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Chapter 7Part II
Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood
2
Temperament
• Temperament is an individual’s behavior style and way of responding to the world
• Temperament is influenced by genetics (nature) and interactions (nurture)
• Although considerable evidence indicates temperament is consistent across development, it does not always follow a predictable course
3
Temperament Types
• The nine characteristics of temperament according to Thomas and Chess:
6. Intensity of Reaction
7. Threshold of Reaction
8. Distractibility
9. Quality of Mood
1. Activity Level
2. Rhythmicity
3. Approach-withdrawal
4. Adaptability
5. Attention span
4
Temperament Types
• The six reliable and nonoverlapping temperamental constructs according to Mary Rothbart and colleagues:
4. Activity level
5. Attention span/persistence
6. Regularity
1. Fearful distress
2. Anger/frustration
3. Positive affect
5
Goodness of Fit
• The match between a child’s temperament and the demands of his/her environment– Environment may include family, school, child-care
setting
• Because caregivers cannot change or determine the child’s temperamental style, caregiving styles need to be molded around the child’s temperament
6
Temperament – Thomas and Chess
• The three temperament types include:
– Easy, flexible• Behave predictably and respond positively to new situations
– Difficult• Irregular in schedules and bodily functions, slow to adapt to
change, cry longer and louder than other infants, and generally wary of new people or situations
– Slow-to-warm• Active but initially do not respond well to new situations or people
7
Temperament
• Temperament theorists believe that temperament has a profound influence on the course of an individual’s development
• Children’s development of conscience and morality also may be related to temperament
• Temperament influences how children respond to their caregivers’ efforts of socialization
• The perception of temperamental qualities in an infant is influenced by cultural factors
8
Attachment
• An enduring emotional tie characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a specific figure (the attachment figure) particularly under conditions of stress
• Attachment Theory– based on the work of John Bowlby and Mary
Ainsworth– Places great emphasis on the caregiver-child
relationship as a foundation for individual differences
9
Attachment Theory
• Attachment is distinct from bonding, which generally refers to the caregiver’s tie to the infant
• Infants use the attachment figure as a base from which they attend to, learn about, and explore their world
10
Attachment Theory
• Through attachments, children develop an internal working model
• The internal working model– Child’s general expectations of their own worthiness
and the availability of others– It serves as a model for future relationships– Children differ in the quality of their internal working
models
11
The Development of Attachment
• Preattachment Phase
• Attachment-in-the-Making Phase
• Clear-Cut Attachment Phase
• Stranger Anxiety
• Separation Anxiety
12
Phases of Attachment
• Preattachment Phase – Birth to 8 weeks– Infants rarely protest when caregivers leave
– Do not distinguish among the various caregivers who attend to them
• Attachment-in-the-Making Phase – 2 to 6 months– Infants may recognize caregivers
– Respond with delight and pleasure
– Do not show these responses to strangers
– Attachment is not fully developed
13
Phases of Attachment
• Clear-Cut Attachment – 7 to 12 months– Stranger anxiety emerges
• Wary and fearful reaction to strangers
– Separation Anxiety also emerges• Reflected in an infant’s negative protests that accompany
separation from the attachment figure• Usually peaks between 12-18 months
14
Assessing Attachment
• Harlow’s Experiment– Infant monkeys were fed on wire or cloth-covered
mother substitutes
– His findings indicated the infant monkeys showed a clear stronger attachment to the cloth substitute
– The findings suggest physical contact may contribute to attachment
Click on the picture to watch a short video on Harlow’s Experiment
15
Assessing Attachment:The Strange Situation
• Mary Ainsworth and colleagues– Developed the Strange Situation– Participants involved:
• Caregiver• Infant between 11 and 18 months of age • Adult stranger
– Eight three-minute episodes involving three sequences:
• Exploration• Separation• Reunion
Click on the picture to view a short video on the Strange Situation
16
Secure Attachment
• Pattern in which infants use their attachment figures as a secure base, obtaining comfort from their presence and becoming distressed by their absence
• Involves – High levels of exploration
– Positive affective exchanges between caregiver and child
– Effective soothing of distress
17
Avoidant Attachment
• Pattern characterized by conspicuous avoidance of contact or interaction with the caregiver
• Involves– High levels of exploration– Low levels of overt distress at separation– Avoidance of caregiver upon reunion
18
Ambivalent Attachment
• Pattern characterized by inconsistent behavior towards a caregiver
• Involves– Low levels of exploration– Intense separation distress – A mix of anger and distress at reunion– Failure to settle quickly at reunion
19
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
• Pattern characterized by a lack of a coherent strategy for handling separation from and reunion with a caregiver
• Involves – Inconsistent behaviors
– Disorganized strategies
• These children are at risk for adjustment problems
20
Factors Affecting Attachment: Caregiver Sensitivity
• Sensitive caregiving is an important predictor of the development of secure attachment
• Synchrony– The degree to which caregiver’s and baby’s
behaviors occur together and are coordinated to produce a state of mutual enjoyment and engagement
21
Factors Affecting Attachment:Infant Characteristics
• Certain characteristics shape the behavior of caregivers– E.g., cuddly infants foster caregiver sensitivity
• Some infants are at risk because of their characteristics– E.g., blind or deaf infants do not respond in typical
ways, which can impede attachment
22
Culture and Attachment
• Attachment is influenced by culture– E.g., in Japan, where
contact and dependency are valued, there are no avoidant infants
D. Greco/Image Works
23
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Consequences of Attachment
• Children with secure attachment– Have better social skills
– Tolerate frustration better
– Express a wide range of emotions
– Approach situations with interest and pleasure
– Follow directions well
– Show a bias for remembering positive events
25
Attachment to Fathers
• There are wide individual differences in involvement in fathers
• Fathers serve as attachment figures in the same manner that mothers do
• How fathers play with their infants appears to be a key feature– Interact as playmate as opposed to protector,
comforter, or care provider
26
Day Care
• Patterns of Day Care Use
• Effects of Day Care
• Guidelines for Quality Day Care
• Culture and Day Care
27
Patterns of Day Care Use
• About 60% of mothers in the U.S. work outside the home
• More than half of all mothers with infants under age 1 work
• Most infants are cared for by relatives
• Mothers who work full-time are more likely to use day care centers or non-relatives
28
Patterns of Day Care Use
• Ethnic differences– African American children are more likely to be cared for
in center-based programs
– Latino children are more likely to be cared for by family members
– Caucasian children are more likely to be cared for by nannies
• These differences reflect income, access to child care arrangements and cultural values
29
Patterns of Day Care Use
• Most child care facilities are privately owned and operated
• Requirements for standards of care are minimal
• The following guidelines should be used to judge a program’s quality: – Safety
– Adult/child ratios and group size
– Staff training and program
– Curriculum
30
Effects of Day Care
• There are contradictory conclusions– Day care may benefit low and middle-class children
– High quality day care may have positive effects on intellectual and verbal development
– Day care may increase aggression and decrease compliance
– Poor quality day care may affect attachment adversely