training report civil engg. 7th sem

Final Industrial Training Report

Training REPORT

SUBMITTEDINPARTIAL FULFILLMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENT FOR

THEAWARD OFTHEDEGREEOF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY In

(Civil Engineering)

Submitted by

Rajat Kumar

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL AND CIVIL

ENGINEERING

SHOOLINI UNIVERSITY OF BIOTECHNOLOGY AND

MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

SOLAN, H.P., INDIA

JULY, 2017

DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

I hereby declare that this “Industrial Training Report” submitted in partial fulfillment

for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology to Shoolini University of

Biotechnology and Management Sciences, Solan(H.P.) is original work carried out by me

under the guidance and supervision of Dr. Mark Taylor. No part of this study has been

submitted for any other degree or diploma to this or any other university.

Rajat Kumar

Place:

Date:

School of Mechanical and Civil Engineering

Shoolini University, Solan-173229

CERTIFICATE – I

This is to certify that the Industrial training report entitled submitted in partial fulfillment

for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology to Shoolini University of

Biotechnology and Management Sciences, Solan(H.P.) is original research work carried

out by Rajat kumar (SU14306) under my supervision. No part of this report has been

submitted for any other degree or diploma to this or any other university.

The assistance and help received during the course of investigation has been duly

acknowledged.

(Name and Signature of Chairperson)

Countersigned By:

Head of School, School of Mechanical & Civil Engineering

Place:

Date………

CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE No.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i

LIST OF TABLES ii

LIST OF FIGURES iii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 General 1

CHAPTER 2 ROAD OR PAVEMENT 2

2.1 Purpose 2

2.2 Function 2

CHAPTER 3 TYPE OF PAVEMENT 3

3.1 Flexible pavement 3

3.2 Rigid pavement 3

CHAPTER 4 PLAIN CONCRETE OR 4

SHORT PAVEMENT SALBS

4.1 Reinforced Cement 4

CHAPTER 5 MINERALS USED 4-6

5.1 Cement 4

5.2 Sand 5

5.3 Aggregate 5

CHAPTER 6 BRICK BONDS 07-10

6.1 English and zigzag bond 8

6.2 Stretcher and Header bond 9

CHAPTER 7 PROCESS FOR CONSTUCTION 11-13

COLUMNS

7.1 Foundation 12

7.2 Super Structure 13

____________________________________________________________

CHAPTER 8 TYPE OF FOUNDATION 14-19

8.1 Shallow foundation 14

8.2 Deep foundation 18

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my satisfaction on the completion of this summer training

program and project report submission as a part of the curriculum for the degree

of Bachelor of Technology, Civil Engineering. I express my deepest gratitude to

my supervisor and mentor Er. Roop Chand for his kind guidance during the entire period

of training.

His consistent support and advices has helped me to complete this research

project successfully. Also I thank all the members of PUBLIC WORKS

DEPARTMENT, CONSTRUCTION DIVISION-1, INDORA (H.P) for their kind support.

They have always been a source of inspiration to me.

Rajat KUMAR

[email protected]

i

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE

PAGE

No. No.

1.1 Fine aggregate 6

1.2 Coarse aggregate 6

ii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE

PAGE

No. No.

1.1 English bond 8

1.2 Zigzag bond 9

1.3 Stretcher bond 9

1.4 Header bond 10

1.5 Construction of columns 11

1.6 foundation 12

1.7 Isolated footing 15

1.8 Combined footing 16

1.9 Raft and mat foundation 17

1.10 Deep foundation 18

iii

ABSTRACT

iv

Chapter 1 Introduction

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Development of a country depends on the connectivity of various places with adequate road

network. Roads are the major channel of transportation for carrying goods and passengers.

They play a significant role in improving the socio-economic standards of a region. Roads

constitute the most important mode of communication in areas where railways have not

developed much and form the basic infra-structure for the development and economic growth

of the country. The benefits from the investment in road sector are indirect, long-term and not

immediately visible. Roads are important assets for any nation. However, merely creating

these assets is not enough, it has to be planned carefully and a pavement which is not

designed properly deteriorates fast. India is a large country having huge resource of materials.

If these local materials are used properly, the cost of construction can be reduced. There are

various type of pavements which differ in their suitability in different environments. Each

type of pavement has its own merits and demerits. Despite a large number of seminars and

conference, still in India, 98% roads are having flexible pavements. A lot of research has

been made on use of Waste materials but the role of these materials is still limited. So there is

need to take a holistic approach and mark the areas where these are most suitable.

India has one of the largest road networks in the world (over 3 million km at present).For the

purpose of management and administration, roads in India are divided into the following five

categories:

National Highways (NH)

State Highways (SH)

Major District Roads (MDR)

Other District Roads (ODR)

Village Roads (VR)

School of Mechanical and Civil Engineering 1

Chapter 2 Road or Pavement CHAPTER 2 ROAD OR PAVEMENT Pavement or Road is an open, generally public way for the passage of vehicles, people, and Animals Pavement is finished with a hard smooth surface. It helped make them durable and able to With stand traffic and the environment. They have a life span of between 20 – 30 years. Road pavements deteriorate over time due to-

The impact of traffic, particularly heavy vehicles. Environmental factors such as weather, pollution. 2.1 PURPOSE Many people rely on paved roads to move themselves and their products rapidly and reliably 2.2 FUNCTIONS One of the primary functions is load distribution. It can be characterized by the tire loads,

tire configurations, repetition of loads, and distribution of traffic across the pavement, and vehicle speed

Pavement material and geometric design can affect quick and efficient drainage. These

eliminating moisture problems such as mud and pounding (puddles). Drainage system consists of: Surface drainage: Removing all water present on the pavement surface, sloping,

chambers, and kerbs

Subsurface drainage: Removing water that seep into or is contained in the underlying

subgrade.


Chapter 3 Types Of Pavements

CHAPTER 3

TYPES OF PAVEMENTS

There are various types of pavements depending upon the materials used; a briefs description

of all types is given here-

3.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Bitumen has been widely used in the construction of flexible pavements for a long time. This

is the most convenient and simple type of construction. The cost of construction of single

lane bituminous pavement varies from 20 to 30 lakhs per km in plain areas. In some

applications, however, the performance of conventional bitumen may not be considered

satisfactory because of the following reasons

In summer season, due to high temperature, bitumen becomes soft resulting in

bleeding, rutting and segregation finally leading to failure of pavement.

In winter season, due to low temperature, the bitumen becomes brittle resulting in

cracking, ravelling and unevenness which makes the pavement unsuitable for use.

3.2 RIGID PAVEMENTS Rigid pavements, though costly in initial investment, are cheap in long run because of low

maintenance costs. There are various merits in the use of Rigid pavements (Concrete

pavements) are summarized below:

Bitumen is derived from petroleum crude, which is in short supply globally and the

price of which has been rising steeply. India imports nearly 70% of the petroleum

crude. The demand for bitumen in the coming years is likely to grow steeply, far

outstripping the availability. Hence it will be in India's interest to explore alternative

binders. Cement is available in sufficient quantity in India, and its availability in the

future is also assured. Thus cement concrete roads should be the obvious choice in

future road programmes.

Besides the easy available of cement, concrete roads have a long life and are

practically maintenance-free.

Another major advantage of concrete roads is the savings in fuel by commercial

vehicles to an extent of 14-20%. The fuel savings themselves can support a large

programme of concreting

Cement concrete roads save a substantial quantity of stone aggregates and this factor

must be considered when a choice pavements is mad.


Chapter 4 Plain Concrete or short pavement slabs

CHAPTER 4 PLAIN CONCRETE OR SHORT PAVEMENT SLABS This type of pavement consists of successive slabs whose length is limited to about 25 times

the slab thickness. At present it is recommended that the paving slabs not be made longer

than 5,even if the joints have dowels to transfer the loads. The movements as a result of

fluctuations in temperature and humidity are concentrated in the joints. Normally, these joints

are sealed to prevent water from penetrating the road structure. The width of the pavement

slabs is limited to a maximum of 4.5 m.

4.1 REINFORCED CONCRETE Continuously reinforced concrete

Continuously reinforced concrete pavements are characterised by the absence of transverse

joints and are equipped with longitudinal steel reinforcement. The diameter of the reinforcing

bars is calculated in such a way that cracking can be controlled and that the cracks are

uniformly distributed (spacing at 1 to 3 m). The crack width has to remain very small, i.e. less

than 0.3 mm

Reinforced pavement slabs

Reinforced concrete pavement slabs are almost never used, except for inside or outside

industrial floors that are subjected to large loads or if the number of contraction joints has to

be limited.

Steel fibre concrete The use of steel fibre concrete pavements is mainly limited to industrial floors. However, in

that sector they are used intensively. For road pavements steel fibre concrete can be used for

thin or very thin paving slabs or for very specific application


Chapter 5 Minerals Used CHAPTER 5 MINERALS USED

Concrete is widely used in domestic, commercial, recreational, rural and educational

construction.

Communities around the world rely on concrete as a safe, strong and simple building

material. It is used in all types of construction; from domestic work to multi-storey office

blocks and shopping complexes.

Despite the common usage of concrete, few people are aware of the considerations involved

in designing strong, durable, high quality concrete.

There are mainly three materials used primarily-

Cement

Sand Aggregate 5.1 Cement Cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other

materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the

term caementicium to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from

crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives that

were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cemented, cemented, cement, and cement. The most important uses of cement are as an ingredient in the production of mortar in

masonry, and of concrete, a combination of cement and an aggregate to form a strong building material. TYPES OF CEMENT:- Portland cement Portland fly ash cement Portland pozzolana cement Portland silica fume cement


Chapter 5 Minerals used

5.2 SAND Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral

Particles. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and

conditions, but the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and no

tropical

coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.

The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite, which

has mostly been created, over the past half billion years, by various forms of life,

like coral and shellfish. It is, for example, the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean. 5.3 AGGREGATE Aggregates are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone that, along with

water and Portland cement, are an essential ingredient in concrete. For a good concrete mix,

aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings of

clay and other fine materials that could cause the deterioration of concrete. Aggregates,

which account for 60 to 75 percent of the total volume of concrete, are divided into two

distinct categories-fine and coarse. Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or

crushed stone with most particles passing through a 3/8-inch (9.5-mm) sieve. Coarse

aggregates are any particles greater than 0.19 inch (4.75 mm), but generally range between

3/8 and 1.5 inches (9.5 mm to 37.5 mm) in diameter. Gravels constitute the majority of coarse aggregate used in concrete with crushed stone making up most of the remainder. Once processed, the aggregates are handled and stored in a way that minimizes segregation

and degradation and prevents contamination. Aggregates strongly influence concrete's freshly

mixed and hardened properties, mixture proportions, and economy. Consequently, selection

aggregates is an important process. Although some variation in aggregate properties is expected, characteristics that are considered when selecting aggregate include:

grading

durability

particle shape and surface texture

abrasion and skid resistance

unit weights and voids

absorption and surface moisture

Grading refers to the determination of the particle-size distribution for aggregate. Grading

limits and maximum aggregate size are specified because grading and size affect the amount of aggregate used as well as cement and water requirements, workability.


Chapter5 Minerals used

FINE AGGREGATE:

Fine aggregate shall consist of sand, or sand stone with similar characteristics, or

Combination thereof. It shall meet requirements of the State Department of Transportation of

Uttar Pradesh, Section 501.3.6.3 of the Standard Specifications for Highway and Structure

Construction, current edition.

Table 1.1 fine aggregate

COARSE AGGREGATE:

Coarse aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, durable gravel, crushed gravel, crushed

Boulders or crushed stone. It shall meet the requirements of the State Department of

Transportation of Uttar Pradesh, Section 501.3.6.4 of the Standard Specifications for

Highway and Structure Construction, current edition.

Table 1.2 coarse aggregate


Chapter6 Brick Bonds

CHAPTER6

BRICK BONDS

Bonds in brick work :-

Stretcher bond

Header bond

English bond

Flemish bond

Facing bond

English crossing bond

Brick on edge bond

Dutch bond

Racking bond

Zigzag bond

Garden wall bond



6.1 English and zigzag bond

consists of alternate course of headers and stretches. In this English bond arrangement, vertical joints in the header courses come over each other and the vertical joints in the stretcher course are also in the same line. For the breaking of vertical joints in the successive course it is essential to place queen closer, after the first header in each heading course. The following additional points should be noted in English bond construction: (1) In English bond, a heading course should never start with a queen closer as it is liable to get displaced in this position. (2) In the stretcher course, the stretchers should have a minimum lap of 1/4th their length over the headers. (3) Walls having their thickness equal to an even number of half bricks, i.e., one brick thick wail, 2 brick thick wall, 3 brick thick wall and so on, present the same appearance on both the faces, i .e. a course consisting of headers on front face will show headers on the back face also. Isometric view of 1½ brick wall in English bond is shown below,

Fig 1.1 English bond (4) In walls having their thickness equal to an odd number of half brick, i.e. 1½ brick thick walls or

2½ brick thick walls and so on, the same course will show stretchers on one face and headers on the

other.

(5) In thick walls the middle portion is entirely filled with header to prevent the formation of vertical

joints in the body of the wall.

(6) Since the number of vertical joints in the header course is twice the number of joints in the

stretcher course, the joints in the header course are made thinner than those in the stretcher course.



Zigzag bond This is similar to herring-bone bond with the only difference that in this case the bricks are laid in a zig-zag fashion. This is commonly adopted in brick paved flooring.

Fig 1.2 zigzag bond 6.2 Stretcher and header bond

The simplest to lay, and therefore the most common, the bricks are laid flat long side to the face

of the wall.

Fig 1.3 stretcher bond


9


http://www.theconstructioncivil.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/7-Zig-zag-bond.jpg

http://www.theconstructioncivil.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/7-Zig-zag-bond.jpg

Header bond

Bricks are laid flat one long side face and another to header end face. Also known as Dutch

bond.

Fig 1.4 header bond


Chapter7 Types of foundation

CHAPTER 7

PROCESS FOR CONSTUCTION COLUMNS The word ‘column’ is related to building construction. The vertical support which is free from all

sides taking the load of beam slab etc. and transfers the load to the earth independently is called

column.

Column is constructed with the help of steel bars and cement concrete. In case of multi storey

and frame structure building constructions, the entire load is born by columns and the floor area/

internal space of building is freely adjusted according to the requirement.

The size, cement concrete ratio and numbers of steel bars with their diameter are available in

structural drawings which are designed according to the load born by the column and factor of

safety.

Fig 1.5 construction of columns


Chapter 7 process for construction columns

7.1 Foundation

The construction process of foundation is as follows:

• Excavating the earth from foundation

• Laying cement concrete in foundation

• Placing steel bar net in footing as per design and also placing vertical bars of column in footing

on the steel bar net as per design.

• Laying form work in footing.

• Laying cement concrete 1: 2:4 or 1:1-1/2:3 in footing up to required height as per design.

• Curing work and refilling of earth around footing.

Fig 1.6 foundation


Chapter 7 Types of foundation

7.2 Super Structure

After the construction of footing and pedestal the construction of column is started. The process

of construction is following.

• Tie up all rings around and into vertical steel bars according to design.

• Fix form work of required size with vertical steel bars.

• Lay cement concrete in form work according to design.

• Take proper curing of RCC columns



CHAPTER 8

TYPES OF FOUNDATION

Foundations are mainly of two types:

(i) shallow

(ii) deep foundations

8.1 Shallow foundations

Shallow foundations are used when the soil has sufficient strength within a short depth below the

ground level. They need sufficient plan area to transfer the heavy loads to the base soil. These

heavy loads are sustained by the reinforced concrete columns or walls (either of bricks or

reinforced concrete) of much less areas of cross-section due to high strength of bricks or

reinforced concrete when compared to that of soil. The strength of the soil, expressed as the safe

bearing capacity of the soil as discussed in sec.11.28.3, is normally supplied by the geotechnical

experts to the structural engineer. Shallow foundations are also designated as footings. The

different types of shallow foundations or footings are discussed below.

1. Isolated footings These footings are for individual columns having the same plan forms of square, rectangular or

circular as that of the column, preferably maintaining the proportions and symmetry so that the

resultants of the applied forces and reactions coincide. Though sloped footings are economical in

respect of the material, the additional cost of formwork does not offset the cost of the saved material.

Therefore, stepped footings are more economical than the sloped ones. The adjoining soil below

footings generates upward pressure which bends the slab due to cantilever action. Hence, adequate

tensile reinforcement should be provided at the bottom of the slab (tension face). Clause 34.1.1 of IS

456 stipulates that the sloped or stepped footings, designed as a unit, should be constructed to ensure

the integrated action. Moreover, the effective cross-section in compression of sloped and stepped

footings shall be limited by the area above the neutral plane. Though symmetrical footings are

desirable, sometimes situation compels for unsymmetrical isolated footings (Eccentric footings or

footings with cut outs) either about one or both the axes


14


Fig 1.7 Isolated footings

1. Combined footings When the spacing of the adjacent columns is so close that separate isolated footings are not

possible due to the overlapping areas of the footings or inadequate clear space between the

two areas of the footings, combined footings are the solution combining two or more

columns. Combined footing normally means a footing combining two columns. Such

footings are either rectangular or trapezoidal in plan forms with or without a beam joining the

two columns



Fig 1.8 Combined footings

2. Strap footings When two isolated footings are combined by a beam with a view to sharing the loads of both the

columns by the footings, the footing is known as strap footing . The connecting beam is

designated as strap beam. These footings are required if the loads are heavy on columns and the

areas of foundation are not overlapping with each other



3. Raft or mat foundation

These are special cases of combined footing where all the columns of the building are having a

common foundation . Normally, for buildings with heavy loads or when the soil condition is

poor, raft foundations are very much useful to control differential settlement and transfer the

loads not exceeding the bearing capacity of the soil due to integral action of the raft foundation.

This is a threshold situation for shallow footing beyond which deep foundations have to be

adopted

Fig 1.9 raft and mat foundation



8.2 Deep Foundation

Fig 1.10 deep foundation



As mentioned earlier, the shallow foundations need more plan areas due to the low strength of

soil compared to that of masonry or reinforced concrete. However, shallow foundations are

selected when the soil has moderately good strength, except the raft foundation which is good in

poor condition of soil also. Raft foundations are under the category of shallow foundation as they

have comparatively shallow depth than that of deep foundation. It is worth mentioning that the

depth of raft foundation is much larger than those of other types of shallow foundations.

However, for poor condition of soil near to the surface, the bearing capacity is very less and

foundation needed in such situation is the pile foundation (Figs.11.28.12). Piles are, in fact, small

diameter columns which are driven or cast into the ground by suitable means. Precast piles are

driven and cast-in-situ are cast. These piles support the structure by the skin friction between the

pile surface and the surrounding soil and end bearing force, if such resistance is available to

provide the bearing force. Accordingly, they are designated as frictional and end bearing piles.

They are normally provided in a group with a pile cap at the top through which the loads of the

superstructure are transferred to the piles.

Piles are very useful in marshy land where other types of foundation are impossible to construct.

The length of the pile which is driven into the ground depends on the availability of hard

soil/rock or the actual load test. Another advantage of the pile foundations is that they can resist

uplift also in the same manner as they take the compression forces just by the skin friction in the

opposite direction.

However, driving of pile is not an easy job and needs equipment and specially trained persons or

agencies. Moreover, one has to select pile foundation in such a situation where the adjacent

buildings are not likely to be damaged due to the driving of piles. The choice of driven or bored

piles, in this regard, is critical.

Exhaustive designs of all types of foundations mentioned above are beyond the scope of this

course. Accordingly, this module is restricted to the design of some of the shallow footings,

frequently used for normal low rise buildings only.
