Remote Sensing{Elective-III}

Kathmandu Engineering College E-mail: shankar62099@gmal.com

Shankar Gangaju

Chapter 2: Physical Principles of Remote Sensing

• Electromagnetic Radiation:

• EMR mainly concerned with: Frequency, Wavelength

Wavelength

Frequency (how many times peak passes per second)

Light - can be thought of as a wave in the 'electromagnetic field' of the universe

A wave can be characterized by its wavelength or its frequency

• Remote sensing is concerned with the measurement of EMR returned by the earth’s natural features, that first receive energy from the sun or an artificial source such as a radar transmitter.

• Because different objects return different types and amounts of EMR, the objective in remote sensing is to detect these differences with the appropriate instruments.

• This, in turn, makes it possible for us to identify and assess a broad range of surficial features and their conditions.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Ranges From:– Gamma rays (short wavelength, high

frequency and high energy content)

To:– Passive radio waves (long wavelength, low

frequencies, and low energy content).• There are several regions of the electromagnetic

spectrum which are useful for remote sensing.

• A spectral band is composed of some defined group of continuous spectral lines, where a line represents a single wavelength or frequency. The boundaries between most of the bands are arbitrarily defined because each portion overlaps adjacent portions.

Blue green yellow red

1020 Hz 1018 Hz 1016 Hz 1014 Hz 1012 Hz 1010 Hz

1 pm 10pm 10 nm 1 micron 100 microns 1 mm 100 mm

vi-si-ble

Gamma Rays

X-Rays UV N. IR

Th.IR

Microwaves

Radar

TV FMRadiowaves

0.4 µm 0.5 µm 0.6 µm 0.7 µm

MidIR

Far IR

• Different wavelengths of light can be grouped together into different types• Visible light contains light from 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers• Infrared light from 0.1 micrometers to 1 millimeter

Electromagnetic Spectrum

• For most purposes, the ultraviolet or UV portion of the spectrum has the shortest wavelengths which are practical for remote sensing.

• This radiation is just beyond the violet portion of the visible wavelengths, hence its name.

• Some earth surface materials, primarily rocks and minerals, fluoresce or emit visible light when illuminated by UV radiation.

Visible spectrum• The light which our eyes- our “remote sensors” can

detect is part of the visible spectrum.• It is important to recognize how small the visible

portion is relative to the rest of the spectrum.• There is a lot of radiation around us which is

“invisible” to our eyes, but can be detected by other remote sensing instruments and used to our advantage.

• The visible wavelengths cover a range from approximately 0.4 to 0.7µm. The longest visible wavelength is red and the shortest is violet.

• The next portion of the spectrum of interest is the infrared (IR) region which covers the wavelength range from approximately 0.7µm-100µm

• More than 100 times as wide as the visible portions.

• The infrared region can be divided into two categories based on their radiation properties-reflected IR and emitted or thermal IR.

• Radiation in the reflected IR region is used for remote sensing purposes in ways very similar to radiation in the visible portion.

• The reflected IR covers wavelengths from approximately 0.7µm to 3.0µm

• The thermal IR region is quite different than the visible and reflected IR portions, as this energy is essentially the radiation that is emitted from the earth’s surface in the form of heat.

• The thermal IR covers wavelengths from approximately 3.0µm to 100µm.

Microwave Region•The portion of the spectrum of more recent interest to remote sensing is the microwave region from about 1mm to 1m.•This covers the longest wavelengths used for remote sensing.•The shorter wavelengths have properties similar to the thermal infrared region while the longer wavelengths approach the wavelengths used for radio broadcasts.

Microwave region from about 1 mm to 1 m.

Interaction with the Atmosphere Interaction with the Atmosphere

• Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth’s surface it has to travel through some distance of the Earth’s atmosphere.

• Particles and gases in the atmosphere can affect the incoming light and radiation.

• These effects are caused by the mechanisms of scattering and absorption.

ScatteringScattering

• It occurs when particles or large molecules present in the atmosphere interact with and cause electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path.

• How much scattering takes place depends on several factors including the wavelength of the radiation, the abundance of particles or gases, and the distance the radiation travels through the atmosphere.

• There are mainly three types of scattering which take place.

Scattering

Absorption.

Rayleigh Scattering

• Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles (particles such as small specks of dust or N2 and O2 molecules.) are very small compared to the wavelength of the radiation.

• Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much more than longer wavelengths.

• Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the upper atmosphere. The fact that the sky appears "blue" during the day is because of this phenomenon. As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths (i.e. Blue) of the visible spectrum are scattered more than the other (longer) visible wavelengths.

• At sunrise and sunset the light has to travel farther through the atmosphere than at midday and the scattering of the shorter wavelengths is more complete; this leaves a greater proportion of the longer wavelengths to penetrate the atmosphere.

Rayleigh scattering refers to the scattering of light off of the molecules of the air, and can be extended to scattering from particles up to about a tenth of the wavelength of the light. It is Rayleigh scattering off the molecules of the air which gives us the blue sky. Lord Rayleigh calculated the scattered intensity from dipole scatterers much smaller than the wavelength to be:

Rayleigh scattering can be considered to be elastic scattering since the photon energies of the scattered photons is not changed. Scattering in which the scattered photons have either a higher or lower photon energy is called Raman scattering. Usually this kind of scattering involves exciting some vibrational mode of the molecules, giving a lower scattered photon energy, or scattering off an excited vibrational state of a molecule which adds its vibrational energy to the incident photon.

• Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of the radiation.

• Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering which tends to affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering.

• Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant, and dominates when cloud conditions are overcast.

Mie Scattering

Mie ScatteringThe scattering from molecules and very tiny particles (< 1 /10 wavelength) is predominantly Rayleigh scattering. For particle sizes larger than a wavelength, Mie scattering predominates. This scattering produces a pattern like an antenna lobe, with a sharper and more intense forward lobe for larger particles.

Mie scattering is not strongly wavelength dependent and produces the almost white glare around the sun when a lot of particulate material is present in the air. It also gives us the white light from mist and fog.

Non selective Scattering

• Nonselective scattering occurs when the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation.

• Water droplets and large dust particles can cause this type of scattering. Nonselective scattering gets its name from the fact that all wavelengths are scattered about equally.

• This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear white to our eyes because blue, green, and red light are all scattered in approximately equal

Scattering process

Wavelength dependence

Particle size Kind of particles

Rayleigh λ-4 <<0.1 Air molecules

Mie λ0 to λ-4 0.1-10 Smoke , fume, Haze

Nonselective λ0 >10 Dust , Fog, Cloud

Summary

Target InteractionsTarget Interactions

• What the remote sensor is really measuring is how the energy interacts with the target.

• Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can reach and interact with the earth’s surface.

There are three (3) formsof interaction that can take place when energy strikes, or is incident (I) upon the surface. These are: Absorption (A); Transmission (T); Reflection (R).

Specular reflection Diffuse reflection.

• Absorption occurs when radiation is absorbed into the target while transmission ( T ) occurs when radiation passes through a target.

• Reflection ( R ) occurs when radiation “bounces” off the target and is redirected.

• It is the other main mechanism at work when electromagnetic radiation interacts with the atmosphere.

• In contrast to scattering, this phenomenon causes molecules in the atmosphere to absorb energy at various wavelengths.

• Ozone, carbon dioxide and water vapour are the three main atmospheric constituents which absorb radiation.

• Ozone serves to absorb the harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. without this protective layer in the atmosphere our skin would burn when exposed to sunlight.

• Carbon dioxide referred to as a greenhouse gas. This is because it tends to absorb radiation strongly in the far infrared portion of the spectrum.

• That area associated with thermal heating- which serves to trap this heat inside the atmosphere.

• Water Vapour in the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming long wave infrared and shortwave microwave radiation (between 22µm and 1m).

• The presence of water vapor in the lower atmosphere varies greatly from location to location to location and at different times of the year.

• For example, the air mass above a desert would have very little water vapor to absorb energy, while the tropics would have high concentrations of water vapor (high humidity)

• In remote sensing, we are most interested in measuring the radiation reflected from targets.

• We refer to two types of reflection, which represent the two extreme ends of the way in which energy in reflected from a target specular reflection and diffuse reflection.

• Specular reflection• When a surface is smooth we get specular or mirror-like

reflection where all (or almost all) of the energy is directed away from the surface in a single direction.

• Diffuse reflection• Diffuse reflection occurs when the surface is rough and the

energy is reflected almost uniformly in all directions.• Most earth surface features lie somewhere between

perfectly diffuse reflectors.

Water: Longer λ visible and near infrared radiation is absorbed more by water than shorter visible wavelengths. Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths,

Leaves: chlorophyll strongly absorbs radiation in the R and B but reflects (G)green wavelengths. Internal structure of healthy leaves act as excellent diffuse reflectors of near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths. In fact, measuring and monitoring the NIR reflectance is one way that can determine healthiness of vegetation

By measuring the energy that is reflected (or emitted) by targets on the Earth's surface over a variety of different wavelengths, we can build up a spectral response for that object.

Selective transmission of EMR by Earth’s atmosphere

Transmission through the atmosphere is very selective. Very high for wavelengths 0.3-1 µm and >1cm, moderately good for 1-20 µm and 0.1-1 cm, and very poor for <0.3 µm and 20-100 µm. This defines the “ATMOSPHERIC WINDOWS”.

Black Body RadiationBlack body is one that absorbs all EM radiation that strikes it. To stay in thermal equilibrium it must emit radiation at the same rate as it absorbs it so a black body also radiates well.

Black body is a Perfect reflector or perfect absorber at defined frequency.

A black body is hypothetical material that absorbs and re-radiates ALL incident EMR.

The Stephan-Boltzman equation describes the total amount of radiation emitted by a black body as a function of its surface temperature:

M = σT4

where: M = energy (Wm-2)

σ = Stephan-Boltzman constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 w/m2/K4

T = temperature (K) of emitting body

Total EMR Emitted

The higher the temperature the more total energy

Total Energy = Area Under Curve

Wavelength of EMR Emitted

The higher the temperature the lower/shorter the wavelength of maximum radiance

• Wein’ Law states that λm = A/T

where: A is a constant

Shortwave EMR

Longwave EMR

Atmospheric EMR Interactions

• Atmospheric interactions include reflection, scattering and absorption of EMR

• EMR that is not scattered or absorbed is simply transmitted through the atmosphere unaltered; this is good

• Some wavelengths of the EMS are so effectively scattered or absorbed that very little EMR reaches Earth’s surface; this is bad

Transmission of EMR• Propagation of EMR through the

material/object with no interaction

• Path of EMR can be deflected or refracted as it passes through materials of differing density

• Results in a change in velocity and wavelength; but not frequency

Solar(short wave) and Terrestrial Radiation(long wave)

• Most of the remote sensing instruments are designed to detect solar radiation and terrestrial radiation.

• Solar radiation:• Electromagnetic radiation emitted from sun

which passes through the atmosphere and is reflected in varying degree by earth’s surface and atmosphere.

• It is detectable only in during day light.

• Sun’s earth surface has temperature- 6000K• Energy radiated from gamma to radio waves.• 99% of sun’s radiation fall between 0.2 to 4

micrometer• 80% -0.4 to 1.5 µm (visible to infrared)• Maximum radiation occurs at 0.48µm.

Terrestrial Radiation

• Energy emitted from earth to atmosphere.• Detectable both day and night.• Earth’s ambient temperature=300K• Earth’s radiates 160000 times less than the

sun• Essentially all energy is radiated at (invisible)

thermal infrared wavelength between 4-25µm