Upload
taniya-thomas
View
57
Download
3
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Taniya Thomas
11699014
LONG TERM MEMORYCapacity, Coding , Retention
Duration, Forgetting and Retrieval of information
CONTENTSCAPACITY
CODING
RETENTION DURATION
FORGETTING
RETREIVAL OF INFORMATION
MULTI STORE MODEL OF MEMORY
“the knowledge of a former state of mind after it has once dropped from consciousness.”(William James,1890)
Amnesic patients – difficulty to form new memories but able to recall the past.
William James (1980)- principles of psychology
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)- 3 stored model
LONG TERM MEMORY
CAPACITY OF LTMvirtually unlimited
amount of information
synapses as a memory measure and put it in a range of equivalent to a million gigabytes (Merkle,1988).
Wilder Penfield- Gave electrical stimulation -brain-conscious patients afflicted with epilepsy- patients sometimes would appear to recall memories from their childhoods- suggested to Penfield that long term memories might be permanent.
EVIDENCES
Did you know?Permastore- refers to
the very long-term storage of information, such as knowledge of a foreign language (Bahrick, 1984a, 1984b; Bahrick et al., 1993) and of mathematics (Bahrick & Hall, 1991).
LTM has a large capacity storage of information
Information's are not available at onceIt can be linked to failure in retrieval of
information.Encoding plays a major role in storage
So, we can infer the following:
Levels of processingExperimental findings by Craik and LockhartPictorical and graphical representation of the
resultsExperimental findings by Alan Baddeley.Fisher and Craik comparison of semantic and
acoustic encodingVisual encoding- a study by frostElaborative encoding theoryACT Model
coding
CODINGIt is the process of placing
information into what is believed to be a limitless memory reservoir which can occur for a specific stimuli as well as for a general stimuli(Patricia Casey, Brendan Kelly, 1985)
Levels of processing (Craik & Lockhart 1972)
departure from the three-stores model of memory
4 questionsYes or no responses
EVIDENCE
Is it capital letter table TABLE
Does the word rhyme with weight crate market
Is the word a type of fish Shark heaven
Does the word fit in the sentence “the man peeled the -------------
orange
roof
a b c d
Graphical representation of the results
Graphemic level
Phonetic level
Semantic level
Elaborative level
Baddeley experiment (1966)
Participants were given 4 sets of words to recall, set A & C being the experimental conditions and B & D the control
Set A acoustically similarSet B acoustically dissimilarSet C semantically similarSet D semantically dissimilar
Words in each list had parallel frequency in language use
Participants were presented with a word and then have to determine whether that word rhymes with another word (acoustic encoding).
For semantic encoding, they have to determine whether that word belongs to a given category or fits into a given sentence.
Performance is greater for semantic retrieval than for acoustic retrieval
Fisher & Craik, 1977
People suffering from schizophrenia often suffer from memory impairments because they do not process words semantically. (Ragland et al.,2003).
in persons with autism, information may not be encoded semantically, or at least, not to the same extent as in people who do not have autism (Toichi & Kamio, 2002).
Did you know?Self reference
effect:high levels of recall when asked to relate words meaningfully to the participants by determining whether the words describe them.
Encoding of information in long-term memory is not exclusively semantic.
Participants in a study received 16 drawings of objects, including four items of clothing, four animals, four vehicles, and four items of furniture (Frost, 1972).
Manipulated visual informationThe drawings differed in visual orientation.Four were angled to the left, four angled to the right, four
horizontal, and four vertical. Items were presented in random order. Participants were
asked to recall them freely. The order of participants’ responses showed effects of
both semantic and visual categories. These results suggested that participants were encoding
visual as well as semantic information. In fact, people are able to store thousands of images
VISUAL ENCODING
elaboration of the trace is assumed to take place simultaneously in the structural, acoustic and semantic domains, rather than in sequence
This theory assumes that any new input will be subjected to several different types of processing at the same time, and that depth of processing depends on the amount of elaboration within each processing domain
elaborative encoding theory (Craik and Tulving, 1975)
ADAPTIVE CONTROL OF THOUGHT MODEL
Proposed by john AndersonAlready learned encoding – match-
execution performance loopDeclarative encoding – storage-
retreival performance loop
GENERATION EFFECTGenerate-Active
production of information
Observed phenomenon that are generated are more likely to recall
Repetition of a set of stimuli over a space of time is more beneficial
ENHANCERS OF ENCODINGSPACING EFFECT
AttentionSemanticsElaborationPersonal interestThreatMotivationEmotional stateContext
Factors affecting encoding
Neurological basisHippocampus- LTM
formation and consolidation
Medial temporal lobe- episodic encoding
Frontal lobe- elaborative processing
CONSOLIDATIONModification of
representationsSleep cycleMedial temporal
lobes
Retention durationHow long?Hermann ebbinghaus CVC trigramForget curve
Bahrick H.P. 1984 A group of people who studied Spanish in their life
3-6 yrs after class drastic loss 6-30 years after class no loss 30-35 years after the class a little loss of
information
RETENTION DURATION OF SEMANTIC MEMORY
1. Information in long term memory if not rehearsed , decay occurs
2. Residual amount is intact3. The final loss could be of some cognitive
deficits due to aging
conclusions
Maintenance rehearsalElaborative rehearsal
REHEARSAL
FORGETTING
DECAY THEORYRefer to Hermann
Ebbinghaus studyMemory traces decay Trace is a physical or
chemical change in nervous system
Interference theoryInterruption by
previously learned or newly learned material
Proactive and retroactive interference
Retreival failure theoryInformation is in the
long term but cant be accessed
Retrieval cue is absent
Cue can be external or internal
principle of categorization This states that material organized into categories or
other units is more easily recalled than information with no apparent organization.
Bousfield (1953) presented participants with a list of 60 words. The words came from four categories—animals, names, professions, and vegetables
presented in scrambled order. participants recall the words in an organized fashion.even if the material doesn’t have apparent
organization, asking people to organize it into their own subjective categories improves recall (Mandler, 1967).
RETREIVAL OF INFORMATION
BANK
ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE
BANK
Context dependent memoryGodden and Baddeley (1975)presented lists of 40 unrelated words to 16 scuba
divers, all wearing scuba gear. Divers learned some of the lists on the shore and the
others 20 feet under water. They were later asked to recall the words either in
the same environment where they were learned or in the other environment.
Results showed that recall was best when the environment was the same as the learning environment.
State dependent retrievalMaterial learned while someone is chemically
intoxicated (for example, by alcohol or marijuana) is usually recalled better when the person recreates that state (J. E. Eich, 1980)
Mood dependent retrievalBower (1981) claimed that a person would
recall more information if he or she were in the same mood at recall time as at encoding time
Cue overloadThe basic principle here is that a retrieval cue
is most effective when it is highly distinctive and not related to any other target memories.
For example, we all remember dramatic, unusual events better than we do routine events
Capacity of LTMEncoding of LTMRetention duration of LTMForgettingRetrieval of information
SUMMARY
Goldstein, E. Bruce. (2011, 2008). Cognitive Psychology connecting mind, research, and everyday experience. (3rd ed.). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.
Sternberg, Robert. .J., Sternberg, Karin. & Mio, Jeff. . (2012, 2009). Cognitive Psychology. (6th ed.). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.
Galotti, K. .M. . (2008, 2004). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory. (4th ed.). United States of America: Thomson Wadsworth.
Matlin, M. .W. . (2009). Cognition. (7th ed.). United States of America: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Riegler, B. R., Riegler, G. L. R. (2008). Cognitive Psychology Applying the Science of the Mind. (2nd ed.). India: Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd.
REFERENCES