i

Report Writing - A Project Management Perspective

Part 1 Page

Table of Contents i

Foreword 2016 iii

Foreword 2003 iv

1.0 Introduction 1

2.0 Reports & Their Function 2

3.0 Project Management & Report Writing 3

4.0 Managing the Report Writing Process 6

4.1 Division of Work, Discipline & Chain of Command 6

4.2 Organising, Controlling & Communicating 7

4.3 Coordinating 8

5.0 Planning the Report 9

5.1 Why a Report – Contract/Project Requirement 9

5.2 What is Required – Work/Product Breakdown Structure 10

5.3 When is the Report Needed – Schedule & Programme 10

5.4 How Will the Report Be Written – Monitoring & Control 11

5.5 Where Will the Report Be Written – Location and Communication 11

5.6 Who Will Write the Report - Organisation 11

5.7 Change 12

6.0 Writing the Report 13

6.1 Presentation & Format 13

6.2 Report Structure 14

6.3 Report Content 17

6.3.1 Introduction & Aim 17

6.3.2 Project Description or Background 18

6.3.3 Data Acquisition or Data Used 18

6.3.4 Results or Findings 18

6.3.5 Discussion or Analysis of Information 19

6.3.6 Conclusions &/or Recommendations 19

6.3.7 Tables, Figures, Illustrations & Drawings 19

6.3.8 Appendices & Annexures 20

6.3.9 Summaries, Abstracts, Forewords, & Acknowledgements 21

6.3.10 References & Footnotes 21

6.3.11 Bibliography

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6.4 Grammar, Style & Punctuation 22

6.4.1 Grammar 22

6.4.2 Style 23

6.4.3 Punctuation 23

6.5 Numbers, Dates, Units of Measurement & Abbreviations 24

6.5.1 Numbers 2

6.5.2 Dates 425

6.5.3 Units 26

6.6 Abbreviations 26

7.0 Conclusions 27

Bibliography 28

Figures 3.1 A Project Management Framework 3

3.2 Project Management Areas and Risk / Control 5

5.1 Fayol’s Management Functions 6

Tables 3.1 Elements of Project Management and Report Writing 4

6.1 Types of Punctuation 24

Part 2

Appendices A Checklist for Authors

B Checklist for Reviewers

C Report Types & Suggested Content

D References & Referencing

E Style & Word Usage

F- Punctuation

G Abbreviations

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Foreword 2016

I wrote the first version of this document in 2003 and, after thirteen tears I decided to

review as to whether or not I was actively practicing what I had preached. So what has

changed since 2003 – writing certainly hasn’t but technology certainly has, younger

generations are more computer literate, the internet contains report templates and ‘type-

reports’, and clients expect better (or possibly bigger) reports in shorter time frames.

Reports seem to have become more voluminous and there is a worrying, at least to me,

dependence on using reports from previous projects and ‘tailoring’ them to suit the

specific needs of the current job. This ‘last job syndrome’ may result in giving the

impression of work being done but by ‘cutting and pasting’ swathes of information and

adapting it, a ‘tailored report’ can soon look like a patchwork quilt.

Reports also include for extensive explanations of technical matters which, if the reader is

suitably qualified, should not be needed. Such technical increase the volume but add

little value unless a ‘layperson’ is reading the report, or perchance has written it. There is

a tendency to regurgitate swathes of information from other reports which does little to

add value to a report. If anything this can dissuade a reader from reading the report and

oftentimes results in the discerning reader finding errors and inconsistencies.

There is also a tendency to treat the readers as if they know nothing about the subject or

the project. A former colleague of mine would often state “familiarity with the project is

assumed” rather than provide another description of the Project. He, correctly in my

view, felt his description would add little, if any, value to his report and detract from his

contribution to the project. It is important that the readers of the report, in effect the

stakeholders for whom the report is being written, are taken into account in the report

writing process.

Reports are a product and our report should bear in mind that the report is not being

written for their benefit. With today’s ‘collaborative’ working and IT solutions with

track changes and opinions shared through comment and dialogue boxes it’s easy to have

debates being recorded in a report as it develops. This ‘professional banter’ can get out

of hand to the detriment of completing the report and probable dismay of the

project/report manager. Authors should resolve their differences verbally and ensure the

project manager mediates before there is a battle of egos entrenched in written warfare.

In this update of the 2003 version I have expanded the section on managing the report

writing process and designing and planning the report. In keeping with the PMBoK’s

introduction of Stakeholder Management I have introduced stakeholders; after all they

are the readers of the reports we produce.

Malcolm Peart Doha 2016

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Foreword 2013

I have been writing in some form or other, be it letters, essays or reports for most of my

life – indeed most of us have if we put our minds to it. I have also been reading various

types of written works that have ranged in standard or expectation from excellent to

egregious. On a particular note, reports that are lacking tend to poorly presented, badly

written and lack a coherent structure. Hence I have written this article in an effort to help

people plan, design and write their reports in a logical manner.

Most of us have been writing since we first attended school. In those days writing was

confined to a ‘news book’ or ‘story book’, relatively simple essays and letters of thanks at

Christmas time or for a birthday present. As our education progressed writing usually

became more involved including the writing of essays and possibly analyzing the finer

points of some form of science experiments. At university there were more essays and

reports but I, for one, did not actually receive any formal training in report writing.

I was first ‘trained’ in the art of report writing during service with the British Army

where there was a requirement to write reconnaissance reports, planning and design

reports, letters and orders in the style of ‘Service Writing’ and ‘Administration in the

Field’. In the Forces the written word must be clear concise and accurate, ambiguities

can be a matter of life and death! Senior officers would scrutinise reports for accuracy

but also to ensure that the report was actually readable. During study for my MBA I was

again exposed to scrutiny by university scholars of what was purported to be ‘business

writing’.

As part of my ‘writing career’ I have been a co-author to a guide to authors, written a few

academic papers, and contributed to a book.

In my opinion if a report is planned properly and the writer(s) takes due care and spends

sufficient time and effort in designing, acquiring and analysing information, and writing a

report then a good result can be obtained. Writing is an art and practice makes for

perfection, and writers should practice their skills and expend effort when writing letters,

memoranda and even e-mails.

The writing and production of reports should not be seen as a laborious task but rather as

an opportunity to produce a high quality piece of work that the writer(s) should enjoy

producing and the reader should, similarly, enjoy reading.

On a final note the prior preparation and planning of a report prevents poor performance

and it is hoped that whoever reads this article will benefit from it and be able to build

upon their report writing skills.

Malcolm Peart Kaohsiung, 2003

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Report Writing - A Project Management Perspective

1.0 Introduction

Reports are a means of presenting information, decisions, or opinions based on some

form of investigation or research or due consideration of an issue or requirement. The

process of reporting is a necessary and important part of most disciplines be they

academic or professional as the assimilation and analysis of information is often

paramount to making decisions. Reports in various guises also convey plans, or

processes, or methods of carrying out works, or the status of a project.

Report writing skills are often ‘acquired’ during education and training and many

organisations offer internal and external courses for ‘report writing’. Such courses can

concentrate on writing style and some concern themselves with format, layout and

content. Notwithstanding that many personnel have attended such courses and have

excellent academic qualifications, it is often a criticism of some professionals (in

particular engineers) that their reports are not clear and concise and are, on occasion,

difficult to read.

A considerable amount of time is often spent on preparing and working with the

information that must be presented. However, the standard of reports does not

necessarily reflect the effort that has been spent in their production; this can be

disappointing to both the reader and the writer. Report writing is sometimes perceived by

professionals as ‘difficult’, ‘a chore’ or even ‘painful’ when, in fact, it should be a

satisfying and rewarding experience. A report usually signifies the completion of an

element of work or a definitive stage in the completion of a task and sometimes can be

the only record of the work, and effort that has been expended.

This article will present report writing from a project management perspective and

describe how reports, in their various guises, may be designed, managed and written. In

addition, generic headings for a range of typical reports that may be required are included

and the content that should be considered. It will also be possible for the discerning

reader to identify issues that should be addressed when procuring a report from another

party in terms of required format, content, quantities and the like.

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2.0 Reports & Their Function

"This report by its shear volume defends itself against being read"

Winston Churchill

What are reports? Reports are a medium for communication and provide the means of

conveying information. Typically reports presenting information, interpretations and

opinions and in so doing they must convey information in a clear, concise and accurate

manner. The content of reports may vary, but in all events they must be understandable

and relevant to their need.

Reports communicate and, as communication is effectively information logistics, reports

must provide the right information, to the right people, at the right time, in the right

place,and in the right medium. To this end reports can be written or verbal, short or

voluminous, timely or late.

Verbal communication, short letters or simple graphical representations are a relevant

form of reporting, and are particularly useful for providing information in a timely

manner. Written reports should also be submitted in a timely manner appropriate to their

purpose. Late reports are sometimes ‘not worth the paper they’re written on’ and cannot

be used. Hence the ‘reporter’ should consider the appropriate type of report.

When asked to write a report some people embark on compiling a tome demonstrating

how much they know about a particular topic rather than than tailoring a report to meet

the actual rather than perceived needs. Remember, a brief report, letter or presentation

given at the right time is often better than a well written, fully researched and

comprehensive report addressing all (including irrelevant) aspects of a subject that is not

submitted on time.

This article is concerned with written, formal reports. However the principles for written

reports can also be used for preparing letters and presentations. Written reports should be

readily understood. In order to achieve the latter they should be well constructed and

ordered so that the reader may be lead through the information to a logical ending, be it

conclusions or recommendations.

In many circumstances reports are the end deliverable for a project and are a means of

demonstrating that elements of a project have been completed. Hence the reporting

process and the content and quality of the report can be an important supporting element

to any physical work that may have been carried out, or to services that have been

provided. However, just because the report is the end product it should not be read that

the report is the last activity. Reporting should be carried out concurrently with other

activities so that it represents the ‘completion’ of work carried’ out rather than the ‘final

task’.

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3.0 Elements of Project Management and Report Writing

A story should have a beginning a muddle and an end

Various

A project should have a controlled start, middle, and end

Susan Weese

Projects have been defined by many authors in a variety of ways and most include the

essential components of a defined scope with required quality, cost and time limitations.

In addition projects have been defined as a unique undertaking. However, while many

projects may be considered as routine, the personnel involved, or the environment in

which they are carried out, or the constraints on the project bring about the required

degree of uniqueness.

The Project Management Institute identifies five process groups that define the life cycle

of a project and ten project management knowledge areas that occur to a greater or lesser

extent over a project's life. In order for a project to be completed successfully the

organizational elements of, procurement communications, human resources, risk,

stakeholders and integration must be managed within the tetrad scope, quality, cost and

time as shown in Figure 3_1.

Fi

Figure 3_1 A Project Management Framework

From JR Turner's "The Handbook of Project Based Project Management"

When initiating a report its purpose must be defined and from that the planning in terms

of scope, organisational assets required, the inevitable time constraints, and how the

report will be written. Once this has been done in a controlled manner the report writing

may also begin in a controlled manner. Unfortunately, and all too often, reports

commence without a clear aim as to what is actually needed and a story results with the

meanderings of a murder mystery, flashbacks, and an eventual whodunit!

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During the execution phase it will eventually become apparent as to whether or not the

objectives are being met, or in the worst case scenario, after the report is completed and

rejected. If proper monitoring and control is applied any shortfalls can be compensated

for in a timely manner, hopefully. However, if the report is not monitored you may find

yourself faced with a rewriting exercise at the last minute and possible rejection by the

end user.

Although many reports are routine and eventually become standard reports (eg monthly

progress reports) the initial report is a unique undertaking. By ensuring that the first

report is 'right' subsequent reports and the inevitable development that occurs can be

readily accommodated. The project management areas and their relevance to report

writing are described below:

Project Management

Area

Remarks

Scope Requirements for the report and their content. Work breakdown structure.

Tasks and required resources. Extent of data acquisition, data required,

approval required In many circumstances the scope is defined by the terms of

reference or the project requirements – feasibility, design, inspection, QA,

QC, progress, design reports, technical reports etc. Change management

needs to be considered and version control.

Procurement Obtaining data, source. Copyright. Photocopies, Intellectual Property.

Specialist authors or consultants and necessary Terms of Reference.

Communication Issuing of requests for data, meetings, reviews, changes, internal and external

meetings, interim drafts and reviews.

Stakeholders Potentially the end users be they internal or external stakeholders. a Project

may be judged, rightly or wrongly, on the standard of its reporting.

Human Resource Appropriate personnel, availability, training,

Risk Intellectual property, reliance on information by others (not direct client),

publication/use of data from others, negligent misrepresentation, disclaimers,

reliance on information from others (substantiation). Paucity of data,

accuracy, sensitivity and exposure to risk. Consequences of failing to meet

deadlines.

Integration Client/external party requirements (style, content changes), internal co-

ordination.

Quality Style, format, compliance with requirements, standard style for ease of

editing & collation. Standard of drawings, colour copies, including large

drawings etc. Content, Relevance, Analysis, Presentation

Time Planning, acquisition, drafts, figures, editing, proofs, final delivery. Changes.

Availability of authors, checkers, approvers. The last minute is for closing

the report and issuing it, not for carrying out rewrites and proof reading.

Cost Data, acquisition, printing, drafts, human resource input, rejection & re-

drafting. Changes. Repeat copies & cost.

Table 3-1 – Elements of Project Management and Report Writing.

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The project manager should be aware that the stakeholder(s) are often the end recipients

of the report and, whilst the project manager can define the scope of the report and

procure the resources, personnel and data to produce the repot there will be the inevitable

personalities to deal with who will be involved in producing the report – the human

resources.

The people producing the report will need to communicate and the lack of effective

communication is a major risk in producing reports as a result of conflicting views,

changes, location, differing styles, differing cultures etc. Integrating all of these project

management areas is perhaps one of the more difficult things to influence which, again

carried more risk. However, and perhaps the real unknown is the stakeholder who

ultimately reads the report and must ultimately accept it.

These management areas must also be managed within the triple constraint and which is

shown diagrammatically below:

Figure 3.2 – Project Management Areas and Risk / Control

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4.0 Managing the Report Writing Process

To manage is to forecast and plan, to organise, to command, to coordinate and to control

Henri Fayol, 1916

Managing is based upon several functions and these have been developed over time from

the work of Henri Fayol in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. His

'management functions' are shown in Figure 5.1 showing one interpretation of their

interrelationships

Figure 5.1 -Fayol's Management Functions

Fayol also established several management principles including the following

fundamental principles:-

Division of Work - planning and subdividing/allocating the work

Authority - the person in charge with responsibility

Discipline - through good leadership and respect

Unity of Command - to avoid conflicts

Unity of Direction - a common interest in achieving the same objectives

Subordination of individual interest to the general interest - a focus on the greater

good rather than individual goals

4.1 Division of Work, Discipline & Chain of Command

Although the above principles were developed over one hundred years ago the

development of a Work Breakdown Structure is fundamental to any management

exercise. The aspects of authority, discipline, unity of command and direction, and

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subordination may sound very draconian and old-fashioned but in writing reports these

are essential. One dissenting author or contributor can de-rail a report through being

obstructive and self centred and the strength of character of the project manager can be

sorely tried. Academic or opinionated arguments can quickly affect the production of a

report and given that professional viewpoints are being aired the opportunity for conflict

can be high. This is not just in respect of technical aspects but it may also be opinions

regarding the interpretation of a contract, actual progress of works and what does and

does not constitute work-in-progress. On projects it's the people that can make success or

drive failure and consequently their needs to respect for the chain of command, the

greater good, and discipline.

In order to ensure that time and effort is not wasted, or duplicated, in the production of

reports it is important that the author(s), 'report manager', and/or project manager interact

at all stages during the planning and production of a report. The authority of the

personnel should be made clear from the outset and any conflicts should be raised and

escalated and not be swept away and ignored.

4.2 Organising, Controlling & Communicating

The checklist of the report against contents and responsible personnel or information

requirements serves as a control, communication, programming and quality tool in the

management of the report writing process. The checklist may be used on large, complex

reports or for routine reports such as monthly progress reports. It is particularly useful

when there is a reliance on information from a number of sources that must be collated,

checked, edited and issued as a consolidated document. The checklist also serves as a

progress report and may be used by all personnel in the reporting process, for example:

Project manager to assess progress of production and where shortfalls occur in

production, staff or resource availability, information shortfalls, etc. and assess

the impact of any changes be they technical or managerial.

Data gatherers, producers and processors to check coverage and time for

completion.

Author(s) to produce a logical report and optimise the written word in a timely

manner.

Draughting staff for production of figures and drawings.

Reviewers, referees and editors for planning their availability.

Report producers who compile the report and produce copies

The role of the writer or author is relatively obvious – to write the report. The author(s)

should be instructed as to what is required for the report and an agreed content with

individual responsibilities must be communicated to all. The author should check that the

work that is being produced meets the report requirements and a checklist for authors is

included in Appendix B.

Reviewers are a necessary part of the report production process. A review of the report

should be made at the start of report by a suitably experienced person to ensure that the

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design of the report is suitable and no elements have been overlooked. Periodic reviews,

particularly for larger reports or multidisciplinary studies, are also important so that any

errors in the report design or deviation from the aim of the report can be corrected. A

checklist for reviewers is included in Appendix C. The acronym CRAP is suited to

reviewing a report in that:

Reports should be clear with respect to Content.

Information presented should be Relevant.

Information should be Analysed

Information should be Presented well

4.3 Coordinating

Reports do not magically appear and coordination is required in pulling any report

together. For routine, standard reports this coordination can or should be business as

usual' and standard procedures will be the order of the day.

However, for non-standard reports, reports of a ‘sensitive’ nature, large reports with

several authors, or multidisciplinary reports then some formal editing should be

considered. The task of an editor is to ensure that the writer has effectively

communicated the information contained within the report and that the report may be

understood. Editors are concerned with standards and ensuring that the report is without

error or inconsistency or ambiguity and that deadlines are met. The editor also ensures

that reports do not contain anything that can either embarrass the organisation or bring

the organization into disrepute or dispute; such as negligent misrepresentation.

The role of report coordinator, be it the editor or even the project manager, depends on

the complexity of the report and how routine it is, or has become.

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5.0 Planning the Report

I keep six honest serving men

(They taught me all I know)

Their names are What and Why and When

And How and Where and Who

Rudyard Kipling

Prior to embarking on a report writing exercise the overall aim of the report must be

defined. A report may have many objectives in that it may describe, review or evaluate

information; describe many aspects of a subject; and formulate conclusions and make

recommendations. In such circumstances it is important that the aim is well written so

that report writer, or contributors, are focused as to what the report will, and just as

importantly, will not address. Each ‘objective’ of the report must support the overall aim,

or mission, of the report which should, generally, be singular. For example:

To describe the ground conditions of the project area with respect to tunnelling

To assess the ground conditions at 'a location' for construction

To evaluate the design of the viaducts for Changi Airport Line

To report on the project status for May 2016.

To review X’s report on the safety of the signaling system for Taipei Metro

To evaluate claim no Y for additional cost/time by Contractor X.

Before the report writing process starts some basic questions should be posed, and

answered regarding:

Why is the report required and for whom? - Purpose

What must be reported /communicated? - Scope

When is the report needed? Time

How will the report be written? - Quality / Cost

Where will the report be produced? - Communication / Organisation

Who will write and check the report? Cost / Human Resources

Once defined the design of the report can be carried out in term of its content and overall

structure.

5.1 Why a report? - Contract /Project Requirement

Project requirements or terms of reference will often define the types of reports required

as part of a contract or specification. Other reports may be required in line with good

industry practice or as a consequence of the need to communicate with the Client or other

stakeholders.

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The reader of the report may dictate how the report is to be written. If the audience has a

technical understanding, then it may be written in technical terms. However, if the reader

is non-technical there may be a requirement for, at least, a glossary of terms or possibly

an appendix explaining the technicalities in layman's terms so as to educate the reader.

5.2 What is Required? - Work/Product Breakdown Structure

In line with project management practice the scope of the report should be broken down

into a logical framework which will define the main sections of the report and content.

After giving each section an appropriate title a table of contents ahs been generated. The

latter could well be dictated by the project requirements but the actual substance of the

report will be incumbent upon the author(s).

Sections and their content may be based on similar previous types of report. In the event

that a new type of report is required different sections and arrangement of sections may

be required.

On occasion tried-and-trusted report formats are ‘reorganised’ in an effort to ‘improve’

reports but oftentimes the sensible logic and flow are not improved at all. However, one

should also be mindful that ‘tried-and–trusted’ formats may not necessarily be the

optimum solution and some reorganising may be necessary to improve matters.

Remember do not make changes for the sake of change and bear in mind the adage “if it

ain’t broke - don’t fix it” and the engineer's warning that "better makes good worse".

After a framework of sections has been defined; keywords and items for inclusion in the

report should then be assigned to each section. The process for identifying keywords or

content may be from the terms of reference for a report, organisational policy, previous

reports, prescribed format and layout, mind-mapping or brainstorming. Once appropriate

keywords have been assigned they should then be arranged in a logical manner for further

development when information comes available: the report planning and writing process

has started.

5.3 When is the Report Needed? - Schedule & Programme

In most cases late reporting is tantamount to no reporting at all. Most reports have to be

delivered to deadlines for them to be of use. Progress reports define progress at a certain

date and may be linked to payments. Design reports may well provide an input into

another activity and any delays could have knock-on effects to later activities.

In establishing a programme for report production the Report Manager needs to work

back from the due date allowing time for compilation, issue and delivery, checking,

proofing and production of figures etc. Time for writing the report needs to be included

and this should allow for a reviews at an early stage to ensure the aim is being met and all

requirements are being addressed. Unfortunately report writing is often put off until the

'last minute' when that last minute belongs to somebody else.

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5.4 How Will the Report Be Written? - Methodology & Control

The acquisition organizing and presenting information in a logical manner is the essence

of the report writing process.

The table of contents, key words and possibly particular figures or tables should be

reviewed at an early stage to ensure that the required scope of the report is covered and

that the report structure is logical. The latter is particularly important in complex or

large-scale multidisciplinary studies or for unfamiliar reporting topics. For routine or

‘standard’ reporting it may not be necessary to carry out such an exercise once a format

and content have been established and accepted as ‘routine’. A selection of different

types of reports and suggested headings are included in Appendix C.

The adoption of a house style to ensure that the report is presented in a professional

manner is a relatively simple task as long as authors are disciplined into adopting any

such style.

Other factors that need to be targeted for producing a good report in addition to logic and

presentations are:

Succinctness (Comprehensive but Compact avoiding over-analysis)

Relevance

Accurate and Factual (assumptions stated and justified)

Unambiguous and not contradictory

Complete and self explanatory

5.5 Where Will the Report Be Produced? - Location & Communication

In today’s “e-age” the location for writing a report may appear to be of little importance.

However, the communication between authors, potential time differences, and the

possible breakdown in communications due to physical separation or conflict due to

technical or resource reasons, needs to be considered.

In any event the location for collation, checking and ultimate delivery will need to be

defined and the personnel who will be obliged to prepare the final report. Last minute

needs may well be required from authors and access to native files etc is essential as are

signatories etc. The last minute is often the most crisis-torn minute and the effort needed

in finalising reports produced from multiple locations should not be underestimated.

5.6 Who Will Write & Check the Report? - Organisation

When the contents of the report are identified an author or responsible person needs to be

assigned. The roles and responsibilities for the individuals can then be determined - even

the 'table of contents; has an owner who is responsible for the physical issue of the report

and its compilation.

The table of contents and keywords should be converted into a checklist showing task

list, requirements, due date and personnel. Such an exercise establishes the scope of the

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report, work breakdown structure and programme. The use of a checklist assists in the

planning of the report and acts as a control, communication, programming and quality

tool in the management of the report writing process.

Several personnel may be involved in writing a report and their efforts should be properly

coordinated through a lead author who is responsible for technical matters and ensuring

that the report is correct. It is difficult for a lead author to check the report as ‘word

blindness’ and familiarity with a continuing flaw or ambiguity may lead to imprecise

communication. Hence a person who can review reports for presentation, style and

accuracy of the written word should edit reports

5.7 Change

Change is inevitable and as a consequence of scope elaboration, reports being developed

and more detail emerging, or additional reporting requirements being generated.

If it becomes apparent that changes to the report content or design are required, then it

may be necessary to change or amend the design of the report. However, any change

should be considered in terms of time and cost in financial, lost opportunity cost and

human resources. Furthermore, version control needs to be considered and the

stakeholders who may be using incorrect information due to outdated reports.

The project manager should be made aware of all changes and a formal approval

procedure should be developed. Clients may also need to be informed of changes in

order to avoid ‘disappointment’ or ‘diminished expectations’ and possible rejection or

adverse reaction to a report. Changes as a result of creeping scope of reports due to

‘information generation’ are inevitable but ‘creeping opulence’ in an attempt to achieve

the ‘perfect’ report should be looked at pragmatically and, where necessary, dissuaded or

deleted.

And any and all change needs to be addressed in terms of what and why and when, and

how and where and who it affects and managed.

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6.0 Writing the Report

I am sorry to have made such a long speech, but I did not have enough time to write a

shorter one.

Winston Churchill

I didn't have time to write a short letter, so I wrote long one instead

Mark Twain

Reports are written for a purpose: to communicate information in answer to some form of

query or event. Report writing occurs both during and after the gathering, assimilation

and analysis of information with a view to forming conclusions or recommendations,

seeking approval or obtaining further information.

The sections of a report will, naturally, depend upon the type of report and the subject or

discipline. Often a previous report layout may be used to assist in the structuring of the

report.

However, it is not just the content of the report that matters but how it is presented and

what it looks like as this will have an immediate effect on the reader.

6.1 Presentation & Format

First impressions are important and the presentation of a report gives the first impression

to the reader. It is quite usual for a considerable amount of effort to be made when

writing a report. However, if a report, no matter how well written or researched, is

poorly presented the reader will form a poor impression of the report. The negative

effects of any errors or mistakes, even if they are only perceived, will be magnified, albeit

that such a view may not be correct. If pages have different formats, text is spaced too

closely or is too small or units are not consistent the report will be difficult to read. If a

report has the appearance of some archaic script or is obviously inconsistent the reader

may spend time complaining about the report rather reading and possibly providing

constructive criticism. Hence good presentation is almost a prerequisite for formal,

written reports.

It is common within most organisations for a standard style of presentation and format to

be defined. A standard style allows the work of an organisation to be recognisable and

assists in promoting an organisation. A standard cover and backing sheet with the

company name, logo and contact details also assists promotional activities. On occasion

clients may require their own style to be adopted and this must be ascertained at an early

stage (ideally when tendering for work) so that information is presented appropriately and

the necessary arrangements may be made for ensuring compliance. Late realisation that a

report is in the wrong format or that figures are incorrect or multiple copies of, say, large

format colour images are required, can deleteriously affect the cost of a report or the

delivery date.

Particular presentation and format requirements are also demanded by organisations and

institutions that produce and publish technical, professional or academic papers. The use

14

of a defined text style and font, margin spacing, paragraph format and line spacing,

section numbering, layout for figures and tables, preferred spelling, headers and footers,

etc. constitutes ‘house-style’. House-style should be adhered to for reasons of

consistency and compliance with what a report is expected to look like. If there is no

house style then a preferred style or template should be developed, agreed and adopted

for the report at an early stage so that time is not wasted in reformatting the report and

conflicts of opinion can be obviated.

The use of a standard report style also assists in compiling reports, particularly when

contributions are required from a number of authors. Individuals will, inevitably, prefer a

certain format or insist on using a different font or format but such idiosyncrasies have no

place when a report is being compiled and discipline is required. If the report producer is

forced to reformat sections of the report rather than concentrate on compiling the report

then time is wasted and the opportunity to add value may be lost. If a writer insists on

‘doing it my way’ then they should be reminded that report writing is a team game and

there is no ‘I’ in the word team but there are three in discipline.

It is also important to ascertain any quality requirements for report production, the

required number of copies, and any special binding requirements at an early stage.

Consideration must be given as to how the report will be bound unless there are specific

requirements or a house style. The presentation, usefulness, ‘wear and tear’ and cost of

binding should be evaluated. Poorly bound reports will inevitably fall apart when opened

or pages are copied. Ideally reports should open flat and be sufficiently robust to allow

pages to be turned without then being ripped or damaged at the spine. Reports that are

stapled together or are bound in a ring binder are susceptible to ripping and pages can

detach from glued spines.

Report production is often overlooked at the planning stage and it is not uncommon for

the company that produces a report to end up as a reluctant back-room amateur printer

rather than engaging the appropriate printing support. If repeat reports are envisaged an

expensive binding may be even more expensive due to small orders and these should be

priced or costed accordingly. Remember that report production is about producing a

report, not embarking on an adventure in printing and publishing

6.2 Report Structure

While it is possible to define ‘the look’ of a report it is not possible to define the structure

of a report rigidly. The structure will depend on what is being reported, the way in which

it is being reported and the physical size of the report. Some organisations attempt to

have a prescribed format for report and some individuals will blindly follow a previous

report format in an attempt to make their information ‘fit’. Such an approach can stultify

the reporting process, particularly with new or unfamiliar reports, by forcing the writer to

manipulate the information into predetermined slots rather than present the information in

the most meaningful manner. Notwithstanding the style of how the content of a report is

presented most reports will generally include the following component parts although the

order may be varied depending on ‘house style’:

15

Title Page

Copyright Page with issue data and revision number and disclaimers (if required)

Table of Contents including reference to figures, tables, appendices and other

volumes

Glossary of Terms (if required)

Summary or Abstract

Preface or Foreword

Main Text (as a single or multiple, numbered volumes)

Figures and Tables (unless included judiciously within the main text)

Acknowledgement (sometimes at start of report)

References

Appendices (within a single report or as separate document(s))

Enclosures such as maps, drawings etc.

There are several views as to whether each section of a report should be on separate

pages or if sections should flow. If sections are short, i.e. less than one page long, then

breaks can ‘annoy’ the reader but, separate sections do assist in compiling reports.

Figures and tables may be presented within the report and should be as close to the text as

possible in order to allow the reader to refer to them. If the text of a report is short and

there is a preponderance of figures and tables it is usually considered appropriate to

include them at the end of the report. If figures, tables or even text are not essential to

meeting the direct aim of the report it may be more appropriate to include the information

within an appendix.

Sections of a report are usually headed and numbered so that they may be referenced.

Headings and numbering systems are often covered by house-style but numbering

systems should not be more than 3 (or possibly 4) numbers long – reference numbers

should be numbers, not ‘star-dates’. The use of multi-numeric references is confusing

and detracts from the intent of the report. Multi-numeric references are often used in

codes of practice or legislation because each clause may need to be referenced for legal

or statutory purposes; this is not necessarily the case for reports.

A suggested subdivision and indents for presentation purposes is shown below:

3.0 – Main Heading

3.1 – Sub-heading

3.1.1 – Sub-Sub-Heading

a) Topic being addressed

i) Sub Elements that may be distinguished

ii) etc

The use of bullets in various guises may also be used without recourse to providing

complicated taxonomic referencing.

16

Pages of the report should be numbered and numbers must match the table of contents.

The style ‘1 of xx’ may be used for numbering so that ‘missing’ pages can be identified.

Pages in appendices should be numbered with a letter to designate the relevant appendix

as in page ‘A-1 of xx, A-2 of xx, etc.’ Again the ‘house-style’ will usually dictate the

accepted style. Tables and figures should also be referenced and a section-table/figure

sequential numbers should be used if allowable.

It is a common and questionable practice to cross-reference sections of the report. Cross-

referencing demands a higher degree of control and checking during the report writing

process and, unless judiciously checked should be avoided. The reasons for avoiding

cross references are that any changes during the draughting of a report, particularly when

there are several authors and deadlines are tight, can result in mistakes. Subsequent

revisions also mean that a full check of the report may need to be done. A misplaced

cross-reference or a reference to a section that has been deleted can both annoy and

confuse the reader thereby creating a bad impression as to the accuracy and completeness

of the report. If it is considered absolutely necessary for cross-referencing, then a special

check on cross-references should be made.

The sections should be presented in an ordered manner and arranged logically so that

related information may be introduced and defined prior to being discussed or anlaysed,

if required. It is important to consider that the report, inevitably, will be used by another

party and the requirements of the reader (end-user) should be considered when designing

the structure of the report.

It is important to plan a report so that information is presented in a clear, concise, precise

and logical manner. The design and planning of a report should be addressed prior to its

writing so that the appropriate information can be collected and collated. A good design

and plan for a report can also assist in the physical work that may be associated with a

report and for managing its production.

A general rule that is relevant to all sections of the report when introducing information is

to describe the general aspects first and then focus in varying levels to the specific detail.

Descriptions should cease when the information presented is not relevant to the aim of

the report or any argument that is to be presented. Detail should not be described without

first putting such detail into perspective. A simple analogy is the address on an

international letter to a business. The country is a ‘general’ address and puts the town or

city into a global perspective; the postcode places the street; the street leads to the

building; the building to floor or office and the name is that of the ‘specific’ company or

an individual within the company who will receive the letter.

When describing information then use a sensible sequence such as ‘global to regional to

local’, ‘top to bottom’, ‘largest to smallest’, ‘outside to inside’, ‘left to right’, or ‘start of

process to finish’. If several sections describe data, then the use of a similar sequence will

lend consistency and order to a report, ‘describing the general to the specific’ is a good

rule to follow.

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6.3 Report Content

Structure, format and presentation are important but the report itself should be coherent.

Most reports will, to a greater or lesser extent, include the following and these generic

sections are described in more detail below:

Beginning - Introduction & Aim

Middle - Project Description

- Data Acquisition

-Results or Findings

-Discussion or Analysis of Information

End -Conclusions &/or Recommendations

The supporting content and sections of the report include references, tables, figures,

illustrations, drawings, annexures and appendices. It is also important that these too are

included in a meaningful and orderly manner within the report. The latter should be a

matter of house style but the temptation to include unreferenced and irrelevant

information in appendices should be avoided.

6.3.1 Introduction & Aim

The introduction and aim section of a report addresses the ‘planning and design’ of the

report. This section should state the reason for the report, the scope of the report and its

aim in a straightforward, succinct and easy to read manner. The following should be

addressed in the introduction although it may be necessary for subsections to be

introduced:

Who is the report for or who commissioned the report? Is the report internal or

external and who wrote it?

When was the report written, what were project dates, when was research or study

carried out, what is the reporting period?

Why is the report being written and what is to be described – to describe a design

or feasibility study, to offer alternate proposals, to seek approval etc. A short

section of a few sentences can usually describe the reason for the report, it is not

essential to describe the entire report in the introduction but it can be useful to

refer to any terms of reference if reporting requirements are expressly referred to.

What is the report about – this constitutes the aim of the report and should, where

possible be singular such as, to provide an independent analysis on the design of

XYZ tunnel, to describe the feasibility of the East-West rail link. The aim may be

qualified in terms of extent of work to be included or even excluded to work or

work that is considered to be outside of the scope. The aim, as in a mission, is an

unequivocal statement in the definitive.

18

The introduction should also include a history of any earlier work that has been carried

out on the subject matter. A separate section within the introduction entitled ‘Previous

Work/Studies’ may be appropriate.

The aim of the report must be adhered to at all times so that all efforts are focused on the

task in hand. Due account of how information fits into the sections of a report must be

given and if data does not appear to be ‘comfortable’ in a section then it may have to

included in a different or even new section. Report writing should be an iterative process

with the writer checking to ensure that facts are not ‘suddenly’ introduced and that

information has been properly described and presented.

6.3.2 Project Description or Background

A brief overview of the project or reason for the report being written is required so as to

put the report into context. A project should be described in terms of the type of scheme,

geographic location, size, value, benefit and future or current plans. For large projects

the description should focus on the part of the project to which the report refers.

In respect of background it may be that a report is being written following an accident, or

incident, as a result of a claim or tender evaluation or a situation report. In such cases a

suitably detailed description of the event or circumstances is required.

For short reports or for small projects the project description or background may be

included within the introduction.

6.3.3 Data Acquisition or Data Used

This section includes an ordered and logical description of the information that is

available, or has been collected, from where and by whom. Ideally the data should be

described in discrete sections with a similar order so that the reader is introduced to data

in a like manner and can easily refer back to specific information if required.

The section should address the following:

type of data referred to

how much data is available for any data type or location

how data was obtained

of what use is the data, if not readily apparent

6.3.4 Results or Findings

The findings of any analysis of the data, if required, should be presented as a separate

section or sections. The results should not normally be discussed or interpreted so that

any preconceptions regarding the meaning or usefulness of the data are not made and bias

cannot be introduced

The data should be described and, if appropriate, summarised as tables or graphs within

the report. Detailed results should be described in summary and included in tabular or

graphical form within the main body of the text. Actual results should be included in the

report as appendices or annexures or referenced.

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6.3.5 Discussion or Analysis of Information

The reason for any discussion is to address and answer the aims and objectives of the

report that are contained within the introduction. A proper discussion will allow the aim

of the report to be satisfied.

The discussion or analysis is possibly the most important part of the report as it is the

basis upon which any conclusions and recommendations are made. The discussion

should consider all aspects of the data and the preceding sections of the report, even if

results do not agree with any preconceived expectations or ‘preferred outcomes’.

Limited or ‘questionable’ data or a paucity of data should be commented on and the risks

of using any such data should be highlighted. Data should not be ‘cooked’ and reports

should be honest and without prejudice. It is the role of politicians to ‘sex–up’ reports.

Results should not be reiterated and any processed data such as graphs and tables should

be referenced. ‘New’ information should not be introduced, as it should have been

presented at an earlier stage in the report.

Information should be discussed with respect to variability, reliability and meaning. Data

should also be compared with any previously reported data or experience and errors or

faulty assumptions should be explained and discussed. The discussion should flow in a

logical systematic manner so that any relationships or comparisons between results may

be made and conclusions drawn.

As part of the discussion, information may be compared with previously published

information or other relationships gained from other studies. Such comparisons can

assist in forming conclusions or supporting and reinforcing recommendations.

6.3.6 Conclusions &/or Recommendations

Conclusions are conclusions and not a repetition of statements made in the report. The

conclusions for any report must be based on the information that is available and that has

been presented within or referred to within the report. The conclusions should also be

based on the discussions or opinions expressed in the report and new information or

incompatible conclusions should not be offered.

It may be necessary to draw some interim conclusions, findings or deductions within the

section on results or within the discussion. Such ratiocinations are often in the interests

of assisting the reader to understand an argument or the reasoning behind an argument.

Even though conclusions should be made at the end of the report that is not to say that

reports are whodunit-style detective stories with readers guessing as to the outcome of the

report.

6.3.7 Appurtenances - Tables, Figures, Illustrations & Drawings

Many, if not most reports require the inclusion of some form of tables and figures within

the report. The use of drawings and illustrations to accompany a report is dependent on

the type of report. In any event the table, figure, illustration or drawing must be referred

to within the text such as “The results of the survey are shown in Table 3 and the

comparative figures for the study by xyz are shown in Figure 4”. The reference can also

be included in parentheses as in “the site is 20 km from Port Moresby (Figure 2)”.

20

The tables and figures should be both numbered and referred to sequentially in order to

avoid ‘missing-out’ tables and to present data in an ordered and logical fashion to the

reader.

The number of tables and figures should be optimised; Are all of the tables/figures

necessary? Do they contain relevant information? Can a figure be used to present data

more effectively than a table (and vice-versa)? The latter are all question s that should be

addressed during the report writing process and not thought about just prior to report

publication.

The location of the tables and figures is a question of presentation; should they be placed

within the text or at the end of the main text of the report? If they are paced at the end of

the text then tables and figures should be in separate sections. However, if they are to be

included in the text then each table and figure should be as close to the text referring to it

as possible and, preferably, be on the same page. Inclusion of figures in the text often

leads to figures being reduced in size so that detail is lost. In some technical reports there

can be pages of figures (or tables) with little or no adjacent supporting text, hence the

inclusion of figures at the end of the report may be more appropriate. If the reader

requires tables and figures to work with while reading the report, then a dedicated,

separate volume containing such information may be more appropriate.

The use of illustrations and drawings is also a function of end-user requirements and

presentation and their production can be both time consuming and costly: Are drawings

or illustrations needed and do they have to form part of the report? Do they have to be in

colour? Can we produce them? Can black & white copies suffice? How many copies will

be needed? Can they form a separate volume? Has the production of additional copies

been priced correctly?

It is unlikely that drawings or illustrations would be included within the text but it is

normal to include them in a wallet that is bound into the main report or as a separate

volume. When planning the report, its presentation and physical production should be

considered, in particular those requiring ‘special’ drawings etc,.

6.3.8 Appendices and Annexures.

All data appropriate to the report should be included as appendices (or annexures if

required by house-style). Each appendix should contain similar data and this may be

based on a geographic or technical or sequential system appropriate to how the data are

presented in the text. The relevant appendix should be referred to in the text, for example

‘The concrete test results for the viaduct beams are shown in Appendix C’.

The contents of an appendix, or a self explanatory cover sheet or header should also be

provided for each appendix. In addition some text may be provided if required to explain

the appendix if it could be used in isolation from the main report. In the event that an

appendix requires a further ‘appendix’ then this should be referred to as an annexure.

Appendices or annexures should be numbered or lettered sequentially and referred to in a

logical fashion within the text. If both are used in a report then appendices should be

lettered and annexures numbered.

Should there be a requirement for further sub-division then there may be an appendix to

an annexure, or an annex to an appendix.

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6.3.9 Summaries, Abstracts, Prefaces, Forewords, Footnotes & Acknowledgements

A summary, or executive summary may be written for reports and it should address the

important parts of the report only. The aim of the report should be included, who the

report is for and a précis of the major findings, conclusions and/or recommendations.

Summaries can be valuable to those readers who do not have time to read the entire

report and summaries can advise other readers of the content of the report. However,

summaries can be detrimental to the presentation of a report in that the report is not read

and important arguments may not be fully realised or understood. Hence it is vital that

summaries address the salient points and ensure that important or controversial aspects

are not understated.

Abstracts are usually required for technical papers and constitute a short summary,

usually less than 200 words, of the principal findings of the report or article. Phrases

such as ‘this paper describes…’ or ‘the author found that …’ are redundant.

Forewords or prefaces can be written to explain why a report has been written. If a report

is written in retrospect, or in hindsight, or if it has been compiled on behalf of another, or

is written for ‘personal’ reasons then a foreword or preface should be used. Prefaces are

sometimes used to convey a personal message by the author(s) at the front of a book.

Footnotes are sometimes used to provide additional information on an item raised within

a report as an explanation. If the explanation cannot be included within the text because

it interrupts the flow of the discussion it should be included as a footnote. The use of

footnotes is a matter of house style and the reader. For instance, lawyers are used to

reading footnotes within a report whereas in business writing it would probably be

frowned upon.

Acknowledgements are sometimes included in reports or articles when particular

assistance by a person(s) or an organisation has been given. It is appropriate to

acknowledge any organisation that has give permission to publish articles or who have

funded a study. While it may seem ‘generous’ to acknowledge the efforts of individuals

in reports any acknowledgement should be consistent, fair and avoid favoritism. The

saying ‘credit where credit is due’ should be borne in mind when giving

acknowledgements.

6.3.10 References & Referencing

All references cited in the text, figures, tables and appendices must refer to one of a

complete list of references included at the end of any report. References should be cited

in the following instances:

when direct quotations from other work are used,

when a summary of work or information from other work is used,

when controversial information or opinions are used which could be challenged

when statistical data or figures are used from other sources

There are several ‘systems’ for presenting references. A common system that is used by

many organizations is the name-and-date, or Harvard system in which the author(s) and

date are cited in the text and the full reference is listed alphabetically at the end of the

22

report. On occasion some organisations require a page number or, when citing a block of

text, page numbers as in (Smith & Jones 1956, p. 321; Smith 1956, pp. 1,5,6; Smith 1959,

pp. 345-356; Smith et al 1975, p. 1). Note the use of a semi colon between different

references and the use of ‘et al’ for more than two authors. When two or more works

from the same author are used a single letter suffix should be used (1991a, 1991b) and

the order of references should be the same as the List of References.

All references should have been seen by the author(s), i.e. source-checked, and full

details obtained so that the reference may be correctly cited. In the event that a report is

scrutinised the references may need to be reviewed and copies may well be required.

The most common references are from books, journals, proceeding and the Internet.

Examples of theses are shown below while other sources such as newspapers and

organisations and e-mails are described in Appendix D.

Books - Gilbreath R.D., 1986, Winning at Project Management – What Works, What

Fails and Why, Wiley, New York in Cleland D.I., 1999, Project Management –

Strategic Design & Implementation, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, pp308 – 313.

Journals - Larson, E.W. & Gobeli D.H. 1987, ‘Matrix management: Contradictions and

insights’, California Management Review, vol XXXIX, no4, Summer, pp 126-

138.

Proceedings - Menon, A.P.G. & Chin K.K, 1998, ‘The Making of Singapore's Electronic

Road Pricing System’, Proceedings of the International Conference on

Transportation into the Next Millenium, Nanyang Technological University,

Singapore, 9-11 Sept 1998, pp.35-42

Internet - Clinton, W.J. & Gore A. 1996, Framework for Global Electronic Commerce,

http://library.findlaw.com/scipts/getfile.pl?file=/federal/ftc/ftc000187.html

[Accessed 23 September 2000]

6.3.11 Bibliography

A bibliography is used when a number of references are used to prepare a text but they

are not referenced individually. The format for references to books, articles and Internet

sources is described above.

6.4 Grammar, Style & Punctuation

6.4.1 Grammar

Reports should be grammatically correct so that the meaning of the data described and

any arguments are presented in a are clear, concise and unambiguous manner. A good

report conveys information in a form that the reader can understand readily. The use of

short, well constructed sentences and even short words can assist in conveying

information in an understandable fashion.

Short sentences also contribute to the construction of grammatically correct reports.

However, sentences should not be so short that they are staccato nor should they be so

long that the reader becomes confused as to the direct meaning of the sentence.

23

The use of word-processing software can assist in checking that grammar and spelling is

correct. A computer is not always right and human judgement is required in reconciling a

computer prompt, any ‘suggested corrections’ must be analysed and considered before

such suggestions are accepted. Similarly, ‘spell check’ will not identify if the correct

word or if English as opposed to US spelling has been used. Proof reading, reading a

report aloud and reviews are a prerequisite for a good report – computers are only a tool

in the writing process and a computer will not ‘create’ good English.

Writers should use a dictionary when in doubt as to the meaning or spelling of a word.

The use of a thesaurus can also assist in word choice but the true meaning of any

alternative word should be checked to ensure that it is correct or appropriate. English

spelling is preferred but, if writing a report for an American it may be more appropriate

to use US spelling.

6.4.2 Style

The writing of a report presupposes an ability to write concise grammatically correct

English so that information may be conveyed and, as is often required, interprets and

conveys that information accurately, concisely and with clarity. Style is important but if

a report is clear in its intent, then errors in sentence construction and grammar are of less

significance.

In order to convey information well it is preferable to use simple sentence construction

rather than complex or even pompous and verbose language. Concrete rather than

abstract terms should also be used to convey meaning. ‘Double negatives’ such as ‘it is

not uncommon’ should be avoided as they imply conditions rather than define them

strictly. Sentences that contain numerous negative moods should be reconstructed so that

the reader does not become confused as to whether something has or has not been done.

Whilst double negatives can be used correctly they should only be used in less formal

writing or saved for the spoken word. Similarly, questions should be phrased so that a

‘yes’ is a positive response and a ‘no’ is unequivocally ‘no’.

Comments on the use of certain English words and styles are given in Appendix E in an

effort to demonstrate how such words may be used effectively and reinforce writing style.

Writers should, if required, consult a dictionary during the report writing process or

consult a text on grammar and style should they feel that the words that they have written

are clumsy or are lacking. Alternatively, the advice of a colleague or the lead author or

project manager may be sought so as to obtain some constructive criticism or ideas.

6.4.3 Punctuation

Punctuation, as with grammar, is necessary in conveying accurate information to the

reader. There are rigorous rules for punctuation and these should be followed. However,

a common sense approach to the use of punctuation can convey the meaning of the

written word accurately. If sentences are so long that punctuation is complicated, then it

implies that the sentence is not understandable and may be grammatically incorrect.

Punctuation is also a matter of the individual style of the author but, in any event, the

punctuation should be correct and not convey information in an ambiguous manner.

The types of punctuation are shown below and an explanation on the use of particular

types of punctuation is described in Appendix F.

24

Full Stop (.) Hyphen/ Dash (-) Ellipsis (3xDots) (…)

Colon (:) Apostrophe (‘) Brackets ({[ ]}) Italics – not

exactly

punctuation but

included herein

Semicolon (;) Solidus (slash) (/) Question Mark (?)

Comma (,) Quotation Marks (“ ”) or

(‘ ‘)

Exclamation Mark (!)

Table 6.1 – Types of Punctuation

6.5 Numbers, Dates & Units of Measurement

6.5.1 Numbers

Numbers as figures are used to express sums of money, times (e.g. 0900hrs or 9.00 a.m.),

ages, weights, measures, angles in degrees or radians, percentages and degrees of

temperature. Some organisations use figures for numbers while others spell them. A

preferred method is to spell the numbers from one to ten and write them numerically

from 11 onwards. A comma may be used between ‘thousands’ or a gap may be left (e.g.

3,143 or 3 143) depending on the house style or end user, but whatever style is used it

must be consistent. For decimals a zero must be used if the number is less than one (e.g.

0.123).

If a sentence must begin with a number, then it should spelt out completely. When two-

word numbers are used they should be hyphenated (e.g. one hundred and twenty-one).

Similarly, fractions should also be hyphened as in one-third. When two series of

numbers are given in a passage of text then one number should be expressed in words and

the other in figures to aid clarity, for example ‘twenty 16-mm films’. When to sets of

figures cannot be avoided then they should be separated by a comma as in ‘in 2005, 345

more staff will be required’.

Examples of the use of spaces between numbers are shown below. If in doubt about

spacing then, as with any other area concerning format, use a consistent approach

throughout the entire report.

No Space Required Space required

Ordinal Numbers 21st, First Weight One tonne, 21 t

Percentages One percent, 21% Measure One kilometre, 21

km

Time 0900hrs Time 9 a.m.

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6.5.2 Dates

Dates can be written in several ways depending on the country. The unambiguous way of

writing a date is 21 March 2003. Abbreviated dates using day, month, year may also be

used such as 21/03/04, 21.03.04, 21 Mar 2004, or 21 Mar 04.

The type of date and style of presentation should be ascertained at the commencement of

reporting and an explanatory note to the effect that dates are written in a particular

manner is considered appropriate where necessary.

The Americans and some other countries use a month/day/year system, which can be

confusing. There are also different dates used in some countries and cultures such as

Taiwan and the Middle East.

In order to avoid confusion, the preferred system based is day, month (written in full) and

year. In tables or figures then dates may be abbreviated using numbers separated by full

stops (21.03.04) or solidi (21/3/2014).

Dates should not run together but should be separated by either a hyphen (1980–1990) or

through the use of words (from 1980 to 1990). For financial years a solidus is used as in

‘the financial year 2004/05’.

When referring to decades the preferred method is to use numbers as in ‘the 1980s’ (note

no apostrophe). There are alternatives such as ‘the eighties’ or ‘’80s’ (note the

apostrophe in place of ‘19’) but whatever system is adopted it must be consistent

throughout the report. When referring to centuries the century numbers are usually spelt

out, as in ‘twentieth century’ and ‘twentieth-century building’.

6.5.3 Units

The International System of Units (SI) or metric units should be used in preference to

Imperial units or American units. If ‘local’ units are mandated, then they should be

followed in parentheses by the equivalent SI or other recognised unit. A common and

misleading mistake occurs when liquid measures are used: a US gallon and an Imperial

gallon are not equal although each contain 8 pints, a US pint is 16 fluid ounces whereas

an Imperial pint is 20 fluid ounces – hence use litres (or liters) for the avoidance of any

doubt!

6.6 Abbreviations & Acronyms

On most projects there are a plethora of abbreviations and acronyms which become

everyday language to project proponents. To an outsider such abbreviations can be

overwhelming and confusing and these need to be defined in the report. Acronyms also

need to be defined and it should be noted that ‘acronyms’ are words that are formed by

abbreviations - abbreviations are not acronyms as explained later.

When using abbreviations there should be a listing within the report or, as a minimum

when the abbreviation is used for the first time it should be defined in full included in

parentheses after the full usage. For example, the United Kingdom (UK) would be

mentioned first and thereafter UK.

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Full stops are normally used after abbreviations with the following exceptions:

When the last letter forms part of the abbreviation, Mr, Dr (but Prof.).

After symbols or abbreviations of units of measurement, Fe, Cu, pH, kHz, m.

After certain countries or states, USA, UAE, UK.

Well-known organisations, UN, IBM, UNESCO, NATO.

Abbreviation other than standard SI units or well-known countries or organisations such

as UK, USA, IBM, or UN should be spelt out with the abbreviation given in brackets.

The abbreviation may be used for both singular and plural. When referring to litres it is

preferable to spell ‘litres’ in the text of a report as the SI symbol ‘l’ can be confused with

the number one (1).

Some abbreviations are acronyms such as WRAC (Women’s Royal Army Corps -‘rack’)

or Radar (radio detecting and ranging) or NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation –

‘nay-tow’). Acronyms are pronounced as words and are not abbreviations as is in UN

(United Nations – ‘you-en’) or USA (you–ess-a’) as each letter is pronounced

individually.

The ampersand (&) should not be used in report writing, unless incorporated in a proper

name or common expression. The exception to this rule is when ‘&’ is used in references

and in titles of sections or headings.

When referring to currency, in particular ‘dollars’, the country should be designated as in

US$1 (one US dollar) or S$1 (one Singapore dollar).

A list of commonly used abbreviations is given in Appendix G.

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7.0 Conclusions

Well begun done is half done

Aristotle

Successful reporting comes from good planning which can result in a definitive

requirement with a logical set of contents. Such logic results in good presentation A

report should have an ending and such an ending is normally a conclusion or

recommendation or even a request for a decision. On occasion a conclusion is not

warranted and this is just such an occasion, hence some concluding remarks will be made

in respect of some general rules on report writing:

Reports should have an introduction, a main body and an ending.

Reports must have an aim and this must be ascertained at an early stage in the

report writing process.

A report should be designed so that the required sections are structured in a

recognisable form. If the design of a report is not suited to the aim of the report

then change the design.

All data or information must be presented in a logical and systematic way.

All tables and figures must be necessary.

A report must have the appropriate Content, the information must be Relevant, the

information should be fully Analysed and the Presentation should be consistent

and to a predefined style.

Reports should be checked and reviewed rigorously before being issued.

Reports are often the only visible result of considerable amounts of work. The effort that

is put into researching, writing, checking and producing the report should reflect such

work. Proper planning and execution can result in a good report that is satisfying to the

writer and enjoyable to the reader. However, a poorly planned report can be a laborious

exercise for the writer and an equally laborious, annoying and frustrating chore for the

reader.

An essential component of any project is the value that it brings and, from a reporting

perspective, value can be added to a report by making it readable and . Readability is

brought about by ensuring that the report is well written, clear, concise and accurate so

that the reader may assimilate the information and any arguments with ease. Hence the

‘readability factor’ is essential to any report. If a report is not readable then its only real

use is to sit on a shelf and gather dust.

On a final note, and in keeping Churchill’s observations regarding the readability of

voluminous reports and that it can take longer to write a short report there is a related 18th

century English proverb

“to talk without thinking is to shoot without aiming”

Similarly, if one writes without planning, the report may well be read but it won’t hit the

mark.

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Bibliography

Chappell, D. 1996, Report Writing For Architects and Project Managers, Third Edition,

Blackwell Science, Cornwall, England.

Rogerson, R. & Peart M. 1990, Guide to Authors, First Edition, Geological Survey of

Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, PNG.

University of Southern Queensland, 1997, Faculty of Business: Communication Skills

Handbook: How to succeed in written and oral communication, Second Edition, Eds. B.

Smith & J. Summers, B & Blackwell Science, Cornwall, USQ, Toowoomba, Australia.