses are weakened or eliminated by

s trengthening incompatible or antagonistic ones.

b) The Principle of Reinforcement (Punishment or aversion therapy)

4. Group Therapy: the members of a group, discuss their personal problems under the leadership of a therapist.

5. Psychodrama: this i s a diagnostic and therapeutic technique developed by J. L. Moreno which consists of having the individual act out o n

a s tage his relations with others around whom conflict centers

6. Role Playing: This is a more informal type of psychodrama as is used to prepare patients about to be discharged from hospitals.

7. Family Therapy: The group consists of the patient and the members of his family with whom he interacts.

8. Eclectic Approach: this method utilizes any number of methods discussed.

Eclectic – “coming from various sources”

Prepared by:

Mmbear xoxo