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Chapter One: Introduction
ANATOMICAL POSITIONAND TERMS OFDIRECTION
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When studying the human body it isimportant to place the body inanatomical position. Anatomicalposition is described as the bodyfacing you, feet placed together andflat on the floor. The head is helderect, arms straight by the side withpalms facing forward. All referencesto the body are made as if the body isin this position so when you describesomething as being above somethingelse it is always with respect to thebody being in anatomical position.
The relative position of the parts ofthe human body has specific terms.Superior means above whileinferior means below. Medial refersto being close to the midline whilelateral means to the side. Anterioror ventral is to the front whileposterior or dorsal is to the back.Superficial is near the surface whiledeep means to the core of the body.When working with the limbs,proximal means closer to the trunkwhile distal is to the ends of theextremities. Write the directionalterms in the spaces provided andcolor in the arrows in reference tothese terms. Note that these termsare somewhat different for fourlegged animals.
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l«=~.. \!Answer Key: a. Superior, b. Inferior,c. Lateral, d. Medial, e. Proximal,f. Distal, g. Anatomical position,h Posterior, i. Anterior, j. Dorsal,k. Ventral
ANATOMICAL PLANES OFTHE BODYMany specimens in anatomy aresectioned so that the interior of theorgan or region can be examined. Itis important that the direction of thecut is known so that the properorientation of the specimen isknown. A heart looks very differentif it is cut along its length as opposedto horizontally. A horizontal cut isknown as a transverse section or across section. A cut that divides thebody or an organ into anterior andposterior parts is a coronal sectionor frontal section. One that dividesthe structure into left and right partsis a sagittal section. If the body isdivided directly down the middle thesection is known as a midsagittalsection. A midsagittal section isusually reserved for dividing thebody into to equal left and rightparts. If an organ (such as the eye) issectioned into two equal parts suchthat there is a left and right half thenthis is known as a median section.Label the illustrations and color inthe appropriate planes.
Chapter One I mKAPeLAN(I·-Ical 3Introduction
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Answer Key: a. Frontal (coronal) plane,b. Transverse (cross-section) plane,c.Median (midsagittal) plane
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Chapter One I KAPLA~. I 5Introduction meulCa
HIERARCHY OF THE BODY
The human body can be studied at different levels. Organs such as thestomach can be grouped into organ systems (digestive system) or can bestudied on a smaller scale like the cellular level. The ranking of theselevels is called a hierarchy. The smallest organizational unit is the atom.Individual atoms are grouped into larger structures called molecules.
These in turn make up organelles, which are part of a larger, morecomplicated systems called cells. Cells are the structural and functionalunits of life. Cells are clustered into tissues. Organs are discreet unitsmade up of two or more tissues and organs are grouped into organsystems that compose the organism. Label the levels of the hierarchyand color each item a different color.
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Answer Key: a.Organism (human), b. Organ system (respiratory system) c. Organ (lung), d. Tissue (epithelium), e. Organelle (cilia), f. Molecule, g.Atom, h. cells
REGIONS OF THEABDOMENIn anatomy the abdomen is dividedinto nine regions. Write the names ofthe regions in the spaces indicated.Color both the left and righthypochondriac regions in light blue.Hypochondriac means "below thecartilage." The common use of theword (someone who thinks they aresick all the time) reflects the Greekorigin of the word as the ancientGreeks considered the region to bethe center of sadness. Inferior to thehypochondriac regions are thelumbar or lateral abdominalregions. These are commonly knownas the "love handles." Use yellow forthese regions. Below the lumbarregions are the inguinal or iliacregions. Youshould color in theseregions with the same shade ofgreen. In the middle of theabdomen is the umbilical region.Color this region in red. Above thisis the epigastric region (epi = aboveand gastric= stomach). Color thisregion in purple. Below theumbilical region is the hypogastricregion (hypo = below). Color thisregion in a darker blue.
In clinical settings a quadrantapproach is used. Write the names ofthe regions (right upper quadrant,left upper quadrant, right lowerquadrant, left lower quadrant) inthe spaces provided. Color eachquadrant a different color.
Answer Key: a Right hypochondriac,b. Right lumbar (lateralabdominal),c. Umbilical, d. Right Inguinal or iliac,e. Epigastric, f. Left hypochondriac,g. Left lumbar (lateralabdominal),h. Left inguinal or iliac, i.Hypogastric,) Left upper quadrant, k. Right upperquadrant, I. Left lower quadrant,m. Right lower quadrant
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Chapter One I KAPLAlfd- I 7Introduction me lea
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Chapter One I IAPLANd·· I 9Introduction me lea
and will not be treated as a separate system here. The muscular systemconsists of individual skeletal muscles as organs such as the pectoralismajor and deltoid. Label the organ systems underneath each illustrationand label the selected organs by using the terms available. When youfinish, select different colors for each organ system and color them in.
ORGAN SYSTEMSThe human body is either studied by regions or by organs systems. Thisbook uses the organ system approach in which individual organs (suchas bones) are grouped into the larger organ system (for example, theskeletal system). Typically eleven organ systems are described. Theskeletal system consists of all of the bones of the body. Examples are thefemur and the humerus. The nervous system consists of the nerves,spinal cord, and brain while the lymphatic system consists of lymphglands, conducting tubes called lymphatics, and organs such as thespleen. The term immune system is more of a functional classification
Organ SystemSkeletal systemNervous systemLymphatic systemMuscular system
OrganFemurNervesLymph glandsPectoralis major
OrganHumerusSpinal cordSpleenDeltoid
Organ
Brain
1. _
1.-----
Answer Key:a. Humerus,b. Femur, c. Skeletal,d. Brain, e. Spinalcord, f. Nerves,g. Nervous,h. Spleen, i. Lymphnodes, j. Lymphatic,k. Deltoid,I Pectoralis major,m. Muscularffi .. _
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Chapter One I mKAPeLANd'-Ical 11Introduction
Label the organ systems underneath each illustration and label theselected organs by using the terms available. When you finish, selectdifferent colors for each organ system and color them in.
ORGAN SYSTEMS (CONTINUED)The skin and other structures are in the integumentary system and thedigestive system involves the breakdown and absorption of food withorgans such as the esophagus and stomach. The endocrine system ismade of the glands that secrete hormones such as the thyroid gland andthe adrenal glands. The respiratory system involves the transfer ofoxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and the blood. Therespiratory system consists of organs such as the trachea and lungs.
Organ SystemIntegumentary systemDigestive systemEndocrine systemRespiratory system
OrganSkinEsophagusThyroid glandTrachea
Organ
StomachAdrenal glandsLungs
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Answer Key:a. Skin, b. Integumentary, c. Esophagus, d. Stomach, e. Digestive, f. Thyroid gland, g. Adrenal gland, h. Endocrine, i, Trachea, j. Lung, k. Respiratory
Chapter One I mlAPeLANd' -.eal 13Introduction
the first letter of a name of an organ system. Label the organ systemsunderneath each illustration and label the selected organs by using theterms available. When you finish, select different colors for each organsystem and color them in.
ORGAN SYSTEMS (COI\ITINUED)The heart and associated blood vessels compose the cardiovascularsystem which circulates blood throughout the body. The urinary systemfilters, stores, and conducts some wastes from the body. The bladder andurethra are part of the urinary system. The testes and ovaries are partof the reproductive system and this system perpetuates the species. Thedifferentiation of male and female systems makes this organ systemunique among the other systems. These eleven organs systems can beremembered by the memory clue LN Cries Drum. Each letter represents
Organ SystemCardiovascular systemUrinary systemReproductive system
OrganHeartBladderTestes
OrganBlood vesselsUrethraOvaries
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Answer Key: a. Heart,b. Bloodvessels, c. Cardiovascular, d. Bladder,e. Urethra, f. Urinary, g. Ovary, h. Testis,I. Reproductive
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Chapter One I KAPLA~. I 15Introduction meulCa
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BODY REGIONS(AI\ITERIOR)There are specific anatomical termsfor regions of the body. These areasor regions frequently have Greek orLatin names because early westernstudies in anatomy occurred inGreece and Rome. During theRenaissance, European scholarsstudied anatomy and applied theancient names to the structures.Label the various regions of the bodyand fill in their names. You can use astandard anatomy text or follow thekey at the bottom of the page. A listof terms and their common namesfollows for the anterior side of thebody. Color in the regions of thebody.
cranial (head)facial (face)cervical (neck)deltoid (shoulder)pectoral (chest)sternal (center of chest)brachial (arm)antebrachial (forearm)manual (hand)digital (fingers)abdominal (belly)inguinal (groin)coxal (hip)femoral (thigh)genicular (knee)crural (leg)pedal (foot)digital (toes)
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Answer Key: a. Cranial (head), b. Facial(face), c. Cervical (neck), d. Deltoid(shoulder), e. Sternal (center of chest),f Pedoral (chest), g. Brachial (arm),h. Abdominal (belly), i. Antebrachial(forearm), j. Coxal (hip), k. Manual(hand), I.Digital (fingers), m. Inguinal,n. Femoral (thigh), o. Genicular (knee),p. Crural (leg), q. Pedal (foot), r. Digital(toes)
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BODY REGIONS(POSTERIOR)For the posterior view of the bodyfill in the terms and color the regionsof the body. The anatomical namesare given first with the commonnames in parentheses.
cephalic (head)nuchal (neck)scapular (shoulder blade)vertebral (backbone)lumbar (love handles)brachial (arm)olecranon (elbow)antebrachial (forearm)gluteal (buttocks)femoral (thigh)popliteal (back of knee)sural (calf)calcaneal (heel)
Answer Key: a.Cephalic (head),b. Nuchal (neck), c. Scapular (shoulderblade), d. Brachial (arm), e.Vertebral(backbone),f. Olecranon (elbow),g.Lumbar(love handles),h. Antebrachial (forearm), i. Gluteal(buttocks), j. Femoral (thigh),k. Popliteal (backof knee), I. Sural(calf), m. Calcaneal (heel)
Chapter One I lAP LANd'• I 17Introduction me lea
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BODY CAVITIESThe organs of the body are frequently found in body cavities. The bodyis divided into two main cavities, the dorsal body cavity and the ventralbody cavity. The dorsal body cavity consists of the cranial cavity, whichhouses the brain and the spinal canal, which surrounds the spinal cord.The ventral body cavity contains the upper thoracic cavity, which issubdivided into the pleural cavities, housing the lungs, and the
Chapter One I KAPLAIfd- I 19Introduction me lea
mediastinum. The mediastinum contains the heart in the pericardialcavity, the major vessels near the heart, nerves, and the esophagus.Below the thoracic cavity is the abdominopelvic cavity, which containsthe upper abdominal cavity, housing the digestive organs, and theinferior pelvic cavity, which holds the uterus and rectum in females orjust the rectum in males. Label the specific and major cavities of thebody and color them with different colors.
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Answer Key: a. Dorsal body cavity, b. Cranial cavity, c. Spinalcanal, d. Ventral body cavity, e. Thoracic cavity, f. Mediastinum, g Pericardial cavity, h. Pleural cavity,I. Abdominopelvic cavity, j. Abdominal cavity, k. Pelvic cavity
Chapter Two: Cells, Tissues, and Integument 21
OVERVIEW OF CELL AND CELL MEMBRANECells consist of an enclosing plasma membrane, an inner cytoplasmwith numerous organelles, and other cellular structures. The fluidportion of the cell is called the cytosol. Color the cytosol in last after youcolor the rest of the cellular structures. One of the major structures inthe cell is the nucleus. It is the genetic center of the cell and consists oftluid karyoplasm, chromatin (containing DNA), and the nucleolus.Color these features and label them on the illustration.
The cytoskeleton consists of microtubules, intermediate filaments andmicrofilaments. It is involved in maintaining cell shape, fixingorganelles, and directing some cellular activity.
Label the organelles of the cell and use a different color for each one. Themitochondria are the energy-producing structures of the cell while the
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The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer. Colorthe phosphate molecules on the outside and inside of the membraneone color and the lipid layer another color. Cholesterol molecules occurin the membrane and, depending on their concentration, can make themembrane stiff or more fluid. Proteins that are found on the outside ofthe membrane are called peripheral proteins while proteins that pass
Golgi apparatus assembles complex biomolecules and transports themout of the cell. Proteins are made in the cell by ribosomes. If theribosomes are found by themselves in the cytoplasm, they are called freeribosomes. If they are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum,they are called bound ribosomes. The smooth endoplasmic reticulummanufactures lipids and helps in breaking down toxic materials in thecell. Other structures in the cell are vesicles (sacs that hold liquids).Phagocytic vesicles ingest material into the cell. Lysosomes containdigestive enzymes while peroxisomes degrade hydrogen peroxide in thecell. After you label and color the organelles make sure to go back andshade in the cytosol. Centrioles are microtubules grouped together andare involved in cell division.
through the membrane are called integral proteins. Frequently thesemake up gates or channels that allow material to pass through themembrane. Attached to proteins on the cell membrane are carbohydratechains. These provide cellular identity. Label and color the cellmembrane structures.
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Answer Key: a. Golgiapparatus, b. Lysosome, c. Peroxisome, d. Phagocytic vesicle, e. Nucleus, f. Nucleolus, g. Chromatin,h. Karyoplasm, '1. Cytoskeleton,J. Centrioles, k. Plasma membrane, I. Cytoplasm, m. Rough endoplasmic reticulum, n. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum, o. Mitochondrion, p. Free ribosomes,q. Phospholipid bilayer, r. Integral protem, s.Carbohydrate chain, t. Peripheral protein, u. Phosphate molecule, v. lipid layer, w.Cholesterol molecule
Chapter Two I UPLANd·· I 23Cells, Tissues, and Integument me lea
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SIMPLE EPITHELIAThere are four types of tissues inhumans and these make up all of theorgans and binding material in thebody. Epithelial tissue makes uplinings of the body. In many cases,where there is exposure (outside,such as the skin, or inside, such as inblood vessels), epithelium is thetissue found. It is named accordingto its layers (typically simple orstratified) and the shape of cells(such as cuboidal). Simplesquamous epithelium is a singlelayer of flattened cells. Simplecuboidal epithelium is also a singlelayer of cells but the cells are in theshape of cubes. Simple columnarepithelium is a single layer of longcolumnar cells. Label and color theseepithelial types and pay attention tothe basement membrane, thenoncellular layer that attaches theepithelium to lower layers. It shouldbe colored red. Color the nuclei inpurple, the cytoplasm blue, andlabel the cells.
Top view
Side view
Pseudostratified ciliated columnarepithelium is in a single layer of cellshut it looks stratified on firstappearance. Not all of the cells reachthe surface of the tissue. All of thecells reach the basement membrane.Label and color the nuclei,basement membrane, cellmembrane and the cilia in thistissue.
Answer Key: a. Simple squamousepithelium, b. Simple cuboidalepithelium, c. Simple columnarepithelium, d.Cilia, e. Cell membrane,t. Nuclei, g. Basement membrane,h. Pseudostratlfled ciliated columnarepithelium
c.
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g.
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STRATIFIED EPITHELIAThere are two common epithelialtissues that are many-layered.Stratified squamous epithelium ismany layers of flattened cells. Labeland color the basement membranered, color the cytoplasm blue, andthe nuclei purple. There are twomajor types of stratified squamousepithelium. Keratinized epitheliumis found on the skin and istoughened by the protein keratin.Non-keratinized stratified squamousepithelium is found in the oral cavityand vagina and is a mucousmembrane.
Another main type of layeredepithelial tissue is transitionalepithelium. This is tissue that linespart of the urinary tract includingthe bladder. When the bladder isempty, the cells bunch up on oneanother and the tissue is thick. Whenthe bladder is full, the cells stretchout into a few layers. Label the celltypes for each picture and color thestructures in the same way as inprevious illustrations.
Answer Key: a.Stratified squamousepithelium, b.Transitional epithelium
Chapter Two I KAPLAdlf. ICells, Tissues, and Integument me lea 25
a. _
Stretched
Relaxed
b. ------------
GLANDSThere are several types of glands inthe human body. Some of theseglands secrete their products intotubes or ducts. These are known asexocrine glands. Other glandssecrete their products into the spacesbetween cells where they are pickedup by the blood or lymph system.These are the endocrine glands.Endocrine glands secrete hormonesthat have an impact on target tissuesof the body.
Glands can be unicellular ormulticellular. Glands that consist ofjust one cell are called goblet cells.They secrete mucus, which is alubricant. There are many types ofmulticellular glands. They areclassified by how they secrete theirproducts. Some glands secreteproducts from vesicles pinched offfrom the cell. These are calledmerocine glands. In these glands nocellular material is lost in thesecretion of material. An example ofa merocrine gland is a sweat gland.Some cells squeeze parts of the celloff to secrete cellular products.These are known as apocrine glands.The lactiferous glands that producemilk are apocrine glands. Somesecretions occur by the entire cellrupturing. These are calledholocrine glands. Oil glands of theskin are holocrine glands. Label theglands and color them in on thefigure.
Chapter Two I KAPLA!._ I 27Cells, Tissues, and Integument meulCa
a. b.
c.
Answer Key: a. Exocrine gland,b Endocrine gland, c.Goblet cell,d. Merocrineglands, e. Vesicles,f. Apocrine glands, g. Holocrineglands
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Chapter Two I lAP LANd' • I 29Cells, Tissues, and Integument me lea
COI\II\IECTIVE TISSUEConnective tissue is a varied groupof associated tissues, all of which arederived from an embryonic tissueknown as mesenchyme. Connectivetissue not only has cells, as do all ofthe other tissues, but it also hasfibers and a large amount ofbackground substance calledmatrix. There are many specifictissues that belong to connectivetissue. Loose connective tissue isfound wrapping around organs orunder the epidermis and it iscomposed of collagenous, elastic,and reticular fibers, a liquid matrixand numerous cells, many of whichhave an immune function. Denseregular connective tissue has a fewcells called fibrocytes and a smallamount of matrix with most of thetissue composed of a regulararrangement of collagenous fibers.This specific tissue makes up tendonsand ligaments. If the fibers are not inan orderly arrangement, then thetissue is called dense irregularconnective tissue. This tissue isfound in places like the white ofthe eye.
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Answer Key: a. Matrix, b. I"ibrocyte,c.Collagenous fiber, d. Elastic fiber,e. Looseconnective tissue, f. Denseregular connective tissue, g. Dense'Irregular connectivetissue
CONNECTIVE TISSUE(CONTINUED)Elastic connective tissue containselastic fibers and is found in areasthat recoil when stretched such as inthe walls of arteries. Reticularconnective tissue consists ofreticular fibers that form an internalsupport in soft organs such as theliver and spleen. Adipose tissueconsists of specialized fat-storingcells called adipocytes. Label andcolor the components of theseconnective tissues.
Answer Key:a.Collagenous fibers,b. Elastic fibers, c.Elastic connectivetissue, d. Reticular fibers, e. Reticularconnective tissue, f. Adipose tissue
Chapter Two I IAPLAlfd- I 31Cells, Tissues, and Integument me lea
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e. _
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a. ----------CARTILAGEThere are three types of cartilage inconnective tissue. The mostcommon kind of cartilage is hyalinecartilage. It contains a semisolidmatrix, collagenous fibers, andchondrocytes (cartilage cells). Theend of the nose is pliable due tohyaline cartilage. Fibrocartilage islike hyaline cartilage, having thesame components, but there aremore collagenous fibers infibrocartilage. It is found in areaswhere there is more stress, such asthe joint between the bones of thethigh and leg. Elastic cartilage has amatrix, chondrocvtes, and elasticfibers. These fibers make thecartilage more bendable than hyalinecartilage. Label and color the cellsand fibers of cartilage and use a lightcolor to shade the matrix such as apale pink or blue.
Answer Key: a. Matrix, b. Chondrocytes,c. Hyalinecartilage, d. Collagenousfibers, e Fibrocartilage, f. Elastic fibers,g. ElastiC cartilage
Chapter Two I KAPLAll"d- I :nCells, Tissues, and Integument me lea
e.
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g.
BONE AND BLOODBone is a connective tissue. The cellsare the osteocytes and the fibers arecollagenous fibers enclosed in a hardmatrix of bone salts. You will not seethe fibers in the illustration becausethey are covered by the dense matrix.Label and color the osteocytes andmatrix of bone.
Blood is another kind of connectivetissue. The matrix in blood is theplasma and the cells areerythrocytes (red blood cells) andleukocytes (white blood cells).
Platelets are small flat disks in theblood that aid in clotting.
Chapter Two I KAPLAIfd- I 35Cells, Tissues, and Integument me lea
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Answer Key: a. MatriX, b. Osteocyte.c. Bone, d. Erythrocyte, e. Platelet,f. Leukocytes, g. Plasma, h. Blood
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MUSCLE AND NERVOUS TISSUE
Muscular tissue is composed of specialized cells involved in contraction.Skeletal muscle makes up body muscles and represents around 40percent of the body mass. Skeletal muscle is striated and the fusion ofindividual cells produces longer, mature cells that are multinucleate.These nuclei are found on the edges of the cells. Skeletal muscle can beconsciously controlled and is called voluntary muscle. Label and color thestriations of the skeletal muscle cells, the nuclei, and individual cells.
Cardiac muscle is also striated but the striations are not as obvious as inskeletal muscle. This muscle is found in the heart and is involuntary. Itdoes not involve conscious control. Cardiac muscle typically has onlyone centrally located nucleus per cell, and the cells themselves arebranched. They attach to other cells by intercalated discs, which allowcommunication between cells for the conduction of impulses during thecardiac cycle.Label and color these features on the illustration.
Chapter Two I KAPLACr I 37Cells, Tissues, and Integument me lea
Smooth muscle is not striated and it is involuntary. The cells are slenderand have one nucleus located in the center of the cell. It is widelydistributed in the body, making up, among other things, part of thedigestive system, reproductive system, and integumentary system.Smooth muscle is found in glands and other areas not under consciouscontrol. Label and color the nucleus and cell of smooth muscle.
Nervous tissue consists of the neuron and associated glial cells.Neurons have numerous branched extensions called dendrites, a centralnerve cell body (soma) that houses the nucleus, and a long extensioncalled an axon. The glial cells, also known as neuroglia, have manyfunctions. Some of these are supportive of the neuron and some mayinvolve processing of neural information. Label and color the parts ofthe neuron and the glial cells.
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Answer Key: a. Striations, b. Nuclei, c. Cell, d. Skeletal muscle, e. Intercalated disc,f. Cardiacmuscle, g. Smooth muscle, h. Nervous tissue, i.Nervecellbody,j. Glial cells (Neuroglia), k. Dendrites, I.Nucleus, m. Axon
Chapter TwoCells, Tissues, and Integument I
KAPLAlfd- Ime lea 39
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEMThe most superficial layer of the skinis the epidermis. Color the five layersof the epidermis. The deepest layer isthe stratum basale and there arespecific cells called melanocytes thatsecrete the brown pigment melanin.Color the majority of the stratumbasale pink but color themelanocytes brown. Color thestratum spinosum a light blue. Thestratum granulosum has purplegranules in it so color that layerusing purple dots. The stratumlucidum (found only in thick skin)is a thin, light colored layer so yellowor white are good colors for thistissue. Color the superficial stratumcorneum orange.
The overview of the skin containsmany layers. Color the epidermis ared-orange. The dermis consists oftwo layers, an upper papillary layer,which should be colored in a lightpink, and a deeper reticular layer,which should be colored a darkerpink. There are sweat glands that arefound in the dermis that can becolored purple. You should color thehypodermis (not a part of theintegument) yellow because of theamount of fat found there. Twotypes of touch receptors can easily beseen in microscopic sections. Theseare the Meissner corpuscles and thePacinian corpuscles.
Answer Key: a. Stratumcorneum,b. Stratum IUCIdum, c. Stratumgranulosum,d. Stratum spinosum,e. Stratum basale, f. Melanocyte,g. Epidermis, h.Papillary layer,I. Reticular layer, J. Dermis,k. Hypodermis, L Sweatgland,m. Pacinian corpuscle,n. Meissnercorpuscle
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HAIR AND NAILS
Hair consists of several parts. The hair originates from the dermalpapilla and the deepest part of the hair is known as the hair bulb. Thehair is pushed superficially and forms the hair root (the part of the hairenclosed in the skin). Once the hair erupts from the skin it is known asthe hair shaft. Color the three sections of hair different shades of blue.The hair is enclosed by the hair follicle, which should be colored purple.
Chapter Two I KAPLA~. I 41Cells, Tissues, and Integument meulca
Associated with the hair are the arrector pili muscle, which is made ofsmooth muscle and is colored pink, and an oil-secreting gland known asthe sebaceous gland, which should be colored yellow.
Fingernails and toenails are considered accessory structures of theintegument. Color the diagram labeling the nail plate, the free edge, thenail fold, the lunula, eponychium (cuticle), nail root, hyponychiumand the nail bed.
a.
k.
J.
1. ---------
h. _
m.
n.
1.
o.
Answer Key: a. Bulb, b. Follicle, c. Root, d. Shaft,e. Sebaceous gland, f. Arrector pili. g. Pacinian corpuscle, h. Nail plate, i. Nail fold, J. Lunula, k. Eponychium,I. Nail root, m. Free edge, n. Hyponychium, o. Nail matrix (Nailbed)
Chapter Three: Skeletal System 43
FRONTAL ASPECT OF THE SKULLThe skull is a complex structure. There are 8 cranial bones and 14 facialbones in the skull. From the anterior view most of the facial bones can beseen and some of the cranial bones are visible too. The bone that makesup the forehead and extends beyond the eyebrows is the frontal bone.This bone forms the upper rim of the orbit, which is a socket thatencloses the eye. In the back of the orbit is the sphenoid bone and thelateral walls of the orbit are composed of the zygomatic bones. Thebridge of the nose consists of the paired nasal bones and just lateral to
a. _
them are the two maxillae. These bones hold the upper teeth. The lowerteeth are held by the mandible. Inside the nasal cavity two projectionscan be seen. These are the inferior nasal conchae. The wall that divides thenasal cavity is the nasal septum and it consists of two bones, the ethmoidbone and the vomer. Along the side of the skull are the temporal bones,located posterior to the zygomatic bones. Label the major bones of theskull and color them in. As you color in the skull try to use the same colorfor the same bone on different pages. This will help you associate thesame bone with various views from which it can be seen.
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f.
g.-------
h.
Answer Key:a. Orbit,b. Frontal bone, c.Temporal bone, d. Sphenoid bone, e. Nasal bone, f. Zygomatic bone,g. Nasal septum, h. Maxilla, i. Mandible
Chapter ThreeSkeletal System I
UPLANd'· Ime lea 45
LATERAL VIEW OF THE SKULLMany bones seen from the anterior view can also be seen from the lateralview. The frontal bone is joined to the parietal bones by the coronalsuture. The parietal bones span much of the cranium and articulate withthe occipital bone at the lambdoid suture. There is a posteriorextension of the occipital bone known as the external occipitalprotuberance. The exterior aspect of the temporal bone is seen from thelateral view and many of the significant features such as the mastoidprocess, external acoustic meatus, and styloid process are visible. On theside is the elongated zygomatic process. The temporal bone articulateswith other cranial bones by the squamous suture. The bone anterior tothe temporal bone is the sphenoid bone. It is a bone that is found in themiddle of the skull. The nasal bone is visible from the lateral view and itsrelationship with the maxilla can be seen here. Behind the maxilla is the
a. _
lacrimal bone which houses the nasolacrimal canal, a duct that drainstears from the eye into the nose. The mandible articulates with the restof the skull at the mandibular condyle. A depression in front of thecondyle is the mandibular notch and the anterior section of bone infront of the notch is the coronoid process. Label the major features ofthe skull seen in lateral view and color each bone a different color.
Details of the mandible can be seen in the isolated bone. In addition tothe features of the mandible listed above, find the mandibular foramenand the mental foramen of the mandible. These are holes for the passageof nerves and blood vessels.The main portion of the mandible is thebody and the upright part is the ramus. The angle is the posteriorjunction of these two parts. The teeth are located in alveoli and the smallsegments of bone between the teeth are the alveolar processes. Label thefeatures of the mandible.
r. _
q._-----
p._-----
0. _
Tl, _
ffi. _
1. _ k. _
e. _
f. _
z.
1.
s.
Answer Key: a. Coronal suture, b. Parietal bones, c. Zygomatic process, d. Temporal bone, e. Squamous suture, f. Lambdoid suture, g. External occipital protuberance,h. Occipital bone, i. Mastoid process, j. External acoustic meatus, k. Styloid process, I. Mandible, ill. Maxilla, n. Zygomatic bone, o. Nasal bone, p. Lacrimal bone,q. Sphenoid bone, r. Frontal bone, s. Coronoid process, t. Mandibular foramen, u. Mandibular notch, v. Mandibular condyle, w. Ramus, x. Angle,y. Body, z. Mental foramen
SKULL-TOP AI\ID BOnOMVIEWS
The superior aspect of the skullconsists of few bones and fewsutures. The frontal bone is themost anterior bone with the parietalbones directly posterior to it. Thecoronal suture separates the twoand the sagittal suture separates theparietal bones. The lambdoid sutureseparates the parietal bone from theoccipital bone. Label the bones andsutures and color the bones in theillustrations.
The inferior aspect of the skull ismore complex than the superiorview. In the inferior view themandible has been removed so someof the underlying structures can beseen. The large opening in theoccipital bone is the foramenmagnum. The two bumps lateral tothe foramen magnum are theoccipital condyles and the raisedbump at the posterior part of theskull is the external occipitalprotuberance. The more anteriorand lateral bone to the occipitalbone is the temporal bone. Thejugular foramen is located betweenthe occipital and temporal bone.Another opening nearby is thecarotid canal. Lateral to this is thestyloid process, an attachment pointfor muscles. Lateral to this is adepression called the mandibularfossa. it is here that the mandiblearticulates with the temporal bone.The sphenoid bone spans the skulland the major features seen from theinferior view are the greater wing,and the lateral and medialpterygoid plates. The hard palate ismade of the palatine process of themaxilla and the palatine bones. Thebone that opens into the nasal cavityis the vomer. Label and color thesefeatures of the skull.
Answer Key: a. Frontal bone,b. Coronal suture,c. Parietal bones,d. Sagittal suture,e. Lambdoid suture,f. Occipital bone, g. Palatine process ofthe maxilla, h. Palatine bone, i. Vomer,j. Greaterwing, k. Lateral pterygoidplate, I. Medial pterygoidplate,m. Mandibularfossa, n. Styloidprocess,o. Carotid canal, p. Jugularforamen,q. Occipital condyles, r.Foramenmagnum,s. External occipitalprotuberance
Anterior
Anterior
Posterior
g.
Chapter Three I KAPLA~. I 47Skeletal System meulca
h. _
1.
Sphenoid bone:J.
k.
1.
q._------
r.
ChapterThree I UPLANd'· I 49Skeletal System me lea
MIDSAGITIAL SECTION OF THE SKULL
Several features of the skull can be seen when it is sectioned in themidsagittal plane. Locate the major bones of the skull and the featuresseen in this section. The nasal septum consists of two bony structures, theperpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and the vomer. The crista galliextends superiorly from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. Thejunction of the maxilla and the palatine bone that make up the hardpalate can be seen from this view as well. The frontal sinus and thesphenoid sinus are two cavities seen here. Label the bones and the majorfeatures of the midsagittal section of the skull using the terms provided.Color the bones different colors and shade the sinuses in a darker shadeof the color used for the specific bones that hold the sinuses.
Frontal bone
Temporal bone
Maxilla
Styloid process
Nasal bone
Vomer
Sphenoid sinus
Parietal bone
Sphenoid bone
Mandible
Sella turcica
Palatine bone
Crista galli
Occipital bone
Ethmoid bone
Internal acoustic meatus
Cribriform plate of the ethmoid
Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid
Frontal sinus
a. _
b.
c.m.
d.
e.
f. n.
g.
h.
1.
J.
k.
r. _
Answer Key: a. Frontal bone, b. Frontal sinus, c. Nasal bone, d. Ethmoid bone, e. Crista galli, f. Cribriform plate of the ethmoid, g. Perpendicularplate of the ethmoid,h. Vomer, i. Maxilla, j. Palatine bone, k. Mandible, I.Parietal bone, m. Temporal bone, n. Sella turcica, o. Occipital bone, p. Internal acoustic meatus, q. Sphenoid bone,r. Sphenoid sinus
Chapter Three I lAP LANd'• I 51Skeletal System me lea
e. _
d. _
0. _
c. _
A few bones of the skull arefrequently studied as separate bones.The sphenoid bone has a superficialresemblance to a bat or butterfly.There are the lesser wings, thegreater wings, and the pterygoidplates, all of which resemble wings.The dorsum sellae is the posteriorpart of the sella turcica (adepression that holds the pituitarygland). Locate the foramenrotundum and the foramen ovaleon the sphenoid bone. These holesenclose parts of the trigeminalnerve.
The ethmoid bone is located justposterior to the nose and is best seenisolated from the rest of the skullbones. The cribriform plate that hassmall holes called olfactory foraminain it. Locate the crista galli and theperpendicular plate. The ethmoidhas four curved structures lateral tothe perpendicular plate. These arethe two superior nasal conchae andthe two middle nasal conchae. Theethmoid sinuses are numeroussmall holes in the bone. Locate thestructures of these skull bones. Labelthe illustration and color in thefeatures of the bones.
The temporal bone has a flatsquamous portion and a denserpetrous portion. The section of thetemporal bone that connects to thezygomatic bone is the zygomaticprocess. There are two significantcanals or meatuses for hearing.These are the external acousticmeatus and the internal acousticmeatus. The mastoid process is alarge bump that can be palpateddirectly posterior to the ear. Thestyloid process anchors a number ofsmall muscles.
Answer Key:
(Sphenoid features), a. Sella turcicab. Lesserwing,c. Foramen rotundum,d. Foramen ovaIe,e. Dorsum sellae,f. Greater wing
(Temporal features), g. Squamousportion, h. Zygomatic process,i. External acoustic meatus, J. Styloidprocess, k. Mastoid process
(Ethmoidfeatures), I.Crista galli,m. Middle nasal concha,n. Perpendicularplate,o. Superior nasal concha
SPHENOID, TEMPORAL,Af\ID ETHMOID BONES
Chapter Three I mIAPeLA'!a-.cal 53Skeletal System U
a. _
,\../""/I~
\
d. _
c. _
b. _
Ivi,
Answer Key: a. Cervical vertebrae(cervical curvature), b. Thoracicvertebrae (thoraciccurvature),c. Lumbarvertebrae (lumbar curvature),d. Sacrum (pelvic curvature), e. Coccyx
We are unique as animals because ofour upright posture. The verticalposition of the spine is reflected inthe increase in size of the vertebrafrom superior to inferior. Thevertebral column is divided into fivemajor regions. There are 7 cervicalvertebrae that occur in the neckwhile the 12 thoracic vertebrae haveribs attached to them. The 5 lumbarvertebrae are found in the lowerback and the sacrum consists of 5fused sacral vertebrae. The coccyx isthe terminal portion of the vertebralcolumn consisting of 4 coccygealvertebrae. The vertebral column inthe adult has curves. The uppermostis the cervical curvature and thelower ones are the thoracic, lumbar,and pelvic curvatures. Label theillustration with the regions and thecurvatures and color in the regionswith different colors. Color in thecurved arrows for the curvatures.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
ATLASThe atlas is the first cervicalvertebra. It is unique among thevertebrae because it has no body.Label the vertebral foramen,superior articular facet, thetransverse foramen, and the lateralmasses.
AXISThe axis is the second cervicalvertebra and it has a body with aprojection that arises from the bodyknown as the odontoid process ordens. Label the axis including thesuperior articular facets, thetransverse foramen, the spinousprocess, and the vertebral foramen.Color these features in.
ATLAS AND AXIS
Here are the atlas and axis together.Color the two bones separate colors.
HYOIDThe hyoid bone is a floating bone,which means that it has no hardattachments to other bones. Themain part of the hyoid is the bodyand the two horns that arise fromthe hyoid are the greater cornua andthe lesser cornua. Label these partsof the bone and color them inseparate colors.
Chapter Three I KAPLA~. I 55Skeletal System meulca
e. _
Answer Key: a. Vertebral foramen, b. Lateral masses, c. Transverse foramen, d. Superiorarticular facet,e. Spinous process, f. Body, g. Odontoid process (dens), h. Axis, i.Atlas, j. Lessercornua, k. Greater cornua, I. Body
h 1mKAPeLA~·lcalChapter Tree uSkeletal System
57
a.
b.
1.
bar VertebraLum
Thoracic Vertebra
1.
. 1VertebraCervica
b. _
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THORACIC,CERVICAL, R VERTEBRAEAND LUMBA
to vertebraemmonFeatures co the spinal cord
. gwhere .The operun the vertebra IS
passes through t bral foramen.known as the ver ertebra is theTh
e body of the ve f the vertebra. part 0 teight-bearing ss is the parw . proce
d the spinous . I This processan d ostenor y. althat exten ~ p from the vertebris an extension from the bodyarch that curves tebral foramen.enclosing the ver sed of the twoThis arch is compo laminae. The
edicles and. the tworocess and the~uperior art~cular facet (the flatsuperior artIcu~~cess)are the partssurface on ~hethe vertebra above.that join with . ular process andThe infe~ior ar1~~ar facet are t?ethe infenor art b that join with
f the verte raparts 0
the vertebra below.
. al vertebrae. al cervlc .TYPIc. nd lateral viewsuperior a distinct from. I rtebrae are .Cervica ve b having twoII other vertebra~ y These house
a f mma. , .transverse ora her characteristicblo
od vessels.Anot brae iis that several. I rte raeof the cervica ve
ifidspinous process
of them have a b
cic vertebraeTypical thora lateral view
superior and b e typically have. erte raThe thoracic v ocesses thanlonger spinous pr d many of them
t brae an Thcervical ver .e rior direction. eint in an infe . vertebrae,pOl in thoracic .
body is larger I bones withnd they are the on y ttachment
a that are acostal facets h ads of ribs. ThePoints for the e ses can be seen
proces taltransverse sverse cosith the tranalong WI
facets.
. lumbar verteb!aeTYPlc~1 d lateral viewsuperior an brae have largerThe lumbar v:r~~eysupport ~orebodies becaus . s process IS
The spinou I'weight. re horizonta III .
shorter and mo han in thoracicI mbar vertebrae t costal facetsu There are no belvertebrae. foramina. La
and no transverse brae illustratedt of the vertethe par s .
and color them Ill.
, process,. a Bifid spinousAnswer Key.. c Vertebral
' s process" , Ib Spinou , e Pedice,. d Lamina, 'foramen, ' , lar process,f. Superior articu ess h. Body,g
Transverse proc 'ssJ', Transverse' , lar proce ,i Inferior artrcu , r costal facet,' k Superioforamen" f etI. Inferior costal ac
SACRUM AND COCCYX
Sacrum and coccyx, anterior viewThe terminal portion of thevertebral column consists of twostructures that are fused bones. Thesacrum is 5 fused vertebrae and thecoccyx is 3-5 fused vertebrae. Thetop rim of the sacrum is the sacralpromontory and the wing-likeexpansion where the ilium attachesis the ala. The area where thevertebrae join are the transverselines. The holes running down eachside are the anterior sacralforamina. At the top of the sacrumare the superior articular processesand they attach to the lumbarvertebra. Label and color the parts ofthe sacrum and the coccyx.
Sacrum and coccyx, posteriorviewFrom the posterior view the mediansacral crest is the fused remains ofthe spinous processes of thevertebrae. The posterior sacralforamina are on each side of thecrest and the lateral sacral crests arelateral to the foramina. The superiorarticular processes can be seen fromthis view and also the auricularsurface which forms part of thesacroiliac joint. Label the features ofthe sacrum and the coccyx and colorthem in.
Answer Key: a. Superiorarticularprocess, b. Ala, c. Sacral promontory,d. Transverse lines,e. Anterior sacralforamina, f. Coccyx, g. AUricular surface,h. Lateral sacral crest, i. Median sacralcrest, j. Posterior sacral foramina
ChapterThree I IAPLANd· · I 59Skeletal System me lea
c. _
d. _
e. _
-f. _
1. _
STERNUM / RIBS / HYOIDThe sternum is commonly known asthe breastbone and is divided intothree areas, the upper manubriumwith the suprasternal notch and theclavicular notches, the body withthe costal notches (where the ribsattach), and the xiphoid process.Between the manubrium and thebody is the sternal angle. Label thesefeatures on the illustration and colorthe three major areas of the sternumdifferent colors.
If you select a rib as a representativebone for all of the ribs, you will findthe terminal portion of the rib isexpanded in a head. The constrictedregion below that is the neck. Thetubercle of the rib is a bump thatattaches to the transverse process ofthe vertebra. The bend in the rib isknown as the angle and thedepressed area of the rib wherenerves and blood vessels are found isthe costal groove. Color in theindividual parts of a rib after youlabel the figure and color the rib as itjoins with a vertebra.
a. ---------
b. _
c. _
d. _
e.-------
f. _
g._-----
1. _
ChapterThree I KAPLAlfd- I 61Skeletal System me lea
Answer Key:a. Suprasternal notch,b. Clavicular notch, c. Manubrium,d. Sternal angle, e. Costal notches,f. Body, g.Xiphoidprocess, h. Head,i.Tubercle, j. Neck, k.Angleof rib,I. Costa I groove
1. _
1. _
..
APPEf\I DICULARSKELETON-PECTORALGIRDLE AND UPPEREXTREMITY
The pectoral girdle is made of theclavicles and the scapulae. Theupper extremity consists of thehumerus of the arm, the radius andulna of the forearm, and the carpals,metacarpals, and phalanges of thehand. Locate these major regions ofthe upper extremity and label themon the diagram. Color these areas indifferent colors on the illustration.
Answer Key: a. Clavicle, b. Humerus,c. Scapula, d. Radius, e. Ulna, f. Carpals,g. Metacarpals, h. Phalanges
d .. _
a. _
f.
ChapterThree I UPLANd'· I 63Skeletal System me lea
II, ( ,
,//
1I
, II
c.----------
SCAPULAThe pectoral girdle consists of thescapulae and the clavicles. Eachscapula is a triangular bone and thethree edges are known as thesuperior border, the lateral border,and the medial border. Thescapular spine is on the posteriorsurface and it expands into aterminal process known as theacromion process. Above the spineis the supraspinous fossa. Below thespine is the infraspinous fossa andon the anterior side of the scapula isthe subscapular fossa and thecoracoid process. The inferior angleof the scapula is at the junction ofthe medial and lateral borders.Inferior to the acromion process isthe glenoid fossa. This is adepression where the head of thehumerus articulates with thescapula. Label the various features ofthe scapula and color in the regionsof the bone with different colors.Locate as many of the features fromthe various angles presented.
Answer Key: a.Acromion process,b. Superior border, c. Coracoid process,d. Glenoid fossa, e. Subscapular fossa,f. Lateral border, g. Medial border,h. Inferiorangle, i, Supraspinous fossa,j. Scapular spine,k. Infraspinous fossa
Chapter Three I UPLANd'· I 65Skeletal System me lea
c. _
d. _
e.---------4~it7;:~
f. _
g._-----
h. _
d. _
a. _
c.----------
d. _
f. _
h. _
CLAVICLE
The clavicle is a thin bone that stabilizes the shoulder joint in a lateralposition. It has a blunt end that articulates with the sternum (the sternalend) and a flattened end that joins with the acromion process of the
................".
' .
Chapter Three I lAPLA~. I 67Skeletal System meulCa
scapula. This is called the acromial end. A small bump on the inferiorpart of the clavicle has a ligament that attaches to the coracoid process ofthe scapula. This bump is called the conoid tubercle. Label the clavicleand color the ends and the conoid tubercle.
...............
Sternum
Answer Key: a, Sternal end, b. Acromial end, c. Conoid tubercle
.; .
". '"".
Superior view
Inferior view
c. _
Chapter Three I KAPLA~. I 69Skeletal System meulCa
HUMERUS
g._-------
~f.__
£,.
\~
rL
The humerus has a proximal headthat fits into the glenoid fossa of thescapula. Just at the edge of the headis a rim known as the anatomicalneck. Below this neck are the greaterand lesser tubercle and thedepression between the two is theintertubercular groove. Below theseis the surgical neck of the humerus.The deltoid muscle attaches to thehumerus at the deltoid tuberosityand the two expanded wing-likeprocesses at the distal end of thehumerus are the supracondylarridges. Inferior to these are themedial and lateral epicondyles andat the articulating ends of thehumerus are the lateral capitulumand the medial trochlea. Thedepression on the anterior surface ofthe humerus into which the ulna fitsis called the coronoid fossa and theposterior depression where theelbow locks into the humerus iscalled the olecranon fossa. Label thefigure and color in the specific partsof the illustration.
h. _
1. _
J.------
~----:i_=~~~L-----m. _
Anterior View Posterior ViewAnswer Key: a. Greatertubercle,b. Head,c. Anatomical neck,d. Lessertubercle, e. Intertuberculargroove,f. Surgical neck,g. Deltoid tuberosity,h. Supracondylar ridges, i. Lateralepicondyle, j. Coronoid fossa,k.Olecranon fossa, I.Medial epicondyle,m. Capitulum, n. Trochlea
g.-----
FOREARM BONESThe radius has a circular head, aradial tuberosity on the shaft(where the biceps brachii muscleattaches), and a distal styloidprocess. At the distal end of theradius is a depression where the ulnajoins with the radius. This is knownas the ulnar notch of the radius.
The ulna has a proximal olecranonprocess, a coronoid process, and thetrochlear notch between the two.Just distal to the coronoid process ofthe ulna is the tuberosity oftheulna, a projection where musclesattach. The head of the ulna is distaland it also has a styloid process. Atthe proximal portion of the ulna is adepression where the head of theradius articulates with the ulna. Thisdepression is known as the radialnotch of the ulna.
When the two bones are joined youcan see where each fits into theother. On the edge of each bone isthe interosseus margin. This is aridge where the interosseusmembrane connects the bones.
h. _
Chapter Three I UPLANd'· I 71Skeletal System me lea
Answer Key: a.Olecranon process,b. Trochlear notch,c.Coronoidprocess,d. Radial notch,e. Tuberosity of theulna, f. Head, g. Radial tuberosity,h. Interosseus margin,i. Ulnarnotch,j. Styloid process
1.------ J.------
ChapterThree I ImAPelA~·ICal nSkeletal System U
Right Hand,Anterior View,Carpals
Right Hand,Posterior View
Right Hand,Anterior View
1. _
g._----
J.-----k. _
1. _
a. _
f. _e. ~ j. _
-rS? ~YI\0f:(~ .'A(~~} "\J5 .......;:}(JJ!>A
m. ••~~.~~r .....·l~'
1. _h. _
e. _
a. _
m. _
h. _
HAND BONES
Answer Key: a. Phalanges, b. Head,c. Shaft, d. Base, e. Hamate, f.Capitate,g.Triquetrum, h. Lunate, i. Metacarpal,j. Trapezoid, k.Trapezium, I. Scaphoid,m. Pisiform
The hand consists of 27 bonesdivided into three groups: thecarpals, the metacarpals, and thephalanges. The thumb is known asthe pollex and is listed as the firstdigit of the hand. The index finger isthe second digit and the fingers arelisted sequentially with the littlefinger being the fifth digit. Thebones of the fingers are known asphalanges and they are namedaccording to what digit they belongand as being proximal, middle ordistal. Therefore the bone of tip ofthe little finger is the distal phalanxof the fifth digit while the bone inthe place where you would normallywear a wedding ring is the proximalphalanx of the fourth digit. Eachphalanx has a proximal base, a shaft,and a distal head. The metacarpalsare the bones of the palm of thehand. Each metacarpal also has aproximal base, a shaft, and a distalhead. There are five metacarpals andthey are named for the phalangesthat extend from them. The firstmetacarpal articulates with thethumb. The carpals are the bones ofthe wrist. There are eight carpalbones in two rows. The bone underthe thumb is the trapezium. The onemedial to it is the trapezoid. Thecapitate is found under the thirdmetacarpal and the hamate finishesthat row. Proximal to the trapeziumis the scaphoid, which joins with theradius. The next bone in line is thelunate, followed by the triquetrum,and finally the little pisiform bone.If you memorize the bones in thissequence you can use a mnemonicdevice to remember them. Thismnemonic is The Tom Cat HasShaken Loose To Prowl. The firstletter of the mnemonic representsthe first letter of the carpal bone.Label the illustration and color all ofthe phalanges one color. Color themetacarpals another color and colorthe carpal bones individual colors.As you color the various illustrationsof the hand use the same colorscheme for the bones.
HIP
The hip bones are known as the oscoxae. Each os coxa is a result of thefusion of three bones, the ilium, theischium, and the pubis. Label andcolor in these three fused bonesusing a different color for each area.The two os coxae, when joinedtogether by the pubic symphysis,form the pelvis and it can be dividedinto an upper false pelvis and alower true pelvis separated by thepelvic brim. The anterior superioriliac spine and the anterior inferioriliac spine can be seen from thefront. The top ridge of the pelvis isthe iliac crest. The large, inferiorhole is the obturator foramen andthe depression superior to it is theacetabulum. Note the junction ofthe sacrum and the ilium that formsthe sacroiliac joint. Label thefeatures of the anterior view andcolor them in.
Answer Key: a. Iliaccrest, b. Sacroiliacjoint, c. Greatersciaticnotch, d. Anteriorsuperior iliacspine,e. Anterior inferioriliacspine, f. Acetabulum, g.Obturator m. _foramen, h. Pubicsymphysis, i. Falsepelvis, j. True pelvis, k. Ilium, I. Ischium,m. Pubis
Chapter Three I KAPLAlfd- I 75Skeletal System me lea
a._-:-- _
c. _
1. _
J.-----
p~",-1.- _
HIP (CONTINUED)
Lateral ViewWhen seen from a lateral view,several features are apparent in theos coxa. Locate the posteriorsuperior iliac spine and theposterior inferior iliac spine alongwith the greater sciatic notch, thespine of the ischium, and the lessersciatic notch. The ischial tuberosityis at the posterior, inferior edge ofthe ischium. Just anterior to thetuberosity is a strip of bone calledthe ischial ramus that attaches tothe inferior pubic ramus. The bodyof the pubis is the most anterior partof the pubis and the superior pubicramus is the portion that forms partof the acetabulum. Label and colorthese features on the illustration.
MALE AND FEMALE PELVISDifferences can be seen between themale and female pelvis. Thesubpubic angle in males is less than90 degrees and the female angle isgreater than 90 degrees. The ilium inmales is more vertical than in apelvis of a woman who has hadchildren. A further distinction isseen in the side view of a pelvis inwhich the sciatic notch in the femalepelvis has a much wider angle thanin males. Color in the upper portionof the ilium.
Chapter Three I KAPLAlfd- I 77Skeletal System me lea
1. _
J.-------
k. _
1. _
ffi. _
ll.------
0. _
Answer Key:a. Iliaccrest, b. Posteriorsuperior iliacspine,c. Posterior inferioriliacspine, d. Greatersciaticnotch,e. Spineof the ischium,f. Lesser sciaticnotch,g. Ischial tuberosity, h. Ischialramus, i. Anteriorsuperior iliac spine,j. Anterior inferior iliac spine,k. Superiorpubic ramus, I. Inferior pubic ramus,m. Obturatorforamen, n. Acetabulum,o. Iliacblade, p. Subpubicangle,q. Male (lessthan ninety degrees),r.Female (more than ninety degrees)
q.------- r.---- _
Chapter Three I ImAPeLA~·lcal 79Skeletal System U
r. _
p._----
n. _
h. _
The femur seen from the anteriorview shows a proximal head and aconstricted neck. Two largeprocesses are distal to the neck.These are the greater trochanterand the lesser trochanter. There is araised section of bone between themcalled the intertrochanteric line.The main part of the bone is theshaft and the lateral epicondyle andmedial epicondyle are the distalexpansions of the bone. Theposterior view of the femur hasadditional features such as theintertrochanteric ridge, the lineaaspera, and the lateral condyle andthe medial condyle. The femur isbowed and this can be seen from alateral view as well as the placementof the patella. The base of the patellais superior and the apex is inferior.Label the features of the femur andpatella and color in the variousparts.
LOWER EXTREMITYFEMUR/PATELLAThe lower extremity consists of thefemur of the thigh, the tibia andfibula of the leg, and the tarsals,metatarsals, and phalanges of thefoot. Locate these major regions ofthe lower extremity and label themon the diagram. Color these areas indifferent colors on the illustration.
Answer Key: a. Femur, b. Patella,e. Tibia, d. Fibula, e. Tarsals,f. Metatarsals, g. Phalanges, h. Greatertrochanter, i. Head, j. Neck,k. Intertrochanteric line,\. Intertrochantericridge,m. Lessertrochanter, n. Linea aspera , o. Lateralepicondyle, p. Lateral condyle,q. Medialepicondyle, r. Medial condyle, s. Base ofpatella, t. Apexof patella
Anterior
s. _
Posterior
TIBIA / FIBULAThe tibia supports the weight of thebody and is the bone that articulateswith the femur. The fibula is moreslender and is a bone to whichmuscles attach. The top of the tibia isexpanded into a triangular shapewith the medial tibial condyle andlateral tibial condyle articulatingwith the condyles of the femur. Thequadriceps femoris muscles attach tothe tibial tuberosity on the anteriorsurface of the tibia just below thecondyles. The anterior tibial crest isa large ridge that runs the length ofthe bone. At the terminal portion ofthe tibia is the medial malleolus.This process, along with the lateralmalleolus of the fibula, join with thetalus of the foot. The head of thefibula is proximal. It is a triangularregion with a pointed apex. Labelthe tibia and fibula illustrations andcolor in the various regions of thebones.
II I
ChapterThree I KAPLANd'. I 81Skeletal System me lea
d. _
e. _
I
I I
I
I
Answer Key: a. Lateral tibial condyle,b. Medial tibial condyle,c. Tibialtuberosity, d. Apex, e. Head of fibula,f.Anteriortibial crest, g. Shaftof tibia,h. Shaftof fibula, i. Medial malleolus,j. Lateral malleolus Anterior Posterior
a. _
LEFT FOOT
Color in the seven tarsal bones usingdifferent colors for each bone. Thecalcaneus is the heel bone and takesthe major weight of the body duringwalking. The talus connects the footto the tibia and fibula forming theankle joint. The cuneiforms are socalled because they are wedgeshaped bones and they form anatural arch of bone in the foot.
Note that each of the metatarsalsand each of the phalanges has adistal head, a shaft, and a proximalbase. Color all of the five metatarsalsthe same color. The first metatarsal isunder the big toe and the fifth isunder the smallest toe. Color all ofthe fourteen phalanges anothercolor. All of the proximal phalangesare given the same letter in theillustration as are the middle anddistal phalanges. Write proximal,middle, or distal in the appropriatespace next to the toes. The big toe(hallux) has two phalanges while theother toes have three.
1. _
2. _
3. _
c. _b. _
ChapterThree I UPLANd·· I 83Skeletal System me lea
a. _
b.------c.---------
~.lL-~'o-d. _
Answer Key:
1. Phalanges2. Metatarsals3. Tarsalsa. Distal phalanges,b. Middle phalanges, c. Proximalphalanges, d. Head,e. Shaft, f. Base,g. First (medial) cuneiform, h. Second(intermediate) cuneiform,i. Third (lateral) cuneiform, j. Cuboid,k. Navicular, I. Talus, m. Calcaneus
1. _
h.------__
g._------
J.----
m. _
Tarsals
Chapter Four: Articulations 85
g._-----
h. _
a. _
Fibrous joints are held together bycollagenous fibers, the same fibersthat make up tendons and ligaments.These joints do not have a jointcavity. Sutures are immovablefibrous joints of the skull. Color inthe suture illustrated on the page. Agomphosis is a fibrous joint inwhich a round peg is held into asocket. Gomphoses are representedby the teeth held into the maxilla orthe mandible. Another fibrous jointis the syndesmosis. This joint isfound between the distal radius andulna (or tibia and fibula) and issemimovable. Color in the variousfibrous joints.
FIBROUS JOINTS
Articulations are the joints thatoccur between bones.' They can beclassified either according tomovement or by structure. Jointscan be immovable (synarthroses),semimovable (amphiarthroses), orfreely movable (diarthroses). Thecomposition of joints can befibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial.
CLASSIFICATIONS OFARTICULATIOI\IS
Answer Key: a. Gomphosis(peg suture), b. Tooth, c. Alveolarsocket, d. Gingiva, e. Alveolar ridge,f. Periodontal ligaments,g. Suture,h.Sagittal suture, i.Syndesmosis,J. Tibia, k. Fibula, 1. Interosseousmembrane, m. Posterior tibiofibularligament,n. Transverse tibiofibularligament
1. _
J.
CARTILAGINOUS JOINTSCartilaginous joints are bones heldtogether by cartilage and do nothave a joint cavity. If the joint is heldtogether by hyaline cartilage it isknown as a synchondrosis. If thecartilage is short then the joint isimmovable. An example of this kindof joint is an epiphyseal plate. If thecartilage is a little longer then thejoint is a semimovable joint. This isrepresented by the sternal-ribjunction. A cartilaginous joint thatis composed of fibrocartilage isknown as a symphysis (symphysesplural). These are semimovablejoints. Examples of symphyses arethe pubic symphysis andintervertebral discs. Color thecartilaginous joints. Use differentcolors for the hyaline cartilage fromthe fibrocartilage.
Answer Key: a. Synchondrosis,b. Sternum, c. Costal cartilage,d. Ribs, e. Femur, f. Epiphyseal plate,g Symphysis, h. lntervertebrai disc,i. Lumbarvertebra, j. Sacrum
b.----c. _
a. _
f. _
g._----
Chapter Four I mKAPeLANd·-Ical 87Articulations
d. _
1. _
J.-----
SYNOVIAL JOINTS, BURSA,AND TENDON SHEATH
Synovial joints are complex jointsthat are all freely movable. There arevariations with the joints but allsynovial joints con~ist of two bonesenclosed by a joint capsule,articular cartilages, synovialmembranes that secrete synovialfluid in the synovial cavity. Somesynovial joints have fibrocartilagepads in the cavity called menisci(meniscus singular). Color thesynovial joint and pay attention tothe general structure of the joint.Color each part of the joint °adifferent color.
MODIFIED SYNOVIALSTRUCTURES-BURSAEAI\ID TEI\IDON SHEATHS
There are structures in the body thatconsist of svnovial membranes andfibrous capsules, These are notsynovial joints but are associatedwith joints. A bursa is one suchstructure. It is a fluid-filled sac withan internal synovial membrane thatcushions tendons as they pass overbones. The bursa occurs between thetendon and the bone. Anotherstructure is a tendon sheath. It also iscomposed of a synovial membraneand fibrous sheath and it enclosestendons. The sheaths can providelubrication to the tendon so it doesnot become irritated as it passes overbones or next to other tendons.Color in the layers of the bursa andthe tendon sheaths.
Answer Key: ao Bone, b. Joint capsule,c. Synovial cavity (synovial fluid),d. Meruscus, e. Articular cartilage,f. Synovial membrane, g. Tendonsheath, h. Achilles tendon,i. Bursa, j. Calcaneus
Chapter Four I mKAPeLA~·lcal 89Articulations U
a. _
b. _
c.--------
d. -
e. _
g.-------
h.- _
Chapter Four I KmAP~~·ICal 91Articulations ItnI
SPECIFIC SYNOVIALJOINTSSynovial joints are classified by whatkind of motion they have. Glidingjoints move in one plane like twosheets of glass sliding across oneanother. Hinge joints have angularmovement like a door hinge.Rotating (pivot) joints move like awheel of a car around an axle.Condyloid (ellipsoidal) joints movelike hinges in two directions. In thesejoints there is a convex surface and aconcave surface. Saddle joints havetwo concave surfaces. They allow forgreater movement than condyloidjoints. Ball and socket joints allowfor the greatest range of movementand are found in the shoulder andhip. Color the illustrations of thesejoints. c.-----------
a. _
Answer Key: a. Superiorarticularprocess, b. Vertebrae, c. Inferiorarticularprocess, d. Gliding (plane), e. Humerus,f Ulna, g. Hinge, h. Ulna, i. Radius,j, Rotating
d. - _
g._--------------
~h_
1. _
J.
11 _.r',/
NOVIAlSPECIFIC ~NTINUED)JOINTS (C
a.
! KAPLAN". IChapter .Four medicaArticulatIons
93
b Ball-andK "a Femur, .Answer e
yd"··
d Carpals,k t Ra IUS, . .
soc e ,c. . f Trapezium,e. Condyloid,. \ h Saddle
First metacarpa, .g.
d.
c.
e.
g.
h.
Chapter Four ImKA PeLA Nd' .·cal
Articulations 95
b. _
a. _SPECIFIC JOINTS
TEMPOROMANDIBULARJOINT
Som.ejoints of the body warrantspecial attention. The!e~P?romandibular joint or jawjoint IS both a gliding joint and ahinge joint. The condyle of themandible articulates with themandibular !ossa of the temporalbone. An articular disc is found inthe joint that decreases the stress onthe joint. Ligaments (denseconnective tissue that joins bone tobone) connect the mandible to thetemporal bone.
Answer Key: a.Temporal boneb. Coronoid process, c. Condyl~ldprocess (CUI), d. Angle of mandiblee. Mandibl,. f. Articular disc, g Capsule,h. Hinge, I. Hingeand glide
Jaws closed
e. _
h.-----
Jaws opened widelyActions:
1.-------
c) //
; . ~V// . ,r~--='--d. --------
HUMEROSCAPULAR ANDACETABULOFEMORALJOINTS
The humeroscapular joint orshoulder joint is a ball-and-socketjoint that connects the humerus tothe glenoid fossa of the scapula. Thejoint is deepened by the glenoidlabrum which is a fibrocartilagering. There are numerous ligamentsthat connect the scapula to thehumerus.
Another ball and socket joint is theacetabulofemoral joint. It also hasan acetabular labrum andnumerous ligaments that joint thefemur to the hip.
Answer Key: a.Articular cartilage,b. Glenoid labrum, c. Capsule,d. Glenoid fossa, e. Humerus,f. Scapula, g. Shoulder joint,h. Femur, i. Acetabular labrum,j.Hip joint
a. _
c. _
d.
e. _
h. _
Chapter Four I IlAPLAlfd- I 97Articulations me lea
g._-----
1. _
TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT
The tibiofemoral joint is special inhumans because it is the largest jointin the body and because it isparticularly vulnerable to injury. Thejoint is stabilized by the patellartendon, the medial and lateralcollateral ligaments, the anteriorand posterior cruciate ligamentsand the medial and lateral menisci.Label the structures in the anteriorview,with the patella in place andwith it reflected, and color them in.
Answer Key: a. Femur, b. Patella,c. Fibular collateral ligament,d. Patellar tendon, e. Tibial collateralligament, f. Fibula, g. Tibia,h. Posterior cruciate ligament,i. Anterior cruciate ligament,j. Lateral meniscus,k. Medial meniscus
g.
Chapter Four I IAPLANd·· I 99Articulations me lea
b. _
h. _
k.
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Chapter Four I KAPLANd'. I 101Articulations me lea
MOVEMENT AT JOINTS where the joint is extended beyond anatomic position. Looking up at theceiling is hyperextension of the head.
There is a broad range of motion that occurs at joints. These motionsshould be referenced with the body in anatomical position. Flexion of ajoint is a decrease in the joint angle from the body in anatomic position.When the elbow is bent the forearm is flexed. Most flexion takes place ina forward direction. The exception to this is the leg where flexion of theleg results in the bending of the knee. Extension of the joint is when thejoint is returned to anatomic position. Hyperextension is a condition
Abduction occurs when the extremities or head are moved in thecoronal plane, laterally from the body. Adduction is the return of thelimbs to the body.
Rotation is the movernen t of part of the body in a circular pattern.Lateral rotation is the movement of the body in a lateral direction andmedial rotation is in the opposite direction.
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Answer Key: a. Hyperextension of the head, b. Flexion of the forearm, c. Extension of the forearm, d. Abduction of the arm, e. Adduction of the arm,f.Medial rotation of the thigh, g. Lateral rotation of the thigh
OVERVIEW OF THENERVOUS SYSTEM
The body must react to the externalenvironment and the internalenvironment and communicateinformation between regions of thebody. This job is primarily the taskof the nervous system. Properresponse to the externalenvironment is critical for thermalregulation, response to threats,taking advantage of opportunitiessuch as food availability, and a hostof other stimuli. Response to theinternal environment is importantfor sensing muscle tension, digestiveprocesses, maintenance of bloodpressure, and other functions.Communication is important forcoordination of activities such aswalking, digestion, and maintenanceof blood pressure. The nervoussystem also integrates informationfrom the environment, relates pastinformation to the present andinterprets new experiences. Thebrain and the spinal cord make upthe central nervous system. Thenerves of the body make up theperipheral nervous system. Theperipheral nervous system is dividedinto the somatic nervous systemwhich consists of spinal nerves andperipheral nerves that innervate theouter regions of the body. It alsoconsists of the autonomic nervoussystem. Label the parts of thenervous system and color them in.
Answer Key: a. Centralnervous system,b. Brain, c. Spinal cord,d. Peripheral nervoussystem,e. Spinal nerves, f. Peripheral nerve
Chapter Five: Nervous System 103
d. _
\ \
NEURON
The nerve cell or neuron is thefunctional cell in the nervoussystem. Most electrical conductionin the body is due to thetransmission of impulses by theneuron. The neuron consists ofbranched structures calleddendrites. The main portion of thenerve cell is called the soma or nervecell body, and the elongated part ofthe neuron is the axon. Two neuronsare connected by gaps calledsynapses. The nerve cell body is themetabolic center of the cellconsisting of a nucleus, anendoplasmic reticulum called theNissl bodies, and a region where theaxon attaches called the axonhillock. Color in the parts of theneuron and label the parts.
Answer Key:a. Dendrites, b. Nervecellbody (soma), c. Nissl bodies,d. Axon hillock,e. Axon,f. Synapses
e.
f. _
Chapter Five I KmAPeLANd'.·cal 105Nervous System
b.
NEUROGLIANeuroglia or glial cells have manyspecialized functions in the nervoussystem. The neurolemmocyte orSchwann cell is found in theperipheral nervous system. Thesecells make up the myelin sheath thatwraps around axons.
The other neuroglia are located inthe central nervous system.Astrocytes are glial cells that, alongwith the brain capillaries, are foundin the blood-brain barrier. They alsohave a role in transferring nutrientsfrom the capillaries to the deeperregions of the brain. Another glialcell that functions as a barrier is theependymal cell. These cells arelocated between the CNS andcavities filled with cerebrospinalfluid. Microglia are also found inthe CNS and their function is one ofprotection. Microglia respond toinvasions of the nervous system andthey destroy microbes.
Oligodendrocytes are neuroglia thatproduce myelination in the CNS.Myelinated nerve fibers comprisewhite matter. Myelinated fibersconduct impulses faster thanunmyelinated fibers. White matter ismostly associated with transmissionof neural impulses from one area toanother. Color each glial cell adifferent color and write the name ofeach cell in the space provided.
Capillary
Neurons
d. _
g.--
Chapter Five I UPLA~. I 107Nervous System meulCa
b.-------
Answer Key:a.Astrocyte,b. Ependymal cell, c. Microglial cell,d. Oligodendrocyte,e. Neurolemmocytes (Schwann cells),f. Myelinsheath, g.Axon
NEURONSHAPES/SYNAPSENeurons come in a few basic shapes.The most common neuron in theeNS is the multipolar neuron. Itconsists of many dendrites and asingle axon. Bipolar neurons are notvery common. They are found in theeye, in the nose, and in the ear andconsist of a singular dendrite and anaxon. Pseudounipolar neuronsmake up the sensory nerves of thebody. They consist of a cluster ofdendrites at one end, a long axonleading to the nerve cell body, andanother axon leaving the nerve cellbody at the same area.
Neurons connect to each other bysynapses. The neuron first carryingthe information is called thepresynaptic neuron. This neuronhas synaptic vesicles that releaseneurotransmitters. The synapticcleft is the space between theneurons and the postsynapticneuron is the receiving neuron.Label the various neurons and theirparts as well as the synapse betweenthe neurons.
Chapter Five I UPLANd'· I 109Nervous System me lea
a. _
Answer Key: a. Dendrites, b. Nervecellbody,c. Axon, d. Multipolar neuron,e. Bipolarneuron, f.Pseudounipolarneuron,g. Presynaptic neuron,h. Postsynaptic neuron, i. Synapticvesicles, j. Synaptic cleft,k. Neurotransmitter
d. _
k. _
e. _ f.__~ _
.1.--------
NEURAL DEVELOPMENTThe nervous system develops early asa neural groove. This groove folds inon itself to become a neural tube asearly as four weeks after conception.At about six weeks of age thebeginning cerebral hemispheres canbe seen as lateral enclosures from theneural tube along with thedeveloping eye just posterior to thehemispheres. This embryonic brainis divided into three regions, theprosencephalon or forebrain, themesencephalon or midbrain, andthe rhombencephalon or hindbrain.Label the parts of the embryonicbrain and the adult derivatives ofthat brain and color in the regions.
Chapter Five I UPLANd'· I 111Nervous System me lea
e. _
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\ .•..•..~.;// c. \.... /iIrt[ \r.j.f.,,· --r----.,' \ d. 1,·.;1I'. 1[1
Frontal section Frontal section4-week embryo 6-week embryo
Answer Key: a. Prosencephalon,b. Mesencephalon,c. Rhombencephalon, d. Spinal cord,e. Cerebral hemisphere, f. Developingeye,g. Forebrain, h. Midbrain,i. Hindbrain
Lateral view4-week embryo
g._----
Lateral view6-week embryo
1. _
LATERAL ASPECT OF THE BRAINThe most obvious features of a lateral view of the brain are the lobes ofthe cerebrum and the cerebellum. The most anterior lobe is the frontallobe, which is responsible for intellect and abstract reasoning, amongother things. The division between the frontal lobe and the parietal lobeis the central sulcus. Just anterior to the central sulcus is the precentralgyrus, an area that sends motor impulses to muscles of the body. Justposterior to the central sulcus is the postcentral gyrus. The postcentral
Chapter Five I KAPLA~. I 113Nervous System me"dCa
gyrus receives sensory information from the body. On the lateral aspectof the brain is the lateral fissure and inferior to this is the temporal lobeof the brain. Hearing, taste, smell, and the formation of memories allhave centers here. The most posterior part of the cerebrum is theoccipital lobe, which has visual interpretation areas. Label the regionsseen in a lateral view of the brain and the spinal cord. Color theprecentral and postcentral gyri and then color the lobes of the brain.Shade in the cerebellum as well.
e. _
d. _
c.-- _
b. _
a. _
Answer Key: a. Temporal lobe, b. Lateral fissure, c. Frontal lobe, d. Precentral gyrus,
e. Central sulcus, f. Postcentral gyrus, g. Parietal lobe, h. Occipital lobe, I. Cerebellum
SUPERIOR ASPECT OF THE BRAINFrom the superior aspect, the two cerebral hemispheres are divided bythe longitudinal fissure. The frontal lobes are separated from theparietal lobe by the central sulcus. The precentral gyrus (primarymotor cortex) and the postcentral gyrus (primary somatosensory
a. _
b.
c. ----------
d. ----'----'-
e. _
f. _
g.------
h.
Chapter Five I KAPLA~. I 115Nervous System meulCa
cortex) are on either side of the central sulcus. The gyri are the raisedareas of the cerebral cortex and the sulci are the shallow depressions ofthe cerebral cortex. Together, these compose the convolutions of thebrain. Label and color the regions of the superior aspect of the brain.
1. -----__
Answer Key: a. Frontal lobe, b. Longitudinal fissure, c. Precentral gyrus, d. Central sulcus, e. Postcentral gyrus, f. Parietal lobe, g.Gyri, h. Occipital lobe, i. Sulci
INFERIOR ASPECT OF THE BRAINWhen seen from an inferior view, many different features can be seen onthe brain. The frontallobe is anterior and the temporallobe andcerebellum are visible as well. The cerebellum has small folds calledfolia. The medulla oblongata is attached to the spinal cord and the ponsis anterior to the medulla oblongata. Anterior to the pons are themammillary bodies which are responsible for the olfactory (smell)reflex. The pituitary gland is next to the mammillary bodies. Anterior to
Chapter Five I KAPLANd'. I 117Nervous System me lea
the pituitary is the optic chiasma, an x-shaped structure that has theoptic nerves anteriorly and the optic tracts posteriorly. The olfactorytracts are seen in this view of the brain as two parallel structures oneither side of the longitudinal fissure. The blood vessels of the brain arenot visible in this illustration because they obstruct some of the neuralstructures. They are covered in the cardiovascular section. The cranialnerves will be covered in subsequent pages. Label the structures seen inan inferior view and color them in.
g.-------
Answer Key: a. Frontal/obe, b. Cranial nerves, c. Optic chiasma, d. Pituitary, e. Temporal lobe, f. Mammillary body, g. Pons, h. Medulla oblongata, i.Cerebellum
MIDSAGITIAL SECTION OF THE BRAINWhen the brain is sectioned in the midsagittal plane, many internalfeatures are visible. One of the most obvious features is the crescentshaped corpus callosum. Superficial to this is the cerebral hemispherewith the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, and occipital lobe. Locate thethalamus, hypothalamus, and mammillary body along with the opticchiasma and the pituitary gland. The pineal gland is a small structureat the posterior aspect of the thalamus. These structures are all part ofthe forebrain. The midbrain is a small section with the cerebralpeduncles forming the inferior aspect of the midbrain and the
Chapter Five I KAPLA!._ I 119Nervous System meulca
cerebral aqueduct as a narrow tube between the peduncles and thecorpora quadrigemina. The corpora consist of the superior colliculiwhich are responsible for visual reflexes and the inferior colliculi whichare responsible for auditory reflexes. Posterior and inferior to themidbrain is the hindbrain. It consists of the pons, the cerebellum andthe medulla oblongata. The pons is a large, oval-shaped structure. Thecerebellum is visible with the arbor vitae (white matter of thecerebellum) and a triangular space known as the fourth ventricle. Themedulla oblongata is the terminal part of the hindbrain. Label thefeatures of the midsagittal section of the brain and color them in.
f. g. _
d.
c. _
b. --',-_--'-
a. _
f. _
q._-------
p._---o.
J.-----
k. _
Answer Key: a. Opticchiasma, b. Mammillary body,c. Hypothalamus,d. Frontal lobe, e. Thalamus, f. Corpus callosum, g. Pinealgland, h. Parietal lobe,i.Superiorcolliculus, J. Cerebral aqueduct, k. Occipital lobe, I. Inferior colliculus, m. Cerebellum, n. Fourthventricle, o. Medulla oblongata, p. Pons,q. Cerebral peduncle, r. Pituitary
CORONAL SECTION OFTHE BRAINWhen the brain is sectioned in the coronal plane, the convolutions areobvious. The gray matter is on the external aspect of the brain and thewhite matter is internal. There are deep sections of gray matter in thebrain and these are known as basal nuclei. The external gray matter isknown as the cerebral cortex and is divided into the gyri (raised areas)
Chapter Five I IAPLANd·· I 121Nervous System me lea
and sulci (depressed areas). The longitudinal fissure is the deep cleftthat separates the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral hemispheres areconnected by the corpus callosum. Deep in the hemispheres are spacesknown as the lateral ventricles and the third ventricle is a space in themiddle part of the brain. On the sides of the third ventricle is thethalamus and the floor of the third ventricle is the hypothalamus. Thepituitary is suspended from the hypothalamus by the infundibulum.
~b c.
)~"" d":2X e" £. _
7~\, (g._--
,',/ )' I h.----
Answer Key: a. Longitudinal fissure, b. Cerebral cortex (gray matter), c. Corpus callosum, d. Lateral ventricle, e. White matter,f. Thalamus, g. Third ventricle, h. Basal nuclei
LIMBIC SYSTEMThe limbic system is deep in the cerebrum and performs numerousfunctions. The system has an important role in memory and in emotions(both positive and negative). The sense of smell enters the limbic systemand has interpretive centers there. The cingulate gyrus is a curved partof the system and coordinates sensory input with emotions. Thehippocampus and amygdala are also parts of the limbic system. The
a. _
1.-- _
h. _
g. ---------
f.
e.
Chapter Five I KAPLANd'. I 123Nervous System me lea
amygdala plays a role in both arousal and aversion and the hippocampusis involved in memory formation. The hippocampal gyrus is part of thetemporal lobe and takes sensory information to the hippocampus.Memory apparently enters the limbic system as damage to the limbicsystem impairs memory formation. The storage of memory occurs inother parts of the brain. The mammillary body receives olfactory inputsand the fornix connects the mammillary body to the hippocampus.Label and color the parts of the limbic system.
Answer Key: a. Cingulate gyrus, b. Fornix, c. Thalamus, d. Hippocampal gyrus, e. Hippocampus, f.Amygdala, g. Mammillarybody, h. Olfactory bulb, I. Hypothalamus
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF THE CEREBRUM
The cerebrum can be described not only physically but also in terms ofthe functional areas. The functions of language are many and havedifferent areas of specialization. The motor speech area (Broca's area) istypically on the left side of the frontal lobe and it involves the formationof words. Coordination of the tongue and other parts of the vocalapparatus occur here. Wernicke's area is located in the parieto-temporalregion and is involved in the syntax of speech. Wernicke's area allows forthe formation of sentence structure while Broca's area is involved in thearticulation of speech.
The primary motor cortex is located in the precentral gyrus and itdetermines what body muscles to move. The motor association area isjust anterior to the primary motor cortex. The primary somatosensory
Chapter Five I KmAPeLAN(I'-.eal 125Nervous System
cortex receives sensory information from the body and has a sensoryassociation area just posterior to it. On the inferior part of thepostcentral gyrus is the primary gustatory cortex. Here is where thesense of taste is interpreted.
The posterior part of the brain includes the visual association area. Ifthis area is damaged, then sight can be impaired or lost completely. Theangular gyrus is one of the areas associated with reading. The temporallobe includes the primary auditory cortex and the auditory associationarea. Label these functional areas of the brain and color each one in adifferent color. You may want to use different shades of colors for relatedareas. For example, you may want to color the primary motor cortexwith one shade of green and the related motor association area withanother shade of green.
b. _a. _
f. _
h. _
Answer Key: a. Motor association area, b. Primary motor cortex, c. Primary somatosensory cortex, d. Wernicke's area, e. Angular (reading) gyrus,f.Visual area, g. Visual association, h. Auditory cortex, i. Motor speech
ChapterFive I UPLANd'· I 127Nervous System me lea
VENTRICLESThe brain has hollow cavities enclosed in nervous tissue called ventricles.Each cerebral hemisphere has a lateral ventricle and these lead into acentral third ventricle via the interventricular foramina. Cerebrospinalfluid (CSF) is produced from blood capillaries called choroid plexuses inthe ventricles and this fluid flows slowly through the ventricles. There arechoroid plexuses in all of the ventricles of the brain. The CSF from the
lateral ventricles flows into the third ventricle. From the third ventriclethe CSF flows into the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth ventricle whichis located anterior to the cerebellum. From the fourth ventricle, CSFexits to the space between the brain and the skull. CSF cushions thebrain from mechanical damage and 'floats' the brain in a fluid medium.The CSF is returned to the cardiovascular system by venous sinuses.Label the ventricles, foramina, and the mesencephalic aqueduct. Color inthe spaces after you have labeled them.
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a.
d.
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e. _
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Answer Key: a. Lateral ventricle, b. Third ventricle, c. Cerebral aqueduct,d. Interventncular foramen, e. Fourth ventricle
Chapter Five I IAPLANd·· I 129Nervous System me lea
CEREBROSPII\JAL FLUID PATHWAY
Both the brain and spinal cord have layers that cover the nervous tissue.These are known as the meninges. The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) isproduced in the choroid plexuses and then exits to the outside of thebrain where it is absorbed in the venous sinus. Label and color thestructures and trace the flow of cerebrospinal fluid in the schematic fromits source to its reabsorption in the cardiovascular system.
a. -- _
d.- _
a. -- _
Answer Key:a. Cerebrospinal fluid, b. Choroid plexus, c. Venous sinus, d. Interventricular foramen,e. Third ventricle, f. Cerebral aqueduct,g.Fourth ventricle
SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord is attached to thebrain at the foramen magnum. Itexpands just below this junction asthe cervical enlargement. Thisenlargement is due to the increasedneural connections with the upperextremities. Another increase in thediameter of the cord is the lumbarenlargement and it is due to theneural connections with the lowerextremities. The end of the cord isthe conus medullaris and this isfound at the region of the first orsecond lumbar vertebra. Theshortness of the spinal cord occursbecause it matures early and thevertebral column continues to grow.The neural fibers continue in thevertebral canal as the cauda equina,a structure that resembles a horse'stail. The cord is attached to thecoccyx by an extension of the piamater called the filum terminale.
Answer Key: a. Dura mater, b. Cervicalenlargement, c. Spinal nerves, d. Lumbarenlargement, e. Conusmedullaris,f.Cauda equina,g. Filum terminale,h. Coccygeal ligament
Chapter Five I 1mAPeLAN(I'-Ical 131Nervous System
c._~~~~~~~~_
CRANIAL NERVES
The cranial nerves are those nerves that attach to the brain. They arepaired and are numbered (typically by Roman numerals) from anteriorto posterior. The olfactory nerve is a sensory nerve that receives thesense of smell from the nose and transmits it to the brain. The opticnerve takes visual impulses from the eye while the oculomotor nervemostly takes motor impulses to several muscles that move the eye. Thetrochlear nerve takes motor impulses to the superior oblique muscle.The trochlear nerve is so named because it innervates a muscle thatpasses through a loop called the trochlea. The trigeminal nerve is a largenerve located laterally in the pons. It is a mixed nerve (having bothsensory and motor functions) that has three branches. The ophthalmicbranch innervates the upper head while the maxillary branch innervatesthe region around the maxilla. The mandibular branch innervates the
Chapter Five I KAPLAlfd- I 133Nervous System me lea
jaw. The abducens nerve is posterior to the trigeminal and is locatedexiting the brain between the pons and the medulla oblongata. It is amotor nerve to the lateral rectus muscle of the eye. On the anteriorportion of the medulla oblongata is the facial nerve, which is both asensory and motor nerve to the face and the tongue. Thevestibulocochlear nerve is a sensory nerve that receives impulses fromthe ear. It picks up auditory stimuli as well as information aboutequilibrium. The glossopharyngeal nerve is a nerve that carries bothsensory and motor impulses. It innervates the tongue and throat. A largenerve on the side of the medulla oblongata is the vagus nerve. It is also amixed nerve carrying both sensory and motor impulses. The vagus nerveinnervates organs in the thoracic and abdominal regions. The accessorynerve is inferior to the vagus nerve and is a motor nerve to the neckmuscles. The hypoglossal nerve is a motor nerve to the tongue. Labelthe cranial nerves and color each pair a different color.
b.- _
c.-- _
d.--- _
f. _
h. _
1.
1. _
Answer Key: a. Olfactory, b. Optic, c. Oculomotor, d. Trochlear, e. Tngeminal, f. Abducens, g. Facial, h. Vestibulocochlear, i. Glossopharyngeal,J. Vagus, k. Accessory, I. Hypoglossal
Chapter FiveNervous System I
KAPLA~. ImeulCa 135
SPINAL CORD ANDSPINAL NERVES
a.
c. _
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-~-~
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1.
b. _
g._----
d. _
Both the brain and spinal cord havelayers that cover the nervous tissue.These are known as the meningesand there are three layers. Theoutermost layer is the dura materand it is a tough connective tissuelayer. Underneath this layer is thearachnoid mater, which is so namedbecause it looks like a spider web. Ata deeper layer is the subarachnoidspace, which is filled withcerebrospinal fluid. The deepest ofthe layers is the pia mater and it islocated on the surface of the nervoustissue. Label the meninges and thestructures associated with the spinalcord in both the horizontal view andthe lateral view and color them in.
When seen in cross section, the spinalcord is composed of an internalarrangement of gray matterresembling a butterfly and an externalwhite matter. The two thin strips ofgray matter are the posterior grayhorns and the more rounded sectionsare the anterior gray horns. Thelateral gray horns are found in thethoracic and lumbar regions. Thehole in the middle of the spinal cordis the central canal and the graymatter that surrounds the centralcanal is the gray commissure. Thespinal cord has two main depressionsin it, the posterior median sulcusand the anterior median fissure.Label the parts of the spinal cord andcolor in the regions.
Attached to the spinal cord are thespinal nerves that take impulsesfrom the spinal cord to theperipheral nerves and impulses tothe spinal cord. The spinal nervesare mixed nerves that pass throughthe intervertebral foramina of thevertebral column. The spinal nervesplits into a dorsal root and aventral root. The dorsal rootganglion is a swelling of the dorsalroot within its intervertebralforamen. The dorsal root ganglioncontains the nerve cell bodies of thesensory neurons corning from thebody. The ganglion leads to thedorsal root which branches into therootlets. These branches carrysensory information to the posteriorgray horn of the spinal cord. Theventral root carries motorinformation from the anterior grayhorn and innervates muscles.
k. _ e. _
Answer Key:a.Pia mater, b.Ventral root,c. Dorsal root,d. Dorsal root ganglion, e. Posterior mediansulcus, f.Arachnoid, g.Spinal nerve, h. Dura mater, i.Anterior grayhorn,j. Lateral gray horn,k.Central canal, I.Anterior medianfissure, m. Posterior grayhorn
PLEXUSES AND THORACIC NERVES
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves grouped by region of the vertebralcolumn. The cervical nerves are the most superior and there are eightpairs of them. The first cervical nerves arise superior to the first cervicalvertebra. The thoracic nerves arise as twelve pairs. They lead to nervesthat innervate the muscles between the ribs and associated skin. Thereare fivepairs of lumbar nerves and five pairs of sacral nerves. The lastpair of spinal nerves is the coccygeal nerves.
A plexus is a web-like arrangement of nerves that is near the spinal cordand gives rise to the terminal nerves. The most superior plexus is the
a. _
b. _
c. ---;------;----+--.,-'
d. ----+-----.!!-~_v_
Chapter Five I KAPLA~. I 137Nervous System meulCa
cervical plexus which arises from the first five cervical spinal nerves. Thebrachial plexus receives input from the fifth through eighth cervicalnerves and the first pair of thoracic nerves. The lumbar plexus arisesfrom the first four pairs of lumbar nerves and the sacral plexus isassociated with the last two pairs of lumbar nerves and the first fourpairs of sacral nerves. Sometimes the lumbar and sacral plexuses aregrouped together as the lumbosacral plexus. Use one color to color inthe short segments of the spinal nerves and label the plexuses. Coloreach plexus a different color.
e. _
f. _
g.------
\
h.
~~~~~=~===I__l.--------
Answer Key: a. Cervical plexus, b. Brachial plexus, c. Lumbar plexus, d. Sacral plexus, e. Cervical nerves, f. Thoracic nerves, g. Lumbar nerves,h. Sacral nerves, i. Coccygeal nerves
1\1 ERVES OF CERVICALPLEXUS
The cervical plexus is a complexinterweaving of branches from thefirst five pairs of cervical nerves. Thehypoglossal nerve enters this plexusfrom the head. The ansa cervicalis isan arched structure (ansa is Latin forloop) that has many nervesinnervating the anterior throatmuscles. The major nerves of thecervical plexus are the two phrenicnerves that descend to thediaphragm and stimulate thediaphragm to contract. Label themajor features of the cervical plexusand color the hypoglossal nerve, theansa cervicalis, and the phrenicnerve.
Contributions to the accessory nerveleave the cervical plexus from C2, 3,and 4.
Answer Key: a. C1, b. C2, c. C3, d. C4,
e. C5, f. Hypoglossal nerve, g.Ansacervicalis, h. Phrenic nerve
f. _
g.-----
/h. _
Chapter Five I UPLANd'· I 139Nervous System me lea
Chapter FiveNervous System I
KAPLAlfd- Ime lea 141
NERVES OF BRACHIAL PLEXUSThe brachial plexus is associated with spinal nerves C4-8 and Tl. It leadsto major nerves of the shoulder and arm. The axillary nerve arises fromthe brachial plexus and innervates the deltoid and the teres minormuscles. It also receivesstimulation from the skin of the shoulder andlateral upper limb. The radial nerve innervates the triceps brachii muscleand the extensors of the forearm and hand. The musculocutaneousnerve innervates the anterior muscles of the arm (biceps brachii,
brachialis, and coracobrachialis) and the skin on the lateral side of theforearm. The median nerve runs the length of the arm and forearm andinnervates the anterior muscles of the forearm and the muscles associatedwith the thumb. The ulnar nerve passes along the posterior side of themedial epicondyle of the humerus and gives that tingling sensation of the"funny bone" when hit. It innervates the muscles of the medial side of theanterior hand. Label these nerves and related structures and color themin. Select a different color for each nerve.
Scalene muscle
1. _
First rib
Axillary arteryk. _
/
/
g._----
h. _
1. /
J.-----------
Answer Key: a. C4, b. C5, c. C6, d. C7, e. C8, f.T1, g.Axillary nerve, h. Musculocutaneous nerve, i. Radial nerve, J. Median nerve, k. Ulnar nerve, I.Vertebra C4
NERVES OF LUMBAR PLEXUSThe lumbar plexus leads to nerves on the anterior and the medial aspectof the thigh. A large femoral nerve arises from the lumbar plexus andinnervates the four muscles of the quadriceps femoris group on theanterior thigh. The obturator nerve innervates the adductor muscles ofthe medial thigh and the genitofemoral nerve is a sensory nerve thatreceives impulses from the male scrotal sac and the labia majora in
Nerveroots:
g._------
h. _
1. _
J.-------
Chapter Five I KAPLANd'. I 143Nervous System me lea
females. The iliohypogastric nerve innervates the muscles of theabdomen and the skin of the belly.The ilioinguinal nerve innervates thesame muscles as does the iliohypogastric nerve and it receivessensoryinformation from the base of the penis and the scrotum in males, andfrom the labia majora in females. The lateral femoral cutaneous nervereceivessensory information from the skin of the lateral thigh. Labelthese nerves in the illustration and color them in with a different color.
Psoas majormuscle
,I
Answer Key: a. T 12, b. L1, c. L2., d. L3. e. L4, f. L5, g. iliohypogastric nerve, h. ilioinguinal nerve, i. Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve, j. Femoral nerve,k. Genitofemoral nerve, I. Obturator nerve
NERVES OF SACRALPLEXUSThe sacral plexus has nerves thatprovide genital innervation and alsohas motor nerves to the posteriorhip, thigh, and anterior and posteriorleg. The pudendal nerve innervatesthe penis and scrotum in males, theclitoris, labia, and distal vagina infemales, and the muscles of the pelvicfloor in both sexes.The sacral plexusalso has the superior and inferiorgluteal nerves that innervate thegluteal muscles and the tibial nerveand the common fibular nerve.These last two nerves are groupedtogether as the sciatic nerve, a largenerve of the posterior thigh. Thetibial nerve innervates the hamstringmuscles, the muscles of the calf, andthe muscles originating on the foot.The common fibular nerveinnervates the short head of thebiceps femoris muscle, the muscleson the lateral side of the leg and theanterior surface of the leg.Cutaneous branches innervate theskin and muscular branches takemotor information to the muscles.Label these nerves and color them in.
Nerveroots:
a. ~
b. ____
c. _----
d. ______
e. ____
p.-------
o. _
n.------__
Chapter Five I KAPlA'!._ I 145Nervous System meulCa
Answer Key: a. L4, b. L5,c. S1,d. S2,e. 53, f. S4, g. S5, h. Coccygeal nerve,i,Superior gluteal nerve, j. Inferiorgluteal nerve, k. Pudendal nerve,I. Common fibularnerve, m. Tibialnerve, n. Sciatic nerve, o. Cutaneousbranches, p. Muscular branches
DERMATOMESDermatomes are regions of the skin innervated by nerves. The nervesreceive sensory inputs from the skin and take that information back tothe spinal cord. The clinical importance of dermatomes is the role theyplay in assessing spinal cord damage. If there is a significant spinal cord
Chapter Five I KAPLAN'd- I 147Nervous System me lea
injury, then the regions below the level of the injury may not transmitsensory signals to the brain. Lack of sensation in specific areas of the skinprovides a base of understanding of where the trauma may be located.Color in the regions that are innervated by the cervical nerves with onecolor and choose separate colors for the thoracic, lumbar, and sacralinnervation. Label the innervations of the dermatomes.
Answer Key: a. C2, b. C5, c. C6, d. C7, e. T1, f. T4, g.TlO, h. T12, I. C7, j. S5, k. L1, L S1,m. L5
Chapter Five I UPLANd'· I 149Nervous System me lea
AUTONOMIC NERVOUSSYSTEM-SYMPATH ETICDIVISION
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The autonomic nervous system(ANS) regulates automatic functionsof the human body. Changes in heartrate, pupil dilation, digestivefunctions, and blood flow to thekidney are all controlled by the ANS.There is some possibility ofconscious regulation of parts of theANS,but, for the most part, itfunctions without conscious control.There are two divisions of theautonomic nervous system. Theresting state of the body is controlledby the parasympathetic division.Digestion, kidney filtration, erectionof the clitoris, erection of the penis,and pupil constriction are some ofthe functions of the parasympatheticdivision. This division is also knownas the craniosacral division becausethe nerves exit the central nervoussystem (CNS) in these locations. Thecranial segments go to the eye,salivary glands, heart, lung, digestivesystem, and kidneys. The sacralsegments go to the lower digestive d.-----------tract, bladder, and reproductiveorgans.
The sympathetic division controlsthe "fight or flight" response of thebody, shutting down the digestivefunctions, inhibiting erections,shunting blood away from thekidneys, and dilating the pupils. Thesympathetic division increases heartrate, dilates capillaries in the lungs,brain and muscle tissue, andstimulates the adrenal glands. Thisdivision is also known as thethoracolumbar division because thenerves exit the CNS in the thoracicand lumbar regions of the spinalcord. There are ganglia associatedwith the sympathetic division andthese are located on either side of theventral portion of the vertebralcolumn. They are called thesympathetic chain ganglia and theneurons from the thoracolumbardivision synapse with nerve cells inthese ganglia.
Answer Key: a. Preganglionic,b. Postganglionic, c. Ganglia,d. Sympathetic trunk, e. T1, f. L2
AUTONOMIC NERVOUSSYSTEM-PARASYM PATH ETICDIVISION
The parasympathetic andsympathetic divisions areantagonistic to one another andorgans under the influence of theANS have dual innervation.Typically,one division either inhibitsthe organ from functioning orcauses an increase in activity in theorgan. This occurs due to thedifference in neurotransmitterssecreted by the separate divisions.At the terminal end of the parasympathetic division, theneurotransmitter is acetylcholine. Atthe terminal end of the sympatheticdivision, the neurotransmitter ismostly norepinephrine.
The neurons leaving the eNS arecalled preganglionic neurons. In thecase of the parasympathetic division,the preganglionic neurons secreteacetylcholine as neurotransmitters.The ganglia of the parasympatheticdivision are next to, or in, the organthey innervate. The postganglionicneurons secrete acetylcholine aswell. In the sympathetic division, thepreganglionic neurons secreteacetylcholine in the sympatheticchain ganglia. The postganglionicneurons mostly secretenorepinephrine to stimulate orinhibit the organs they innervate.
Answer Key: a. Preganglionic,b. Postganglionic, c. Ganglia,d. Oculomotor Ill, e. FaCial VII,f. Glossopharyngeal IX, g.Vagus X,h. 52, i. 54
a. _
........... b. _
d. _
e~ _
f. _
g._--
Chapter Five I UPLAlfd- I 151Nervous System me lea
c. _
~I
c. _
\)II
SKIN RECEPTORSThere are several sense receptors in the skin. Some of these are involvedin determining mechanical vibration, some sense temperature, and somesense pain. The receptors for mechanical vibration pick up light touch orare involved in perception of pressure. There are hair receptors thatwrap around the hair follicles, and as the hair moves it stimulates theneurons. Light touch is perceived by both Meissner's corpuscles and
a. _
c. _
d. ""'~-_++JA_~_t~'1/
Chapter Six: Sense Organs 153
Merkel's disks. These receptors are found in the superficial layers of theskin (epidermis and upper dermis). In the deeper layers are thePacinian or Iamellated corpusdes that pick up pressure. Pain receptorsare located throughout the skin and pick up variable stimuli includingextreme temperatures, acids, strong mechanical vibration, etc. Otherreceptors in the skin are thermoreceptors that pick up the sensation ofsmaller changes in temperature. Label these structures and color themon the figure.
b. _
e. _
Answer Key: a. Meissner's corpuscles, b. Merkel'sdisks, c. Pain receptor, d. Hair receptors, e. Pacinian (Iamellated) corpuscle, f. Epidermis, g. Dermis
TONGUEThe tongue is the region where tasteis perceived. The tongue has regionsthat are sensitive to different tastesand these vary from person toperson. Not only do people tastematerial in different places on thetongue, but the sensitivity to taste isdifferent in individuals. Taste budsare located on the sides of papillae ofthe tongue. The lingual tonsils arefound on the posterior tongue andthe palatine tonsils are on the sidesof the oral cavity. Posterior andinferior to the tongue is theepiglottis. The papillae of thetongue come in a few shapes. Vallatepapillae are shaped like mesas. Theyhave a flat top. Filiform papillae areline-shaped while fungiformpapillae are shaped like illushrooms.Label and color the papillae.
Color in the taste buds in theillustration. They consist ofepithelial cells and nerve cells. Tasteis sensed if the material to be tastedis in solution and comes into contactwith the taste pore. The taste budshave taste hairs that extend into thetaste pore and connect with tastecells that in turn synapse withsensory nerve fibers that take thesense of taste to the brain. Label thefigure and color in the variousstructures.
Answer Key:a.Epiglottis, b. Palatinetonsil, c. Lingual tonsil, d. Vallate papilla,e. Fungiform papilla, f. Filiform papillae,g.Taste bud, h. Taste pore, i. Sensorynerve fibers
a. _
b. _
c. _
d. _
e.-----------
f. _
d. _
1. ---------
f. _
Chapter Six I lAPLA~. I 155Sense Organs meulca
g._----
e. - _
g._----
NOSEThe sense of smell is more complexthan the sense of taste. There areonly five primary tastes but manydifferent kinds of smells. The regionthat is sensitive to smell is theolfactory epithelium which islocated in the superior portion ofthe nasal cavity. The olfactoryepithelium consists of elongatedepithelial cells that are supportingcells with neurons called olfactorycells. These olfactory cells haveolfactory hairs on their surface.Chemicals that are inhaled comeinto contact with a mucous sheetand are picked up by the olfactorycells. The sensation of smell istransmitted by the olfactory nervesthrough the cribriform plate of theethmoid bone and they synapse inthe olfactory bulb at the base of thefrontal lobe of the brain.
Chapter Six IIAPLA~. I 157Sense Organs meulca
a. ----',--',.!(L~
b. _
c. _
d. --~~'--------
g._--~~--
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""h. _Answer Key: a. Olfactorybulb,b.Olfactory filaments,c. Olfactoryepitheliumd. Nasal cavity, e. Olfactorycells,f. Supportingcells, g. Cribriform plate,h. Olfactoryhairs e. _
o 0 0
f.- _
c. _
ANTERIOR SURFACE OF THE EYE ANDLACRIMAL APPARATUS
The eye is located in the orbit of the skull and has several externalfeatures. Above the eye is the eyebrow. The corners of the eye have eithera lateral commissure or a medial commissure. Next to the medialcommissure is the caruncle, a small thickened tissue in the medialcorner of the eye. The outer surface of the eye is protected by the upperand lower eyelids. The blink reflex rapidly closes the eyelids to keep dustfrom hitting the outer surface of the eye. Label and color the sclera (the
b. _
a. ---------_
g.-------
h. _
1.-- _
J.--------
k. _
1. _
Chapter Six I KAPLA~. I 159Sense Organs meulCa
white of the eye), iris (the colored part of the eye), pupil (the openingthat lets light into the back of the eye), and the eyelids. There is atransparent extension of the sclera called the cornea and it covers the irisand pupil.
The eyes are kept moist and are subject to potential bacterial infection.Tears have antimicrobial properties and are formed by the lacrimalgland. They contain digestive enzymes and wash microbes from thesurface of the eye. Tears drain from the eye into the lacrimal canals.These canals lead into the nasolacrimal duct and then into the nasalcavity.
c.- _
d. - _
e. -------------
f.
Answer Key: a. Lacrimal gland,b. Upper eyelid, c. Sclera, d. Lacrimal canal, e. Medial commissure f. Nasal cavity, g. Lateral commissure, h. Pupil, i. Iris,j. Lower eyelid, k. Caruncle, I.Nasolacrimal duct
MUSCLES OF THE EYEThe lateral and superior views of theeye show the major musclescontrolling the eye. The lateralrectus is the muscle that lets you seetowards the side. The medial rectusturns the eye toward the midline.The superior rectus makes you lookup while the inferior rectus makesyou look down. The superioroblique turns the eye inferiorly andlaterally while the inferior obliquemakes the eye turn superiorly andlaterally. The levator palpebraesuperioris elevates the eyelid. Labeland color the muscles of the eye andthe optic nerve where it exits thetendinous ring.
Answer Key: a.Lateral rectus,b. Superior rectus, c. Levator palpebraesuperioris, d. Superior oblique,e. Inferioroblique, f. Inferiorrectus,g.Optic nerve, h. Medial rectus
c.
b.------
a. ---------
g.-------
f.
a. -------
g.------
Chapter Six I KAPLAlfd- I 161Sense Organs me lea
d.------
e.--------
e. -------
Chapter Six I KAPLAlfd- I 163Sense Organs me lea
MEDIAN SECTION OF THE EYEThe cornea is the outermost part of the eye and it is responsible for mostof the light refraction in the eye (the bending oflight rays). On theperiphery of the cornea is the sclera which helps maintain eye shape. Thespace behind the cornea is the anterior cavity which is found in front ofthe lens. It is composed of two smaller chambers, the anterior chamberand the posterior chamber. The anterior chamber is between the corneaand the iris, the part that determines eye color. The posterior chamber isbetween the iris and the lens. The lens is made of protein and is held tothe wall of the eye by the suspensory ligaments. These ligaments arepulled by the ciliary muscle on the wall of the eye.When the ligamentstighten, the lens flattens and the eye focuses on distant objects. The fluidin the anterior cavity is known as aqueous humor and it is released by theciliary body and reabsorbed in the scleral venous sinus.
Behind the lens is the posterior cavity. This cavity is filled with a jellylike material called vitreous humor. Light travels through this mediumto the back of the eye where it strikes the retina. The retina is the regionof the eye where light waves are converted to nerve impulses. The foveais a small area of the retina where there is a high concentration of cones(cells that determine color and visual acuity.) Behind the retina is thechoroid, a darkened layer that absorbs light, making vision sharp duringthe daytime. Behind this layer is the sclera, the white of the eye, wheremuscles attach. At the posterior of the eye you can see the optic disk.This is where the optic nerve takes visual impulses from the eye to thebrain. Color the median section of the eye after you have filled in theappropriate labels.
a.-------
L- _
n. _d. _
b.- _
o.-- _
)1._---
k. _
m. _
j._----
p._------
Answer Key: a. Scleral venous sinus, b. Ciliary muscle, c. Retina, d. Choroid,e. Fovea, f. Optic nerve, g. Opticdisk, h. Sclera, I. Posteriorchamber, j. Anterior chamber,k. Cornea, I. Lens, m. Iris, n. Suspensory ligament, o. Anterior cavity, p. Posteriorcavity, q. Vitreous humor
ChapterSix I IAPLANd· · I 165Sense Organs me lea
b. _
Lightpath
J.-----1. _
":'....
e.-------
g._-----
f.
h.------
a. _
The retina consists of three layers.The photoreceptor layer containsthe rods and cones. This is at theposterior layer of the retina. In frontof this is the bipolar layer that hasneurons that synapse with the rodsand cones. The layer closest to theposterior cavity is the ganglioniclayer. The axons of the ganglion cellsconduct impulses from theganglionic layer along the span ofthe eye and form the optic nerve.Label these layers and color them in.
The retina is the tunic or layer of theeye that converts light energy intonerve impulses. There are two maintypes of photosensitive cells in theretina. Rods are more numerous andthey determine motion and nightvision. There are many rods in theeye but they are not very sensitive indetermining visual detail. This isbecause many rods connect to oneneuron fiber. The otherphotosensitive cells are cones. Thereare fewer cones per neuron so theyproduce a sharper visual image.There are three types of cones thathave sensitivities to differentwavelengths oflight. Label and colorthe rods and cones in the retina.
Answer Key: a.Macula lutea,b. Foveacentralis, c. Blood vessels, d. Optic diske. Optic nerve, f. Ganglionic layer,g.Bipolar layer, h. Photoreceptor layer,I. Cone, j. Rod
Retina
In the posterior view of the eye youcan see the blood vessels in thechoroid that bring nutrients to theback of the eye. Color these vessels.They enter the eye at a region knownas the optic disk, which is the sameplace where the optic nerve exits theeye. This is the blind spot of the eye.You should also label and color thefovea centralis of the eye and themacula lutea. The macula luteameans "yellow body" while the foveacentral is is the region of the eye witha great number of photosensitivecells.
POSTERIOR VIEW OFTHE EYE
OVERVIEW OF EARThe ear consists of three major regions, the outer ear, the middle earand the inner ear. The outer ear consists mainly of two parts, the auricle(pinna), including the ear lobe and the external auditory canal. Themiddle ear begins at the tympanic membrane (ear drum). Inside the
b. ---------
Chapter Six I KAPLAlfd- I 167Sense Organs me lea
tympanic membrane is the tympanic cavity, another part of the middleear. Here you should label the ear ossicles and the auditory tube(Eustachian tube). The inner ear consists of three major regions, thecochlea, the vestibule, and the semicircular ducts. Use a different colorfor each major region of the ear.
a·l~d. _
f.
\,,\ '" g.
e. -x.I~1-
h. 1.
Answer Key: a.Auricle (pinna), b. External auditory canal, c. Ossicles, d. Inner ear, e. Earlobe, f. Tympanic membrane, g.Auditorytube, h. External ear, i. Middle ear
MIDDLE EAR
The middle ear consists of thetympanic cavity and structures inthat cavity. It is connected to thenasopharynx by the auditory tube.This tube allows for equalization ofpressure from the middle ear and theexternal environment. The three earossicles transfer sound from thetympanic membrane to the ovalwindow of the inner ear. Label thethree ear ossicles, the malleus, incus,and stapes, and color each one adifferent color. Color the ovalwindow where the stapes connectsand use lighter colors for theauditory tube and the tympaniccavity.
11\1 I'J ER EARThe inner ear consists of thecochlea, the vestibule, and thesemicircular ducts. In Latin, thename cochlea means snail shell and itspirals like a snail. Its function is totranslate the mechanical vibrationsof sound into nerve impulses. Thecochlea has an oval window thatattaches to the stapes and a roundwindow that allows for changes inpressure to occur in the inner ear.Label the cochlea and color it in. Thevestibule has two parts, the utricleand the saccule. These are involvedin equilibrium. They determinestatic equilibrium whereby a personcan determine the position of thebody at rest. They also registeracceleration. Color each of theseparts of the vestibule a differentcolor. The semicircular ductsrespond to angular acceleration.There are three semicircular ducts,the posterior, the anterior, and thelateral semicircular ducts. Coloreach of the semicircular ducts adifferent color.
Answer Key: a. Malleus, b. Incus,e. Stapes, d. Ovalwindow, e. Tympanicmembrane, f.Tympanic cavity,g. Auditory (Eustachian) tube,h. Semicircular ducts, i. Anteriorduct,J. Posterior duct, k. Lateral duct,I. Vestibule, m. Utricle, n. Saccule,o. Round window, p. Cochlea
Chapter Six I IAPLAlld·· I 169Sense Organs me lea
b.----
a. _
g._-----
e. _
f.
h.
1.
J.
k. 1.
d. _
c.-----0.--------
p.----
Chapter SixSense Organs I mellical 171
LABYRINTHS OF THEII\II\IER EAR
The outer part of the inner earconsists of the bony labyrinth, anouter encasement of bone. Inside ofthis is a fluid called perilymph.Inside of this is the membranouslabyrinth. It is filled with a fluidcalled endolymph. Label thesestructures and fluids.
a. _
b. _
f. ~~~""-'""
g._----
h.- _
1. _
J.
c. _
Cross Section of aSemicircular Canal
Look at the cross section of asemicircular duct. The outer part ofthe canal is the bony labyrinth.Perilymph is the fluid between thebony labyrinth and themembranous labyrinth. Inside themembranous labyrinth is a fluidcalled endolymph. Label thesestructures and fluids.
Answer Key: a. Membranous labyrinth,b. Semicircular ducts, c. Utricle,d. Saccule, e. Cochlear duct,f. Perilymph, g. Endolymph, h. Bonylabyrinth, i. Semicircular canals,J. Vestibule, k.Cochlea,I. Vestibulocochlear nerve
k. _
b.-------
CROSS SECTION OFCOCHLEA
Look at the cross section of cochlea.Each coil of the cochlea has threechambers and three membranes.The upper chamber in theillustration is the scala vestibuli. It isconnected to the oval window. Thevestibular membrane is the tissuethat forms the bottom of the scalavestibuli. Below this is the scalamedia that houses the spiral organ(or the organ of Corti). The bottomchamber is the scala tympani.Between the scala tympani and thescala media is the basilarmembrane. Label these features andcolor each space (scala) a differentcolor.
Spiral Organ
The scala media is the region of thecochlea involved in hearing. It isbounded by the vestibularmembrane on top and the basilarmembrane on the bottom. Attachedto the basilar membrane are the haircells. These cells are attached to thetectorial membrane which vibrateswhen sound impulses enter thecochlea. The tectorial membranetugs on the hair cells which convertsthe sound impulse to a neuralimpulse which travels by thecochlear nerve to the brain wherehearing is interpreted. Label thesestructures and color them in, eachwith a different color.
b. _
e. _
Chapter Six I KAPLA~. I 173Sense Organs meulCa
Vestibulocochlear nerve
Answer Key: a. Scala vestibuli,b. Vestibular membrane, c. Scala media,d. Scala tympani, e. Basilar membrane,f. Haircell, g.Tectorial membrane
Chapter Seven: Endocrine System 175
OVERVIEW OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEMThe endocrine system is a collection of glands and organs that secretehormones. This system is grouped according to the function that theindividual organs have. Some of these organs have two roles and arecalled mixed organs. They secrete hormones and also perform otherfunctions such as digestion or secretion. The pancreas is a good exampleof this. It secretes hormones (an endocrine function) that regulate blood
sugar levels and also secretes enzymes (exocrine secretions) that breakdown material in the digestive tract. Hormones are released fromendocrine glands and typically travel through the body in blood vesselsand reach target areas that have cells receptive to the hormones. Locateand label the pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas,adrenal glands, testes, and ovaries. Color the organs in with differentcolors for each organ.
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Answer Key: a. Pineal gland,b. Pituitary gland,c. Thyroidgland, d. Adrenal glands, e. Pancreas, f. Ovary, g.Testis
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Chapter Seven I mKAPeLAN(I'-Ical 171Endocrine System
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ORGANS OF THE HEAD
The pineal gland is a small glandlocated posterior to the corpuscallosum in the brain. It has theshape of a pine nut but is a little bitsmaller. It secretes the hormonemelatonin; melatonin levels increaseduring the night and decreaseduring the day.
The pituitary gland, or hypophysis,is suspended from the brain by astalk called the infundibulum. Thepituitary sits in the hypophysealfossa which is a depression in thesphenoid bone. The pituitary is acomplicated gland that hasnumerous functions. Theadenohypophysis or anteriorpituitary originates from the oralcavity during development andconsists of epithelium. It producesseveral hormones which will bediscussed later. The anteriorpituitary has cells that pick uphistological stain differently. Theseare acidophilic cells and basophiliccells. The neurohypophysis orposterior pituitary is derived fromthe brain during development anddoes not make its own hormonesbut stores hormones produced in thehypothalamus. Label the pinealgland, the corpus callosum, and thepituitary gland and color them in.Label the parts of the pituitary anduse different colors for each part.
f.
Answer Key:a Pituitary gland(hypophysis), b. Pineal gland, c. Corpuscallosum, d. Hypophyseal fossa,e.Adenohypophysis (anteriorpituitary),f. Sphenoid bone,g. Infundibulum,h. Neurohypophysis (posteriorpituitary), i. Basophilic cellj.Acidophilic cell
e. _
Chapter SevenEndocrine System I
KAPLA~. ImeulCa 179
HORMONES SECRETED BYTHE PITUITARY AND THEIRTARGET ORGANS
The adenohypophysis produces andsecretes many hormones that havediverse target areas. Growthhormone (GH) is released by thepituitary and causes growth anddivision of cells throughout thebody. Prolactin is more specific inits function. Prolactin stimulates themammary glands to becomefunctional in milk production.Follicle stimulating hormone(FSH) and luteinizing hormone(LH) are gonadotropins that causethe ovaries and testes to releasehormones. Thyroid stimulatinghormone (TSH) causes the thyroidgland to secrete hormones andadrenocorticotropic hormone(ACTH) has an influence on theadrenal cortex.
The posterior pituitary, orneurohypophysis, stores andsecretes a hormone called oxytocin.This hormone has many functions.It causes milk letdown duringnursing and has multiple functionsas a neurotransmitter in the brain. Itis secreted during orgasm in thefemale and is also released when theinfant is nursing. Oxytocin also hasan effect on kidney water balance.The other hormone stored in theneurohypophysis is antidiuretichormone or ADH. It is also knownas vasopressin. It causes absorptionof water from the collecting tubulesof the kidney decreasing the volumeof water in urine.
Answer Key: a. Adenohypophysis,b. Thyroid stimulating hormone,c. Prolactin, d. Growth hormone,e. Adrenocorticotropic hormone,
f. Luteinizing hormone, g. Folliclestimulating hormone,h. Neurohypophysis, i. Oxytocin,J. Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
h. _
J.-----
e. _
f. _
g._-------
e. _
THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland is just inferior tothe thyroid cartilage of the larynx. Ithas two main lobes and a smallconnection between them called theisthmus. The histology of thethyroid is very distinctive. There arecells called follicular cells forming asphere and these make up thefollicle. Inside the follicle is thecolloid where thyroid hormones arestored. The parafollicular cells arebetween the follicles. Label the mainparts of the thyroid gland, thefollicular cells, the parafollicular cellsand the colloid and color them in.
a
e. _
b. _
Chapter Seven I KAPLA!I_ I 181Endocrine System meulCa
__.,,-- Hyoid bone
IS.!..fh+- Thyroid cartilage
c. _
d. _
Trachea
Answer Key:a. Thyroid gland, b. Rightlobe,c Isthmus, d. Left lobe, e. Colloid,f. Follicular cells, g. Parafollicular cells
g._-------
PARATHYROID GLANDS
There are typically four glands onthe posterior of the thyroid glandand these are known as theparathyroid glands. They secrete ahormone called parathormonewhich regulates calcium balance inthe blood. Parathormone increasesblood calcium levels by causingmore absorption of calcium fromthe digestive tract, increasedosteoclast activity in the bones, andreabsorption of calcium from thekidney. The principal or chief cellssecrete parathyroid hormone. Theoxyphilic cells are less common andtheir function is poorly understood.Label the parathyroids on theposterior thyroid gland and colorthem in.
Answer Key:a.Thyroid gland,b. Parathyroid glands, c. Principal (chief)cells, d. Oxyphilic cells
Chapter Seven I KAPLA~. I 183Endocrine System meulCa
0--,---- Hyoid bone/
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~ Inferior constrictor muscle
Esophagus
PANCREAS
The pancreas is inferior to thestomach and has several digestivefunctions. These exocrine secretionsare initiated by the acinar cells. Theendocrine function of the pancreasconsists of the secretion of insulin,glucagon, and somatostatin from thepancreatic islets. These islets aremicroscopic collections of cells thathave specialized cells for thesecretion of hormones. Insulinlowers blood glucose levels whileglucagon does the reverse.Somatostatin moderates some of thepancreatic cells that have a role indigestion. Label and color in thepancreas and make the pancreaticislets lighter than the acinar cells ofthe pancreas.
Answer Key: a. Pancreas, b. Pancreaticislets, c. Acinar cells (exocrine)
Chapter Seven I mKAPeLANd'-Ical 185Endocrine System
b. _
c. _
Chapter SevenEndocrine System I
UPLANd'· Ime lea 187
ADRENAL GLANDSThe adrenal glands are positionedsuperior to the kidneys and aredivided into the adrenal cortex andthe medulla. The cortex has threelayers. The most superficiallayer isthe zona glornerulosa, which is deepto the adrenal capsule andresponsible for the secretion ofmineralocorticoid hormones. Thenext layer is the zona fasciculatawhich mainly secretesglucocorticoids, hormonesresponsible for the breakdown ofproteins and lipids and the synthesisof glucose. The zona reticularis isthe deepest layer of the cortex and itsecretes androgens (male sexhormones) and small amounts ofestrogens (female sex hormones) inboth sexes. The most prevalent malehormone is DHEA(dehydroepiandrosterone) which isresponsible for the development ofthe sex drive, pubic hair, and axillaryhair. The effects of DHEA areminimized in males as the testessecrete greater amounts oftestosterone. The adrenal medulla isthe deepest part of the adrenal glandand it secretes epinephrine andnorepinephrine. Label and color theadrenal glands and use a differentcolor for each layer of the cortex andanother for the medulla.
Answer Key: a. Adrenal glands,b. Cortex, c. Medulla,d. Capsule,e. Zonaglomerulosa, f. Zona fasciculata,g.Zona reticularis, h. Medulla
1
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e. _
f. ----rc-~~? i
h. _
c. _
--------------
Chapter SevenEndocrine System I meilical 189
d. _
GONADS
The ovaries are a mixed glandbecause they produce the oocytes(egg cells) and also have anendocrine function by producingestrogens. Estrogens are a class offemale sex hormones that includeestradiol and progesterone. Estradiolis produced in the granulosa cells ofthe ovarian follicles. These folliclessurround the oocytes. Progesteroneis produced by the corpus luteumafter the oocyte has been ovulated.
The testes are also mixed glands. Asexocrine glands they produce spermcells and as endocrine glands theinterstitial cells prod ucetestosterone. Label and color theinterstitial cells and seminiferoustubules in the microscopic view ofthe testes.
Answer Key: a Ovary, b. Granulosacells, c. Ovarian follicles, d. Ova,e. Corpus luteum, f. Interstitial cells,g. Testis, h. Seminiferous tubules
b~ _
e. _
f. _
h. _
Chapter Eight: Cardiovascular System 191
OVERVIEW OF THECARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The cardiovascular system consistsof the heart as a pump, blood vesselsthat take blood away from the heart(arteries), and blood vessels that takeblood back to the heart (veins).Locate the heart on the illustrationand color it in purple. Label thecommon carotid artery and color itin red. Arteries are typically coloredin red and veins are colored blue.Label and color in the internaljugular vein too. The internaljugular vein takes blood to thesuperior vena cava which takesblood to the heart. Label and colorthe aortic arch red and find thecontinuation of the aorta thattravels down the left side of thebody, splits and takes blood to thefemoral artery. The vessel parallel tothe femoral artery is the femoralvein and it should be colored blue.The femoral vein takes blood to theinferior vena cava befo re it goes tothe heart. Blood travels to the arm bythe brachial artery anddeoxygenated (color it blue) bloodtravels to the lungs in thepulmonary trunk.
Answer Key: a. Internal jugularvein,b. Cornman carotid artery, c. Superiorvena cava, d. Brachial artery, e. Infenorvena cava, f. Aortic arch, g. Pulmonarytrunk,h. Heart, i. Aorta, j. Femoral artery,k. Femoral vem.
a. _
b. _
c. _
d. _
e.-------
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Chapter Eight I KAPLA~. I 193Cardiovascular System meulca
CIRCULATION
m.
<===- oxygen-rich blood~ oxygen-poor blood
D oxygen-poor blood
D oxygen-rich blood
f. circulation:
internal organs and legs
f. ------- circulation:
head and arms
1. _
J.
d. _
k. _
a. _
1. _
There are two major circulations inthe body. One goes to the lungs andthis is called the pulmonarycirculation. Deoxygenated bloodleaves the right ventricle of the heartand travels through the pulmonaryartery (blue) to the lungs where theblood is oxygenated. Blood returnsfrom the lungs to the left atrium ofthe heart by the pulmonary veins(red). The other main circulation inthe body is called the systemiccirculation where blood travels fromthe left ventricle of the heart andgoes to the other regions of the body.Arteries are vascular tubes that takeblood away from the heart whileveins are vessels that return blood tothe heart. Most arteries carryoxygenated blood and most veinscarry deoxygenated blood but thereare a few exceptions.
The first vessel that leaves the heartis the aorta which is part of thearterial system. Color it red. Arteriesreceive blood from the aorta andtake blood throughout the body.They branch and become smalleruntil they become arterioles. Thearterioles are the structures thatcontrol blood pressure in the body.As they get smaller they becomecapillaries. The capillaries are thesite of exchange with the cells of thebody. Label and then color thecapillaries purple. Purple is a goodchoice because the capillaries are theinterchange between the arteries(red) and the veins (blue). On thereturn flow the capillaries enlargeand turn into venules, which takeblood to the veins. Color the venulesand remaining veins of the bodyblue. Blood from the inferiorportion of the heart returns to theheart by the inferior vena cava.
The heart has four chambersincluding the superior atria and theinferior ventricles. There is a typicalcoloring pattern for thecardiovascular system. Vessels orchambers that carry deoxygenatedblood are colored in blue whilevessels that carry oxygenated bloodare colored red. Label and color theright atrium (blue), right ventricle(blue), left atrium (red) and leftventricle (red). Remember the heartis in anatomical position so the rightatrium is on the left in theillustration.
Answer Key: a. Right atrium, b. Aorta, c. Leftatrium, d. Rightventricle, e. Leftventricle, f. Systemic, g. Pulmonary,h. Pulmonaryartery, i. Pulmonaryvein, j. Infenorvena cava, k. Vein, I.Venule, m. Capillary, n. Arteriole, o. Artery
Chapter EightCardiovascular System I meclical 195
Agranular
g,
h.
Answer Key: a. Erythrocyte, b. thrombocyte,c. leukocytes, d. basophil, e. eosinophil,f. neutrophil, g. lymphocyte, h. monocyte
b.
@f, ".:::-,',.
c.
Granular
a.
f.
e.
d.
There are about 5 million erythrocytes percubic millimeter of blood. The erythrocytesdo not have a nucleus and they appear likea donut with a thin spot instead of thedonut hole. About a third of the weight of ared blood cell is due to hemoglobin whichmakes the cells red. Color in the surfaceview and cross section of the red blood cell.Note also the size of the thrombocyte.
There are about 7 thousand leukocytes percubic millimeter of blood. There are twomain types of leukocytes; granularleukocytes and agranular leukocytes. Thegranular leukocytes have cytoplasmicgranules that either stain pink, dark purpleor do not stain much at all. The granularleukocytes that do not stain much at all arecalled neutrophils because the granules areneutral to the stains. They are the mostnumerous of the leukocytes making up 6070% of the leukocytes. Neutrophils have athree to five lobed nucleus. Color in thecells by shading the cytoplasm light blueand coloring in the nucleus purple.
The eosinophils are granular leukocytesthat have pink or orange staining granules.The nucleus is generally two-lobed. Colorin the eosinophil by first coloring in thepurple nucleus and then adding orange tothe cytoplasm. Eosinophils make up about3 percent of the white blood cells.
Basophils are a rare granular leukocyte inthat they make up less than one percent ofthe white blood cells.The nucleus is Sshaped but it is frequently difficult to seebecause it is obscured by the dark stainingcytoplasmic granules. Label the basophiland color in the granules a dark purple.
The two kinds of agranular leukocytes arethe lymphocytes and the monocytes. Thelymphocytes can be large or small and theymake up 20-30% of the leukocytes. Thecytoplasm is light blue and the nucleus ispurple. The nucleus of the lymphocyte isdented or flattened. Lymphocytes come intwo kinds. B cells secrete antibodies(antibody-mediated immunity) and T cellswhich are involved in cell-mediatedimmunity. Label and color thelymphocytes.
The monocytes are large cells (about 3times the size of a red blood cell) and theyhave a strongly lobed nucleus. Some peoplesay this looks like a kidney bean or ahorseshoe. They represent only about 5%of the leukocvtes. Color in the nucleus witha purple and 'the cytoplasm a light blue.
Blood consists of plasma and formedelements. The plasma is the tluid portionof the blood and consists of water, proteins,and dissolved materials such as oxygen,carbon dioxide, electrolytes (ionicparticles) and other materials. Plasmamakes up about 55% of the blood volume.Formed elements make up about 45% ofthe blood volume and consist oferythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes(white blood cells) and thrombocytes(platelets). Label and color in the red bloodcells with a light red color. Label the whiteblood cells and color in the nucleus withpurple and the cytoplasm a light blue. Labeland color the thrombocvtes purple. Thereare about 200,00-450,00 thrornbocytes percubic millimeter of blood. They assist thebody in clotting to prevent blood fromtlowing out of small ruptures in bloodvessels.
BLOOD
ANTERIOR SURFACE VIEW OF HEART
The apex of the heart is inferior and the base is superior. Label eachchamber of the heart and color them each a different color. Locate thecoronary arteries and their branches and color them in red. The rightcoronary artery leads to the right marginal artery. The left coronary
q.
p.
o.
n. _
m. ---------
1.
Chapter Eight I UPLANd'· I 197Cardiovascular System me lea
artery takes blood to the anterior interventricular branch and thecircumflex branch. The cardiac veins can also be seen on the anteriorside. The great cardiac vein runs in the interventricular sulcus on theanterior side. Label all of the major vessels entering and exiting the heart.
c. _
1.
Answer Key: a. Aortic arch, b. Pulmonary trunk, c. Base of heart, d. Left atrium, e. Circumflex branch, f. Anterior interventricular branch, g. Leftcoronary artery,h. Great cardiac vein, I. Left ventricle, j. Apex of heart, k. Descending aorta, I. Inferiorvena cava, rn. Rightventricle, n. Rightmarginal artery, o. Rightatrium,p. Rightcoronary artery, q. Superior vena cava
POSTERIOR SURFACE OF HEARTOn the posterior side of the heart are additional arteries and veins. Theposterior interventricular artery occurs between the ventricles on theposterior surface. It receives blood from the right coronary artery. Themiddle cardiac vein runs the opposite direction and takes blood into thecoronary sinus. The small cardiac vein is also found on the posterior
a. ------- _
J. ---------
1.
1.
h. - _
g.----------
c.
Chapter Eight I UPLANd'· I 199Cardiovascular System me lea
surface of the heart and enters the coronary sinus from the oppositedirection. Label the posterior features of the heart and color the arteriesin red (except for the pulmonary arteries that carry deoxygenatedblood-they should be colored in blue). Color the veins in blue (exceptfor the pulmonary veins which should be colored in red).
:e.-- e.
Tb.~-----
Answer Key: a. Aortic arch, b. Inferior vena cava, c. Right ventricle, d. Right atrium, e. Right coronary artery, f. Superior vena cava,g. Posterior interventricular artery, h. Middle cardiac vein, i. Coronary sinus, J. Pulmonary veins, k. Pulmonary arteries, I. Small cardiac vein
Chapter Eight I KAPLANd'. I 201Cardiovascular System me lea
CORONAL SECTION OF HEART
The heart is located in a tough, fibrous sac known as the parietalpericardium which has an outer fibrous layer and an inner serous layer.If this sac is opened you can see a space called the pericardial cavity. Theheart is in this cavity. The outer surface of the heart is called the visceralpericardium or the epicardium. Inside of this is the main portion of theheart wall called the myocardium (made of cardiac muscle) and theinnermost layer of the heart is the endocardium.
Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium of the heart by threevessels: the superior vena cava, the inferior vena cava and the coronarysinus. The walls of the right atrium are thin-walled as they only have topump blood to the right ventricle. The blood in the right atrium is incontact with the fossa ovalis which is a thin spot in the interatrialseptum. This thin spot is a remnant of a hole in the fetal heart know as
the foramen ovale. Blood in the right atrium flows through the cusps ofthe tricuspid or right atrioventricular valve into the right ventricle.The tricuspid valve is made of the three cusps, the chordae tendineaeand the papillary muscles that hold the chordae tendineac to theventricle wall. The ventricle wall is lined with trabeculae carneae thatact as struts along the edge of the wall. The wall between the ventricles isknown as the interventricular septum.
From the right ventricle, blood passes through the pulmonarysemilunar valve and into the pulmonary trunk where the blood goes tothe lungs. In the lungs the blood is oxygenated. From the lungs the bloodreturns to the left atrium of the heart. Blood in the left atrium moves tothe left ventricle through the left atrioventricular valve or thebiscuspid valve. This valve has two cusps, chordae tendineae andpapillary muscles. When the left ventricle contracts, the blood movesthrough the aortic semilunar valve and into the ascending aorta.
1.
m.
y._--------
1.
J.
k.--------
e. ---------
From lungs
To lungsc. ---------
White arrows = oxygen-rich blood/ 1 Black arrows = oygen-poor blood
j D = veins D = arteries
~
w.
v.
u.
t.
s.
r.
q.
p.
x.
From lungs
To lungs
n.
o. _
Answer Key: a. Pulmonarytrunk,b. Pulmonarysemilunar valve, c. Left atrium,e. Left atrioventricular valve, f.Aortric semilunar valve, g. Left ventricle, h. Endocardium,i. Epicardium, j. Myocardium, k. Parietal pericardium, I. Fibrous layer, m. Serous layer, n. Interventricular septum, o. Trabeculaecarneae, p. Inferior vena cava, q. Papillarymuscle, r. Right ventricle, s. Chordae tendineae, t. Right atrioventricular valve, u. Opening of coronarysinus, v. Fossa ovalis, w. Right atrium,x.Superiorvena cava, y. Aorta
SUPERIOR ASPECT OF THE HEARTThis view of the heart is seen as if the atria and the major vessels havebeen removed. You should be able to see all of the major valves of theheart. The most anterior valve is the pulmonary semilunar valve thatoccurs between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk. Label andcolor this valve blue. Posterior to this is the aortic semilunar valve. Itoccurs between the left ventricle and the aorta. Label this valve and colorit in red. Both of these valves prevent blood from returning to the
a. _
c. _
ECG-CONDUCTION PATHWAYThe heart has specialized cells that initiate an electrical impulse thatradiates throughout the heart. The cells are clustered in a particular areaknown as the sinoatrial node or the pacemaker. These cells produce adepolarization that travels across the atria which depolarize and thencontract. Depolarization is an electrical event while contraction is amechanical event. Between the wall of the right atrium and the right
Chapter Eight I IAPLANd·· I 203Cardiovascular System me lea
ventricles once they have finished contracting. On the right side of theillustration (and on the right side of the heart) is the rightatrioventricular (or tricuspid) valve, so named because it has three flapsor cusps. This valve occurs hetween the right atrium and the rightventricle. It prevents the blood from returning to the right atrium duringventricular contraction. Label this valve and color it blue. On the left sideof the heart is the left atrioventricular (bicuspid) valve. It prevents bloodfrom moving back to the left atrium when the left ventricle contracts.
d. _
ventricle is a lump of tissue known as the atrioventricular (AV)node.Once the impulse reaches this area the AVnode pauses a moment beforesending the impulse to the atrioventricular bundle. This bundle dividesinto the bundle branches and then the impulse travels to theconduction (Purkinje) fibers. These fibers reach the muscle of theventricles and stimulate them to contract. Color each of the componentsof the conduction pathway a different color.
h. _
e.
g.
1.--- _
Answer Key: a. Pulmonary semilunar valve, b. Aortic semilunar valve, c. Left atrioventricular valve, d. Right atrioventricular valve, e. Sinoatrial node, f. Atrioventricularbundle, g. Atrioventricular node, h. Bundle branches, I. Purkinje fibers
Chapter Eight I IAPLANd·· I 205Cardiovascular System me lea
Closedn. _
Open
m.
a.-~c.
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f. _
Veins are thinner walled thanarteries and they do not have thesame elastic fibers in the tunicamedia as arteries. Color the tunicamedia of the veins red and select thesame colors as you did for thearteries for the tunica externa andthe tunica interna. The tunicainterna of veins is folded into valvesthat allow for a one-way flow ofblood through veins.
Capillaries are different from botharteries and veins in that they arecomposed of only simple squamousepithelium (called endothelium).The thin nature of capillaries allowsthem to exchange nutrients, water,carbon dioxide and oxygen with thecells. Color in the endothelium ofthe capillary with the same colorthat you selected for the tunicainterna.
Answer Key: a. Vein, b. Artery, c.Lumen,d. Tunica intima, e. Tunicamedia,f.Tunica externa, g. Laminaelastica mterna, h. Laminaelasticaexterna, i. Smooth muscle,J. Venule,k. Endothelium, I. Arteriole, m. Capillary,n. Venous valve
The blood vessels have differentthickness due to the differences inpressure that occur in them or theirfunction with respect to exchangingnutrients with the cells. Arterieshave thick walls due to the higherpressure found in them. Just as highpressure hoses have thick walls so doarteries. The outer layer of the arteryis the tunica extcrna (tunicaadventitia). You should locate thetunica externa and color it in. Themiddle layer of the artery, the tunicamedia is the thickest layer and it ismade of smooth muscle and elasticfibers. Color the tunica media red.The innermost layer of the artery isthe tunica intima (tunica interna)and it has a special elastic layer calledthe lamina elastic interna. Colorthis layer. The area in the arterywhere the blood flows is called thelumen.
VESSELS OVERVI EW
ARTERY OVERVI EW
One of the ways to study arteries is todraw them as if you were making astreet map. Begin with the heart anddraw the blood vessels that occur asyou take blood to the fingers, toes orto a particular organ of the body.Arteries are typically colored red andyou should select that color for thisillustration. Use the following arterylist and label the appropriate arteriesand color them in red. Theabbreviation for artery is a.
Ascending aortaAortic arch
Thoracic aortaAbdominal aorta
Brachiocephalic trunkCommon carotid artery
Subclavian artery
Axillary artery
Brachial arteryRadial artery
Ulnar arteryCommon iliac artery
Femoral artery
Anterior tibial arteryFibular artery
Answer Key: a. Common carotid a.,b. Brachiocephalic trunk, c. Ascendingaorta,d. Brachial a.,e. Ulnar a, f. Radiala., g. Subclavian a.,h. Aorticarch,i. Axillary a, J Thoracic aorta, k.Abdominal aorta, I. Common iliac a.,m. Femoral a., n. Anterior tibial a.,o. Fibular a.
b.
e. _
f. __
Chapter Eight I KAPLANd·. I 207CardiovascularSystem me lea
1. _
f-+--- o. _
HEAD AND AORTICARTERIESBlood from the heart exits thebrachiocephalic artery and takestwo main pathways to the right sideof the head. One of these is the rightcommon carotid artery which exitsthe brachiocephalic artery and thensplits into the external carotidartery and the internal carotidartery. The external carotid arteryhas several branches, among themthe facial artery, the superficialtemporal artery, the maxillaryartery, and the occipital artery. Theinternal carotid artery takes bloodthrough the carotid canal of the skulland into the brain. The other mainpathway of blood to the right side ofthe head is the vertebral arterywhich arises from the subclavianartery. The left side of the head has asimilar pathway except that the leftcommon carotid artery and the leftsubclavian artery arise from theaortic arch and not from thebrachiocephalic artery. Label thesevesselsand color them in red.
Answer Key: a. Superficial temporal a.,b. Occipital a., c. Internal carotid a.,d.Vertebral a., e.Subclavian a.,f. Brachiocephalic a.,g.Thoracic aorta,h. Facial a., i. Maxillary a., j. Externalcarotid a., k.Common carotid a.,I.Aortic arch,m. Ascendingaorta
a.------
c.-----__
d. _
e. _
f.
g.------
k.-------
d.-------e. _
f
1. _
m. _
Chapter Eight I UPLANd'· I 209Cardiovascular System me lea
/
BRAIN ARTERIESThe brain is nourished by two main arterial conduits. The first of these isthe flow from the internal carotid arteries. Blood from the internalcarotid arteries comes from the neck and enters a circular pathwayknown as the arterial circle (circle ofWillis). The other conduit comesfrom the vertebra and these are the vertebral arteries. These arteriesconnect at a vessel called the basilar artery and it leads to the arterial
Anterior
a. _
b.
c.
d.--- _
e. ----------
Posterior
d. _
Chapter Eight I UPLANd'· I 211Cardiovascular System me lea
circle. The arterial circle consists of the anterior communicatingarteries and the posterior communicating arteries. From this circleblood then moves into one of many arteries that feed the brain. Thecerebrum is fed by the anterior, middle and posterior cerebral arteries.The cerebellum is fed by the cerebellar arteries. If there is a blockage inany of these vessels then blood does not reach the affected part of thebrain and this produces a stroke. Color the arteries red and label theillustration. Arteries are abbreviated aa.
!\:·{:-'::\.i:l = Cranial nerves.. :.:::.: :.
f.-- _
~----,,;'=:::O=~l.----------
b.
Answer Key: a. Anterior cerebral a., b. Middle cerebral a., c. Internal carotid a., d. Posterior cerebral a., e. Basilar a., f. Anterior communicating a., g. Arterial circle,h. Posterior communicating a., i. Cerebellar aa., J. Vertebral a.
UPPER LIMB ARTERIES
The arteries of the upper limbreceive blood from the subclavianartery which takes blood to theaxillary artery. Blood in the axillaryartery travels to the anterior scapulaby the subscapular artery. to theexternal chest wall by the lateralthoracic artery, to the upperhumeral region by the posteriorcircumflex humeral artery, and tothe distal regions of the arm by thebrachial artery. The brachial arteryis the major artery of the arm and itdivides distally to form the radialand ulnar arteries. The radial arteryis frequently palpated at the wrist todetermine the pulse rate. The radialand ulnar arteries rejoin (calledcollateral circulation) in the hand asthe superficial and deep palmararch arteries. These arteries takeblood to the lingers as digitalarteries. Label these blood vesselsand color them red.
Answer Key: a. Subclavian a.,b. Axillarya.,c. Posterior circumflexhumeral a.,d. Brachial a., e. Radial a, f. Lateralthoracica, g Subscapular a. , h. Ulnara., i. Deep palmararch, j. Superficialpalmararch, k. Digital a
Chapter Eight I mKAPeLA(lN'."cal 213Cardiovascular System
a. _
b. _
c. ----------
Teres major muscle
d. _
g.-------
e. _
1. _
LOWER LI MB ARTERI ES
Blood in the lower limb comes fromthe branches of the iliac arteries.Blood in the common iliac arteryflows into the internal iliac arteryand into the external iliac artery.Once it passes by the inguinalligament (a connective tissue bandthat stretches from the ilium to thepubis) the external iliac arterybecomes the femoral artery. Thefemoral artery takes blood down theanterior thigh but there is a branchcalled the deep femoral artery thattakes blood closer to the bone. Thefemoral artery moves posteriorly tobecome the popliteal artery andbranches of the popliteal arterybecome the anterior and posteriortibial arteries and the peroneal(fibular) artery. The tibial arteriestake blood to the dorsal arcuateartery, the dorsalis pedis artery,and the dorsal metatarsal arterieswhich take blood to the digitalarteries. Label the lower limbarteries and color them in red.
Answer Key: a. Common iliac a.,b. Internal iliac a., c. External iliac a.,d. Femoral a., e. Deep femoral a.,I. Popliteal a., g. Anterior tibial a.,h. Posteriortibial a, i Peroneal a.,J. Dorsalis pedis a., k. Arcuatea.,I.Dorsal metatarsal a.
a. ----------
b. ~
c.--- _
d.--------
e. ----------
f. _
g.-------
h.--------
1.- _
J.--------
k. _
1.- _
Chapter Eight I UPLANd'· I 215Cardiovascular System me lea
ABDOMINAL/THORACICARTERIES
The aorta starts at the ascendingaorta and curves via the aortic arch.The thoracic aorta is a portion ofthe descending aorta. It has severalbranches that take blood to most ofthe ribs and intercostal muscles.These are the posterior intercostalarteries. Below the diaphragm thedescending aorta is known as theabdominal aorta and it has severalbranches. The first of these is theceliac trunk and it branches to takeblood to the stomach, spleen andliver. The next branch is the superiormesenteric artery. Below this arethe renal arteries that take blood tothe kidneys. The gonadal arteriesare found inferior to the renalarteries and they take blood to thetestes in males or the ovaries infemales. A single inferiormesenteric artery is found belowthe gonadal arteries. The aortaterminates as it divides into thecommon iliac arteries. Label thesevessels and color them in red.
Answer Key: a. Aortic arch,b. Ascendingaorta, c.Thoracicaorta,d. Posterior intercostal arteries, e. Celiactrunk,f. Superior mesenteric artery,g. Renal artery, h. Abdominalaorta,I. Gonadal artery, J Inferior mesentericartery, k. Common iliac artery
Chapter Eight I KAPLAlfd- I 217Cardiovascular System me lea
a.-----------
b. _
c. _
d.
,----,-:'""--:-""'-'='-7-c--=~~,__+_----- Vena caval foramen
Esophageal hiatus
UL<f;;:)~-=:~~~:+f-~----Aortic hiatus
e.
f.
g.
h.
1.
J.
k.
ARTERIES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The celiac trunk splits into three branches, the common hepaticartery, the left gastric artery and the splenic artery. There are otherbranches to the stomach which have collateral circulation (two or morearteries taking blood to one area). One of these is the right gastroepiploic artery and another is the left gastroepiploic artery. Below theceliac trunk is the superior mesenteric artery which takes blood to the
Chapter Eight I KAPLANd'. I 219Cardiovascular System me lea
small intestine and to several of the colic arteries that supply blood tothe proximal portion of the large intestine. These are the middle colicartery, the intestinal branches, the right colic artery and the ileocolicartery. The inferior mesenteric artery takes blood to the distal portionof the large intestine via the left colic artery, sigmoid artery and therectal artery.
Gall bladder
e.--------
g.-------
Branches of g:
h.-------
L
J.
k.
"','.v"
b.
Rectum
a. ----------
c.---------
Spleen
Stomach
1.-------
Branches of 1:
m.--------
n.
o.
Answer Key:a. Celiac trunk, b. Common hepatic a., c. Leftgastric a., d. Splenic a, e. Right gastroepiploic a., f. Left gastroepiploic a., g. Superior mesenteric a, h.Middlecolica., i. Intestinal branches, j. Right colic a., k. Ileocolic a, LInferiormesenteric a., m. Left cohc a, n. Sigmoid a., o. Superior rectal a.
Chapter Eight I KAPLA~. I 221CardiovascularSystem meulCa
Uterus(dotted)
Female
a.+- _
d. _
b.-~k___---
e. _
c. ~~---
The common iliac artery takesblood to the external iliac arteryand the internal iliac artery thattakes blood to the pelvis. In females,branches of the internal iliac arterytake blood to the inner pelvis. Thevesical arteries takes blood to thebladder, the uterine arteries takeblood to the uterus, the vaginalarteries feed the vagina, the rectalarteries feed the rectum, and thesacral arteries go to the sacrum. Thepudendal artery takes blood to theexternal regions where it suppliesblood to the pelvic floor, the labiamajora and minora and the clitoris.
In males the internal iliac artery takesblood to the bladder, rectum,sacrum, the prostate, and seminalvesicles on the inside. The pudendalartery takes blood to the scrotum,penis and external pelvic floor. Inboth sexes the obturator artery takesblood from the internal iliac artery tothe medial thigh while the glutealarteries take blood to the musclesposterior to the pelvic cavity.
MALE AND FEMALEPELVIC ARTERI ES
g._-------
Answer Key:a. Common iliac a.,b. Internal iliac a., c. External iliac a.,d. Obturator a., e. Superior vesical aa.,f. Lateral sacral a., g. Gluteal aa.,h. Superior gluteal a., i. Inferior gluteala., j. Uterine a., k. Pudendal a.,I.Middle rectal a., rn. Vaginal a,n. Inferior vesical a.
h. _
a. ------1------
b. ------+---
C. -------+----
Urinary bladder(dotted)
Male
VEINSVeins are blood vessels that returnblood to the heart. They are characteristically colored in blue on illustrations. The deep veins typicallytake the name of the artery next tothem or the name of the organ thatprovides them with blood.Therefore the femoral vein runsnext to the femoral artery and thesplenic vein receives blood from thespleen. Some veins have namesunique to them and these are typically the superficial veins. Use thefollowing list and label the majorveins of the body and color themblue.
Cephalic veinBasilic veinRadial veinsUlnar veinsBrachial veinAxillary veinSubclavian veinBrachiocephalic veinSuperior vena cavaVertebral veinInternal jugular veinExternal jugular veinFemoral veinGreat saphenous veinSmall saphenous veinExternal iliac veinInternal iliac veinCommon iliac veinInferior vena cavaRenal veinsGonadal veins
Answer Key: a. Internal jugular vein,b. Brachiocephalic vein, c. Superiorvena cava, d. Brachial veins, e. Ulnarveins, f. Radial veins,g. Internal iliacvein, h. External iliacvein, i. Femoralvein, J. Vertebral vein, k. External jugularvein, I.Subclavian vein, m. Axillary vein,n.Cephalic vein, o. Basilic vein,p. Inferior vena cava, q. Renal vein,r. Gonadalvein, s. Common iliacvein,1. Greatsaphenousvein, u. Smallsaphenousvein
a.
b.----
c.
Deep veins:
d.-----e.f.
g.
h.---
1.
/ )'&;~
Chapter Eight I IAPLANd· · I 223Cardiovascular System me lea
1.
m.-------
Superficial veins:
n.-------
0.------
Superficial veins:
HEAD/NECK VEINSSuperiorVena Cava Veins
The drainage of the head occurs by the jugular veins or the vertebralveins. Some of the blood coming from the brain travels down thesuperior sagittal sinus and through the large internal jugular veins.These veins take blood down both sides of the neck and enter the
a. ----------
b. ---------
c. _
d.---- _
e. -- _
f. _
Chapter Eight I UPLANd'· I 225Cardiovascular System me lea
brachiocephalic veins. The external portion of the head is drained byseveral veins. The facial vein and the maxillary vein take blood to theinternal jugular vein while the superficial temporal vein and theposterior auricular vein take blood to the external jugular vein whichthen flows into the subclavian vein before reaching the brachiocephalicvein.
Answer Key:a. Sagittal sinus, b. Superficial temporal V., c. Posterior auricular V., d. External jugularv., e. Vertebral v. (plexus), f. Subclavianv, g. Maxillary v., h. Facial v.,i. InternalJugularv., j. Brachiocephalicv., k. Superior vena cava
UPPER LIMB VEINSThe veins of the upper limb aresomewhat variable and have manycross connections between them butthey can be divided into the deepveins and the superficial veins. Thedeep veins of the upper limb frequently form a meshwork aroundthe arteries (venae comitantes)which allows for a great amount ofheat transfer. Cool blood from theextremities is warmed by the arterialblood flowing in a counter current.Blood in the fingers returns to theforearm by the digital veins andthen the superficial and deep palmar arch veins. The deep veins ofthe upper limb are the radial veins,the ulnar veins, and the brachialveins. The brachial veins lead to theaxillary vein which takes blood tothe subclavian vein. The superficialveins of the upper limb are thebasilic vein, found on the medialaspect of the forearm and arm, themedian antebrachial vein, on theanterior aspect of the forearm, thecephalic vein, found on the lateralaspect of the forearm and arm and asmall vein that connects the basilicvein with the cephalic vein calledthe median cubital vein. This veinis used frequently to withdrawblood. Label the veins of the upperlimb and color them in blue.
Answer Key:a. Subclavian v.,b. Cephalic v, c.Axillary v., d. Radial vv.,e. Medianantebrachial v., f. Deeppalmararch, g. Digital vv., h. BasillC v.,i. Brachial vv., j. Median cubitalv.,k.Ulnarvv., I.Superficial palmararchv.
Chapter Eight I IAPLAlfd- I 227Cardiovascular System me lea
a. _
b. _
c. _
d. _
e. _
:,::::::::: Superficial veins
cr::::::= Deep veins
1. _
g._----
c.
e.
LOWER LIMB VEINS
Blood in the toes returns by thedigital veins. These veins take bloodto the dorsal metatarsal veins andthe dorsal venous arch veins. On theunderside of the foot are the plantarveins. Blood moves up the leg by theposterior and anterior tibial veinsand the great and small saphenousveins. The anterior and posteriortibial veins join together to form thepopliteal vein posterior to the knee.The small saphenous vein joins thepopliteal vein taking blood to thefemoral vein. The great saphenousvein begins around the medialmalleolus and runs the entire lengthof the medial lower limb when itenters into the femoral veins. Oncethe femoral vein crosses the inguinalligament it becomes the externaliliac vein.
Answer Key: a. External iliac v.,b.Femoral v., c. Deep femoral v.,d. Anterior tibial v., e. Dorsal venousarch, f. Dorsal metatarsal v., g. Digital v.,h. Great saphenous v., i. Popliteal v.,j Small saphenous v., k. Posteriortibial v., I. Plantarv.
a. _
b.
Anterior
d.--------
~';Jf·---~I~\J
g.----JllfJJ
Chapter Eight I IAPLA~. I 229Cardiovascular System meulCa
1. -----
J.----
Posterior
1.
HEPATIC PORTAL VEINS,TRUNK VEINSMost of the blood of the bodyreturns to the heart by capillariesflowing into venules and finally intoveins before reaching the heart. In aportal system blood moves fromone capillary system to anothercapillary system before reaching theheart. The hepatic portal systemtakes blood from the capillary bedsof many of the abdominal organsand carries it to the liver wheremetabolic processing takes place.The hepatic portal vein receivesblood from various veins includingthe splenic vein, the gastroepiploicvein, the left gastric vein and thecolic veins which take blood to thesuperior mesenteric and inferiormesenteric veins. Once the blood isprocessed in the liver it enters thesystemic circulation by the hepaticveins.
The return of blood from other partsof the pelvic and abdominal cavitiesdoes not go through the hepaticportal system but enters the inferiorvena cava. The renal veins takeblood from the kidneys to theinferior vena cava. The gonadalveins take blood from the testes orthe ovaries. The left gonadal veinenters the left renal vein while theright gonadal vein enters theinferior vena cava. The intercostalveins take blood to the hemiazygosand the azygos veins.
Answer Key: a. Azygos V., b. Inferiorvena cava,c. Hepaticvv, d. Renal v.,e. Posterior intercostal vv.,f. Hemiazygos v., g. Gonadal v.,h. Hepatic portalv., i.Superiormesenteric v., J. Right colicv.,k. Gastric v., I. Splenicv.,m. Gastroepiploic v.,n. Inferior mesenteric v.
a.--------
b. _
c. _
d.
h.------
1. _
J.
Chapter Eight I KAPLAlfd- I 231Cardiovascular System me lea
c.
FETAL CIRCULATIONThe significant difference in fetal circulation from adult circulation liesin the fact that the lungs are non-functional in the fetus. The source ofoxygen for the fetus is the placenta where maternal blood carries oxygenand nutrients to the fetus. Blood from the placenta travels to the fetus bythe umbilical vein. It is called a vein because it carries blood to the fetalheart. The blood flowing in the umbilical vein is oxygenated bloodwhich is not typical of most blood that occurs in veins. From theumbilical vein the blood passes through a small shunt vesselknown asthe ductus venosus and enters the inferior vena cava where it mixeswith blood returning from the lower extremities. The fetus receives amixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
a.
b.
d.
Chapter Eight I Km·Peu~·lcal 233Cardiovascular System U
This mixed blood reaches the fetal heart and begins the first of twobypass routes. Since the lungs do not oxygenate blood in the fetus theydo not require the entire blood volume to pass through them. The firstbypass route is through the foramen ovale, a hole between the right andleft atria of the heart. Another bypass route occurs as the blood entersthe pulmonary trunk. Blood moves from the pulmonary trunk throughthe ductus arteriosus and into the aortic arch.
Blood traveling back to the fetus is not fully deoxygenated but is amixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. This blood flows fromthe internal iliac arteries of the fetus and into the umbilical arteries.From the umbilical arteries the blood flows into the placenta.
f.-------
1.----------
J.--------
1.
Answer Key: a. Superiorvena cava, b. Rightatrium, c. Foramenovale, d. Placenta, e. Ductus arteriosus, f. Rightventricle,g. Ductus venosus, h. Inferior vena cava,i. Umbilical v., J. Abdominal aorta,k. Internal iliaca., I.Umbilical aa.
Chapter Nine: The Lymph System 235
OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHSYSTEMThe lymph system is composed oflymphatics or lymph vessels andglands and is a system with manyfunctions. Fluid that bathes the cells(interstitial fluid) is returned to thecardiovascular system, in part, by thelymph system. This fluid, calledlymph, passes through lymph nodeswhere impurities and foreignmicrobes are removed. Other partsof the lymph system include lymphorgans such as the spleen. Theseorgans produce cells that protect thebody from foreign compounds, andhave other immune functions suchas cleansing the body of cellulardebris and removing old blood cellsfrom circulation.
The main exchange of fluid from thecardiovascular system occurs at thecapillary level. Arterioles carryblood to the capillary bed and thevenules return blood from thecapillaries. About ninety percent ofthe fluid that flows from the bloodcapillaries to the interstices aroundthe cells is reabsorbed by thecapillaries. The remaining tenpercent of the interstitial fluid entersthe lymph system by lymphcapillaries and travels throughlymphatics. These lymph capillarieshave one-way valves that allow thefluid to enter the lymphatics and notreturn to the cells. Once the fluidenters the lymphatic system it iscalled lymph. The lymph travelsthrough the lymphatics and some ofthese merge into a large vessel in theabdomen called the cisterna chyli.This vessel, in turn, takes lymph tothe thoracic duct that returns thelymph to the cardiovascular system.Label the structures of the lymphsystem and color them in.
e. _
c.
d.
g._---
Answer Key: a.Thoracic duct,b. Spleen, c. Cisterna chili,d. Lymphatics, e. Lymph nodes,f.Venule, g.Arteriole, h. Lymphcapillaries
h. _
Chapter l\Jine I KAPLAlfd- I 237Lymph System me lea
~j.-------
a. _
1. _
b. _
c. _
One of the functions of the lymphsystem is to return tissue fluid to thecardiovascular system.
The right lymphatic duct returnsblood to the right internal jugularvein. This occurs at the junctionwhere the right subclavian vein andthe right internal jugular vein reachthe right brachiocephalic vein. Thethoracic duct enters thecardiovascular system at the pointwhere the left internal jugular veinand the left subclavian vein enterthe left brachiocephalic vein. Lymphnodes occur along the path andcleanse the lymph. The thymus is alymph organ that occurs near thesedrainage areas. The thoracic ductreceives lymph from most of thebody while the right lymphatic ductreceives lymph from the right side ofthe head, the right pectoral region,shoulder and right upper extremity.Label and color in the veins of theneck and upper thorax and label thelymphatic vessels that return fluid tothe cardiovascular system.
RETURN DRAINAGE
,";' '.',"
Answer Key: a.Rightinternal jugularvein,b. Right lymphaticduct, c. Right
subclavian vein, d. Lymph nodes,e. Leftinternaljugularvein, f.Thoracic duct,g. Left subclavian vein, h. Thymus,i. Right drainage area, j. Left drainagearea
TONSILSThe tonsils are lymph organs thatprovide protection against microbesentering the mouth and nose. Tonsilsare regions of mucous membranewith lymph tissue. The pharyngealtonsils are located in the nasopharynx (a region posterior to thenasal cavity and superior to the oralcavity) and they provide someprotection from inhaled material.The lingual tonsils are on theposterior part of the tongue and,along with the palatine tonsils onthe side of the oral cavity, theyprovide protection from materialthat enters the body by mouth. Thesetonsils cluster to form a tonsillar(Waldeyer's) ring that protects thebody from microbial invasion. Labelthe tonsils and associated structuresand color them in.
Answer Key:a. Pharyngeal tonsil,b. Tongue, c. Palatine tonsil, d. Lingualtonsil,e. Tonsillar (Waldeyer's) ring
e. _
Chapter Nine I 1mAPeLA!I-.cal 239Lymph System U
c. _
d. _
(behind soft palate)
Uvula
c. _
SPLEENThe spleen is on the left side of thebody and is close to the pancreas.The splenic artery takes blood to thespleen and the splenic vein takesblood from the spleen. The spleen isimportant in removing aging redblood cells from circulation andrecycling them. The spleen has bothred pulp and white pulp. The redpulp is involved in red blood cellremoval and the white pulpproduces lymphocytes. The spleenhas splenic cords that havelymphocytes along their length.Label the parts of the spleen andassociated structures and color themin. Select red for the red pulp andleave the white pulp white.
Chapter Nine I KAPLAlfd" I 241Lymph System me lea
~.Ninth rib~ ~
a. _
b. _
c. _
d. _ e. _
Answer Key: a, Spleen, b. Splenicartery, c. Splenicvein, d. Red pulp,e. Arteriole, f. Sinuses, g.White pulp
g._----
f. _
(filled with red blood cells)
Chapter Nine I UPLANd'· I 243Lymph System me lea
LYMPH NODESLymph nodes are found typically in clusters along the route thatlymphatics take as lymph is returned to the cardiovascular system.Afferent lymphatics bring lymph to the node and efferent lymphaticsreceive lymph from the node.
Lymph nodes consist of an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortexproduces lymphocytes and the medulla has medullary cords that haveclusters oflymph cellsthat cleanse the lymph passing through the nodes.Label the lymphatics and parts of the lymph node and color them in.
f.
c.
e.
d.
/J?./
b.
a.
Answer Key: a. Efferent lymphatics, b. Capsule, c. Cortex, d. Medulla with medullarycords. e. Afferent lymphatics, f. Bloodvessels
LACTEALSThe lymph system has a specialfunction in digestion. Not only arethere lymph nodes along parts of thedigestive tract that protect the bodyfrom possible invasion from ingestedmicrobes, but fatty acids fromdigestion are absorbed by specialvessels called lacteals. Lacteals arefound in the small intestine infinger-like structures called villi.These villi also contain capillarieswhich absorb sugars and aminoacids. The lacteals absorb the fattyacids, products from the digestion oflipids in the diet. They travelthrough the lymphatic vessels to thecardiovascular system. Label thevilli, capillaries, and lacteals andcolor them in.
a. _
.. 0) I..........._~~_//\. .
Chapter Nine I UPLA~. I 245Lymph System meulca
Answer Key: a. Small intestine,b. Lymphaticvessel, c. Villi,d. Capillaries, e. Lacteal
Chapter Nine I KAPLAlfd- I 247Lymph System me lea
TWO TYPES OF IMMUNITY
The body can control against foreign particles either by cell-mediatedimmunity or antibody mediated immunity. In antibody mediatedimmunity, foreign particles called antigens (typically proteins orcarbohydrates on the surface of invading cells) stimulate B cells tobecome plasma cells and memory B cells. The plasma cells produceantibodies and these react with the antigens stimulating theirdestruction.
In cell-mediated immunity, the reacting cells are called helperTcellsand they cause the activation of and the differentiation of other T cellsinto memory T cells and effector or cytotoxic T cells. The cytotoxic Tcells can recognize foreign cells and destroy them. The steps in immunereactions are much more complex than this but this description providesa general understanding of the process. Fill in the illustration using theterms provided. Color the different cells and antibodies using one typeof color (various types of orange for B cells) and another for T cells.
Cell-mediated immunity~
~ Activates
g._---
• e h - -
I~)(
~ Antigen-bearing cell
1. _
b.
/
c. _
a.--- _
Antibody-mediated immunity
...
Destroyed cell
Answer Key:a. Antigens, b. B cell, c. Memory B cell, d. Antibodies,e. Plasma cell, f. Helper T cell, g. Activated T cell, h. Effector (CytotOXIC) T cell, i. Memory T cell
OVERVIEW OF THERESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system consists ofthe nose, nasal cavity, pharynx,larynx, trachea, lungs, the linings ofthe lungs (pleura) and therespiratory muscles, such as thediaphragm and intercostal muscles.Label the respiratory figure andcolor in the major parts of thesystem.
Answer Key: a. Pharynx, b. Trachea,e. Rightlung,d. Pleura, e. Nasal cavity,f. Larynx, g. Left lung, h. Diaphragm
Chapter Ten: Respiratory System I 249
a.--
b.-----
c.-----
d.----
LARYNX, TRACHEA, AND LUNGS OVERVIEWTwo main cartilages of the larynx can be seen from an anterior view. Thethyroid cartilage is superior to the cricoid cartilage. Below the larynx isthe trachea which divides into the right and left primary bronchi. Theright primary bronchus leads to the right lung and the left primary
b. _
c. ---- _
Chapter Ten I IAPLA~. I 251Respiratory System meulca
bronchus leads to the left lung. Label the parts of the respiratory systemillustrated. Color the two visible cartilages of the larynx different colorsand the trachea another color. Color the bronchi in first with a darkercolor and then color the lungs in with a lighter color.
g._------
Answer Key:a.Trachea, b. Right primarybronchus, c. Right lung,d. Thyroid cartilage, e. Cricoid cartilage, f. Leftprimarybronchus, g. Left lung
NOSE AND NASALSEPTUMThe nose consists of the nasal bones,the frontal process of the maxilla atthe root of the nose, and a numberof cartilages. These nasal cartilagesare made of hyaline cartilage. Theseare the lateral nasal cartilages, thegreater alar cartilages, and thelesser alar cartilages. The septalcartilage also forms part of thesecartilages. The openings of the nose(nostrils) are the external nares(external naris singular).
The nasal cavity has a wall that runsdown the middle of it called thenasal septum. The septum consistsof three parts, the perpendicularplate of the ethmoid bone (acontinuation of the crista galli) , thevomer and the septal cartilage. Atthe end of the nasal septum are twoholes that separate the nasal cavityfrom the nasopharynx. These arethe choanae or internal nares. Thefloor of the nasal cavity is borderedby the hard palate and the softpalate. At the junction of the cristagalli and the perpendicular plate ofthe ethmoid is the cribriform plateof the ethmoid. Label the variousstructures of the nose such as thebones and color in the cartilages ofthe nose.
Answer Key: a. Nasal bone, b. Frontalprocessof maxilla, c. Septal cartilage,d. Lateral nasal cartilage, e. Lesser alarcartilages, f. Greateralar cartilage,g. External naris, h. Crista galli ofethmoid bone, i. Cnbnform plate,J. Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone,k.Vomer, I.Hard palate,m. Soft palate,n. Choanae (internal nares)
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k. _
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f. _
1. _
Chapter Ten I IlAPLA~. I 2Respiratory System meulca 5:5
ll.-----
LATERAL WALL OF NASALCAVITY AND RESPIRATORYEPITHELIUMWhen looking at the nasal cavity, ifthe septal cartilage is removed youcan see the nasal conchae. Thesestructures force the inhaled air tocome into contact with the wall ofthe nasal cavity where the air iswarmed and moistened. There arethree nasal conchae, the superiornasal concha, the middle nasalconcha, and the inferior nasalconcha. Note the position of theconchae with the nasal bone, thehard palate and the soft palate.Label the nasal cavity and thestructures that are associated withthe cavity.
c.
a.--------
b. _
d. _
e. _
Chapter Ten I KAPLAlfd- I 255Respiratory System me lea
f.-----
The nasal cavity is lined withrespiratory epithelium which ispseudostratified ciliated columnarepithelium with goblet cells.Respiratory epithelium is found inthe nasal cavity, the lower larynx,trachea, and bronchi. The gobletcells secrete mucus which forms afilm over the epithelial surface. Dustand other particulate matter sticks tothe mucous sheet which is moved bythe cilia. This provides a protectivefunction, removing particulatematter from entering the lungswhere it might do damage. Label thevarious parts of respiratoryepithelium such as the nucleus, cilia,mucous sheet, goblet cells, andbasement membrane.
Answer Key: a. Nasal bone, b. Superiornasal concha, c. Middle nasal concha,d. Infenor nasal concha, e. Hard palate,f. Soft palate, g. Mucous sheet, h. Cilia,i Goblet cells, j Nuclei, k. Basementmembrane
ChapterTen I KAPLAlfd" I 257Respiratory System me lea
CORONAL VIEW OF THE NASAL CONCHAE ANDLARYNXThe nasal cavity is more than a hole behind the nose. Inhaled air swirlsaround the conchae and is warmed and moistened in the process. Labeland color the septal cartilage in a coronal section of the nose. Label andcolor each of the conchae. The superior nasal concha, middle nasal
concha, and the inferior nasal concha should each have a differentcolor. The frontal and ethmoid sinuses can also be seen in thisillustration. They give resonance to the voice. Note the location of thehard palate and the external naris in this coronal section. The larynx isalso sectioned in this plane and the position of the thyroid cartilage, thevocal fold, the cricoid cartilage, and the trachea are seen in this view.Label and color the rest of the structures in this illustration.
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e. _
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d. _
- c. _
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Answer Key: a. Sinuses, b. Superiornasalconcha,c. Middle nasalconcha,d. Septal cartilage, e. Inferior nasal concha,f. Hard palate,g. External naris,h. Thyroidcartilage, i. Vocal fold, J. Cricoid cartilage, k. Trachea
ChapterTenRespiratory System I
IAPLA~. ImeulC8 259
LARYNX AND TRACH EAThe larynx is the "voice box" and it not only produces sound for speechbut also separates the flow of air to the lungs from the flow of foods andliquids that go down the esophagus. The thyroid cartilage is the largestcartilage of the larynx and it is easily seen from the anterior aspect. Thethyroid cartilage is inferior to the hyoid bone. Behind the thyroidcartilage is the epiglottis which is the only laryngeal structure made ofelastic cartilage. Inferior to the thyroid cartilage is the cricoid cartilageand it is the inferior border of the larynx. The cricothyroid ligamentjoins these anterior structures together. Above the cricoid cartilage arethe paired arytenoid cartilages. These attach to the vocal folds andtighten them, causing the voice to increase in pitch. Superior to thearytenoid cartilages are the corniculate cartilages that are shaped likesmall horns. The glottis is the opening into the larynx and the epiglottisis the flap that folds over the glottis during swallowing.
In the midsagittal section of the larynx you can see that the cricoidcartilage is larger on the posterior aspect. The thyroid cartilage isprominent on the anterior side, the arytenoid and corniculatecartilages are prominent on the posterior side, along with the cricoidcartilage, the epiglottis, and the vocal folds. The vestibular fold (falsevocal cord) is superior and is found on the lateral wall of the larynx.Below this is the vocal cord (vocal fold) that produces sound. The conuselasticus consists of elastic tissue and connects the vocal folds to thecartilages. Below the larynx is the trachea which leads from the larynx tothe lungs. Label and color the structures of the larynx and label andcolor in the trachea.
Answer Key:a. Epiglottis, b. Hyoid bone, c. Thyroid cartilage, d. Corniculate cartilage, e. Vestibular fold, f. Vocal fold, g.Arytenoid cartilage, h. Conus elasticus,i. Cricothyroid ligament, j. Cricoid cartilage, k.Trachea, I. Glottis
THE TRACH EA ANDBRONCHIAL TREE
The trachea connects to the larynxsuperiorly and ends inferiorly in akeel-shaped structure called thecarina. The trachea is composed ofthe tracheal rings which are hyalinecartilage. The posterior surface ofthe trachea has smooth musclecalled the trachealis muscle thatallows for the food in the esophagusto bulge into the trachea. Thetrachea branches into the rightprimary bronchus and the leftprimary bronchus which form partof the lungs.
b. _
Chapter Ten I UPLANd·· I 261Respiratory System me lea
Answer Key: a. Trachea, b. Rightprimary bronchus,c. Tracheal ring,d. Left primary bronchus,e. Carina,f. Trachealis muscle
LUNGS AND MEMBRANESThe lungs are in the thoracic cavityon either side of the mediastinum.The membrane that occurs on theinside of the ribs and on the superioraspect of the diaphragm is known asthe parietal pleura. The space insideof this is the pleural cavity and thelungs occupy the pleural cavities.The innermost membrane is thevisceral pleura and it is attached tothe surface of the lung. The rightlung has three lobes: a superior lobe,a middle lobe, and an inferior lobe.The left lung has two lobes: asuperior lobe and an inferior lobe.The left lung also has an indentationwhere the heart protrudes into theleft lung and this is the cardiacnotch. Label the membranes and theparts of the lungs and color them in.
Chapter Ten I 1mAPeLANd'-Ical 263Respiratory System
b _
c. _
d _
e _
Answer Key:a. Parietal pleura,b. Visceral pleura, c. Superior lobe,d. Middle lobe,e Inferior lobe,f.Cardiac notch,g. Pleural cavity,h. Trachea
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ChapterTenRespiratory System I
UPLA~. Imemea 265
THE PATHWAY OF AIRThe lungs are like large spongesfilled with microscopic spaces. Airtravels to these spaces by thebronchial tree. The trachea splits atthe level of the lungs into twoprimary bronchi. Each lung has aprimary bronchus that divides tosecondary bronchi. These dividefurther to tertiary bronchi whichdivide into smaller branches. Finallybronchi become bronchioles andthese lead to smaller sacs where theexchange of oxygen and carbondioxide occurs between the lungsand blood. Shade the majorsegments of the bronchial tree.
The air from the bronchioles movesinto the alveolar ducts which arepart of the clusters called alveolarsacs. The air flows into the alveolarduct which is a conduit to theindividual alveoli (alveolussingular) and these are the areaswhere there is an exchange of oxygenand carbon dioxide between the airand blood. Capillaries are situatednext to the alveoli and there are twothin set of membranes-one of thealveolus and one of the capillarythat allow the exchange of oxygenand carbon dioxide. Additionallythere are type II alveolar cells(septal cells) that secrete a materialcalled surfactant. This substancereduces the surface tension of thelungs, allowing them to expandmore easily.Color in the structuresof the alveolar sacs and theassociated structures.
Answer Key: a. Cartilage, b. Secondarybronchus, c. Tertiary bronchus,d. Bronchi, e. Bronchioles, f. Alveoli,g. Capillaries, h.TypeII alveolarcell(septalcell), i. Surfactant, j. Red bloodcell, k.Alveolus, I. Pulmonaryartery,m. Alveolar ducts, n. Pulmonaryvein,o. Alveolar sac
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Chapter Eleven: Digestive System 267
1.
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OVERVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system is composed of a long tube called the alimentarycanal and the accessory organs including the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. The alimentary canal starts at the mouth, includes theesophagus, stomach, intestines, and rectum and terminates at the anus.It can be defined as the tube through which ingested products move. Theaccessory organs have digestive functions but they do not come intocontact with material passing through the digestive tract. The alimentarycanal consists of numerous organs including the mouth which is theopening to the system and is directly anterior to the oral cavity. Theterminal aspect of the oral cavity is defined by the small mass of fleshytissue called the uvula. Posterior to the oral cavity is the oropharynx.This chamber receives food and liquid from the mouth and air from
a. _
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both the mouth and nasal cavity. The oropharynx leads to theesophagus which is a muscular tube that takes ingested material to thestomach. The stomach is a storage organ leading to the small intestinewhere material is digested and absorbed. The large intestine receivesmaterial from the small intestine, removes a significant amount of water,and stores the fecal material prior to defecation.
The salivary glands are the most superior accessory glands. Theylubricate food and add digestive enzymes to material that is swallowed.The liver, pancreas and gall bladder all add secretions to the ingestedmaterial and aid in the digestive process. Label the parts of the digestivesystem, including the alimentary canal and the accessory organs, andcolor the individual digestive organs a different color.
h. _
Answer Key: a. Alimentary canal. b. Mouth, c. Esophagus, d. Stomach, e. Small Intestine, f. Large intestine,g. Accessory organs, h. Salivary glands, i. Liver, J. Pancreas,k. Gall bladder, I. Rectum, m. Anus
MOUTH AND ORALCAVITYThe mouth is the entrance to thedigestive system. It is bordered bythe two labia or lips. Each labiumhas a labial frenulum (superior andinferior) that holds the lip to thegingiva. The gingiva (gums) have asurface tissue of stratified squamousepithelium which is the cell type thatlines the entire oral cavity. The oralcavity encloses the teeth, and thetongue. It is bordered by the hardpalate, the soft palate, the uvula, thecheek walls, the muscles andassociated tissue that spans acrossthe bodies of the mandible. The oralcavity leads to the oropharynx,which in turn leads to theesophagus.
The tongue is a large muscle in theoral cavity that pushes food to theposterior part of the oral cavity forswallowing and helps form speech. Itis held to the floor of the oral cavityby the lingual frenulum.
Answer Key: a. Superior labialfrenulum, b. Gingiva, c. Hard palate,d. Softpalate, e. Uvula, f. Oropharynx,g.Tongue, h. Inferior labial frenulum,i. Esophagus
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Chapter Eleven \ IAPLAlfil- I 269Digestive System me lea
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SALIVARY GLANDS
The three pair of salivary glands secrete saliva inside the oral cavity. Thelargest pair consists of the parotid glands and they are located justanterior to the ears. The parotid duct leads from the gland to posteriorto the upper second molar. The submandibular glands are located
Tongue
Buccinator muscle
Mandible
a. -----------
Chapter Eleven I IlAPLAlI"d- I 271Digestive System me lea
inferior to the mandible and they take secretions to either side of thelingual frenulum. The sublingual glands are inferior to the tongue andhave many tubes that lead to the lower oral cavity. Label the salivaryglands and the parotid duct. Color each gland a different color.
c. ----- _
Mylohyoid muscle
Answer Key: a. Sublingual gland, b. Submandibulargland,c. Parotid gland, d. Parotid dud
Chapter ElevenDigestive System I mettical 273
TEETH
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Answer Key: a. Crown, b. Neck, c. Root,d. Enamel, e. Dentin, f. Pulp cavity,g. Periodontal ligament, h. Root canal,
i. Cementum, J. Apical foramen,k. Blood vessels and nerves, I. Incisors,m. Cuspids (canines), n. Premolars(bic.ispids), o. Molars
The tooth has three general regions:the crown, the neck, and the root. Thecrown is the part of the tooth thaterupts from the gums into the oralcavity.The neck is normally at thelevelof the gingiva and the root isimbedded into the bone. The toothfits into the alveolar socket of themaxilla or the mandible and is heldthere by the periodontal ligaments.
The internal anatomy of the toothreveals the hard enamel which is anextremely dense material that resistswear and abrasion. Deep to this isthe dentin, a material similar tobone that provides the majorstructure of the tooth. In the root,the dentin is coated with cementumthat helps fix the tooth in thealveolar socket. Inside of the dentinis the pulp cavity that houses nervesand blood vessels. These structuresenter the tooth by the apicalforamen and make their way to thepulp cavity by the root canal.
Humans have two series of teeth.Early in development come thedeciduous (milk) teeth. Thepermanent teeth emerge as the skullis increasing in size. In deciduousteeth there are incisors, cuspids(canines), and molar teeth but thereare no premolars. In adults there arethe incisor teeth, the cuspids,premolars (bicuspids), and molarteeth. Label the parts of the toothand then color in the regions of thetooth on one side of the illustrationand the enamel, dentin, and otherfeatures on the other part of theillustration. For the deciduous andpermanent teeth, use the same colorfor the incisors on both illustrations.Use another color for the cuspidsand another for the premolars, andso on for the rest of the teeth.
ESOPHAGUSFood moves from the oral cavity tothe oropharynx by action of thetongue. The uvula flips upwardkeeping the food from entering thenasal cavity. Food passes from theoropharynx into the laryngopharynxbefore moving to the esophagus. Thefood enters the esophagus as a lumpor bolus and passes through theesophageal sphincter to the stomach. Once it enters the stomach thebolus mixes with stomach fluid andbecomes a liquid called chyme. Labeland color the structures leading tothe esophagus and the esophagusitself including the esophagealsphincter.
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Chapter Eleven I KAPLAlfd- I 275Digestive System me lea
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Answer Key: a.Oropharynx,b. Laryngopharynx, c. Esophagus,d. Uvula, e. Oral caVity, f. Stomach,g. Esophageal sphincter
Open Closed
g._-------
Chapter ElevenDigestive System I meclical 277
STOMACH
The stomach is located on the left side of the body, just inferior to thediaphragm. It is the part of the alimentary canal located between theesophagus and the small intestine. The stomach has an upper cardia anda small domed portion called the fundus. The stomach contents arerestricted from flowing back into the esophagus by the esophagealsphincter. If stomach fluid refluxes into the esophagus, it is felt as"heartburn."
The main portion of the stomach is the body and the narrow region,leading to the duodenum is the antrum or pyloric region. This leads tothe pyloric canal which is controlled by the pyloric sphincter. Thegreater curvature is located on the left edge of the stomach and thelesser curvature is on the right side. The stomach has inner ridges calledrugae which allow for expansion of the stomach.
The stomach has many layers. The inner layer is called the mucosa whichis rich in glands that secrete acids and inactive enzymes such aspepsinogen into the stomach cavity. Pepsinogen is activated byhydrochloric acid. The mucosa has gastric pits with parietal cells andchief cells emptying into the pits. The parietal cells secrete hydrochloricacid and the chief cells secrete pepsinogen. External to the mucosa is thesubmucosa and this layer has many blood vessels imbedded inconnective tissue. Beyond this is the muscularis. In the stomach thereare three layers of the muscularis. These are the oblique layer, circularlayer, and longitudinal layer. The most external layer is the serosa (alsoknown as the visceral peritoneum) and this is next to the abdominalcavity. Label the parts of the stomach and color them in. Color the layersof the muscularis using different colors of red or pink for each layer.Color the general regions of the stomach different colors along with theseparate sphincters.
a. _
b.-----_
c.--------
Muscularis layers:
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f.Muscularis e. _
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Answer Key: a. Fundus, b. Cardia, c. Lesser curvature, d. Longitudinal layer (of muscularis),e. Circular layer (of muscularis),f. Oblique layer (of muscularis), g. Body,h. Rugae, i. Greatercurvature, J. Pyloriccanal, k. Pyloricsphincter, I.Antrum, m. Gastricpit, n. Chief cell, o. Parietal cell, p. Mucosa, q. Submucosa, r.Serosa
Chapter ElevenDigestive System I meilical 279
SMALL INTESTI NE
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c. _
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d. _
c. _
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a.
Answer Key: a, Gallbladder,b. Pancreas, c. Duodenum, d Jejunum,e. Ileum, f. Circular fold, g,Villi,h. Submucosa, i Muscularis
The small intestine receives thecontents of the stomach, continuesthe process of digestion and absorbsnutrients. The first part of the smallintestine is the duodenum, a shorttube of about twelve inches inlength, that receives material fromthe stomach, enzymes and buffersfrom the pancreas, and bile from thegall bladder. The duodenum hascircular folds in the wall thatincrease the surface area. Thejejunum is the next section of thesmall intestine and it makes upabout forty percent of the smallintestine. There are circular folds inthe jejunum as well. The ileum is theterminal portion of the smallintestine and represents about sixtypercent of the small intestine. Thesmall intestine is small in diameterand that is how it gets its name.
The small intestine is distinguishedfrom the rest of the alimentary canalby the presence of villi. These'smallstructures in the mucosa increase thesurface area of the small intestineand house blood capillaries andlacteals for the absorption ofnutrients. The small intestine has thefour layers typical of the otherorgans of the gastrointestinal tract:the mucosa, submucosa,muscularis. and serosa. Label theparts of the small intestine and colorin the various regions and layers ofthe small intestine.
LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine is shorter thanthe small intestine but has greaterwidth. The large intestine begins inthe lower right quadrant of theabdomen with a sac-like structurecalled the cecum. The ileocecal valveis a muscular sphincter that preventsthe fecal material in the cecum fromflowing back into the ileum. At thisjunction is the vermiformappendix. Material in the largeintestine moves from the cecum tothe ascending colon and then makesa sharp turn at the hepatic flexure.Once this turn is accomplished, thematerial is in the transverse colon.From here there is a sharpdownward angle called the splenicflexure and the material enters thedescending colon. From thedescending colon, the materialenters an S-shaped tube called thesigmoid colon and then enters therectum. The rectum is the end of thelarge intestine. The rectum leads tothe anal canal which is a short tubeleading to the anus.
There are several anatomical featuresthat separate the large intestine fromthe small intestine. The largeintestine has long strips of smoothmuscle that run the length of thelarge intestine. These are called theteniae coli. These muscles pull theintestine into small compartmentscalled haustra. Anotherdistinguishing feature of the largeintestine is the presence of small fatglobules called epiploic appendages.Label the parts of the large intestineand color in each region with adifferent color. Color the haustralight red and the tenia coli pink.Color the epiploic appendagesyellow.
Answer Key: a. Hepatic flexure,b. Splenicflexure, c. Transverse colon,d. Descendingcolon, e. Epiploicappendages, f. Sigmoid colon,g. Redum, h. Anal canal, i, Anus.j. Vermiform appendix, k.Cecum,I.Ascending colon, m. Tenia coli,n. Haustra
a. _
1.-- _
k. _
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Chapter Eleven I KAPLAlfd- I 281Digestive System me lea
b. _
c. _
f. _
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n. _
Chapter Eleven I mKAPeLANd'-IcalDigestive System 281
1. _
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Answer Key: a. Right lobe, b. Left lobe,c. Falciform ligament, d. Portal vein,e. Hepatic artery f. Caudate lobe,g. Quadrate lobe, h. Portal triad,i. Centralvein, j. Bile duct, k. Hepaticartery branch, I. Bile canaliculus,m. Portal vein branch, n. Hepatocytes,o. Sinusoids
LIVERThe liver is the largest internal organof the body. It is on the right side ofthe body and plays a majormetabolic function in digestion andalso in processing material from theblood. The liver has four lobes inhumans and is held to thediaphragm by the falciformligament. The right lobe is thelargest of the lobes. The left lobe isalso reasonably large. The quadratelobe is anterior and is rectangular inshape when seen from the inferiorview. The caudate lobe is a posteriorlobe of the liver.
The blood flows into the liver fromtwo sources. The hepatic portal veintakes blood to the liver from thedigestive tract and some abdominalorgans. The hepatic artery bringsoxygenated blood to the liver. Theliver is composed of microscopicsections called liver lobules. Theseare typically hexagonal columns thathave a central vein that takes bloodback to the heart via the hepaticvein. Blood travels to the central veinby sinusoids, canals that are lined byhepatocytes (liver cells).Hepatocytes clean the blood orprocess material in the blood. Oldblood pigments are recycled by theliver and are converted to bile. Thebile moves through bile canaliculiand eventually is stored in the gallbladder. The branches of the hepaticartery, portal vein, and bile duct areclustered together and form theportal triad. Label the liverstructures on the illustrations. Colorin the lobes of the liver usingdifferent colors for each lobe. Colorthe hepatic portal vein blue, thehepatic artery red, and the bile ductsgreen.
Chapter Eleven I KmAPeLANd' -Ical 285Digestive System
J.------
b _
d. _
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g._-----
h. _
a. _
c. _
The gall bladder receives bile fromthe liver, storing and condensing itprior to secreting it into the smallintestine. Bile is an emulsifier of fats,making them disperse in the liquidchyme of the digestive tract. Bileflows from the left and right hepaticducts, into the common hepaticduct, into the cystic duct thenentering the gall bladder. When thegall bladder contracts, bile movesback out the cystic duct and into thecommon bile duct before enteringthe small intestine. Usually thecommon bile duct and thepancreatic duct join before theyenter the small intestine. In this casethe tube is called thehepatopancreatic ampulla and itleads to the duodenal papilla. Labelthe parts of the pancreas, gallbladder and ducts and color them in.
Answer Key: a. Gall bladder,b. Pancreas, c.Duodenum, d. Head,e. Body, f. Tail, g Right hepatic duct,h Cystic duct, i. Duodenal papilla, j. Lefthepatic duct, k. Common hepatic duct,I. Common bile duct, m. Pancreatic duct
The pancreas is a complex organthat has both a digestive functionand an endocrine function. Thedigestive function of the pancreasconsists of producing enzymes forthe digestion of materials in thesmall intestine and the secretion ofbuffers to increase the pH of thefluid secreted from the stomach. Thepancreas has a head, next to theduodenum, a main body and a tailnear the spleen. The enzymes andbuffers secreted into the smallintestine flow into the pancreaticduct before entering the smallintestine.
PANCREAS/GALL BLADDER
OVERVI EW OF THEURINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system consists of twokidneys, two ureters, a urinarybladder, and a urethra. The rightkidney is a little more inferior thanthe left kidney due to the presence ofthe liver on the right side of thebody. The kidneys are located nearthe twelfth vertebra and extend tothe third lumbar vertebra. Theyreceive blood from the renal artery.The kidneys are retroperitoneal,meaning that they are posterior tothe parietal peritoneum. The uretersare also retroperitoneal and takeurine to the bladder. Since theurinary bladder is located anterior tothe parietal peritoneum it is calledanteperitoneal. Label the organs ofthe urinary system and use separatecolors for the kidneys, ureters,urinary bladder, and urethra.
Chapter Twelve: Urinary System 287
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Answer Key: a. Kidney, b. Ureter,c. Urinary bladder, d. Urethra,e. Renal artery
a. _
b. _
c. _
--'..;---- Psoas major muscle
Chapter TwelveUrinary System I
UPLANd'· Ime lea 289
KIDNEYThe kidney is a bean-shaped organ.The outer surface of the kidney iscovered by the renal capsule. Thedepression on the medial side is thehilum where the renal artery entersthe kidney and the renal vein andthe ureter exit. The kidney issectioned in the coronal plane tostudy the internal anatomy. Therenal capsule is a thin membrane onthe exterior of the kidney. Deep tothe capsule is the renal cortex wherefiltration takes place in the kidney.The renal medulla is deep to thecortex and it is divided into renalcolumns and renal pyramids. Eachpyramid ends in a papilla and thisdrips urine into smalJ funnel-shapedstructures called the minor calyces(calyx singular). The minor calycesjoin to form the major calyces andthese, in turn, take urine to the renalpelvis. The renal pelvis occupiesmost of the renal sinus, a space inthe kidney. The renal pelvis takesurine to the ureter on the medialside of the kidney. Blood travels tothe kidney by the renal artery. Fromthere the blood moves intosegmental arteries and theninterlobar arteries. From theinterlobar arteries the blood travelsto the arcuate arteries. Thesearteries are the dividing structuresbetween the renal cortex and therenal medulla. From the arcuatearteries blood flows into theinterlobular arteries. Label the partsof the kidney and associatedstructures. Use one color for thecortex and different shades ofanother color for the renal pyramidsand columns. Color the renal arteryred and the renal vein blue. Useyellow for the pelvis and ureter.
Answer Key: a. Renal artery, b. Hilum,c. Renal vein, d. Renal pelvis,e. Ureter,f. Renal capsule, g. Major calyces,h. Renal sinus, I. Renal cortex,J. Renalpyramid (in renal medulla), k. Papilla,I.Renal column, m. Minor calyces,n. Segmental arteries, o. Interlobarartery, p. Interlobularartery,q. Arcuate arteries
a. _
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c. _
d. _
e. _
f. _
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h. _
d. _
e. _
n. _
a. _
n. _
p._-----
q._-----
URINARY BLADDER
The urinary bladder is a storageorgan for holding urine. The uretersenter the bladder at the ureteralorifices and the urethra exits thebladder inferiorly. These threeopenings make a triangular regionknown as the trigone at theposterior wall of the bladder. Theurethra is the external tube thattakes urine voided from the urinarybladder to outside the body. Theurethra in the female is muchshorter than in the male, whichmakes females more susceptible tobladder infections. The wall of thebladder consists of smooth musclecalled the detrusor muscle and aninner lining of transitionalepithelium. Label the features of thebladder, urethra, and associatedstructures and color them in.
Answer Key: a. Ureter, b. Urinarybladder, c. Detrusor muscle,d. Ureteral orifice,e. Trigone, f. Urethra,g. Right kidney
Chapter Twelve I meClical 291Urinary System
Peritoneum
Urethral sphincter muscle
Female Urinary System
g.-------
a.
b.-- _
Prostate gland --------"-,--;-
f.
Male Urinary System
Chapter Twelve I mKAPeLANd'-Ical 293Urinary System
a. _
d.---
b.-- _
1.,-----
a. _
~~. h._
J.------
f.- _
rT
g.----
e.-----
The functional unit of the kidney isthe nephron. It is here that materialis filtered from the blood; somematerial is lost in the urine whileother material is reabsorbed backinto the cardiovascular system. Therenal corpuscle of the nephronincludes the glomerulus and theglomerular (Bowman's) capsule.The lining of the capsule wrapsaround the glomerulus and filteredmaterial enters the nephron at thispoint. The glomerular capsule leadsto the proximal convoluted tubule.This tubule has a brush borderconsisting of many microvilli and itprovides for a great surface area forreabsorption of materials. Most ofthe reabsorption of material in thenephron occurs here. Theperi tubular capillaries wrap aroundthe kidney tubules and reabsorb thefiltered material. From the proximalconvoluted tubule, the fluid flowsinto the nephron loop (loop ofHenle). The nephron loop takesfluid to the distal convolutedtubule. From here the filtrate flowsinto a collecting duct. Collectingducts receive fluid from manynephrons. Label the parts of thenephron and associated structuresand color them in. Each part of thenephron should be colored adifferent color.
THE NEPHROI\J
h.-----_To minor calyx
Answer Key: a. Glomerulus, b. Distalconvoluted tubule, c. Proximalconvoluted tubule, d. Cortex,
e. Medulla, f. Arcuate vein, g. Arcuateartery, h. Nephron loop (loop of Henle),I. Nephron, J. Collecting duct, k. Afferentarteriole, I.Efferent arteriole,m. Glomerular (Bowman's) capsule
k. _
b. _
1. _
Chapter Thirteen: Male Reproductive System 295
OVERVIEW OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The male reproductive system consists of the two testes, the epididymis,the ductus deferens enclosed in the spermatic cord, the seminalvesicles, the prostate gland, the bulbourethral glands, and the penis.The testes are the glands that produce testosterone and sperm cells.Sperm cells travel from the testes to the epididymis where they are storedand mature. From the epididymis sperm cells move into the ductusdeferens, which enters the body and travels to the posterior bladder.
From here the ductus deferens turns into the ejaculatory duct, whichreceives fluid from the sernimal vesicles. The ejaculatory duct leads to theurethra where secretions from the prostate and bulbourethral glands areadded. Finally the sperm cells and seminal fluid (together these makesemen) are ejaculated from the penis.
Label the parts of the male reproductive system and color the variousstructures in the illustration.
<,<,;.~
~h. _
g._-------
J
Kidneys
~ ..
1. _
\
Answer Key: a. Dudus deferens, b. Seminal vesicle,c. Prostate, d. Bulbourethral gland, e. Epididymis, f Testis, g. Uncircumcised penis, h. Circumcised perns, i. Urethra
Chapter ThirteenMale Reproductive System I
IAPLANd·· Ime lea 297
ORGANS OF THE MALEREPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
p.-------
g.-------
f. _
Answer Key: a.Ductus deferens,b. Pampiniform plexus, c. Testicularartery, d. Epididymis, e. Testis,f. Cremaster muscle and fascia,g. Scrotal skin and dartos muscle,h. Ureter, i, Urinarybladder, j. Seminalvesicle. k. Ejaculatory duct, I. Prostate,m. Bulbourethral gland,n. Urethra,o. Ductusepididymis,p. Lobules oftestis
The testes are enclosed in the scrotalsac which is lined with a smoothmuscle layer called the dartosmuscle. This muscle contracts whenthe temperatures drop near thetestes, causing them to withdrawcloser to the body where it iswarmer. Another muscle of theregion is the cremaster muscle. Italso contracts when it is cold but it ismade of skeletal muscle. Theepididymis sits on top of the testislike a small cap and is a place wheresperm cells mature. The spermaticcord consists of the cremastermuscle, the ductus deferens, thetesticular artery, and a complexmeshwork of veins called thepampiniform plexus. This plexuscools arterial blood flowing to thetestes maintaining the testes at about35 degrees C which is important forproper sperm maturation.
The sperm are produced in theseminiferous tubules of the testis.This occurs in lobules of the testisbefore they move to the epididymis.The epididymis has a series of longcoiled tubules called the ductusepididymis and the sperm cellsslowly pass through this ductwork.After the sperm cells mature in theepididymis they then travel to theductus deferens which loops aroundthe ureters before reaching theseminal vesicles located on theposterior surface of the urinarybladder. The seminal vesicles add afluid that has buffers and thatprovides fructose to the sperm cells.From the seminal vesicles the fluidpasses through the ejaculatory ductto the prostate. The prostate addsfurther fluid that is rich in buffers.This fluid passes into the urethra.The bulbourethral glands add aprotein lubricant to the fluid. Labelthe organs and their features in theillustration and color them indifferent colors.
Chapter ThirteenMale Reproductive System I meCtical 299
Answer Key: a. Urinarybladder, b. Symphysis pubis, c. Corpuscavernosum, d. Corpusspongiosum, e. Glans penis,f. Prepuce, g. Testis, h. Tail of epididymis, i. Body of epididymis, j. Head of epididymis, k. Spongyurethra, I. Bulbourethralgland, m. Prostate, n. Seminalvesicle, o. Deep dorsalvein, p. Spermatozoa, q. Sperrnatids, r.Secondary spermatocytes,s. Primaryspermatocytes, 1. Sertolicell, u. Spermatogonia
s. _
a.
t. _
u. _
p.-------
k.------
d. _
g.-----
f. _
e. _
d.------
b. '-!'::e-~M,
c.--------
When seen in a midsagittal section,the relationship of the glands thatproduce seminal fluid can easily beseen. The prostate is approximatelythe size of a golf ball and is locatedinferior to the urinary bladder. Theprostatic urethra is the portion ofthe urethra that is enclosed in theprostate. The bulbourethral glandsare located in the wall of the pelvicfloor and the seminal vesicles areposterior to the urinary bladder.Exterior to the body wall are thetestes and these are enclosed in thescrotal sac. The epididymis receivessperm from the testis and has threeparts, a head, a body, and a tail. Thesymphysis pubis is an importantreference point in the midsagittalsection. In males there is a flap oftissue encircling the glans penis.This is the prepuce (foreskin) and itis sometimes removed at birth in aprocedure called a circumcision. Thecorpus cavernosum can be seen inthis section along with the corpusspongiosum and the spongyurethra.
The formation of sperm is known asspermatogenesis and occurs fromspermatogonia on the superficialwall of the seminiferous tubules.These produce cells called primaryspermatocytes which in turnmature into secondaryspermatocytes. Spermatids derivefrom secondary spermatocytes andthey, in turn, become spermatozoa(sperm cells). Sertoli cells assist inthe process. Label the cells and coloreach one in a separate color.
The cross section of the penisillustrates the relative position of theerectile tissue in the male. On thedorsal aspect of the penis are thepaired corpora cavernosa (corpuscavernosum singular). Thesecylinders fill with blood and producean increase in length and diameter ofthe penis. These, along with thecorpus spongiosum, are involved inmaking the penis erect. The corpusspongiosum contains the spongyurethra. The deep dorsal vein of thepenis is also seen in cross section.Label the structures seen in a crosssection of the penis and color in theerectile tissue and the spongyurethra.
MIDSAGITTAL SECTION OFPELVIS/CROSS SECTIONOF PEI\IIS ANDSEMINIFEROUS TUBULES
Chapter Fourteen: Female Reproductive System 301
, \ \d_~e.
c~r--mf. -----
~~g
.1\ fIr !), .r) h.__,L;' I .~~ 1. _
The female reproductive systemconsists of the two ovaries, theuterine tubes, a single uterus,vagina, and the vaginal orifice. Theuterus is held to the anterior body bythe round ligaments and held to thepelvic wall by the suspensoryligaments. Blood flows to the ovariesby the gonadal arteries.
The breasts are integumentarystructures and each one hasmammary glands, the areola, andthe nipple. Label the structures ofthe female reproductive system andcolor each of them in a differentcolor.
OVERVI EW OF THEFEMALE REPRODUCTIVESYSTEM
Aorta-----'.---!-
lJreter -------~
Answer Key: a.Areola, b. Nipple,c.Mammaryglands, d. Ovary, e. Uterinetube, f. Round ligament, g. Uterus,h. Vagina, I. Labium minus, j. Ovarianvessels
MIDSAGITIAL
The ovaries produce the oocytes that are released into the pelvic cavity.Locate the suspensory ligaments that attach the ovaries to the pelvicwall. The round ligament attaches the uterus anteriorly. The oocytestravel into the uterine tubes and then pass into the uterus. The uterushas a domed fundus near the entrance of the uterine tubes and a cervixthat inserts into the vagina. The depression between the uterus and therectum is the rectouterine pouch. The vagina is inferior to the uterusand terminates with the vaginal orifice. Anterior to the vaginal orifice isthe urethral orifice, the external opening of the urethra. In this section
Sacral promonory
a. _
b. _
c. _
d. _
e. _
f. _
g.-----
Symphysis pubis
h. _
1. _
J.-------
Chapter Fourteen I KAPLAlfd- I 303Female Reproductive System me lea
you can see the fornix of the vagina, a pocket that surrounds the cervixof the uterus. You can also see the relationship of the labium minus andthe labium majus in this section. The labia minora are the inner vaginallips and the labia majora are the outer vaginal lips. These are part of thevulva or external genitalia. Another part of the vulva is the clitoris whichconsists of the external glans and the body of the clitoris. The body ofthe clitoris is imbedded in the body tissue. The glans is covered with aprepuce. Anterior to the clitoris is the mons pubis, a fatty pad of tissueoverlying the symphysis pubis. Label the organs and other structures inthe midsagittal section of the female pelvis and color the structures inusing different colors for each structure or space.
1. _
k. _
Answer Key: a. Suspensory ligaments, b. Ovary, c. Uterine tube, d. Round ligament,e. Uterus, f. Fundus, g. Cervix, h. Clitoris, i. Labium majus,J. Labium minus,k Vagina, I. Rectouterine pouch
Chapter FourteenFemale Reproductive System I
KAPLANd'. Ime lea 305
OVARY
The ovary is the gonad of the female reproductive system. The background tissue of the ovary is called the stroma. It produces oocytes in aprocess known as oogenesis and when they are mature they are releasedfrom the ovary by ovulation. The ovary has primordial follicles that contain primary oocytes. When the primary oocytes get a little larger theyare located in primary follicles. As the ovulatory cycle progresses some ofthese primary oocytes develop into secondary oocytes. These areenclosed in secondary follicles. Usually only one of these oocytesenlarges and is ovulated.
a.
e.----------
f. _
There are two cycles that occur in the female reproductive system andthey are interrelated. The ovarian cycle involves the maturation of theoocytes, ovulation, and the development of the corpus luteum. Thiscycle can be divided into the preovulatory phase, ovulation, and thepostovulatory phase. The menstrual cycle involves the changes in theendometrium. The endometrium has a basallayer that stays the samethickness during the menstrual cycle and a functional layer that growslarger in the early part of the menstrual cycle, becomes rich in glycogenduring the middle of a woman's cycle, and then is shed during menstruation.
b.-------
d.-------
1. -,--- _
~@@ 0
Endometrium
,
Stages fenstrua~ Proliferative Secretory Menstrual
J-k.--
Answer Key: a. Primary oocytes, b. Secondary follicles, c. Primary follicle, d. Secondary oocytes, e. Primordial follicles, f. Corpus luteum, g. Preovulatory phase,h. Ovulation, i. Postovulatory phase, j. Functional iaver, k. Basa/layer
Chapter FourteenFemale Reproductive System I
IAPLANd·· Ime lea 307
SECTION OF UTERUS AND VAGII\IAThe oocyte is ovulated from the ovary and moves into the uterinetube. The uterine tube is fringed by small cylindrical structures calledfimbriae. The uterus is a small, flask-shaped organ. The uterus has adomed fundus, a main body, a narrowed isthmus, and an inferiorcervix. The uterosacral ligament attaches the uterus to the sacrum.Most of the uterine wall is made of the myometrium which is a thicklayer of smooth muscle. The vagina is approximately ten centimeters in
b. _
c.---__d. _
e.------f.---g.-----
h. _
length and is lined with stratified squamous epithelium and smoothmuscle. A small ring of mucous membrane called the hymen is presentin the vagina and is frequently torn during first intercourse. The hymencan rupture prior to intercourse and is not a good indicator ofvirginity. The vagina has rugae which are folds in the vaginal wall.These stimulate the penis and also allow for expansion of the vaginaduring delivery. Label the suspensory ligament and ovarian ligamentas well as the structures of the uterus, ovary, and vagina. Color theregions of the uterus, ovary, vagina, and associated structures.
1.-------
J.------
Answer Key: a. Utennetube, b. Oocyte,c. Uterus, d. Fundus, e. Body, f. Isthmus, g. Cervix, h. Vagina, I. Suspensory ligament,j. Fimbriae, k.Ovary, I.Ovarian ligament,m. Uterosacral ligament. n. Rugae, o. Hymen
Chapter FourteenFemale Reproductive System I
KAPLAlfd- Ime lea 309
FEMALE BREAST AI\ID EXTERNAL GEI\IITALIA
The mammary glands are located in the breast. They produce milkwhen a woman is lactating and lead to lactiferous ducts. These ductstake milk to the lactiferous sinuses which drain into the nipple. Becausebreast cancer is a significant cause of mortality in women, the lymphdrainage of the breast is important. Primary tumors may originate in thebreast tissue and then migrate by lymphatic vessels to the axillarylymph nodes. This is one of the main ways that breast cancer spreads.There is a small series of parasternal lymph nodes that takes a smallportion of the lymph back to the cardiovascular system.
The floor of the pelvis is known as the perineum and can be divided intoa urogenital triangle and an anal triangle. The anal triangle containsthe anus and the urogenital triangle houses the vaginal orifice, theurethral orifice, and the clitoris. The mons pubis is the most anteriorpart of the external genitalia and posterior to that is the prepuce. Thisstructure envelops the clitoris. The labia majora and the labia minoraencircle the vaginal orifice. The vagina is lubricated internally by someglands during arousal and intercourse as well as from the greatervestibular glands located laterally and posteriorly to the vaginal orifice.Label the structures of the female breast and the external genitalia andcolor them in.
a. _
b. _
Pubic symphysis
m.---------
n. ---------
o.
h.--------~--~~~ //
t/ ...i~i....... ~ .....•. ;~ • \. j
Ischial tuberosity7~00?
f. _
g.--------
coccyx? p.-------
Answer Key: a.Axillary lymph nodes,b. Lymphatic vessels, c. Parasternal lymph nodes,d. Lactiferous sinuses, e. Lactiferous ducts, f. Urogenital triangle,g.Analtriangle, h. Mons pubis, i. Prepuce, j. Clitoris, k. Labia minora, I. Labia majora, m. Urethral orifice,n. Vaginal orifice, o. Greater vestibular gland,p. Anus
PREEMBRYONIC STAGE
The process of development begins with the union of the sperm andoocyte. After ovulation, the secondary oocyte moves down the uterinetube and, if fertilization occurs by sperm, it usually happens in theuterine tube. Once fertilization occurs, the oocyte and the sperm uniteto become a zygote. The zygote divides during this preembryonic stageand forms a two-celled stage. These cells go through numerousdivisions and are called blastomeres. The two blastomeres divide andbecome four cells and this process continues until a cluster of cells
Chapter Fifteen: Development 311
(16 to 32 of them) is formed called a morula. As division continues thiscluster becomes a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst. The hollowcavity of the blastocyst is called the blastocele and most of the wall ofthe blastocyst consists of a layer of simple squamous epithelia called thetrophoblast. One part of the wall consists of an inner cell mass knownas the embryoblast. Some of these cells will develop into the embryo.Label the structures in the preembryonic stage of development. Colorin the various stages in different colors and use one color for thetrophoblast and another for the embryoblast.
b.~~~~~~
f.~~~_
a. _
h. _
1.------__
J.~~~~~~-
c. ~
d.~~~~~~
e.--------
Answer Key: a. Ovulation, b. Fertilization, c.Two-cell stage, d. Morula, e. Blastocyst, f. Zygote, g. Blastomere, h. Trophoblast, i. Embryoblast, J. Blastocele
Chapter Fifteen I UPLANd'· I 313Development me lea
f. _
e. _
d.----
c.------1. _
g._----
h. _
n. _
k. _
J.-----
EMBRYONIC STAGE
The blastocyst is the stage ofdevelopment in which implantationin the uterus occurs. Implantation isthe imbedding of the blastocyst inthe endometrium of the mother.Once this occurs, a hollow spacedevelops in the embryoblast and thisis called the amniotic cavity. At thistime, the embryoblast is divided intoa bilaminar germ disk with twoprimitive tissues called the epiblastand the hypoblast. The primitivestreak forms along theanterior/posterior axis of theembryo and it becomes a region ofgrowth in the early stage ofdevelopment.
From the epiblast the embryoblastbegins to form three primary germlayers.These are the endoderm,ectoderm, and mesoderm. Thestructure is now referred to as atrilaminar germ disk (meaning adevelopmental structure with threelayers). The development of thenotochord begins and this structurewill make up the center part(nucleosus pulposus) of theintervertebral disks in the adult. Theyolk sac also forms during thisperiod. Once the germ layers areformed, the preembryonic stage endsand the developing tissue is known asan embryo. The embryonic stagebegins about day 16 after fertilizationand lasts until about the eighth weekof pregnancy. During the embryonicstage, the major organs of the bodyare initiated in a process calledorganogenesis.
During the first part of theembryonic phase, the ectodermbegins to fold in on itself andbecomes a neural groove. This willdevelop into the nervous system ofthe body. Other derivatives of theectoderm are the epidermis andsome of the facial bones and muscles.The mesoderm gives rise to most ofthe bones and muscles of the body,the dermis, and the circulatorysystem. The endodermis gives rise tothe linings of the gastrointestinaltract and respiratory system, andsome glands. As developmentcontinues, the neural groove folds inon itself and becomes a neural tubeand the formation of the gut takesplace. Label the structures in theembryonic phase and use blue colorsfor the ectoderm and derivatives ofthe ectoderm such as the neuraltissue. Use red for the mesoderm andcolor the endoderm in yellow.
Answer Key: a. Epiblast, b. Hypoblast, c. Ectoderm, d. Mesoderm, e. Endoderm, f.Amniotic cavity, g. Bilaminar germ disk, h. Primitive streak, i. Notochord,j. Trilaminar germ disk, k. Neural groove, I. Yolk sac, m. Neural tube, n. Gut
FETAL STAGEAt the eighth week after fertilizationthe organs are formed and theembryo has now become a fetus.Prior to the fetal stage the outer wallof the embryo develops into amembrane called the chorion andsome of this membrane is joinedwith the maternal vasculature andforming the placenta. Between thechorion and the embryo is thechorionic cavity. This cavitydisappears by the eighth week. Amembrane called the amnion foldsaround the embryo forming theamniotic cavity and this cavity isfilled with amnitoic fluid.
The stages of development can bedivided into the pre-embryo (fromfertilization to two weeks), theembryo (up to eight weeks afterfertilization) and the final stage,the fetus (after eight weeks). Theconceptus is the term used for thedeveloping cells and tissues fromthe pre-embryo through the fetus.
Before delivery of the fetus, theamniotic sac ruptures releasingamniotic fluid, the uterus contractsexpelling the fetus from the uterus,and the final stage occurs when theplacenta is released.
Answer Key: a. Amniotic cavity,b. Embryo, c. Chorion, d. Chorioniccavity, e. Placenta, f. Fetus, g.Amnion
(~o
Uterine epithelium
Chapter Fifteen I UPLANd'· I 315Development me lea
f.-------
A
abdominal aorta, 207
abdominal arteries, 217
abdominal cavity, 19
abdominal region, 7, 15
abdominopelvic cavity, 19
abducens nerve, 133
abduction, 101
accessory nerve, 133
accessory organs, 267
acetabular labrum, 97
acetabulofemoral joint, 97
acetabulum, 75
acidophilic cells, 177
acinar cells, 185
acoustic meatus, 45, 49, 51
acromion process, 65
ACTH (adrenocorticotrophichormone),179
adduction, 101
adenohypophysis, 177, 179
ADH (antidiuretic hormone), 179
adipose tissue, 31
adrenal glands, 11, 175, 187
adrenocorticotrophic hormone(ACTH),179
afferent lymphatics, 243
agranular leukocytes, 195
air, pathway of, 265
alar cartilages, 253
alimentary canal, 267
alveolar ducts, 265
alveolar sacs, 265
alveoli,265
amnion, 315
amniotic cavity, 313
amphiarthroses, 85
amygdala, 123
anal canal, 281
anal triangle, 309
anatomical position, 1
angular gyrus, 125
ansa cervicalis, 139
antebrachial region, 15, 17
antebrachial vein, 227
anterior (position), 1, 15, 163
antibodies, 247
antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 179
antigens, 247
antrum (pyloric region), 277
anus, 267, 281,309
aortic arch, 191,207, 217
ao rta, 191, 193
aortic arteries, 209
aortic semilunar valve, 201,203
apical foramen, 273
apocrine glands, 27
appendicular skeleton, 63
arachnoid mater, 135
areola, 301
arrector pili muscle, 41
arterial circle (circle of Willis), 211
arterioles, 193,235
artery(ies), 191, 193,205,207
abdominal, 217
arcuate, 289
articulate, 215
axillary, 207, 213
basilar, 211
brain,211
carotid, 191
cerebellar, 211
cerebral,211
circumflex humeral, 213
colic, 219
communicating, 211
coronary, 197, 199
facial,209
Index 317
femoral, 191,207,215
fibular, 207
gastric, 219
gonadal, 217
head,209
hepatic, 219
ileocolic, 219
iliac, 207
intercostal, 217
interlobular, 289
interventricular, 199
lower limb, 215
marginal, 197
maxillary, 209
mesenteric, 217, 219
metatarsal,215
obturator, 221
occipital, 209
palmar arch, 213
pelvic, 221
pulmonary, 193, 199
pudendal, 221
radial, 207, 213
rectal, 219, 221
renal, 217, 287, 289
segmental, 289
sigmoid, 219
splenic, 219, 241
subclavian, 207, 209, 213
subscapular, 213
temporal,209
testicular, 297
thoracic, 213, 217
tibial, 207, 215
ulnar, 207,213
upper limb, 213
uterine, 221
vaginal, 221
vertebral,211
IAPLAN° • I318 medical Index
articular cartilages, 89
articular disc, 95
articular facet, 55, 57
articular process, 57, 59
articulate artery, 215
articulations, 85-101
arytenoid cartilages, 259
astrocytes, 107
atlas, 55
atom,S
atrioventricular bundle, 203
atrioventricular node, 203
atrium, 193,201
auditory association area, 125
auditory canal, 167
auditory cortex, 125
auditory tube (Eustachian tube),167,169
auricle (pinna), 167
auricular surface, 59
auricular vein, 225
autonomic nervous system, 103,149,151
axillary artery, 207, 213
axillary lymph nodes, 309
axillary nerve, 141
axillary vein, 223, 227
axis, 55
axon hillcock, 105
axons,37, 105, 107
azygos veins, 231
B
B cells, 195,247
ball and socket joints, 91
basal layer, 305
basal nuclei, 121
basement membrane, 23, 255
basilar artery, 211
basilar membrane, 173
basilic vein, 223, 227
basophilic cells, 177
basophils, 195
bicuspid valve, 201, 203
bicuspids (premolars), 273
bifid spinous process, 57
bilaminar germ disk, 313
bile canaliculi, 283
bile duct, 283, 285
bipolar layer, 165
bipolar neurons, 109
bladder, 13
gall,267,279,285
urinary, 287, 291, 297
blastocele, 311
blastocyst, 311
blastomeres, 311
blood, 35, 195
blood vessels, 13, 165,205,273
body cavities, 19
body regions, 15, 17
bolus, 275
bone(s),35
forearm, 71
frontal, 43, 45, 47
hand, 73
hyoid,259
lacrimal, 45
nasal, 43, 45, 253, 255
occipital, 45, 47
palatine, 47, 49
parietal, 45, 47
pisiform, 73
sphenoid, 43, 45, 47, 51, 177
tarsal,83
temporal, 43, 45, 51
zygomatic, 43
bony labryinth, 171
border, medial, 65
bound ribosomes, 21
Bowman's capsule, 293
brachial artery, 191,207,213
brachial plexus, 137, 141
brachial region, 15, 17
brachial veins, 223, 227
brachiocephalic artery, 209
brachiocephalic trunk, 207
brachiocephalic veins, 223, 225
brain, 9,103,113, lIS, 117, 119, 121
brain arteries, 211
breast, female, 309
Broca's area, 125
bronchi, 251, 265
bronchial tree, 261, 265
bronchioles, 265
bronchus, 261
bulbourethral glands, 295, 299
bundle branches, 203
bursa, 89
ccalcaneal region, 17
calcaneus, 83
calyces, 289
capillaries, 193,205,235,245,265
capitate, 73
capitulum, 69
carbohydrate chains, 21
cardia, 277
cardiac muscle, 37
cardiac notch, 263
cardiac vein, 197, 199
cardiovascular system, 13, 191-234
carina, 261
carnucle, 159
carotid artery, 191,207,209,211
carotid canal, 47
carpals, 63, 73
cartilage, 33, 87
alar, 253
articular, 89
arytenoid,259
corniculate, 259
cricoid, 257, 259
elastic, 33
hyaline, 33
nasal, 253
septal, 253, 257
thyroid,251,257,259
cartilaginous joints, 85, 87
cauda equina, 131
caudate lobe, 283
cavity(ies)
abdominal, 19
abdominopelvic, 19
amniotic, 313
anterior, 163
body, 19
chorionic, 315
cranial, 19
eye, 163
nasal, 157, 159,249,255
oral, 269, 275
pelvic, 19
pericardial, 19
pleural, 19
pulp, 273
sinus, 49
synovial, 89
thoracic, 19,263
tympanic, 169
ventral, 19
cecum, 281
celiac trunk, 217, 219
cell membrane, 21, 23
cell(s), 5, 21-42, 37
acidophilic, 177
acinar, 185
B,195,247
basophilic, 177
chief, 277
effector (cytotoxic) T,247
ependymal, 107
follicular, 181
glial (neuroglia), 37, 107
goblet, 255
granulosa, 189
hair, 173
hepatocytes (liver), 283
interstitial, 189
olfactory, 157
oxyphilic, 183
parafollicular, 181
parietal,277
plasma, 247
principal (chief cells), 183
Schwann, 107
sertoli, 299
spermatozoa (sperm), 299
supporting, 157
T,247
type II alveolar (septal cells), 265
cell-mediated immunity, 247
cementum, 273
central canal, 135
central nervous system, 103
central sulcus, 113, 115
central vein, 283
centrioles, 21
cephalic region, 17
cephalic vein, 223, 227
cerebellar arteries, 211
cerebellum, 113, 117, 119
cerebral aqueduct, 119, 127
IKAPLAN·.
Index medical
cerebral arteries, 211
cerebral cortex, 121
cerebral hemispheres, 121
cerebral peduncles, 119
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 127, 129
cerebrum, 125
cervical curvature, 53
cervical enlargement, 131
cervical nerve, 137
cervical plexus, 137, 139
cervical region, 15
cervical vertebrae, 53, 57
cervix, 303, 307
chief cells, 277
choanae, 253
cholesterol molecules, 21
chondrocytes, 33
chordae tendineae, 201
chorion, 315
chorionic cavity, 315
choroid,163
chromatin, 21
cilia, 23, 255
cingulate gyrus, 123
circular folds, 279
circular layer, 277
circulation, 193,233
circumflex branch, 197
circumflex humeral artery, 213
cisterna chyli, 235
clavicle, 63, 67
clavicular notches, 61
clitoris, 303, 309
coccygeal nerves, 137
coccygeal vertebrae, 53
coccyx, 53, 59
cochlea, 169, 173
cochlear nerve, 173
colic artery, 219
319
KAPLAN" • I320 medical Index
colic veins, 231
collagenous fibers, 29, 33
collateral ligament, 99
collecting duct, 293
colliculli, 119
colloid, 181
colon, 281
columnar epithelium, 23
commissure, 159
communicating arteries, 211
conduction fibers, 203
condyle(s),45,47, 79, 81, 95
condyloid (ellipsoidal) joints, 91
cones, 165
connective tissue, 29, 31
conoid tubercle, 67
conus elasticus, 259
conus medullaris, 131
convoluted tubule, 293
convolutions, 115, 121
coracoid process, 65
cornea, 163
corniculate cartilages, 259
cornua, 55
coronal section, 3
coronal suture, 45, 47
coronary artery( ies), 197, 199
coronary sinus, 199,201
coronoid fossa, 69
coronoid process, 45, 71
corpora quadrigemina, 119
corporea cavernosa, 299
corpus callosum, 119, 121, 177
corpus cavernosum, 299
corpusluteum,189,305
corpus spongiosum, 299
corpuscle(s), 39,153
cortex, 115, 121, 125, 187,243,289
costal groove, 61
costal notches, 61
coxal region, 15
cranial cavity, 19
cranial nerves, 133
cranial region, 15
cranioscaral division, 149
cremaster muscle, 297
cribriform plate, 49,157,253
cricoid cartilage, 257, 259
cricothyroid ligament, 259
crista galli, 49, 51,253
cross section, 3
crown (tooth), 273
cruciate ligaments, 99
crural region, 15
cubital vein, 227
cuboidal epithelium, 23
cuneiforrns, 83
cuspids, 273
cutaneous branches, 145
cutaneous nerve, femoral, 143
cuticle (eponychium), 41
cystic duct, 285
cytoplasm, 21, 23
cytoskeleton, 21
cytosol,21
D
dartos muscle, 297
deciduous (milk) teeth, 273
deltoid, 9, 15
deltoid tuberosity, 69
dendrites, 37,105
dentin, 273
dermatomes, 147
dermis, 39
descending colon, 281
detrusor muscle, 291
developing eye, III
diaphragm, 249
diathroses, 85
digestive system, 11, 219, 267
digital arteries, 213, 215
digital region, 15
digital veins, 227, 229
distal (position), 1
dorsal, 1, 19
dorsal vein, 299
dorsalis pedis arteries, 215
dorsum sellae, 51
duct(s)
bile, 283, 285
collecting, 293
cystic, 285
ejaculatory, 297
hepatic, 285
lactiferous, 309
lymphatic, 237
nasolacrimal, 159
pancreatic, 285
parotid, 271
semicircular, 169, 171
thoracic, 235, 237
ductus arteriosus, 233
ductus deferens, 295, 297
ductus epididymis, 297
ductus venosus, 233
duodenal papilla, 285
duodenum, 277, 279
dura mater, 135
E
ear, 167, 169, 171
ECG-conduction pathway, 203
ectoderm, 313
effector (cytotoxic) T cells, 247
efferent lymphatics, 243
ejaculatory duct, 297
elastic cartilage, 33
elastic fibers, 29, 31, 33, 205
ellipsoidal (condyloid) joints, 91
embryoblast, 311
embryonic stage, 313
enamel,273
endocardium, 201
endocrine glands, 27
endocrine system, 11, 175
endoderm, 313
endolymph, 171
endoplasmic reticulum, 21
endothelium, 205
eosinophils, 195
ependymal cell, 107
epicondyles, 69, 79
epidermis, 39,153
epididymis, 295, 297, 299
epigastric region, 7
epiglottis, 155,259
epiphyseal plate, 87
epiploic appendages, 281
epithelium, 23, 25,157,255
eponychium (cuticle), 41
erythrocytes, 35, 195
esophagus, 11,267,269,275
esophageal sphincter, 275
ethmoid bone, 49, 51
exocrine glands, 27
extension (joint), 101
external nares, 253, 257
external occipital protuberance,45,47
eye, 111,159,161,163,165
eyebrow, 159
eyelids, 159
F
facial artery, 209
facial nerve, 133
facial region, 15
facial vein, 225
falciform ligament, 283
false pelvis, 75
female breast, 309
female external genitalia, 309
female pelvic arteries, 221
female pelvis, 77
female reproductive system, 301-310
femoral artery, 191,207,215
femoral cutaneous nerve, 143
femoral nerve, 143
femoral region, 15, 17
femoral vein, 191,223,229
femur, 9, 79
fertilization, 311
fetal circulation, 233
fetal stage, 315
fetus, 315
fibrious joints, 85
fibrocartilage, 33, 87, 97
fibrocytes,29
fibrous joints, 85
fibrous layer, 201
fibula, 79, 81
fibular artery, 207
fibular nerve, 145
filiform papillae, 155
filum terminale, 131
fimbriae, 307
fissure, 113, 115, 121, 135
flexion, 101
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH),179
IKAPLAN".
Index medical
follicle (s)
hair, 41
ovarian, 189
primordial, 305
follicular cells, 181
foot, 83
foranlen,45,47,55,57,75
foramen magnum, 47
foramen ovale, 51, 201, 233
foramen rotundum, 51
foramina, 59,127
forearm bones, 71
formed elements, 195
fornix, 123
fossa
coronoid,69
glenoid, 65, 97
hypophyseal, 177
infraspinous, 65
mandibular, 47, 95
olecranon, 69
subscapular, 65
supraspinous, 65
fossa oval is, 201
fourth ventricle, 119, 127
fovea, 163
fovea centralis, 165
free edge, 41
free ribosomes, 21
frontal bone, 43, 45, 47
frontal lobe, 113, 115, 117, 119
frontal process of the maxilla, 253
frontal section, 3
frontal sinus, 49
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone),179
functional layer, 305
fundus, 277, 303, 307
fungiform papillae, 155
321
KAPLAN" • I322 medical Index
G
gall bladder, 267, 279, 285
ganglia, 151
ganglionic layer, 165
gastric artery, 219
gastric pits, 277
gastric vein, 231
gastroepiploic artery, 219
gastroepiploic vein, 231
genicular region, 15
genitalia, female external, 309
genitofemoral nerve, 143
GH (growth hormone), 179
gingiva, 269
gland(s), 27, 39
adrenal, 11
apocrine, 27
bulbourethral, 295
endocrine, 27
holocrine, 27
lacrimal, 159
lymph,9
mammary, 301, 309
merocine,27
parathyroid,183
parotid,271
pineal, 119, 175, 177
pituitary, 117, 119, 175, 177
salivary, 267, 271
sebaceous, 41
sublingual, 271
submandibular, 271
glans penis, 299
glenoid fossa, 65, 97
glenoid labrum, 97
glial cells (neuroglia), 37,107
gliding joints, 91
glomerular capsule, 293
glomerulus, 293
glossopharyngeal nerve, 133
glottis, 259
gluteal arteries, 221
gluteal nerve, 145
gluteal region, 17
goblet cells, 255
Golgi apparatus, 21
gomphosis, 85
gonadal arteries, 217
gonadal veins, 223, 231
gonads, 189
granular leukocytes, 195
granulosa cells, 189
gray horns, 135
gray matter, 121
growth hormone (GH), 179
gustatory cortex, 125
gut, 313
H
hair, 41
hair cells, 173
hair receptors, 153
hamate, 73
hand bones, 73
hard palate, 253, 255, 257, 269
haustra, 281
head arteries, 209
head veins, 225
heart,13,191, 197, 199,201,203
helper T cells, 247
hemiazygos veins, 231
hemoglobin, 195
hepatic artery, 219, 283
hepatic duct, 285
hepatic flexure, 281
hepatic portal system, 231
hepatic portal veins, 231, 283
hepatocytes (liver cells), 283
hierarchy, of the body,S
hilium,289
hinge joints, 91,95
hip, 75, 77
hippocampal gyrus, 123
hippocampus, 123
holocrine glands, 27
hormone(s),179
adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH),179
antidiuretic (ADH), 179
follicle stimulating (FSH), 179
growth (GH), 179
luteinizing (LH), 179
thyroid stimulating, 179
humeroscapular joint, 97
humerus, 9, 63, 69, 97
hyaline cartilage, 33
hymen, 307
hyoid, 55, 61
hyoid bone, 259
hyperextension, 101
hypochondriac regions, 7
hypodermis, 39
hypogastric region, 7
hypoglossal nerve, 133, 139
hyponychium, 41
hypophyseal fossa, 177
hypophysis, 177
hypothalamus, 119
I
ileocolic artery, 219
ileum, 279
iliac artery, 207, 215, 217, 221, 233
iliac crest, 75
iliac region, 7
iliac spine, 75, 77
iliac vein, 223, 229
iliohypogastric nerve, 143
ilioinguinal nerve, 143
ilium, 75
immunity, 247
incisors, 273
incus, 169
inferior (position), 1
inferior lobe, 263
inferior oblique, 161
inferior vena cava, 191, 193,201, 223,231,233
infraspinous fossa, 65
infudibulum, 177
inguinal region, 7,15
inner ear, 167, 169,171
integral proteins, 21
integument, 21-42
integumentary system, 11, 39
intercalated discs, 37
intercostal arteries, 217
intercostal veins, 231
interlobular arteries, 289
interosseus margin, 71
interstitial cells, 189
intertrochanteric line, 79
intertrochanteric ridge, 79
intertubercular groove, 69
interventricular artery, 199
interventricular branch, 197
interventricular foramina, 127
interventricular septum, 201
intestinal branches, 219
intestine
large, 267, 281
small, 245, 267, 279
iris, 159
ischial ramus, 77
ischial tuberosity, 77
ischium, 75
isthmus, 181
Jjaw joint, 95
jejunum, 279
joint capsule, 89
joint(s), 91, 95, 97, 99,101
acetabulofemoral,97
ball and socket, 91
condyloid, 91
extension, 101
fibrious, 85
gliding, 91
hinge, 91, 95
humeroscapular,97
jaw, 95
rotating/rotation, 91, 101
sacroiliac, 75
saddle, 91
synovial, 85, 89, 91, 93
temporomandibular, 95
tibofemoral,99
jugular foramen, 47
jugular veins, 191,223,225, 237
K
karyoplasm, 21
kidneys, 287, 289
L
labia, 269, 309
labia minora, 303
labial frenulum, 269
labrum, glenoid, 97
labryinths of the inner ear, 171
lacrimal apparatus, 159
IKAPLAN".
Index medical
lacrimal bone, 45
lacrimal canals, 159
lacrimal gland, 159
lacteals, 245
lactiferous ducts, 309
lactiferous sinuses, 309
lambdoid suture, 45, 47
lameJlated corpuscles, 153
lamina elastic interna, 205
laminae, 57
large intestine, 267, 281
larynx, 249, 251,257,259
lateral (position), 1
lens, 163
leukocytes, 35, 195
levator palpebrae superioris, 161
LH (luteinizing hormone), 179
ligament(s)
collateral, 99
cricothyroid,259
cruciate, 99
falciform, 283
medial collateral, 99
ovarian, 307
peridontal,273
round, 301, 303
suspensory, 163,303,307
uterosacral, 307
limbic system, 123
linea aspera, 79
lingual tonsils, 155,239
lipid layer, 21
liver, 267, 283, 285
liver cells (hepatocytes), 283
liver lobules, 283
LN Cries Drum, 13
longitudinal fissure, 115, 121
longitudinal layer, 277
lower extremity, 79
323
KAPLAN· • I324 medical Index
lower limb veins, 229
lumbar curvature, 53
lumbar enlargement, 131
lumbar nerves, 137
lumbar plexus, 137, 143
lumbar region, 7, 17
lumbosacral plexus, 137
lumen, 205
lunate, 73
lungs, 11,249,251,263
lunula,41
luteinizing hormone (LH), 179
lymph,235
lymph capillaries, 235
lymph glands, 9
lymph nodes, 235, 237, 243, 309
lymphatic system, 235
lymphatic duct, 237
lymphatic system, 9
lymphatic vessels, 245, 309
lymphatics (lymph vessels), 9,235,243
lymphocytes, 195
lysosomes,21
M
macula lutea, 165
male pelvic arteries, 221
male pelvis, 77
male reproductive system, 295-300,297
malleolus, 81
malleus, 169
mammary glands, 301, 309
mammillary bodies, 117, 119, 123
mandible, 43, 45
mandibular condyle, 45
mandibular foramen, 45
mandibular fossa, 47, 95
mandibular notch, 45
manual region, 15
manubrium, 61
marginal artery, 197
masses, 55
mastoid process, 45, 51
matrix, 29, 33
maxiallary vein, 225
maxilla, 43, 45, 47, 49, 253
maxillary artery, 209
maxillary vein, 225
meatus, internal acoustic, 49
medial (position), 1
median section, 3
mediastinum, 19
medulla, 187,243,289
medulla oblongata, 117, 119
medullary cords, 243
Meissner corpuscles, 39
melanin, 39
melanocytes, 39
membrane(s),263
basement, 23, 255
basilar, 173
cell, 21, 23
plasma, 21
synovial, 89
tympanic (ear drum), 167
membranous labyrinth, 171
memory B cells, 247
memory T cells, 247
meninges, 135
menisci, 89, 99
menstrual cycle, 305
mental foramen, 45
Merkel's disks, 153
merocine glands, 27
mesenteric artery, 217,219
mesenteric veins, 231
Mesinner's corpuscles, 153
mesoderm, 313
metacarpals, 63, 73
metatarsal arteries, 215
metatarsal veins, 229
metatarsals, 79, 83
microglia, 107
middle ear, 167, 169
middle lobe, 263
midsagittal section, 3, 49, 303
milk (deciduous) teeth, 273
mitochondria, 21
molar teeth, 273
molecules, 5,21
monocytes, 195
mons pubis, 309
morula, 311
motor association area, 125
motor cortex, 125
motor speech area, 125
mouth, 267, 269
mucous sheet, 255
mucus, 255
multipolar neuron, 109
muscle tissue, 37
muscle(s)
arrector pili, 41
cardiac, 37
cremaster, 297
dartos, 297
detrusor, 291
papillary, 201
skeletal, 37
smooth,37,205,291
trachealis, 261
muscular branches, 145
muscular system, 9
muscular tissue, 37
muscularis, 277, 279
musculocutaneous nerve, 141
myelin sheath, 107
myocardium, 201
N
nails, 41
nares, 253
nasal bones, 43, 45, 253, 255
nasal cartilages, 253
nasal cavity, 157, 159,249,255
nasal conchae, 51,255,257
nasal septum, 43, 253
nasolacrimal duct, 159
nasopharynx, 253
neck veins, 225
nephron loop (loop of Henle), 293
nerve cell body (soma), 37,105
nerve fibers, sensory, 155
nervets), 9, 273
abducens, 133
accessory, 133
axillary, 141
cervical, 137
coccygeal, 137
cochlear, 173
cranial, 133
facial, 133
femoral cutaneous, 143
fibular, 145
genitofemoral, 143
glossopharyngeal, 133
iliohypogastric, 143
ilioinguinal, 143
lumbar, 137
musculocutaneous, 141
obuturator, 143
oculomotor, 133
olfactory, 133
optic, 133, 161, 163, 165
peripheral, 103
phrenic, 139
pudendal,145
radial, 141
sacral, 137
sciatic, 145
spinal, 103, 135
terminal, 137
thoracic, 137
ulnar, 141
vagus, 133
vestibulocochlear, 133
nervous system, 9, 103-152
nervous tissue, 37
neural development, III
neural groove, 313
neural tube, 313
neuroglia (glial cells), 37, 107
neurohypophysis, 177, 179
neurolemmocyte,107
neuron shapes, 109
neuron(s),37, 105, 109, 151
neurotransmitters, 109
neutrophils, 195
nipple, 301
Nissl bodies, 105
nose, 157,249,253
nostrils, 253, 257
notocho rd, 313
nuchal region, 17
nuclei, 23, 37
nucleolus, 21
nucleus, 21,255
ooblique layer, 277
obturator artery, 221
I d I KAPLAN"n ex medical
obturator foramen, 75
obturator nerve, 143
occipital artery, 209
occipital bone, 45, 47
occipital lobe, 113, 119
occipital protuberance, external45,47 '
occiptal condyles, 47
oculomotor nerve, 133
olecranon fossa, 69
olecranon process, 71
olecranon region, 17
olfactory bulb, 157
olfactory cells, 157
olfactory epithelium, 157
olfactory nerve, 133
oligodendrocytes, 107
oocytes, 305, 307
optic chiasma, 117, 119
optic disk, 163, 165
optic nerve, 133, 161, 163,165
oral cavity, 269, 275
orbit (of skull), 43
organ systems,S, 9-13
organelles, 5,21
organism,S
organs,S
of the head, 177
sense, 153-174
oropharynx, 269, 275
ossicles, 167
osteocytes, 35
outer ear, 167
oval window, 169
ovarian cycle, 305
ovarian follicles, 189
ovarian ligament, 307
ovaries, 13, 175, 189, 301,303
ovary, 305, 307
325
KAPLAN" • I326 medical Index
ovulation, 305, 311
oxyphilic cells, 183
oxytocin, 179
p
Pacinian corpuscles, 39,153
pain receptors, 153
palate, soft and hard, 253, 255, 257,269
palatine bones, 47, 49
palatine process of the maxilla, 47
palmar arch arteries, 213
palmar arch veins, 227
pampiniform plexus, 297
pancreas, 175, 185,267,279,285
pancreatic islets, 185
papillary layer, 39
parasympathetic division, 149, 151
parathyroid glands, 183
parietal bones, 45, 47
parietal lobe, 113, 115, 119
parietal pericardium, 201
parietal pleura, 263
parotid ducts, 271
parotid glands, 271
patella, 79
patellar tendon, 99
pathway(s)
ECG-conduction,203
of air, 265
pectoral girdle, 63
pectoral region, 15
pectoralis major, 9
pedal region, 15
pedicles,57
peduncles, cerebral, 119
pelvic arteries, 221
pelvic cavity, 19
pelvic curvature, 53
pelvis, 75, 77, 289
penis, 295, 299
pericardial cavity, 19
pericardium, 201
peridontal ligaments, 273
perilymph, 171
peripheral nerves, 103
peripheral nervous system, 103
peripheral proteins, 21
permanent teeth, 273
peroxisomes,21
perpendicular plate, 49, 51, 253
phagocytic vesicles, 21
phalanges, 63, 73, 79, 83
pharyngeal tonsils, 239
pharynx, 249
phosphate molecules, 21
phospholipid bilayer, 21
photoreceptor layer, 165
phrenic nerves, 139
pia mater, 135
pineal gland, 119, 175, 177
pituitary gland, 117, 119, 175, 177,179
placenta, 233, 315
plantar veins, 229
plasma, 35,195
plasma cells, 247
plasma membrane, 21
platelets, 35
platelets (thrornbocytes), 195
pleura, 249
pleural cavity(ies), 19,263
plexus
cervical, 137, 139
lumbar, 137, 143
lumbosacral, 137
pampiniform,297
sacral, 137, 145
pollex, 73
pons, 117, 119
popliteal artery, 215
popliteal region, 17
popliteal vein, 229
portal system, 231
po rtal system, hepatic, 231
portal triad, 283
portal veins, hepatic, 231, 283
postcentral gyrus, 113, 115, 125
posterior (position), 1
postganglionic neurons, 151
postovulatory phase, 305
precentral gyrus, 113, 115, 125
preembryonic stage, 311
premolars (bicuspids), 273
preovulatory phase, 305
prepuce, 299, 309
presynaptic neuron, 109
primitive streak, 313
primordial follicles, 305
principal cells (chief cells), 183
process( es)
acromion, 65
articular,S7, 59
bifid spinous, 57
coracoid, 65
coronoid, 45,71
mastoid, 45, 51
of the maxilla, 47, 253
olecranon, 71
spinous, 55, 57
styloid, 45, 47, 51, 71
transverse, 57
zygomatic, 45,51
prolactin, 179
prosencephalon, III
prostate, 295, 297, 299
proteins, 21
proximal (position), 1
pseudostratified ciliated columnarepithelium, 23, 255
pseudounipolar neurons, 109
pterygoid plate(s), 47, 51
pubic ramus, 77
pubic symphysis, 75
pubis, 75
pudendal artery, 221
pudendal nerve, 145
pulmonary artery, 193, 199
pulmonary circulation, 193
pulmonary semilunar valve, 201, 203
pulmonary trunk, 191,201,233
pulmonary veins, 193, 199
pulp cavity, 273
pupil, 159
Purkinje fibers, 203
pyloric canal, 277
pyloric region, 277
pyloric sphincter, 277
Q
quadrants (of regions), 7
quadrate lobe (liver), 283
R
radial artery, 207, 213
radial nerve, 141
radial notch, 71
radial tuberosity, 71
radial veins, 223, 227
radius, 63
ramus, 45, 77
receptors, pain, 153
rectal arteries, 219, 221
rectouterine pouch, 303
rectum, 281
rectus, 161
red blood cells (erythrocytes), 35,195
red pulp, 241
region(s), 7,15,17
renal arteries, 217, 287, 289
renal veins, 223, 231
renal capsule, 289
renal columns, 289
renal corpuscle, 293
renal medulla, 289
renal pelvis, 289
renal pyramids, 289
reproductive system, 13,295-300,297,301-310
respiratory system, 11,249-266
reticular connective tissue, 31
reticular fibers, 29, 31
reticular layer, 39
retina, 163, 165
return drainage, 237
rhombencephalon, III
ribosomes, 21
ribs, 61
rods, 165
root canal, 273
rootlets, 135
rotation (joint), 91,101
round ligaments, 301, 303
round window, 169
rugae, 277, 307
ssaccule, 169
sacral crest, 59
sacral foramina, 59
sacral nerves, 137
sacral plexus, 137, 145
sacral promontory, 59
sacral vertebrae, 53
IKAPLAN".
Index medical
sacroiliac joint, 75
sacrum, 53, 59
saddle joints, 91
sagittal section, 3
sagittal sinus, 225
sagittal suture, 47
salivary glands, 267, 271
saphenous vein, 223, 229
scala media, 173
scala tympani, 173
scala vestibuli, 173
scaphoid, 73
scapula, 65
scapulae, 63
scapular region, 17
scapular spine, 65
Schwarm cell, 107
sciatic nerve, 145
sciatic notch, 77
sclera, 159, 163
scleral venous sinus, 163
scrotal sac, 297, 299
sebaceous gland, 41
sections, body, 3
segmental arteries, 289
sella turcica, 49, 51
semicircular canal, 171
semicircular ducts, 169, 171
seminal vesicles, 295, 297, 299
seminiferous tubules, 189,299
sense organs, 153-174
sensory nerve fibers, 155
septal cartilage, 253, 257
serosa, 277
serous layer, 201
sertoli cells, 299
shaft, hair, 41
sigmoid artery, 219
sigmoid colon, 281
327
328 meclical I Index
sinoatrial node, 203
sinus( es)
cavity, 49
coronary, 199,201
frontal, 49
lactiferous, 309
sagittal, 225
scleral venous, 163
sphenoid, 49
sinusoids,283
skeletal muscle, 37
skeletal system, 9, 43-84
skeleton, appendicular, 63
skin, 11
skin receptors, 153
skull, 43, 45, 47,49
small intestine, 245, 267, 279
smooth muscle, 37, 205, 291
soft palate, 253, 255, 269
soma, 105
somatic nervous system, 103
somatosensory cortex, lIS, 125
speech area, motor, 125
spermatic cord, 297
spermatids,299
spermatocytes,299
spermatogonia, 299
spermatozoa (sperm cells), 299
sphenoid bone, 43, 45, 47, 51, 177
sphenoid sinus, 49
sphincter, pyloric, 277
spinal canal, 19
spinal cord, 9, 103, 131, 135
spinal nerve(s), 103, 135
spine, 65, 75, 77
spinous process, 55, 57
spiral organ (organ of Corti), 173
spleen, 9, 235, 241
splenic artery, 219, 241
splenic cords, 241
splenic flexure, 281
splenic vein, 231, 241
spongy urethra, 299
squamous epithelium, 23, 25
squamous portion, 51
squamous suture, 45
stapes, 169
sternal region, 15
sternal-rib junction, 87
sternum, 61
stomach, 11,267,277
stratified epithelia, 25
stratified squamous epithelium, 25
stratum basale, 39
stratum corneum, 39
stratum granulosum, 39
stratum lucidum, 39
stratum spinosum, 39
striations, 37
styloid process, 45, 47, 51, 71
subclavian artery, 207, 209, 213
subclavian vein, 223, 227, 237
sublingual glands, 271
submandibular glands, 271
submucosa, 277, 279
subpubic angle, 77
subscapular artery, 213
subscapular fossa, 65
sulcus(i), 113,115,121,135
superior (position), 1
superior border, 65
superior oblique, 161
supporting cells, 157
supracondylar ridges, 69
supraspinous fossa, 65
suprasternal notch, 61
sural region, 17
surfactant, 265
surgical neck, 69
suspensory ligaments, 163,303,307
suturets), 45, 47,85
sweat glands, 39
sympathetic chain ganglia, 149
sympathetic division, 149
symphysis, 87
symphysis pubis, 299
synapses, 105, 109
synaptic neuron, 109
synaptic vesicles, 109
synarthroses, 85
synchondrosis, 87
syndesmosis, 85
synovial cavity, 89
synovial fluid, 89
synovial joints, 85, 89, 91,93
synovial membranes, 89
system(s)
autonomic nervous, 103, 149, 151
cardiovascular, 13, 191-234
central nervous, 103
digestive, 11, 219, 267
endocrine, 11, 175
female reproductive, 301-310
hepatic portal, 231
integumentary, 11, 39
limbic, 123
lymphatic, 9, 235
male reproductive, 295-300, 297
muscular, 9
organ, 5,9-13
peripheral nervous, 103
portal,231
respiratory, 11,249-266
skeletal, 9, 43-84
somatic nervous, 103
urinary, 13,287
systemic circulation, 193
T
T cells, 195,247
talus, 83
tarsal bones, 83
tarsals, 79
taste buds, 155
taste pore, 155
teeth,273
temporal vein, 225
temporomandibular joint, 95
tendon sheath, 89
tendon, patellar, 99
teniae coli, 281
terminal nerves, 137
testes, 13, 175, 189,295,297
testicular artery, 297
thalamus, 119, 121
third ventricle, 121, 127
thoracic aorta, 207,217
thoracic nerves, 137
thoracolumbar division, 149
thrombocytes (platelets), 195
thymus, 237
thyroid cartilage, 251, 257, 259
thyroid gland, 11, 175, 181
thyroid stimulating hormone, 179
tibia, 79, 81
tibial artery, 207,215
tibial condyle, 81
tibial crest, 81
tibial tuberosity, 81
tibial veins, 229
tibofemoral joint, 99
tissue(s), 5, 21-42
tongue, 155,239,269
tonsillar (Waldeyer's) ring, 239
tonsils, 155,239
trabeculae carneae, 201
trachea, 11,249,251,257,259,261
tracheal rings, 261
trachealis muscle, 261
transitional epithelium, 25
transverse processes, 57
trapezium, 73
trapezoid,73
tricuspid valve, 201,203
trigeminal nerve, 133
trigone, 291
trilaminar germ disk, 313
triquetrum, 73
trochanter, 79
trochlea, 69
trochlear nerve, 133
trochlear notch, 71
trophoblast,311
true pelvis, 75
trunk veins, 231
tuberosity, 71, 77
tubule(s), 189,293,299
tunica externa (tunica adventitia),205
tunica intima (tunica interna), 205
tunica media, 205
two-celled stage, 311
tympanic cavity, 169
tympanic membrane (ear drum), 167
type 11 alveolar cells, 265
uulna, 63
ulnar artery, 207, 213
ulnar nerve, 141
ulnar notch, 71
ulnar veins, 223, 227
umbilical arteries, 233
umbilical region, 7
umbilical vein, 233
upper dermis, 153
d IKAPLAff.
In ex medical
upper extremity, 63
upper limb arteries, 213
upper limb veins, 227
ureteral orifices, 291
ureters, 287, 289, 291,297
urethral orifice, 309
urethra, 13,287,291
urinary bladder, 287, 291, 297
urinary system, 13,287
urogenital triangle, 309
uterine arteries, 221
uterine tubes, 301,303,307
uterosacral ligament, 307
uterus, 301, 303, 307
utricle, 169
uvula, 269
vvagina, 301,303,307
vaginal arteries, 221
vaginal orifice, 309
vagus nerve, 133
vallate papillae, 155
valve(s), 201,203
vasopressin, 179
vein( s)
antebrachial,227
axillary, 223, 227
azygos, 231
basilic, 223, 227
brachiocephalic, 223, 225
cardiac, 197, 199
central,283
cephalic, 223, 227
colic, 231
cubital,227
digital, 227, 229
dorsal,299
329
330 ",~&ical I Index
facial, 225
femoral, 191,223,229
gastric, 231
gastroepiploic, 231
gonadal, 223, 231
head, 225
hemiazygos, 231
hepatic portal, 231,283
iliac, 223, 229
intercostal, 231
jugular, 191,223,225,237
lower limb, 229
maxillary, 225
mesenteric, 231
metatarsal, 229
neck, 225
palmar arch, 227
plantar, 229
popliteal, 229
pulmonary, 193, 199
radial, 223, 227
renal, 223, 231
saphenous, 223, 229
splenic, 231, 241
subclavian, 223, 227, 237
temporal, 225
tibial, 229
ulnar, 223, 227
umbilical, 233
upper limb, 227
vena cava, 191, 193,201,223,225,231,233
vertebral, 223, 225
vena cava veins, 191, 193,201,223,225,231,233
ventral cavity, 19
ventral root, 135
ventricle(s), 119,121, 127, 193,201
venules, 193, 235
vermiform appendix, 281
vertebrae, 53, 57
vertebral arch, 57
vertebral arteries, 211
vertebral column, 53
vertebral foramen, 55, 57
vertebral region, 17
vertebral vein, 223, 225
vesical arteries, 221
vesicles, 21, 27,109,295,297,299
vessels, 205, 245, 309
vestibular fold, 259
vestibular membrane, 173
vestibule, 169
vestibulocochlear nerve, 133
vetebral foramen, 55
villi, 245, 279
visceral pericardium, 201
visceral pleura, 263
visual association area, 125
vitreous humor, 163
vocal cord, 259
vocal fold, 257
vomer, 47, 49, 253
wWaldeyer's (tonsillar) ring, 239
Wernicke's area, 125
white blood cells, 35, 195
white matter, 121
white pulp, 241
wings, 47, 51
xxiphoid process, 61
y
yolk sac, 313
zzona fasciculata, 187
zona glomerulosa, 187
zona reticularis, 187
zygomatic bones, 43
zygomatic process, 45, 51
zygote, 311
Special Flashcard Section: Muscles of the Human Body 331
INTRODUCTION
Muscles can be grouped into anatomical regions such as muscles of the head, arm or torso.Muscles can also be functionally related, for example, muscles that act on the thigh ormuscles that flex the hand.
Origin, Insertion, Action
The origin of the muscle is the stable part of the muscle. The majority of muscles haveorigins that are superior, proximal, or medial to the insertion. There are only a fewexceptions to this rule. The insertion of the muscle is the part of the muscle that has thegreatest motion when the muscle contracts. In some cases a muscle can move either theorigin or the insertion and you should learn the origins and insertions as presented. Theaction of a muscle is what the muscle does. Some muscles are flexors and decrease jointangles. Some are extensors, adductors, abductors, rotators, etc. The action of the muscle isevery movement the muscle does.
When you study muscles, it helps to take two or three at a time and learn just the origins ofthe muscles. When you know those, then study the insertions, and finally, the actions. Afteryou know the muscles well, then take another group of muscles and add them to the list. Ifyou try to learn twenty muscles at a time, the task will be frustrating, so it is best to take themin small groups.
Muscle Names
The muscles are named by different criteria and understanding how they are named can helpyou to remember the muscle. Muscles can be named for their shape. The trapezius is atrapezoid-like muscle. The rhomboideus muscles are shaped like a rhombus. Muscles can benamed by the number of heads they have. The triceps brachii has three heads. Muscles can benamed by location.The rectus abdominis literally means "the straight muscle of theabdomen." The tibialis anterior is the front muscle on the tibia. Muscles can be namedaccording to size. The teres major is the large muscle and the teres minor is the small muscle.Teres means "round." Some muscles are superficial while others are deep. The flexordigitorum superficialis is superficial to the flexor digitorum profundus. Muscles can also benamed for their action. There are the adductors, the flexors and extensor muscles, etc.
Muscles that cross joints of the body move those joints. The main muscle that causes thejoint to move is called the prime mover or agonist. A muscle that helps the prime mover iscalled a synergist. A muscle that opposes the prime mover is called an antagonist. If both theprime mover and the antagonist contract, then the joint is fixed,
Muscle Groups
There are groups of muscles that act together. The rotator cuff (musculotendinous cuff)muscles stabilize the shoulder joint. These are the supraspinatus, the infraspinatus the teresminor and the subscapularis. The abdominal muscles are the rectus abdominis, the externaloblique, the internal oblique, and the transversus abdominis. The quadriceps femoris groupare the muscles of the anterior thigh. These are the rectus femoris, the vastus lateralis, thevastus medialis, and the vastus intermedius. The hamstrings are muscles on the posteriorthigh and they consist of the biceps femoris, the semitendinosus, and the semimembranosus.There are many more functional groups of muscles but these are a few of the major ones.
The muscles of the body are numerous and flash cards are a great tool to learn muscles. Cutout the cards along the lines. As we said before, it is best to take a few cards at a time andlearn them well. You should color each muscle on the front side of the card and put a small'0' where the origin of the muscle is and a small 'I" where the insertion of the muscle is. Eachmuscle is illustrated isolated from other muscles so that the origin and the insertion areplainly visible. The name of the muscle is on the back of the illustration. The origin (0),insertion (I), and action (A) are listed for each muscle on the back of the card.
Special Muscle Flashcard Section I KAPLAlfd- I 333Muscles of the Human Body me lea
MUSCLES, ANTERIOR VIEW
Answer Key: a. Sternocleidomastoid, b. Pectoralis major,c. Deltoid, d. Bicepsbrachii,e. Rectus abdominis, f. External oblique, g. Sartorius,h. Quadriceps femoris, i. Tibialisanterior
Special Muscle Flashcard Section I KAPLA~. I 335Muscles of the Human Body meulCa
MUSCLES, POSTERIOR VIEW
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AnswerKey: a. Trapezius, b. Deltoid, c.Triceps brachii,d. Latissimus dorsi,e. Extensor digitorum, f. Gluteus maximus,g. Adductor magnus,h. Iliotibial tract, i. Bicepsfemoris, j. Gastrocnemius
OCCIPITALIS
0: Occipital bone and temporal bone
I: Galea aponeurotica
A: Pulls scalp posteriorly
MASSETER
0: Zygomatic arch
I: Ramus of mandible
A: Closes mandible
ORBICULARIS OCULI
0: Frontal bone and maxilla on medial orbit
I: Eyelid
A: Closes eye
FRONTALIS
0: Galea aponeurotica
I: Skin near eyebrows
A: Raises eyebrows, pulls scalp anteriorly
TEMPORALIS
0: Temporal fossa
I: Coronoid process and ramus of the mandible
A: Closes mandible
MEDIAL AND LATERAL PTERYGOIDS
0: Pterygoid processes of sphenoid bone
I: Ramus and condylar process of mandible onmedial side
A: Lateral movement of mandible
MENTALIS
0: Anterior, medial mandible
I: Skin of chin
A: Elevates lower lip
ZYGOMATICUS
0: Zygomatic bone
I: Angle of mouth
A: Elevates corners of mouth (in a smile or laugh)
DEPRESSOR LABII INFERIORIS
0: Inferior border of mandible
I: Skin of inferior lip, and orbicularis oris muscle
A: Depresses lower lip
ORBICULARIS ORIS
0: Muscles encircling mouth
I: Skin of lips
A: Closes mouth
BUCCII\JATOR
0: Mandible and maxilla
I: Orbicularis oris
A: Tightens cheek
SCALENUS
0: Transverse process of C 2-6
I: Ribs] and 2
A: Flexes and rotates neck, elevates first and second ribs
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LEVATOR SCAPULAE
0: Transverse processes of Cl-4
I: Superior angle of scapula
A: Elevates scapula, rotates and abducts neck
STERNOHYOID
0: Manubrium of sternum
I: Hyoid bone
A: Depresses hyoid bone
OMOHYOID
0: Superior border of scapula
I: Hyoid bone
A: Depresses hyoid
STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID
0: Sternum and clavicle
I: Mastoid process
A: One: rotates and extends head, both: flexes neck
STERNOTHYROI D
0: Manubrium of sternum
I: Thyroid cartilage of larynx
A: Depresses thyroid cartilage
PLATYSMA
0: Fascia over pectoralis major and deltoid muscles
I: Mandible and skin inferior to lower lip
A: Depresses lower lip
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DIGASTRIC
0: Anterior, inferior mandible, mastoid notch oftemporal bone
I: Hyoid bone
A: Protracts, retracts, and elevates hyoid, opensmandible
TRAPEZIUS
0: Occipital protuberance, ligamentum nuchae,C7-Tl2
I: Clavicle, acromion, and spine of scapula
A: Abducts and extends head, rotates and adductsscapula
LATISSIMUS DORSI
0: T7-TI2, Ll-LS, sacrum, iliac crest, ribs 10-12
I: Intertubercular groove of humerus
A: Adducts, extends, and medially rotates arm, pullsshoulder inferiorly
MYLOHYOID
0: Inner margin of mandible
I: Hyoid bone
A: Elevates floor of oral cavity
SPLENIUS
0: Ligamentum nuchae, C7-T6
I: C2-4, occipital bone, temporal bone
A: Extends and rotates head
SEMISPINALIS
0: C4-T12
I: Occipital bone, TI-4
A: Extends head, rotates vertebral column
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DELTOID
0: Clavicle, acromion, and spine of scapula
I: Deltoid tuberosity
A: Abducts, flexes, extends medially, and laterally rotatesarm
INFRASPINATUS
0: Infraspinous fossa
I: Greater tubercle of humerus
A: Extends, laterally rotates arm, stabilizes shoulder
SUBSCAPU LARIS
0: Subscapular fossa
I: Lesser tubercle of humerus
A: Extends, medially rotates arm, stabilizes shoulder
SUPRASPI NATUS
0: Supraspinous fossa
I: Greater tubercle of humerus
A: Abducts arm, stabilizes shoulder
TERES MINOR
0: Axillary border of scapula
I: Greater tubercle of humerus
A: Extends, laterally rotates, ad ducts arm, stabilizesshoulder
RHOMBOIDEUS MAJOR
0: Tl-T4
I: Inferior, medial border of scapula
A: Adducts scapula
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TERES MAJOR
0: Axillary border of scapula
I: Crest of lesser tubercle of humerus
A: Extends, adducts, medially rotates arm
ERECTOR SPINAE: (SPINALIS, LONGISSIMUS,ILIOCOSTALIS) AND MULTIFIDUS
0: Vertebral column, ilium, sacrum, ribs
I: Ribs, vertebral column, occipital bone, temporalbone
A: Rotates and extends vertebral column and head
QUADRATUS LUMBORUM
0: Iliac crest, lower lumbar vertebrae
I: T12,Ll-L4,rib 12
A: Abd ucts vertebral column, depresses rib 12
RHOMBOIDEUS MINOR
0: Ligamentum nuchae, C6-C7
I: Superior, medial border of scapula
A: Adducts scapula
PECTORALIS MAJOR
0: Clavicle, sternum, and ribs 1-7
I: Crest of greater tubercle of humerus
A: Adducts, flexes, and rotates arm medially
SERRATUS ANTERIOR
0: Ribs 1-8 or 9
I: Vertebral border of scapula
A: Abducts scapula
PECTORALIS MINOR
0: Ribs 3-5
I: Coracoid process of scapula
A: Depresses scapula, elevates ribs 3-5
EXTERNAL INTERCOSTALIS
0: Inferior margin of ribs 1-11
I: Superior margin of ribs 2-12
A: Elevates ribs (increases thoracic volume)
DIAPHRAGM
0: Xiphoid process, ribs 10-12, lumbar vertebrae
I: Central tendon
A: Inspiration
INTERNAL INTERCOSTALIS
0: Inferior margin of ribs I-II
I: Superior margin of ribs 2-12
A: Depresses ribs (decreases thoracic volume)
RECTUS ABDOMINIS
0: Symphysis pubis and pubic crest
1: Cartilages of ribs 5-7 and xiphoid process
A: flexes lumbar vertebrae, compresses abdomen
INTERNAL OBLIQUE
0: Inguinal ligament, iliac crest
I: Linea alba, inferior 4 ribs
A: Compresses abdomen, laterally rotates trunk
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EXTERNAL OBLIQUE
0: Ribs 5-12
I: Iliac crest, inguinal ligament, linea alba
A: Compresses abdomen, laterally rotates trunk
TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS
0: Iliac crest, inguinal ligament, ribs 7-12
I: Linea alba, pubis
A: Compresses abdomen, laterally rotates trunk
TRICEPS BRACHII
0: Infraglenoid tuberosity of scapula, posterior surfaceof humerus
I: Olecranon process
A: Adducts arm, extends arm and forearm
BICEPS BRACHII
0: Supraglenoid tubercle, coracoid process
I: Radial tuberosity
A: Flexes arm, flexes and laterally rotates forearm(supinates hand)
CORACOBRACHIALIS
0: Coracoid process
I: Medial shaft of humerus
A: Adducts and flexes arm
BRACHIORADIALIS
0: Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus
I: Styloid process of radius
A: Flexes forearm
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BRACHIALIS
0: Anterior, distal humerus
I: Coronoid process of ulna
A: Flexes forearm
SUPINATOR
0: Lateral epicondyle of humerus, proximal ulna
I: Proximal shaft of radius
A: Supinates hand
PRONATOR QUADRATUS
0: Anterior, distal ulna
I: Anterior, distal radius
A: Medially rotates forearm (pronates hand)
PRONATOR TERES
0: Medial epicondyle of humerus, coronoid process ofulna
I: Lateral radius
A: Flexes and medially rotates forearm (pronates hand)
PALMARIS LONGUS
0: Medial epicondyle of humerus
I: Palmar aponeurosis
A: Flexes hand
FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS
0: Medial epicondyle of humerus olecranon andproximal ulna
I: Pisiform, hamate, metacarpalS
A: Flexes and adducts hand
FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS
0: Medial epicondyle of humerus
I: Metacarpals 2 and 3
A: Flexes and abducts hand
FLEXOR DIGITORUM SUPERFICIALIS
0: Medial epicondyle of humerus, coronoid process ofulna, proximal shaft of radius
I: Middle phalanges of digits 2-5
A: Flexes proximal and middle phalanges of digits 2-5,flexes hand
EXTENSOR CARPI ULNARIS
0: Lateral epicondyle of humerus, posterior ulna
I: Metacarpal 5
A: Extends and adducts hand
FLEXOR DIGITORUM PROFUNDUS
0: Proximal ulna, interosseus membrane
I: Anterior distal phalanges of digits 2-5
A: Flexes phalanges 2-5, flexes hand
FLEXOR POLLICIS LONGUS
0: Anterior aspect of radius and interosseus membrane
I: Distal phalanx of thumb (pollex)
A: Flexes thumb
EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS LONGUS
0: Lateral supracondylar ridge of humerus
I: Metacarpal 2
A: Extends and abducts hand
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ABDUCTOR POLLICIS LONGUS
0: Posterior radial and ulnar surface, interosseus membrane
1: Metacarpal I
A: Abducts and extends thumb
EXTENSOR POLLICIS BREVIS
0: Posterior radius, interosseus membrane
1: Proximal phalanx of thumb (pollex)
A: Extends thumb
PSOAS MAJOR
0: TI2, Ll-5
1: Lesser trochanter of femur
A: Flexes thigh and lumbar vertebrae
EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS BREVIS
0: Lateral epicondyle of humerus
1: Metacarpal 3
A: Extends and abducts hand
EXTENSOR DIGITORUM
0: Lateral epicondyle of humerus
1: Middle and distal phalanges of digits 2-5
A: Extends all phalanges of digits 2-5, extends hand
EXTENSOR POLLICIS LONGUS
0: Posterior ulna, interosseus membrane
1: Distal phalanx of thumb (pollex)
A: Extends thumb
ILIACUS
0: Iliac fossa, sacrum
I: Lesser trochanter of femur
A: Flex thigh
TENSOR FASCIAE LATAE
0: Anterior superior iliac spine
I: Lateral condyle of tibia by the iliotibial band
A: Flexes, medially rotates, and abducts thigh
GRACILIS
0: Pubis
I: Proximal portion of medial tibia
A: Adducts thigh, flexes leg
SARTORIUS
0: Anterior superior iliac spine
1: Medial side of tibial tuberosity
A: Flexes and laterally rotates thigh, flexes leg
PECTINEUS
0: Pubis
1: Proximal, posterior femur
A: Adducts and laterally rotates thigh
ADDUCTOR LONGUS
0: Pubis
J: Middle linea aspera of femur
A: Adducts and laterally rotates thigh
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ADDUCTOR BREVIS
0: Pubis
I: Proximal linea aspera of femur
A: Adducts and laterally rotates thigh
ADDUCTOR MAGNUS
0: Ischium and pubis
1: Linea aspera and adductor tubercle of femur
A: Adducts, flexes, extends, and laterally rotates thigh
VASTUS LATERALIS
0: Greater trochanter and linea aspera of femur
1: Tibial tuberosity
A: Extends leg
RECTUS FEMORIS
0: Anterior inferior iliac spine
1: Tibial tuberosity
A: Flexes thigh, extends leg
VASTUS INTERMEDIUS
0: Anterior and lateral part of femur
1: Tibial tuberosity
A: Extends leg
GLUTEUS MAXIMUS
0: Lateral surface of ilium, sacrum, coccyx
I: Lateral condyle of tibia by lateral fascia, glutealtuberosity of femur
A: Extends, abducts, and laterally rotates thigh
VASTUS MEDIALIS
0: Linea aspera of femur
I: Tibial tuberosity
A: Extends leg
GLUTEUS MEDIUS
0: Outer ilium
I: Greater trochanter of femur
A: Medially rotates and abducts thigh
BICEPS FEMORIS
0: Ischial tuberosity, distal linea aspera of femur
I: Head of fibula, lateral tibia
A: Extends thigh, flexes and laterally rotates leg
GLUTEUS MINIMUS
0: Outer ilium
I: Greater trochanter of femur
A: Medially rotates and abducts thigh
SEMITENDINOSUS
0: Ischial tuberosity
I: Medial tibia near tibial tuberosity
A: Extends thigh, flexes and medially rotates leg
TIBIALIS ANTERIOR
0: Lateral tibia
I: First metatarsal and medial cuneiform
A: Dorsiflexes and inverts foot
SEMIMEMBRANOSUS
0: Ischial tuberosity
I: Medial tibial condyle
A: Extends thigh, flexes and medially rotates leg
EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS
0: Lateral tibial condyle, shaft of fibula
I: Middle and distal phalanges of digits 2-5
A: Extends digits 2-5, dorsi flexes and everts foot
FIBULARIS LONGUS
0: Proximal fibula, lateral condyle of tibia
I: First metatarsal, medial cuneiform
A: Plantar flexes and everts foot
EXTENSOR HALLUCIS LONGUS
0: Medial shaft of fibula, interosseous membrane
I: Distal phalanx of hallux (first digit)
A: Extends hallux, dorsiflexes foot and inverts foot
FIBULARIS BREVIS
0: Fibula
I: Metatarsal 5
A: Plantar flexes and everts foot
GASTROCNEMIUS
0: Lateral and medial condyles of femur
I: Calcaneus
A: Flexes leg, plantar flexes foot
FIBULARIS TERTIUS
0: Distal fibula, interosseous membrane
I: Superior aspect of metatarsal 5
A: Dorsiflexes and everts foot
SOLEUS
0: Posterior tibia and fibula
I: Calcaneus
A: Plantar flexes foot
TIBIALIS POSTERIOR
0: Posterior tibia and fibula
I: Metatarsals 2-4, navicular, cuneiforms and cuboid
A: Plantar flexes and inverts foot
POPLITEUS
0: Lateral condyle of femur
I: Proximal tibia
A: Flexes and medially rotates leg
FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS
0: Posterior tibia
I: Distal phalanges of digits 2-5
A: Flexes toes, plantar flexes and inverts foot
FLEXOR HALLUCIS LONGUS
0: Middle fibula
I: Distal phalanx of hallux
A: Flexes hallux, plantar flexes and inverts foot
