DCE

Lathe

ByPriyanka SinghM.Tech (Applied Mechanics)Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad

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LatheA lathe is a large machine that rotates the work, and cutting is done with a non-rotating cutting tool. The shapes cut are generally round, or helical. The tool is typically moved parallel to the axis of rotation during cutting.

Head stock - This end of the lathe contains the driving motor and gears. Power to rotate the part is delivered from here. This typically has levers that let the speeds and feeds be set.

Tail stock It is mounted on the right hand side of the bed, can move on guide ways towards or away form head stock. This can be used to hold the other end of the part.

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LatheCarriage: The carriage holds and supports the cutting tool and provide various movement for generating various surfaces in jobs. It has five main parts:Tool postCompound restCross slideSaddleApronWays - These are hardened rails that the carriage rides on.

Bed - this is a bottom pan on the lathe that catches chips, cutting fluids, etc.

Lead screw - A large screw with a few threads per inch used for cutting threads. It has ACME threads with included angle of 29o for easy engagement and disengagement of half nut.

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LatheLead rod - a rod with a shaft down the side used for driving normal cutting feeds.The critical parameters on the lathe are speed of rotation (speed in RPM) and how far the tool moves across the work for each rotation (feed in IPR)

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General classifications used when describing lathesSwing - the largest diameter of work that can be rotated.Distance Between Centres - the longest length of workpieceLength of Bed - Related to the Distance Between CentresPower - The range of speeds and feeds, and the horsepower available

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FacingFacing - The end of the part is turned to be square.

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TurningTurning - produces a smooth and straight outside radius on a part.

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Turning

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Formula for TurningDepth of cut,

Average diameter of workpiece,

Cutting Time,

Metal Removal Rate,

Cutting Speed,

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TaperingTapering - the tool is moves so as to cut a taper (cone shape).

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Parting/Slotting/GroovingA tool is moved in/out of the work. shallow cut will leave a formed cut, a deep cut will cut off the unsupported part.

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Drilling/BoringDrilling/Boring - a cutter or drill bit is pushed into the end to create an internal feature.

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ThreadingThreading - The cutting tool is moved quickly cutting threads.

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ThreadingIn one revolution of the spindle, carriage must travel the pitch of the screw thread to be cut.

KnurlingKnurling is a manufacturing process whereby a visually-attractive diamond-shaped (criss-cross) pattern is cut or rolled into metal. This pattern allows human hands or fingers to get a better grip on the knurled object than would be provided by the originally-smooth metal surface.

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ReamingA reamer enters the workpiece axially through the end and enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate diameter and a smoother internal finish.

TappingA tap enters the workpiece axially through the end and cuts internal threads into an existing hole. The existing hole is typically drilled by the required tap drill size that will accommodate the desired tap.

Work holding Devices for LathesHeld between centers3 jaw self centering chuck (Disc type jobs being held in chucks )4 jaw independently adjusted chuckHeld in a collet (Slender rod like jobs being held in collets )Mounted on a face plate (Odd shape jobs, being held in face plate)Mounted on the carriageMandrels Magnetic chuck for thin job

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Lathe chucksLathe chucks are used to support a wider variety of workpiece shapes and to permit more operations to be performed than can be accomplished when the work is held between centers.Three-jaw, self-centering chucks are used for work that has a round or hexagonal cross section. Each jaw in a four-jaw independent chuck can be moved inward and outward independent of the others by means of a chuck wrench. Thus they can be used to support a wide variety of work shapes. Combination four-jaw chucks are available in which each jaw can be moved independently or can be moved simultaneously by means of a spiral cam.

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3 Jaw Chuck4 Jaw Chuck

Collets

Magnetic Chuck

Face Plate

Errors in tool settings

Setting the tool below the centre decrease actual rake angle, while clearance angle increases by the same amount. Thus cutting force increased.Setting the tool above the centre causes the rake angle to increase, while clearance angle reduces. More rubbing with flank.

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Type of LatheCentral latheTurret latheCapstan latheAutomatic latheSpecial purpose lathe

Turret LatheA turret lathe, a number of tools can be set up on the machine and then quickly be brought successively into working position so that a complete part can be machined without the necessity for further adjusting, changing tools, or making measurements.

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Turret Lathe

Capstan Lathe

Capstan latheTurret latheShort slide, since the saddle is clamped on the bed in position.Saddle moves along the bed, thus allowing the turret to be of large size.Light duty machine, generally for components whose diameter is less than 50 mm.Heavy duty machine, generally for components with large diameters, such as 200 mm.Too much overhang of the turret when it is nearing cut. Since the turret slides on the bed, there is no such difference. Ram-type turret lathe, the ram and the turret are moved up to the cutting position by means of the capstan Wheel. As the ram is moved toward the headstock, the turret is automatically locked into position.Saddle-type lathes, the main turret is mounted directly on the saddle, and the entire saddle and turret assembly reciprocates.

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Automatic LatheThe term automatic is somewhat loosely applied, but is normally restricted to those machine tools capable of producing identical pieces without the attention of an operator, after each piece is completed. Thus, after setting up and providing an initial supply of material, further attention beyond replenishing the material supply is not required until the dimensions of the work pieces change owing to tool wear.A number of types of automatic lathes are developed that can be used for large volume manufacture application, such as single spindle automatics, Swiss type automatics, and multi-spindle automatics.

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Swiss type Automatic Lathe Or Sliding Headstock AutomaticsHeadstock travels enabling axial feed of the bar stock against the cutting tools.There is no tailstock or turretHigh spindle speed (2000 10,000 rpm) for small job diameterThe cutting tools (upto five in number including two on the rocker arm) are fed radiallyUsed for lot or mass production of thin slender rod or tubular jobs, like components of small clocks and wrist watches, by precision machining.

Multi Spindle Automatic LatheFor increase in rate of production of jobs usually of smaller size and simpler geometry. Having four to eight parallel spindles are preferably used. Multiple spindle automats also may be parallel action or progressively working type.

Shaper and Planner

ByVineet Kumar MishraM.Tech (Fluid and Thermal)Indian Institute of technology Guwahati

Shaper

Construction of shaperShaper has different parts included to perform cutting operations. It includes principal parts asBaseColumnCross-railSaddleTableRamTool-head.

BaseBase is the bed or support part of the machine, which can be rigidly bolted to the floor.ColumnIt is a box type structure, serving as housing for the driving mechanism and power transmission unit.CrossrailIt is mounted on the vertical guideways on the front of column, it has two parallel guideways which are perpendicular to the axis of Ram and gives support to saddle as well as table.SaddleIt is an unit provided on the Crossrail to hold the table on its top. Crosswise movement is produced by rotating cross feed screw which is provided in Crossrail and saddle.

ShaperTable: It is a boxlike casting which T-slots on its horizontal as well as vertical faces to clamp the work. It gets movement from Crossrail. In case of heavier table or large unit shaper table is supported with adjustable sliding support. In universal shaper table may be swivelled on a horizontal axis and the upper part may be tilted up or down. Ram: Ram is a type of tool holding device which reciprocates on the dovetail guideways provided over the column. It is heavily ribbed to make it more rigid. It has an inside housing which with some mechanism is connected with the reciprocating mechanism inside column, it is known as quick return mechanism. It has a screw shaft to alter the position or working with respect to the workpiece. At the extreme end there is a tool holder fitted with it. Tool head: The tool head of the shaper is used to hold the tool rigidly and keep the tool away from work piece during return stoke. The tool head also provides adjustment and feed motion to the tool, either vertical or at a certain angle.

ShaperThe relative motions between the tool and the workpiece, shaping and planning use a straight-line cutting motion with a single-point cutting tool to generate a flat surface. The shaping machine is used to machine flat metal surfaces especially where a large amount of metal has to be removed. It is also used to produce grooves, slots and keyways, producing contour, concave or combination of these.Relatively skilled workers are required to operate shapers and planers, and most of the shapes that can be produced on them also can be made by much more productive processes, such as milling, broaching, or grinding.

The process of shaping and planing are among the oldest single-point machining processes. They have largely been replaced by milling and broaching, as production processes. 41

Shaper

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Quick return motion Mechanism

The motor drives the bull gear, which carries a pin, in a circular motion. The rpm of the bull gear is controlled by the motor. This pin fits into the slot of the rocker and is free to slide in a straight line path. As the bull gear rotates, the rocker arm oscillates about its pivot point, The end of the rocker arm is connected tothe ram of the shaper through a link arm. The length of the stroke is changed by changing the radius of the circle in which the pin on the bull gear rotates. The length of travel should be a little longer than the actual length of the workpiece. This allows sufficient the for the tool block of the clapper box to swing back to its position for cutting.

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Quick return motion MechanismIn shaping, the cutting tool is held in the tool post located in the ram, which reciprocates over the work with a forward stroke, cutting at velocity V and a quick return stroke at velocity VR. The rpm rate of the drive crank (Ns) drives the ram and determines the velocity of the operation.

The stroke ratio,

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Classification of Shaper MachineShapers, as machine tools usually are classified according to their general design features as follows,1.Horizontala.Push-cut b.Pull-cut or draw cut shaper2.Verticala.Regular or slotters b.Keyseaters3.Special purpose

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FormulaCutting speed, Number of strokes, Time of one stroke, Total time,

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Hydraulic Shaper

The mechanical shaper has the problem of inertia of the main drive components, which require some time for reversal for every stroke and as a result, a large proportion of time is spent with the tool cutting air. An alternative drive system can be provided by means of a simple hydraulic circuit to provide the reciprocating Motion.47

Advantages of hydraulic shaping1. Cutting speed remains constant throughout most of the cutting stroke, unlike the crank shaper where the speed changes continuously.

2. Since the power available remains constant throughout, it is possible to utilise the full capacity of the cutting tool during the cutting stroke.

3. The ram reverses quickly without any shock due the hydraulic cylinder utilised. The inertia of the moving parts is relatively small.

4. The range and number of cutting strokes possible are relatively large in hydraulic shaper.

5. More strokes per minute can be achieved by consuming less time for reversal and return strokes.

PlanerA planer is the same machine as shaper used to produce plane surface by the use of single point cutting tool. It is very large unit or machine compared to shaper to produce large surfaces. Basic difference between shaper and planer is as in planer work is set to reciprocates while feed is done by the lateral movement of cutting tool but in shaper cutting tool mounted on ram reciprocates and work is moved.Planing is much less efficient than other basic machining processes, such as milling, that will produce such surfaces.Planing and planers have largely been replaced by planer milling machines or machines that can do both milling and planing.

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Principal parts of a planerBedTable or platenTool headCrossrailHousing or columnDriving and feed mechanismPlaner

Bed: Bed is a box like structure having cross ribs, it is large and heavy to support columns and give rigidity and stability to the reciprocating units. Usually, length of bed is twice the length of table so that entire length of the table can be covered during motion. On the upper surface of the bed Table: Table of a planer is same as table of a shaper, it is also a heavy good quality cast iron made unit to provide support to the workpiece. T-slots are provided on the entire length of the table to provide provision to work-holding devices to get installed over it. v-shaped guideways are provided on entire length. Housing: It refers to the two columns attached or fastened on the sides of the bed. These are heavily ribbed box like rigid structures to compensate cutting forces. These are extruded with guideways for the up and down moment to the Crossrail along with which side tool heads also moves. The housing encloses Crossrail elevating screw, vertical and cross feed screws for tool heads and counter balancing weight for Crossrail.Crossrail: It is a box like casting connecting the two housings, ensures the rigidity of machine. It is mounted on the guideways provided on the columns can be moved up and down on the columns and at required position it is clamped. Planer is used to produce plane surface hence Crossrail should remain absolutely parallel to the table and hence movement should be equal for both the columns. Crossrail has guideways on facing part for tool heads, which can be moved vertical and horizontal by the help of vertical and horizontal cross feed screws. There is one more screw housed in it for elevating the rail.Tool-head: Tool head of a planer is similar to that of shaper, both in construction and operation. Planer

Planer

Difference between Shaper and PlanerShaperPlanerIn this machine tool work table is stationary and tool reciprocates.Used for smaller work piece.Can not take deeper cut.At a time one tool will work.It is light, less rigid and cheaper machine tool.In this machine tool work table reciprocates and tool is stationary.Used for large work piece.Planer can take deeper cut.More than one cutting tools work at a time.It is heavier, more rigid and costier machine tool.

Milling

ByVineet Kumar MishraM.Tech (Fluid and Thermal)Indian Institute of technology Guwahati

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MillingMilling machines of various types are widely used for the following purposes using proper cutting tools called milling cutters:Flat surface in vertical, horizontal and inclined planesMaking slots or ribs of various sectionsSlitting or partingOften producing surfaces of revolutionMaking helical grooves like flutes of the drillsLong thread milling on large lead screws, power screws, worms etc and short thread milling for small size fastening screws, bolts etc.

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Milling2-D contouring like cam profiles, clutches etc and 3-D contouring like die or mould cavitiesCutting teeth in piece or batch production of spur gears, straight toothed bevel gears, worm wheels, sprockets, clutches etc.Producing some salient features like grooves, flutes, gushing and profiles in various cutting tools, e.g., drills, taps, reamers, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.

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Up milling and down milling

Up milling and down millingIn down milling, though the cut starts with a full chip thickness, the cut gradually reduces to zero. This helps in eliminating the feed marks present in the case of up milling and consequently better surface finish. Climb milling also allows greater feeds per tooth and longer cutting life between regrinds than the conventional milling.Up milling needs stronger holding of the job and down milling needs backlash free screw-nut systems for feeding.

The basic function of milling machines is to produce flat surfaces in any orientation as well as surfaces of revolution, helical surfaces and contoured surfaces of various configurations. Such functions are accomplished by slowly feeding the workpiece into the equispaced multiedge circular cutting tool rotating at moderately high speed as indicated in Fig.shown in below. 59

Advantages of Down Milling1. Suited to machine thin and hard-to-hold parts since the workpiece is forced against the table or holding device by the cutter.2. Work need not be clamped as tightly.3. Consistent parallelism and size may be maintained, particularly on thin parts.4. It may be used where breakout at the edge of the workpiece could not be tolerated.5. It requires upto 20% less power to cut by this method.6. It may be used when cutting off stock or when milling deep, thin slots.

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Disadvantages of Down Milling1. It cannot be used unless the machine has a backlash eliminator and the table jibs have been tightened.2. It cannot be used for machining castings or hot rolled steel, since the hard outer scale will damage the cutter.

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Define the term feed in milling. [2-Marks]

Classification of milling machines(a) According to nature of purposes of use:General purposeSingle purposeSpecial purpose(b) According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table / bedKnee typeBed typePlaner typeRotary table type

(a) According to nature of purposes of use: General purpose most versatile commonly used mainly for piece or small lot production Single purpose e.g., thread milling machines, cam milling machines and slitting machine which are generally used for batch or lot production. Special purpose these are used for lot or mass production, e.g., duplicating mills, die sinkers, short thread milling etc.

(b) According to configuration and motion of the work-holding table / bedKnee type: typically in such small and medium duty machines the table with the job/work travels over the bed (guides) in horizontal (X) and transverse (Y) directions and the bed with the table and job on it moves vertically (Z) up and down. Bed typePlaner typeRotary table type

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Classification of milling machines(c) According to the orientation of the spindle(s).Plain horizontal knee typeHorizontal axis (spindle) and swiveling bed typeVertical spindle typeUniversal head milling machine(d) According to mechanization / automation and production rateHand mill (milling machine)Planer and rotary table type vertical axis milling machinesTracer controlled copy milling machine,Milling machines for short thread millingComputer Numerical Controlled (CNC) milling machine

(c) According to the orientation of the spindle(s).Plain horizontal knee typeHorizontal axis (spindle) and swiveling bed typeVertical spindle typeUniversal head milling machine

(d) According to mechanization / automation and production rateHand mill (milling machine)Planer and rotary table type vertical axis milling machinesTracer controlled copy milling machine,Milling machines for short thread millingComputer Numerical Controlled (CNC) milling machine

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Classifications of milling cutters(a) Profile sharpened cutters where the geometry of the machined surfaces are not related with the tool shape, viz;i.Slab or plain milling cutter: straight or helical flutedii.Side milling cutters single side or both sided typeiii.Slotting cutteriv.Slitting or parting toolsv.End milling cutters with straight or taper shankvi.Face milling cutters.

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Classifications of milling cutters(b) Form relieved cutters where the job profile becomes the replica of theTool-form, e.g., viz.;i.Form cuttersii.Gear (teeth) milling cuttersiii.Spline shaft cuttersiv.Tool form cuttersv.T-slot cuttersvi.Thread milling cutter

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Slab or Plain milling cutters

Slab or Plain milling cutters: -Plain milling cutters are hollow straight HSS cylinder of 40 to 80 mm outer diameter having 4 to 16 straight or helical equi-spaced flutes or cutting edges and are used in horizontal arbour to machine flat surface as shown in Fig. below.

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Side and slot milling cutters

Side and slot milling cuttersThese arbour mounted disc type cutters have a large number of cutting teeth at equal spacing on the periphery. Each tooth has a peripheral cutting edge and another cutting edge on one face in case of single side cutter and two more cutting edges on both the faces leading to double sided cutter. One sided cutters are used to produce one flat surface or steps comprising two flat surfaces at right angle as shown in Fig. below. Both sided cutters are used for making rectangular slots bounded by three flat surfaces. Slotting is also done by another similar cutter having only one straight peripheral cutting on each tooth. These cutters may be made from a single piece of HSS or its teeth may be of carbide blades brazed on the periphery or clamped type uncoated or coated carbide inserts for high production machining.

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Slitting saw or parting tool

Slitting saw or parting tool (Fig. shown in below)These milling cutters are very similar to the slotting cutters having only one peripheral cutting edge on each tooth. However, the slitting saws Are larger in diameter and much thin possess large number of cutting teeth but of small size Used only for slitting or parting.

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End milling cutters or End mills

The shape and the common applications of end milling cutters (profile sharpened type) are shown in Fig. below. The common features and characteristics of such cutters are: Mostly made of HSS 4 to 12 straight or helical teeth on the periphery and face Diameter ranges from about 1 mm to 40 mm Very versatile and widely used in vertical spindle type milling machines End milling cutters requiring larger diameter are made as a separate cutter body which is fitted in the spindle through a taper shank arbour as shown in the same figure.

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Face milling cutters

Face milling cuttersThe shape, geometry and typical use of face milling cutters are shown in Fig. below.The main features are:Usually large in diameter (80 to 800 mm) and heavy Used only for machining flat surfaces in different orientationsMounted directly in the vertical and / or horizontal spindlesCoated or uncoated carbide inserts are clamped at the outer edge of the carbon steel body as shownGenerally used for high production machining of large jobs.

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Use of form relieved cutters (milling)

Use of form relieved cutters (milling)The distinguishing characteristics of such cutters, in contrast to profile sharpened cutters, are;Form of the tool is exactly replica of the job-profile to be made.Clearance or flank surfaces of the teeth are of archemedian spiral shaped instead of flat.Teeth are sharpened by grinding the rake surface only.Used for making 2-D and 3-D contour surfaces.The configurations and applications of several form relieved type milling cutters of common use are briefly presented. Form cuttersSuch disc type HSS cutters are generally used for making grooves or slots of various profiles as indicated in Fig. below.Form cutters may be also end mill type like T-slot cutter as shown in Fig. below.

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Tool form cutters

Form milling type cutters are also used widely for cutting slots or flutes of different cross section e.g. the flutes of twist drills (Fig. shown in below), milling cutters, reamers etc., and gushing of hobs, tabs, short thread milling cutters etc.

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T- slot cutter

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Gear teeth milling cutters

Gear milling cutters are made of HSS and available mostly in disc form like slot milling cutters and also in the form of end mill for producing teeth of large module gears. The form of these tools conforms to the shape of the gear tooth-gaps bounded by two involutes as shown in Fig. below. Such form relieved cutters can be used for producing teeth of straight and helical toothed external spur gears and worm wheels as well as straight toothed bevel gears.

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Spline shaft cutters

Spline shaft cuttersThese disc type HSS form relieved cutters are used for cutting the slots of external spline shafts having 4 to 8 straight axial teeth Fig. shown in below.

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Straddle milling

Straddle millingFor faster and accurate machining two parallel vertical surfaces at a definite distance on the horizontal milling arbour as shown in Fig. shown in below.

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Gang milling

Gang millingIn gang milling, being employed, where feasible, for quick production of complex contours comprising a number of parallel flat or curved surfaces a proper combination of several cutters are mounted tightly on the same horizontal milling arbour as indicated in Fig. shown in below.78

With a sketch, explain the principle of working and variations of bed-type milling machine.[10-marks]

Turning by rotary tools (milling cutters)

Turning by rotary tools (milling cutters)During turning like operations in large heavy and odd shaped jobs, its speed (rpm) is essentially kept low. For enhancing productivity and better cutting fluid action rotary tools like milling cutters are used as shown in Fig. below.80

Indexing

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Simple or Plain IndexingPlain indexing is the name given to the indexing method carried out using any of the indexing plates in conjunction with the worm.

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Milling VelocityThe cutting speed in milling is the surface speed of the milling cutter.

Where, V = cutting speed (surface), m/minD = diameter of the milling cutter, mmN = rotational speed of the milling cutter, rpm

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Milling Time

Time for one pass = minutes

Approach distance,

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MRR in MillingConsidering the parameters defined in the discussion of speeds and feeds, etc, the MRR is given below,Where,MRR = where, w = width of cut,d = depth of cut

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Some Formulae for Milling

Drilling

ByVineet Kumar MishraM.Tech (Fluid and Thermal)Indian Institute of technology Guwahati

DrillingDrilling is a operation that cuts cylindrical holes.

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TYPES OF DRILL PRESSESVertical or pillar typeRadial Arm typeGang drillMulti Spindle drillNumerical Control drill

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Drilling Operations

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Chip formation of a drill

DrillThe twist drill does most of the cutting with the tip of the bit.

There are flutes to carry the chips up from the cutting edges to the top of the hole where they are cast off.

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Drill

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DrillAxial rake angle is the angle between the face and the line parallel to the drill axis. At the periphery of the drill, it is equivalent to the helix angle. The lip clearance angle is the angle formed by the portion of the flank adjacent to the land and a plane at right angles to the drill axis measured at the periphery of the drill.Lead of the helix is the distance measured parallel to the drill axis, between corresponding point on the leading edge of the land in one complete revolution.

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DrillDrill sizes are typically measured across the drill points with a micrometerMost widely used material is High Speed SteelThe drill blanks are made by forging and then are twisted to provide the torsional rigidity. Then the flutes are machined and hardened before the final grinding of the geometry. Deep hole drilling requires special precautions to take care of the removal of large volume of chips.

Deep holes more than three times the diameter of the hole are difficult to be produced by conventional drilling. This is because of the large volume of chips generated. The work materials that produce continuous chips will further compound this problem. Special deep hole drilling methods are to be used which are expensive.

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Point Angle (2)The point angle is selected to suit the hardness and brittleness of the material being drilled. Harder materials have higher point angles, soft materials have lower point angles.An increase in the drill point angle leads to an increase in the thrust force and a decrease in the torque due to increase of the orthogonal rake angle.This angle (half) refers to side cutting edge angle of a single point tool.Standard Point Angle is 118It is 116 to 118 for medium hard steel and cast ironIt is 125 for hardened steel It is 130 to 140 for brass and bronzeIt is only 60 for wood and plastics

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Helix Angle ()Helix angle is the angle between the leading edge of the land and the axis of the drill. Sometimes it is also called as spiral angle.The helix results in a positive cutting rakeThis angle is equivalent to back rake angle of a single point cutting tool.Usual 20 to 35 most commonLarge helix : 45 to 60 suitable for deep holes and softer work materialsSmall helix : for harder / stronger materialsZero helix : spade drills for high production drilling micro-drilling and hard work materials

Spade drills Spade drills are used to make holes with smaller diameter using low cutting speeds and highfeed rates. These have long supporting bar with the cutting blade attached at the end. These are lessexpensive since the support structure can be made more rigid using ordinary steel with no spiral flutes. Spadedrills are also used to machine small conical shapes for subsequent drilling or making a bevel (similar tocountersinking) on the existing holes to facilitate the subsequent tapping and assembling operations.

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Cutting Speed in DrillingThe cutting speed in drilling is the surface speed of the twist drill.

where, V= cutting speed (surface), mlminD = diameter of the twist drill, mmN = rotational speed of the drill, rev/min

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Drilling TimeTime for drilling the hole

MRR in Drilling

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Some Formulae for Drilling

Lecture:14Revision of machine tools and metal cuttingLathe MachinesPlaner, Shaper and Slotter MachinesMilling MachinesDrilling MachinesMetal cutting and cutting tool