FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE STUDIES

MPA-602 PUBLIC POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION

STUDENT NAME: SOLOMON SAMUEL ADETOKUNBO

STUDENT NUMBER: 201502535

LECTURE: DR. BASHI MOTHUSI

TERM-PAPER TITLE

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POLICY ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION

The saying, “he who pays the piper dictates the tune” is a true statement in the public policy-

making arena across the globe. The policy theatre is a space filled with plethora of actors who

wield uneven power and have lopsided influence that determines the course or direction a policy

heads.

Over the last decade, the system of government in developed and developing countries has

steadily changed, with more focus being placed on setting strategic directions through policy

formulation and implementation to actively engage stakeholders e.g. Sustainable Development

Goals (United Nations), Agenda 2063 (Africa Union) Transformation Agenda Vision 2020

(Nigeria) etc.

Public policies in most developing countries are characterized by poor public participation and

are never subject to referendum or opinion poll; even if they were the public are not adequately

informed. This makes the whole process effortless and inconclusive, leading to a state of wastage

in public resources and eventual change in policy.

The public policy environment is characterized by a dynamic and complex structure as a result of

the divergent interests of actors. It is on this basis, the term paper examined how social,

economic and political milieu under which policies are borne affects policy, factors and actors

This paper discusses socio-political and economic milieu under which policies are borne as well as factors

and actors that influence policies. The submission of this paper is that the political actor especially the

executive have a suppressing Influence over all other policy actors and stakeholders. Amongst other factors

that affect wider public participation in Nigeria policymaking are gender inequality, elitist control, parochial

political culture etc.

1

who have influence over emergent policy in Nigeria and the elements that affects wider public

participation in policy making.

The paper is outlined in four sections, the introduction which presents an overview of public

policy process followed by the concept of public policy and the processes that it entails; closely

Followed is public policy in Nigeria considering the social, economic and political facets of

public policy making and the actors who control the various facets. Factors that impede and

allow for wider participation was discussed before drawing a conclusion to the paper, the

argument of this paper is based on the elitist nature of the Nigerian society which limits public

participation and marginalizes a large share of the population from contributing their quota

towards public policy making in the Country. The researcher ended the study recommending a

Constitutional and legislative framework on public participation in order to encourage and

increase wider participation in Public Policy making

CONCEPT OF PUBLIC POLICY

Public policy as a concept does not have a single definition attached to it; just as there exist

multiplicity of actors in the theater of public policy so also do we have various definitions of

public policy conceptualized by different scholars

Robert and Clark (1982, p.121) defined public policy from ‘goal attainment’ and power

configuration point of view. According to the duo, public policy making process refers to:

Series of steps taken by a government to solve problems, make decisions, allocate

resources or values, implement policies and in general to do the things expected of them

by their constituencies. (Robert and Clark, 1982, p.121)

Unfortunately this definition is not operationalized in most countries of the world especially the

developing Countries. What is obtainable is decision making by a few elite carried out outside

the ruling of the constitution and forced on the public. Baker (1975, p.15) defines policy as “a

mechanism employed to realize societal goals and to allocate resources”. Public policy is a 2

means of meeting the yearnings and need of the public, by putting actionable measures in place

to solve problems and challenges the public faces.

According to Geurts (2011 p.7), four phases make up the public policy process, they are:

initiation, formulation, implementation and the evaluation stage. Public policy starts with agenda

setting and ends with evaluation to properly assess whether the policy achieved its goals and

stated objectives.

The policy making process is carried out by policy makers who are also referred to as actors;

they include: politicians, civil servants, lobbyists, advisors, auditors, etc.

The political system obtainable in any country will determine the type of public policies that will

be formulated. Under a dictatorship form of government, policies formulated will be in the

interest of the leader while in democratic settings public policies are often formulated in the best

interest of the citizen. This cannot be said to be practical in many developing countries in Africa

practicing democracy, policies made often end up in the best interest of the elite class.

In a democratic system, the role played by politicians and public office holders in agenda setting

is what leads to public policy (Jenkins, 1978, p.79). In essence public policy can be described as

sets of decisions carried out by individual political actor or group of actors towards the selection

of goals and how to go about achieving them under a condition where those decisions should in

principle be within the power of those actors

PUBLIC POLICY PROCESS IN NIGERIA

Federalism in Nigeria dates back to the colonial era, when Nigeria was under the British Colony

and the country was reorganized into a federation of three regions (North, East and West) in

1946. There was a departure from this during the Military era, since the transition to Democratic

system of government on May 29, 1999, Nigeria has since then operated a Federal system of

government modeled in a similar way like the present system of government in the United States.

3

The dominant feature of policy-making process in Nigeria is the principle of Federal supremacy.

(Philip & Peter, 2013, p.60). Section 2 subsection 2 of the 1999 Constitution of Nigeria states

that, “The Federal Government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are equal and

adequate opportunities at all levels.” (Nigerian Constitution, 1999). This empowers the Federal

Government to provide overall direction in the policy process (formulation to evaluation stage).

Politics in Nigeria has been perceived by many, most especially the politicians as a winner takes

all game; this has resulted into a political competition that has been marked by political violence

and abandonment of legitimacy norms. The implication of this for the policy environment is that

formal institutions and rules are often undermined leading to the marginalization of public

participation in the policy making process.

Ukiwo (2003, p.1) stated that Military intervention in politics led to the relative over-

development of the executive arm of government and marginalization of the judiciary and

legislature. This made the executive arm of government over powerful during the Military era in

Nigeria; a trace of this superfluous nature is still evident till date.

The Public Policy Process in Nigeria will be considered from two perspectives, the political

perspective and the socio-economical perspective.

POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE OF POLICY IN NIGERIA

The context under which policies are formulated in Nigeria is quite complex. The process is to a

large extent defined by the nature and character of the country, which has evolved through years

of colonial, military and civil rule.

MILITARY ERA

Othman (1989, p.54) noted that widespread corruption by the political leaders were reasons

given for the military coup that sacked the first Republic on January 15, 1966 and brought to

power General Aguiyi Ironsi. Even though the military took over power to make wrongs right, it

4

is important to state that most of them left the government worse than they met it except for the

Buhari / Idiagbon regime (1983-1985).

During the Military era in Nigeria, the Supreme Military Council (SMC) was in charge of public

policy making, it consisted of the Regional Military Governors of the various States, the Military

Administrator of the Federal Territory, the Heads of the Nigerian Army, Navy and Air Force, the

Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces and the Inspector-General of Police or his Deputy. The

Chairman of the supreme Military Council l was the head of the Military Government.

During this period, the military relied on traditional rulers and bureaucrats to govern, having

discredited politicians. Thus permanent secretaries were very influential in the policy making

process so much so that some of them who were closest to the military authorities became known

as super permanent secretaries. Othman (1989, p.57) is of the opinion that, through this process

the Civil service was politicized; some of the rules and regulations in the service were abandoned

to serve the wishes of the military dictators.

The Military era, which lasted from 1966-1979, coincided with the period of the oil boom in

Nigeria. However, despite the so-called corrective mission of the military, oil revenues were

squandered away in evident consumption and corruption. Olukoshi (1996, p.110) concurred to

the fact that Nigeria’s oil wealth was the major factor that undermined the development policies

of agriculture sector, which was the major revenue of the economy in the 1950s and 1960.

The military administrations devoted their time and attention to expenditure rather than creating

incomes. According to Othman (1989, P.58) some of the oil wealth was also devoted to a

vigorous foreign policy, “which saw Nigeria becoming the arrowhead of nationalist and anti-

Apartheid struggles in Africa”.

DEMOCRATIC ERA

The 1999 Constitution provides for a Presidential system of government with clear separation of

powers between the three different organs of Government; Federal, State and Local Government

NOUN (2007, P.93). The actors and organs that formulate the public policy in the Nigeria

5

political terrain are the Executive, Legislative and the Judiciary.

EXECUTIVE ACTORS

At the Federal level, the Executive is made up of the President, who is elected directly alongside

the Vice-President, and Federal Ministers who are appointed in accordance with the Federal

character by the President and are assigned different portfolios.

The President and appointed Ministers constitute the Federal Executive Council (FEC), which

meets weekly. At the Executive Council, Ministers, the office of the President and the Vice-

President, present policy proposals, which are debated and approved. Once approved the policy

is usually sent as a bill to the National Assembly for ratification. Once ratified by the Legislature,

the bill is returned to the Executive for the president’s final seal.

According to Ukiwo (2003, p.3) one of the significant body in the policy making process is is the

National Council of State, made up of the President, Vice-President, Senate President, Speaker

of the House of Representatives, Chief Justice of the Federation and all State Governors as well

as former Heads of State and Chief Justices. The body meets at least once a year and may be

convened by the President at any time. It plays an advisory role on policy formulation and state

of affairs in the country.

A replica of the policy making structure that occurs at the Federal level also occurs at the State

level; the Governor occupies a similar position like the President, having been directly elected by

members of the State. He or She heads the State Executive Council (SEC), which meets once a

week to deliberate on policy issues. Draft policies are forwarded from the different Ministries

and deliberated by the Council. Once approved, they are forwarded to the state legislature for

ratification and returned to the State Governor for assent.

At the local Government level, the Chairman from local Government area is the Executive Head

of the Council, which includes the Vice-Chairman and Councilors elected to represent the

different wards under the local Government (Philip & Peter, 2013, p.59). Council takes decision

6

based on proposals made by the councilors or chairman. Apart from the Council, traditional

rulers and prominent personalities such as Political godfathers and rich businessmen from the

community typically influence policy at this level of Government.

Ukiwo (2003, p.17) noted that within the circles of the executive arm of government some

Commissioners and Ministers often claim they have little or no influence and the Governor or

President determines policies of the State. What this mean in essence is that the executive council

meetings merely takes place to rubber stamp the wishes of the Chief Executive.

LEGISLATURE

The Legislature at all levels of government makes and influences policies through its constitutional role of considering bills sent in by the executive or proposed by members of the legislature (Anderson, 2003, p.17).

The Legislature formulates policy by virtue of its oversight function over the executive arm of

government and its roles of resolutions on public issues. The constitutional responsibility of

considering nominees for appointment into public offices is vested in the legislature. This put the

legislatures in a strategic position to influence policy.

It is imperative to note, however, that in the practical aspect; the Chief Executive at all tiers of

Government have the final say in terms of public policy making, this can be attributed to the long

years of Military rule which has left a mark on the nation’s political culture and strengthened the

executive arm of government above other arms which were not functioning or suppressed during

the Military era.

It is common knowledge today, not only in Nigeria but in most African countries that the

President and Governors influence the selection of those who form the Legislative arm of

Government as a means of ensuring that bills and nominations sent by the Executive to the

Legislature are signed without hesitation while bills or proposals that are not in line with the

agenda of the President or Governor are nipped in the bud.

7

Since the inception of democracy in 1999, six governors have been impeached by their State’s

Legislature due to corruption and mismanagement of public funds; they are: Ayo Fayose of Ekiti

impeached in 2006, Peter Obi of Anambra impeached in 2007, Joshua Dariye of Plateau state

impeached in 2007, Rashidi Ladoja of Oyo, impeached in 2006, Late Diepreye Alamieyeseigha of

Balyesa in 2005 and Murtala Nyako of Adamawa state in 2014.

In the 6th National assembly in Nigeria (2007-2011) the former ruling party, Peoples Democratic

Party (PDP) had 260 elected members in the House of Representative out of 360 members from

six political parties and 85 members out of 109 members in the Senate which was more than half

of the Legislature, this paved way for approval of biased policies which were formulated in the

interest of the ruling party and their cabals.

Ekwueme (2003, p. 179) pointed out that though the Executive, Legislative and Judiciary are the

key actors, however other political actors also exist such as the panels and ad-hoc committees

established by Government to provide advice on sundry issues, e.g. Bureau for Public Enterprise;

who have great influence on the direction and substance of public policy, the Technical

Committee for the Reform of Local Government, whose statutory function is to guide the

government on the proposed reform of the third tier of government; others are Ministries of

Finance, Education, Justice, Internal Affairs, Works, Health, Women and Youth Development,

and National Planning. Also relevant are a number of statutory bodies, Revenue Mobilization

Allocation and Fiscal Commission, Federal Character Commission, Federal Civil Service

Commission, National Boundary Commission and the National Poverty Eradication

Commission.

THE JUDICIARY

Judiciary refers to the body of judges and courts that interpret the constitution and the laws

(NOUN, 2007, p.62). In addition to the judiciary’s interpretation role they also settle conflicts

and crises between the various institutions of government, groups and individuals; they also

influence policy and not necessarily make policy, which makes them an Actor.

8

The Judiciary is made of the Supreme Court, which is the highest court in Nigeria followed, by

the Court of Appeal, High Court, Magistrate Court; which is the first court of instance. In the

southern part of Nigeria we have the Customary Court and in the Northern part we have the

sharia court, they exercise jurisdiction over religious or customary matters.

An instance of the judiciary’s influence of policy was when the Supreme Court in 2000 gave a

verdict on the electoral act, the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) had refused

to register political party on the ground that they did not have a presence in two-thirds of states

of the Federation, the Supreme Court ruled that INEC had no such powers; that all parties who

campaigned for votes should be allowed to do so and Nigerians should be the judge as to which

parties will get voted in. This changed the policy on party registration and policy.

It is also worthy to note that apart from their constitutional roles, members of the bar (judiciary)

are held in high esteem in society which gives them the leverage to influence policy through their

association with the state and federal executive.

ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE OF POLICY IN NIGERIA

World Bank (2014) described Nigeria as one of the richest Countries in Africa, with a population

of over 178 million. Even though Nigeria is one of the richest countries in Africa it is still a

middle-income economy and remains an emerging market in financial service, technology and

entertainment.

According to Statistics Times (2015), Nigeria is ranked as the 21st largest economy in the world

in terms of nominal GDP, and the 20th largest in terms of Purchasing Power Parity. In 2015

Nigeria rebased her economy and this pushed it above South Africa as the biggest economy in

Africa.

Nigeria is a major exporter of oil in Africa and generates bulk of its revenue through oil

production; once a large net exporter of food but today reverse is the case, the country has

degraded to being a large importer of food products as a result of failure in the Agriculture sector

to meet up with the rapid growing population of the Country.

9

The contribution of international donor towards Nigeria’s economy cannot be underestimated

even though it has failed to yield positive results. According to Abata & Adeju (2011) the need

for economic reforms in Nigeria can be traced back to 1983, under President Shehu Shagari

administration. The mounting economic problems during this Shagari’s regime forced Nigeria to

seek a balance of payments support loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

This was followed by the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) loan from the World Bank in

1986, which forced Nigeria to reform its foreign exchange system, trade policies, as well as

business and agricultural regulations. These loans have kept on rolling in into Nigeria’s treasury.

The most recent from the World Bank is the 500 million dollars loan for medium and small-scale

enterprise.

It is imperative to note that over the past three decades the World Bank has had a dominant

presence with respect to economic policies in Nigeria. Presently the World Bank is involved in

facilitating the preparation of the Poverty Reduction Strategic Papers for Nigeria. In addition to

this the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) was also instrumental in the

preparation of the Vision 2010 and continues to collaborate with the Government in various

poverty alleviation programmes in the Country, which makes them important stakeholders in

policy development and implementation.

The loan from these donors empowers them, to influence and dictate the economic policies that

beneficiary countries should or should not adopt due to their financial support that is needed by

the government to function and operate effectively.

Until Nigeria becomes self-reliant and become donor-free it will will remain a puppet to

international donors and continue to remain subjected to their economic statement, which might

eventually result to her total loss of economic sovereignty.

SOCIAL SYSTEM THAT IMPEDE / FACILITATE PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT IN POLICY MAKING

According to Thomas (1995:55) public participation is a process of involving “all organized and

unorganized groups of citizens or citizen representatives” on a particular issue. It can be

10

concluded from Thomas’s definition that in public participation the public include active

members be it organized or not organized on specific issues.

Government in developing countries around the world are beginning to recognize the important

role public involvement can play in policy formulation, however, despite these efforts, there are

still many barriers and challenges that stand in the way of public participation in policy making

in Nigeria. They are as follow:

PRESS SUPPRESSION: The media plays a critical role in the formation of sound public

policy. The media produces a platform in which policy ideas and initiatives can be tested and

formed in the arena of public opinion. However lack of press freedom inhibits the media from

contributing towards constructive policy formulation in Nigeria.

According to Picard (1985, p.49) "Positive press freedom is intended to promote the free flow of

diverse ideas and public debate by removing and guarding against barriers to that flow". If press

freedom is put in place it would ensure the necessary conditions for freedom of expression.

Nigeria has a virile and influential media but unfortunately the refusal of the government to

enshrine freedom of the press in the constitution is a major constraint for the mass media to

operate full-fledged.

Suppression of press freedom in Nigeria dates back to the Military era, when activities of the

mass media were fully suppressed. After Tunde Thompson and his partner Nduka Irabor of

Guardian Newspaper published a report on diplomatic postings that involved top military

officials during Buhari’s regime, the two journalists were arrested in February 1984 and held for

eight months. Similar to this, Channels Television in 2008 was also closed down for some days

under the President Yar’adua’s administration after the TV Station aired a story about the

Federal Government injection of one trillion Naira ($5,025,757,004,648.83) into the economy.

If ever public participation is going to be given a fair chance, then the freedom of the press has to

be enshrined in Nigeria’s constitution to give room for the media to freely air issues objectively

11

on policy related matters

ELITIST CONTROL: Anderson (2003, p.13) approached elite theory from the perspective of

public policy reflecting the values and preference of governing elite. The fundamental argument

of this theory is that public policy process is often not determined by the actions of the masses.

Professors Thomas Dye and Harmon Zeigler (1972) provided a summary of elite theory as a

Society that is separated into the few who have power and the many who do not. This summary

represents the state of elitist control in Nigeria, where a minute number of individuals like Alhaji

Aliko Dangote, Tony Elumelu, funmilayo Alakija etc. decide values for the society.

Policies especially the economic policies churned out are the product of these Nigerian elites,

reflecting their values and serving their ends without providing in anyway for the welfare of the

masses except on few occasions.

CIVIL SOCIETY: The role of the civil societies in Nigeria towards promoting public

participation in public policy making is highly laudable. Civil society groups that have been

influential in policy-making include The Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC); which is the most

popular and influential trade union, Nigerian Bar Association (NBA) and Nigeria Economic

Society (NES); the most influential professional association in Nigeria.

In 2012, when the Nigerian government formulated and implemented a policy to increase the

price of Premium Motor Spirit (PMS) also known as petrol from 65 Naira to 141 Naira, it was

the NLC that mobilized millions of Nigerians across the Nation who agitated and withstood

against this policy until the government reversed it to 97 Naira.

If the Civil societies continue at the pace at which they are carrying out their operations in

Nigeria, it I believed that the government will one day bring them on board to participate in the

drafting of national policies which will result to developing technically sound policies and

stakeholder agreement on the problem definitions as well as solutions in Nigeria

12

GENDER INEQUALITY: A high level of gender equality exists in public involvolvement

regarding public policy making. The patriarchal structure of the Nigerian society makes it

difficult for Women’s voice to be heard when it comes to their views and contribution towards

towards policy making which brings about lack of equity in the policy making process.

As it exists at the grass root, among non-political office holders, which hinders them from

contributing towards contributing their quota towards policy formulation, so does it exist at the

top echelon of power. On Wednesday 11th of November 2015,it was reported by Vanguard

Newspaper that President Muhammadu Buhari swore in 36 new Ministers. However it is

disheartening that only six out of the thirty-six were female. In addition out of the 469

representatives in the Nigerian Legislature only 21 of them are women.

The marginalization and limited participation of women in public policy clamps down on a

balanced public participation. This has negative effects on future generations, as ongoing

imbalances in equal opportunities can affect the prospects for social and economic development

in the longer term.

PAROCHIAL POLITICAL CULTURE: The type of political culture practiced in Nigeria

accounts for lack of interest and commitment on the part of the citizens towards what is

happening in their political arena or the political environment. As a result of Lack of orientation

by Nigerians towards the political system, this has hindered the wider participation from the

public been capitalized on by the government to deny the country a systematic and sustainable

development. This was evident in the immediate past administration of President Goodluck

Jonathan.

CONCLUSION

This paper discussed on public policy making terrain under which policies are borne, with a

close emphasis on factors mitigating wider Public participation in public policy in Nigeria.

There are plethora of policy actors in Nigeria but among them all the most powerful is executive

arm of government which dominates them all. Policy is also largely influenced by international 13

donors whom Nigeria strongly relies on for funds. There are several reasons for limited public

participation in policy making amongst them are Gender inequality, elitist control, parochial

political culture which has resulted in the formulation of policies that are not beneficial to the

public over the past decade.

REFRENCES

Anderson, J. (2003) Public policymaking: An introduction. Boston, Houghton, Mifflin Company

Baker, R. Michaels, R. and Preston, E. 1975. Public policy development:Linking the technical and political processes. New York: John Wiley

Be Informed (March 2011) “Public Policy Making: the 21st Century perspective,” http://www.beinformed.com/BeInformed/webdav resource/binaries/pdf/publications/public-policy-making.pdf?webdav-id=/Be%20Informed%20Bibliotheek/0000%20WEBDAV/WebDAV%20StatContent.bixml retrieved on the 13th November 2015

Cogan and Sharpe (1986) “The Theory of Citizen Involvement” in University of Oregon, Planning Analysis: The Theory of Citizen Participation, http://wwww.uoregon.edu/~rgp/PPPM613/class10theory.html retrieved on the 13th November 2015

Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria [Nigeria], Act No. 24, 5 May 1999, http://www.refworld.org/docid/44e344fa4.html retrieved on the 13th November 2015.

Dye, T. & Zeigler, H. (1972) The irony of democracy: An introduction to American politics, Belmont, Duxbury Press.

Ekwueme, A (2003) “Federalism: The Future of Decentralizing States? The Nigerian Experience” In Alex J,B. etal (Editor),2nd International Conference on Decentralization. Center for Local and Regional Governance (CLRG), Philippines, pp. 171-188.

Jenkins, W. (1978) Policy Analysis: A Political and Organizational Perspective, Oxford, Martin Robertson.

NOUN (2007) “Public Policy Analysis,” http://www.nou.edu.ng/uploads/NOUN_OCL/pdf/SMS/PAD%20810.pdf retrieved on the 13th November 2015

Olukoshi O. (1996) “The Impact of Recent Reform Effort on African State” in Kjell, J, H. and Brian, V, A. Domination or Dialogue ? Experience and Prospects for African Development Cooperation, Uppsala, Nordiska Afrikainstitutet

Philip, D. (2013) “Public Policy Making and Implementation in Nigeria: Connecting the Nexus”, Public Policy And Administration Research, Vol. 3, No. 6, pp 58.

14

http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/PPAR/article/view/6355/6593 retrieved on the 13th November 2015

Picard, R. (1985) The press and the decline of democracy, Westport, Greenwood Press.

Roberts and Clark (1982) Powers and Politics in the third World, New York Santa Barbara, John Wiley and Company.

Statistics Times (2015) “World GDP (nominal) Ranking,” http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nigeria/publication/nigeria-economic-report-improved-economic-outlook-in-2014-and-prospects-for-continued-growth-look-good retrieved on the 13th November 2015

The World Bank (2014) “Nigeria Economic Report: Improved Economic Outlook in 2014, and Prospects for Continued Growth Look Good,” http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nigeria/publication/nigeria-economic-report-improved-economic-outlook-in-2014-and-prospects-for-continued-growth-look-good retrieved on the 13th November 2015

Thomas, J. (1995) Public Participation in Public Decisions: New Skills andStrategies for Public Managers. California: Jossen-Bass.

Ukiwo, U . (2003) “Policy Levers in Nigeria”, CRISE Policy Context Paper, Vol. 1, No. 5, pp 15-18. http://www.qeh.ox.ac.uk/pdf/pdf-research/crise-pcp2 retrieved on the 13th November 2015

Vanguard Nigeria,. (2015). Buhari swears in Ministers - Vanguard News. Vanguard Nigeria,. (2015). Buhari swears in Ministers - Vanguard News. Vanguard News. Retrieved 13 November 2015, from http://www.vanguardngr.com/2015/11/buhari-swears-in-ministers/

15

16