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Communication
There are 3 elements in this exchange, and all must be present:1. Message
2. Message must be expressed
3. Message must be understood
Speech and Language
Speech is the motor act of communicating by articulating verbal expression
Language is the knowledge of a symbol system used for interpersonal communication.
Phonology
The ability to produce and discriminate the specific sounds of a given language.
Its unit, the phoneme, is characterized by distinctive features.
Babies start discriminating phonemes during the first few months of life, and they produce them soon after.
Phonology
Phonological receptivity is pluripotential at birth
Starts to decay at around 10 months Reaches a rather general inability to
acquire native phonology by preadolescence
Grammar
The underlying rules that organize any specific language.
The combinatorial rules that most native speakers of a language recognize as acceptable for that language and that allow a native speaker an infinite array of generative possibilities.
Lexicon
Lexical entries are organized in the mental dictionary according to well-defined rules
Allows the young child to acquire a peak average of 10 new words per day.
By 24 months the average child knows 50 words.
Lexicon Growth
The subsequent exponential growth makes it difficult to determine vocabulary size with exactitude.
Environmental factors predicting large vocabularies Reading and discussing children's stories The quality of dinner table conversations Large mother-produced number of words Higher socioeconomic status (SES) Being the firstborn ( Hoff-Ginsberg, 1998 ) Quantity and sophistication of mother's
vocabulary ( Snow, 1998 ).
Sub domains of Pragmatics
Rules of conversation (turn-taking, topic maintenance, conversational repair)
Politeness Narrative and extended discourse The implementation of communicative
intents
Pragmatic disorders
Little variety in language use May say inappropriate or unrelated
things during conversations May tell stories in a disorganized way Can often make demands, ask
questions, and greet people Has trouble organizing language to talk
about what happened in the past.
Pragmatic disorders
Appear to pull topics out of the air May not use statements that signal a
change in topic, such as "That reminds me."
Peers may avoid having conversations with such a child.
Can lower social acceptance.
Language Developmental Trajectory
Canonical Babbling
Word comprehension
Word production
Word combinations
Telegraphic speech
Continue…..
By age 3, most normal children have mastered the basic structures of their native language
Language acquisition
Occurs with uniformity and rapidity Supports the hypothesized existence of
innate, genetically determined Universal Grammars
Recently proposed a combination of traditional learning and innate language modules.
Disfluencies in Children
Almost all children go through a stage of frequent disfluency usually between the ages of 2 and 5.
Speech is produced easily in spite of the disfluencies.
Etiology of Speech & Language Disorders
Mental retardation Hearing loss Maturation delay
(developmental language delay)
Expressive language disorder (developmental expressive aphasia)
Bilingualism Psychosocial
deprivation Autism Elective mutism Receptive aphasia Cerebral palsy
Overview of major types of speech disordersspeech disorders
Definitions vary, but generally agree that speech disorders involve deviations of sufficient magnitude to interfere with communication.
They draw attention to the speaking act and away from the message
1. Fluency Disorders
Speech is characterized by repeated interruptions, hesitations, or repetitions
Stuttering is by far the most well-known fluency disorder
1. Stuttering
Flow of speech is abnormally interrupted by repetitions, blocking, or prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases
Very familiar, but actually quite rare – only 1-5% of the population.
Articulation disorders actually occur much more frequently than stuttering
Stuttering -- Causes
Still a mystery Three perspectives:
1. Symptom of emotional disturbance
2. Result of biological makeup
3. Learned response
Stuttering
Disorder of speech fluency that interrupts the forward flow of speech. All individuals are disfluent at times Differentiated by the kind and amount of
the disfluencies
Characteristics-Repetition
Sounds b-b-b-ball
Syllables mo-mo-mommy
Parts of words basket-basket-basketball
Whole words, and phrases
Characteristics
Tense pauses, hesitations, and/or no sound between words
Speech that occurs in spurts as the child tries to initiate or maintain
voice
Variability in stuttering behavior depending on the speaking situation
Related behaviors
tense muscles in the lips, jaw, and/or neck
tremor of the lips, jaw, and/or tongue foot tapping eye blinks head turns
2. Articulation disorders
This is the largest category of all speech problems
DSM-IV calls these “phonological disorders.”
“abnormal speech-sound production, characterized by inaccurate or otherwise inappropriate execution of speaking”
2. Articulation disorders
Great majority are functional articulation disorders
Might represent as much as 80% of the speech disorders diagnosed by speech clinicians
Must be very careful to distinguish true problems from delay.
E.g., r, s, th problems may largely disappear naturally after 5 years of age
3. Voice disorders
Unusual or abnormal acoustical qualities in the sounds made when a person speaks
Very little research here What is a “normal” sounding voice? Nasality, hoarseness, breathiness
4. Delayed speech
Failure to develop speech at the expected age
Somewhat subjective Usually associated with other
maturational delays May also be associated with a hearing
impairment, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, or brain injury
Often the result of environmental deprivation
Epidemiology of Speech Delay
Common childhood problem Affects 3 to 10 percent of children. 3-4X more common in boys than in
girls.
Overview of major types of language disorderslanguage disorders
Need to understand normal language and prelanguage development
See Table 10.1 on 320 May involve comprehension
(understanding) or expression in written or spoken language
These are very complex to diagnose and treat
Language disordersLanguage disorders
1. Expressive language disorders
2. Receptive language disorders
3. Aphasia – loss of the ability to speak or comprehend language because of an injury or developmental abnormality in the brain
EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE DISORDER
(developmental expressive aphasia)
Fail to develop the use of speech at the usual age.
EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE DISORDER
Normal intelligence Normal hearing Good emotional relationships Normal articulation skills. Comprehension of speech is
appropriate to the age of the child
EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE DISORDER
Brain dysfunction that results in an inability to translate ideas into speech.
EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE DISORDER
The child is at risk for language-based learning disabilities (dyslexia).
May use gestures to supplement their limited verbal expression .
Maturation Delay vs. Expressive Language Disorder?
The late bloomer will eventually develop normal speech
The child with an expressive language disorder will not do so without intervention.
Maturation Delay vs. Expressive Language Disorder?
It is sometimes difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish at an early age a late bloomer from a child with an expressive language disorder.
BILINGUALISM
A bilingual home environment may cause an apparent temporary delay in the onset of both languages.
BILINGUALISM
The bilingual child's comprehension of the two languages is normal for a child of the same age.
Usually becomes proficient in both languages before the age of five years.
Interference or transfer
An English error due to the direct influence of the primary language structure.
This is a normal phenomenon
Silent period
Common second-language acquisition phenomenon
Often very quiet, speaking little Focus on understanding the new
language The younger the child, the longer the
silent period tends to last.
Benefits of Bilingualism
Children who are fluent bilinguals actually outperform monolingual speakers on tests of metalinguistic skill.
Benefits of Bilingualism
Our world is shrinking and business becomes increasingly international
Children who are fluent bilingual speakers are potentially a tremendously valuable resource for the U.S. economy.
Language Disorders
Egyptians reported speech loss after blow to head 3000 years ago
Broca (1861) finds damage to left inferior frontal region (Broca’s area) of a language impaired patient, in postmortem analysis
Language Disorders
In language disorders 90-95% of cases, damage is to the left
hemisphere 5-10% of cases, to the right hemisphere
Wada test is used to determine the hemispheric dominance Sodium amydal is injected to the carotid artery First to the left and then to the right
Language Disorders Paraphasia:
Substitution of a word by a sound, an incorrect word, or an unintended word
Neologism: Paraphasia with a completely novel word
Nonfluent speech: Talking with considerable effort
Agraphia: Impairment in writing
Alexia: Disturbances in reading
Three major types of AphasiaRosenzweig: Table 19.1, p. 615
Borca’s aphasia Nonfluent speech
Wernicke’s aphasia Fluent speech but unintelligible
Global aphasia Total loss of language
Others: Conduction, Subcortical, Transcortical Motor/Sensory (see also Kandel, Table 59-1)
Broca’s AphasiaBrodmann 44, 45
Lesions in the left inferior frontal region (Broca’s area)
Nonfluent, labored, and hesitant speech Most also lost the ability to name persons or
subjects (anomia) Can utter automatic speech (“hello”) Comprehension relatively intact Most also have partial paralysis of one side of
the body (hemiplegia) If extensive, not much recovery over time
Wernicke’s AphasiaBrodmann 22, 30 Lesions in posterior of the left superior
temporal gyrus, extending to adjacent parietal cortex
Fluent speech But contains many paraphasias
“girl”-“curl”, “bread”-“cake” Syntactical but empty sentences Cannot repeat words or sentences Unable to understand what they read or hear Usually no partial paralysis
Wernicke-Geschwind Model1. Repeating a spoken word
Arcuate fasciculus is the bridge from the Wernicke’s area to the Broca’s area
Wernicke-Geschwind Model2. Repeating a written word
Angular gyrus is the gateway from visual cortex to Wernicke’s area
This is an oversimplification of the issue: not all patients show such predicted behavior (Howard,
1997)
Sign Languages Full-fledged languages, created by hearing-
impaired people (not by Linguists): Dialects, jokes, poems, etc. Do not resemble the spoken language of the same
area (ASL resembles Bantu and Navaho) Pinker: Nicaraguan Sign Language Another evidence of the origins of language (gestures)
Most gestures in ASL are with right-hand, or else both hands (left hemisphere dominance)
Signers with brain damage to similar regions show aphasia as well
Signer Aphasia
Young man, both spoken and sign language: Accident and damage to brain Both spoken and sign languages are affected
Deaf-mute person, sign language: Stroke and damage to left-side of the brain Impairment in sign language
3 deaf signers: Different damages to the brain with different
impairments to grammar and word production
Spoken and Sign Languages
Neural mechanisms are similar fMRI studies show similar activations for
both hearing and deaf But in signers, homologous activation
on the right hemisphere is unanswered yet
Dyslexia Problem in learning to read Common in boys and left-handed High IQ, so related with language only Postmortem observation revealed anomalies
in the arrangement of cortical cells Micropolygyria: excessive cortical folding Ectopias: nests of extra cells in unusual location
Might have occurred in mid-gestation, during cell migration period
Acquired Dyslexia = Alexia Disorder in adulthood as a result of
disease or injury Deep dyslexia (pays attn. to wholes):
“cow” -> “horse”, cannot read abstract words
Fails to see small differences (do not read each letter)
Problems with nonsense words Surface dyslexia (pays attn. to details):
Nonsense words are fine Suggests 2 different systems:
One focused on the meanings of whole words
The other on the sounds of words
Electrical Stimulation
Penfield and Roberts (1959): During epilepsy surgery under local anesthesia to locate cortical language areas, stimulation of: Large anterior zone:
stops speech Both anterior and posterior temporoparietal cortex:
misnaming, impaired imitation of words Broca’s area:
unable comprehend auditory and visual semantic material,
inability to follow oral commands, point to objects, and understand written questions
Studies by Ojemann et al. Stimulation of the brain of an English-Spanish
bilingual shows different areas for each language
Stim of inferior premotor frontal cortex: Arrests speech, impairs all facial movements
Stim of areas in inferior, frontal, temporal, parietal cortex: Impairs sequential facial movements, phoneme
identification Stim of other areas:
lead to memory errors and reading errors Stim of thalamus during verbal input:
increased accuracy of subsequent recall
Williams Syndrome Caused by the deletion of a dozen genes from
one of the two chromosomes numbered 7 Shows dissociation between language and
intelligence, patients are: Fluent in language But cannot tie their shoe laces, draw images, etc.
Developmental process is altered: Number skills good at infancy, poor at adulthood Language skills poor at infancy, greatly improved in
adulthood
Lateralization of the Brain
Human body is asymmetrical: heart, liver, use of limbs, etc.
Functions of the brain become lateralized
Each hemisphere specialized for particular ways of working
Split-brain patients are good examples of lateralization of language functions
Lateralization of functions(approximate)
Left-hemisphere: Sequential analysis
Analytical Problem solving
Language
Right-hemisphere: Simultaneous analysis
Synthetic Visual-Spatial skills
Cognitive maps Personal space Facial recognition Drawing
Emotional functions Recognizing emotions Expressing emotions
Music
Split-brain
Epileptic activity spread from one hemisphere to the other thru corpus callosum
Since 1930, such epileptic treated by severing the interhemispheric pathways
At first no detectible changes (e.g. IQ) Animal research revealed deficits:
Cat with both corpus callosum and optic chiasm severed
Left-hemisphere could be trained for symbol:reward
Right-hemisphere could be trained for inverted symbol:reward
Left vs. Right Brain Pre and post operation studies showed that:
Selective stimulation of the right and left hemisphere was possible by stimulating different parts of the body (e.g. right/left hand):
Thus can test the capabilities of each hemisphere
Left hemisphere could read and verbally communicate Right hemisphere had small linguistic capacity:
recognize single words Vocabulary and grammar capabilities of right is far less
than left Only the processes taking place in the left hemisphere
could be described verbally