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Dr. V. R Ghodake, Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune.
Mob- +919764484757, Email- [email protected]
OutcropOutcrop•Any Geological formation
exposed on the surface is called an outcrop.
Deformation of RocksDeformation of Rocks
• “Structural Geology” is the study of the deformation of rocks and its effects.
Orientation of Deformed RocksOrientation of Deformed Rocks
We need some way to describe the geometry of geologic structures. So we use the terms strike and dip.
Strike: Orientation of beds with respect to horizon.
Dip: Maximum inclinatioin of beds with respect to horizon,
Dip is always perpendicular to strike.
Strike and Dip on a Rooftop
Strike and Dip in a Rock Structure
Displaying Strike and Dip Displaying Strike and Dip on a Mapon a Map
35O
N
S
Direction of strike
E
Direction of down dip
W
What determines if a rock What determines if a rock Folds (bends) Folds (bends)
or faults (breaks)?or faults (breaks)?
• Type of force applied
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Rock (mineral) composition
Depth at Which the Deformation Depth at Which the Deformation Occurs is a Direct FactorOccurs is a Direct Factor
• At shallow crust depths, rock has a greater probability of breaking
• At deeper crust depths, rock usually deforms
StrengthStrength• Ability of an object to resist
deformation• In lab, marble was tested
Fractured Deformed
StrainStrainAny change in original shape or size of an object in response to stress acting on the object
Three Major TypesThree Major Typesof Directed Stressof Directed Stress
• Compression• Extension• Shear
DefDef- Folds may be defined as a curved or zigzag structures shown by - Folds may be defined as a curved or zigzag structures shown by rock beds. In other words the wavy undulations in the rock beds are rock beds. In other words the wavy undulations in the rock beds are called Folds. called Folds.
These bends or folds may develops in any type of rock and These bends or folds may develops in any type of rock and may be of any shapes may be of any shapes
Folds shows arches and troughs in alternate manner they are best Folds shows arches and troughs in alternate manner they are best displayed by the sedimentary rocks. Its size varies from few displayed by the sedimentary rocks. Its size varies from few centimeters to in kmcentimeters to in km
Parts of Folds•Limbs: •Axial Planes•Axis of Fold•Hinge Line
Anticline and SynclineAnticline and Syncline
Anticline Anticline – is a up fold where the limb dip away from axis of fold, these – is a up fold where the limb dip away from axis of fold, these shows convex upwards shows convex upwards
SynclineSyncline – is a down fold where the limb dip towards the axis of fold, these – is a down fold where the limb dip towards the axis of fold, these shows concave, or reversed anticline shape. shows concave, or reversed anticline shape.
Asymmetrical folds
Overturned folds
Plunging Folds: Plunging Folds: Folds having inclined axis are called Plunging folds.Folds having inclined axis are called Plunging folds.The angle of inclination of a fold axis with horizontal is called the angle of The angle of inclination of a fold axis with horizontal is called the angle of plunge. plunge.
CompressionCompressionAction of oppositely directed forces acting towards each other at the same time
TensionTensionAction of coinciding and oppositely directed forces acting away from each other
ShearShearAction of coinciding and oppositely directed forces acting parallel to each other across a surface
Types of DeformationTypes of Deformation
• ElasticElastic• Ductile (plastic)Ductile (plastic)• Brittle (rupture)Brittle (rupture)
Elastic DeformationElastic Deformation
Temporary change in shape or size that is recovered when the deforming force is removed
(Like squeezing a piece of rubber)
Ductile (Plastic) DeformationDuctile (Plastic) Deformation
• Permanent change in shape or size
• Under goes smooth and continuous plastic deformation under stress
• Does NOT recover original shape
Recumbent Fold – In recumbent folds thefolding is so intense that both the limbsBecomes almost horizontal in this case The axial plane also becomes nearly horizontal and lower limb gets overturned.
Types of foldsTypes of folds
Overturned foldOverturned fold
It is an asymmetrical It is an asymmetrical
fold whose one limb is fold whose one limb is
turned past the vertical. turned past the vertical.
In this case theIn this case the
axial plane is inclined axial plane is inclined
and both the limb dips in and both the limb dips in
the same directions In the same directions In
the overturnedthe overturned
fold the lower limb is fold the lower limb is
turned up side down.turned up side down.
Isoclinal FoldIsoclinal Fold
Folds with parallel Folds with parallel limbs are called limbs are called Isoclinal folds. Isoclinal folds. In this case limbs dips In this case limbs dips in same angle and in in same angle and in same direction.same direction.
Isoclinal folds have Isoclinal folds have three types three types
1)1)Inclined Isoclinal folds Inclined Isoclinal folds
2)2)Vertical Isoclinal folds Vertical Isoclinal folds
3)3)Recumbent or Recumbent or
horizontal Isoclinal fold.horizontal Isoclinal fold.
Some Special Type of FoldsSome Special Type of Folds
Anticlinorium and SynclinoriumAnticlinorium and Synclinorium
An anticlinorium is a large anticline running often An anticlinorium is a large anticline running often
for several hundred kilometers in length and for several hundred kilometers in length and
several kilometers in width which is further several kilometers in width which is further
thrown into smaller folds. Similarly a syclinorium thrown into smaller folds. Similarly a syclinorium
is a large syncline further consisting of smaller is a large syncline further consisting of smaller
folds.folds.
Geanticline and GeosynclineGeanticline and Geosyncline
An anticline of excessively large dimensions is An anticline of excessively large dimensions is
called a ‘geanticline’ and similar a syncline of called a ‘geanticline’ and similar a syncline of
huge dimensions is known as a ‘geosyncline’huge dimensions is known as a ‘geosyncline’
And Even More Fold TerminologyAnd Even More Fold Terminology
DomeDome: a sequence of : a sequence of folded rocks in which folded rocks in which all the beds dip away all the beds dip away from a central pointfrom a central point
BasinBasin: a sequence of : a sequence of folded rocks in which folded rocks in which all the beds dip all the beds dip towards a central towards a central pointpoint
• Fault planeFault plane: Surface that : Surface that the movement has taken the movement has taken place within the fault. On place within the fault. On this surface the dip and this surface the dip and strike of the fault is strike of the fault is measured.measured.
• Hanging wall: Hanging wall: The rock The rock mass resting on the fault mass resting on the fault plane.plane.
• Footwall: Footwall: The rock mass The rock mass beneath the fault plane.beneath the fault plane.
Parts of The FaultsParts of The Faults
Normal FaultNormal Fault
footwall
hanging wall
Cross Section
hanging wall
footwall
Before After
Normal FaultNormal Fault
hanging wall
footwall
cross section
Hanging wallFoot wall
Dip-slip FaultsDip-slip Faults
• Motion of the fault blocks is parallel to the dip direction
• Two types:Normal – movement is down dipReverse – movement is up dip
Types of Faults Types of Faults
Normal FaultsNormal Faults
Thrust FaultThrust Faults: In the thrust faults the
hanging wall has moved up
relative to the footwall (dip angle
30º or less)
Reverse Faults: Are similar to the
thrust faults regarding the sense
of motion but the dip angle of the
fault plane is 45º or more
Thrust faults usually formed in areas of
comperssional regime.
Thrust Thrust FaultFault
Thrust Faults
Strike-slip FaultsStrike-slip Faults
Motion of the fault blocks is parallel to the strike direction
There are 2 types
Right-lateral
Left-lateral
Strike-Slip FaultStrike-slip Faults: Are faults that have
movement along strikes.
There are two types of strike slip faults:
A] Right lateral strike-slip fault (dextral): Where the side opposite the observer moves to the right.
B] Left lateral strike-slip fault (sinistral): Where the side opposite the observer moves to the left.
Note that the same sense of movement will
also be observed from the other side of the
fault.
Strike-Slip Faults
Left-lateral
Transform FaultsTransform Faults: Are a type of strike-
slip fault (defined by Wilson 1965).
They form due to the differences in
motion between lithospheric
plates. They are basically occur
where type of plate boundary is
transformed into another.
Main types of transform faults are:
• Ridge-Ridge
• Ridge-Arc
• Arc-Arc
Types of Faults•Dip-slip faults have movement
parallel to the dip of the fault plane
–In normal faults, the hanging-wall block has moved down relative to the footwall block
–In reverse faults, the hanging-wall block has moved up relative to the footwall block
Types of Faults•Dip-slip faults have
movement parallel to the dip of the fault plane
–Fault blocks, bounded by normal faults, that drop down or are uplifted are known as grabens and horsts, respectively
•Grabens associated with divergent plate boundaries are called rifts
–Thrust faults are reverse faults with dip angles less than 30° from horizontal
Types of Faults•Strike-slip faults have movement
that is predominantly horizontal and parallel to the strike of the fault plane
–A viewer looking across to the other side of a right-lateral strike-slip fault would observe it to be offset to their right
–A viewer looking across to the other side of a left-lateral strike-slip fault would observe it to be offset to their left
•Oblique-slip faults have movement with both vertical and horizontal components
Right-lateral San Andreas Fault
Displacement both vertically and horizontally
Different Type of Faults
Rift Valley
Rift Valley
San Andreas Fault (right-lateral)
Joints
Definition:Definition:
When rock masses are subjected to tensional or When rock masses are subjected to tensional or
compressional forces regular or irregular fractures compressional forces regular or irregular fractures
develops in them. Such fractures along which their has develops in them. Such fractures along which their has
been no relative displacement are called Joints.been no relative displacement are called Joints.
joints occurs in almost all types of rocks they may joints occurs in almost all types of rocks they may
be vertical inclined or horizontal be vertical inclined or horizontal
Commonly rock contains a large number of joints which lie parallel Commonly rock contains a large number of joints which lie parallel
to one another. These parallel joints together forms a joint set. Two to one another. These parallel joints together forms a joint set. Two
or more joints sets are called joint system.or more joints sets are called joint system.
Classification of Joints Classification of Joints •Tension Joints: Tension joints are those which are formed as a result of tensional forces. These joints are relatively open and have rough and irregular
surface.
•Shear Joints: Shear joints are those which are formed due to compressional forces involved in the folding and faulting of rocks. This type of joints are clean and tightly closed
Classification of joints :
1)Strike joints- The joints are parallel to strike of the country rocks 2)Dip joints- The joints are parallel to direction of dip of country rocks 3)Oblique joints - Runs oblique to strike and Dip directions of country rocks.
Common Type of jointsCommon Type of joints
Sheet JointSheet JointHorizontal set dividing rock massLayered appearanceCaused due to weathering,Removal of overlying rockIt causes expansion of underlying igneous rocks
Dr. N. J. Sathe, SCOE, Pune. 78Photograph showing MURAL jointsPhotograph showing MURAL joints
• Also called as PRISMATIC jointsAlso called as PRISMATIC joints• Divides the rock into polygonal blocksDivides the rock into polygonal blocks• Each block is bounded by 3 to 8 Each block is bounded by 3 to 8
sidessides• 5 & 6 sided blocks are common5 & 6 sided blocks are common• Vertical or perpendicular jointsVertical or perpendicular joints• Varying depth Varying depth
Columnar JointsColumnar Joints
Thank YouThank You