Bonnett fuelcellpresentationfinal

Fuel Cell Fuel Cell

What is a Fuel Cell?What is a Fuel Cell?

A Fuel Cell is an electrochemical device A Fuel Cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen and oxygen to that combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, with water and heat produce electricity, with water and heat as its by-product.as its by-product.

Why is Fuel Cell Why is Fuel Cell Technology Important?Technology Important?

Since conversion of the fuel to energy Since conversion of the fuel to energy takes place via an electrochemical takes place via an electrochemical process, not combustionprocess, not combustion

It is a clean, quiet and highly efficient It is a clean, quiet and highly efficient process- two to three times more efficient process- two to three times more efficient than fuel burning. than fuel burning.

How does a Fuel Cell How does a Fuel Cell work?work?

It operates similarly to a battery, but it It operates similarly to a battery, but it does not run down nor does it require does not run down nor does it require rechargingrecharging

As long as fuel is supplied, a Fuel Cell As long as fuel is supplied, a Fuel Cell will produce both energy and heatwill produce both energy and heat


A Fuel Cell consists of two catalyst A Fuel Cell consists of two catalyst coated electrodes surrounding an coated electrodes surrounding an electrolyteelectrolyte

One electrode is an anode and the other One electrode is an anode and the other is a cathodeis a cathode


The process begins when Hydrogen The process begins when Hydrogen molecules enter the anodemolecules enter the anode

The catalyst coating separates The catalyst coating separates hydrogen’s negatively charged electrons hydrogen’s negatively charged electrons from the positively charged protonsfrom the positively charged protons


The electrolyte allows the protons to pass The electrolyte allows the protons to pass through to the cathode, but not the through to the cathode, but not the electrons electrons

Instead the electrons are directed Instead the electrons are directed through an external circuit which creates through an external circuit which creates electrical currentelectrical current


While the electrons pass through the external While the electrons pass through the external circuit, oxygen molecules pass through the circuit, oxygen molecules pass through the cathodecathode

There the oxygen and the protons combine There the oxygen and the protons combine with the electrons after they have passed with the electrons after they have passed through the external circuitthrough the external circuit

When the oxygen and the protons combine When the oxygen and the protons combine with the electrons it produces water and heatwith the electrons it produces water and heat



Individual fuel cells can then be placed in Individual fuel cells can then be placed in a series to form a fuel cell stacka series to form a fuel cell stack

The stack can be used in a system to The stack can be used in a system to power a vehicle or to provide stationary power a vehicle or to provide stationary power to a buildingpower to a building

Major Types of Fuel CellsMajor Types of Fuel Cells

In general all fuel cells have the same In general all fuel cells have the same basic configuration - an electrolyte and basic configuration - an electrolyte and two electrodestwo electrodes

Different types of fuel cells are classified Different types of fuel cells are classified by the kind of electrolyte usedby the kind of electrolyte used

The type of electrolyte used determines The type of electrolyte used determines the kind of chemical reactions that take the kind of chemical reactions that take place and the temperature range of place and the temperature range of operationoperation


Proton Exchange Membrane Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)(PEM) This is the leading cell type for This is the leading cell type for

passenger car applicationpassenger car application Uses a polymer membrane as Uses a polymer membrane as

the electrolytethe electrolyte Operates at a relatively low Operates at a relatively low

temperature, about 175 degreestemperature, about 175 degrees Has a high power density, can Has a high power density, can

vary its output quickly and is vary its output quickly and is suited for applications where suited for applications where quick startup is required making it quick startup is required making it popular for automobilespopular for automobiles

Sensitive to fuel impuritiesSensitive to fuel impurities

Major Types of Fuel Cells Major Types of Fuel Cells

Direct Methanol (a subset of PEM)Direct Methanol (a subset of PEM) Expected efficiencies of 40% plus low operating Expected efficiencies of 40% plus low operating

temperatures between 120-190 degreestemperatures between 120-190 degrees Also uses a polymer membrane as the electrolyteAlso uses a polymer membrane as the electrolyte Different from PEM because the anode catalyst is Different from PEM because the anode catalyst is

able to draw hydrogen from methanol without a able to draw hydrogen from methanol without a reformerreformer

Used more for small portable power applications, Used more for small portable power applications, possibly cell phones and laptopspossibly cell phones and laptops


Phosphoric AcidPhosphoric Acid This is the most commercially This is the most commercially

developed fuel celldeveloped fuel cell It generates electricity at more It generates electricity at more

than 40% efficiencythan 40% efficiency Nearly 85% of the steam Nearly 85% of the steam

produced can be used for produced can be used for cogenerationcogeneration

Uses liquid phosphoric acid as Uses liquid phosphoric acid as the electrolyte and operates at the electrolyte and operates at about 450 degrees Fabout 450 degrees F

One main advantage is that it One main advantage is that it can use impure hydrogen as can use impure hydrogen as fuel fuel


Molten CarbonateMolten Carbonate Promises high fuel-to-electricity efficiency and the ability Promises high fuel-to-electricity efficiency and the ability

to utilize coal based fuelsto utilize coal based fuels Uses an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt Uses an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt

mixture mixture Require carbon dioxide and oxygen to be delivered to Require carbon dioxide and oxygen to be delivered to

the cathode the cathode Operates at extremely high temperatures 1200 degrees Operates at extremely high temperatures 1200 degrees Primarily targeted for use as electric utility applicationsPrimarily targeted for use as electric utility applications Have been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, Have been operated on hydrogen, carbon monoxide,

natural gas, propane, landfill gas, marine diesel and natural gas, propane, landfill gas, marine diesel and simulated coal gasification productssimulated coal gasification products


Molten Carbonate Fuel Molten Carbonate Fuel CellCell Because of the extreme Because of the extreme

high temperatures, non-high temperatures, non-precious metals can be precious metals can be used as catalysts at the used as catalysts at the anode and cathode which anode and cathode which helps reduces costhelps reduces cost

Disadvantage is durabilityDisadvantage is durability The high temperature The high temperature

required and the corrosive required and the corrosive electrolyte accelerate electrolyte accelerate breakdown and corrosion breakdown and corrosion inside the fuel cellinside the fuel cell


Solid OxideSolid Oxide Uses a hard, non-porous Uses a hard, non-porous

ceramic compound as the ceramic compound as the electrolyteelectrolyte

Can reach 60% power-Can reach 60% power-generating efficiencygenerating efficiency

Operates at extremely high Operates at extremely high temperatures 1800 degrees temperatures 1800 degrees

Used mainly for large, high Used mainly for large, high powered applications such as powered applications such as industrial generating stations, industrial generating stations, mainly because it requires mainly because it requires such high temperaturessuch high temperatures


AlkalineAlkaline Used mainly by military and space programsUsed mainly by military and space programs Can reach 70% power generating efficiency, but Can reach 70% power generating efficiency, but

considered to costly for transportation applicationsconsidered to costly for transportation applications Used on the Apollo spacecraft to provide electricity Used on the Apollo spacecraft to provide electricity

and drinking waterand drinking water Uses a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as Uses a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as

the electrolyte and operates at 75 -160 degreesthe electrolyte and operates at 75 -160 degrees Can use a variety of non-precious metals as catalyst Can use a variety of non-precious metals as catalyst

at the anode and cathodeat the anode and cathode


Alkaline Fuel CellAlkaline Fuel Cell Requires pure hydrogen Requires pure hydrogen

and oxygen because it is and oxygen because it is very susceptible to carbon very susceptible to carbon contaminationcontamination

Purification process of the Purification process of the hydrogen and oxygen is hydrogen and oxygen is costlycostly

Susceptibility to poisoning Susceptibility to poisoning affects cell’s lifetime which affects cell’s lifetime which also affects the cost also affects the cost


Regenerative Fuel CellsRegenerative Fuel Cells Currently researched by NASACurrently researched by NASA This type of fuel cell involves a closed loop form of This type of fuel cell involves a closed loop form of

power generation power generation Uses solar energy to separate water into hydrogen Uses solar energy to separate water into hydrogen

and oxygenand oxygen Hydrogen and oxygen are fed into the fuel cell Hydrogen and oxygen are fed into the fuel cell

generating electricity, heat and watergenerating electricity, heat and water The water byproduct is then recirculated back to the The water byproduct is then recirculated back to the

solar-powered electrolyser beginning the process solar-powered electrolyser beginning the process againagain

Importance of HydrogenImportance of Hydrogen

Fuel Cells require highly purified Fuel Cells require highly purified hydrogen as a fuelhydrogen as a fuel

Researchers are developing a wide Researchers are developing a wide range of technologies to produce range of technologies to produce hydrogen economically from a variety of hydrogen economically from a variety of resources in environmentally friendly resources in environmentally friendly waysways

Importance of HydrogenImportance of Hydrogen

Hydrogen is a secondary energy Hydrogen is a secondary energy resource, meaning it must be made from resource, meaning it must be made from another fuelanother fuel

Hydrogen can be produced from a wide Hydrogen can be produced from a wide variety of energy resources including:variety of energy resources including: Fossil fuels, such as natural gas and coalFossil fuels, such as natural gas and coal Nuclear energyNuclear energy Renewable resources, such as solar,water, Renewable resources, such as solar,water,

wind and biomass wind and biomass

Hydrogen ProductionHydrogen Production

The biggest challenge regarding The biggest challenge regarding hydrogen production is the costhydrogen production is the cost

Reducing the cost of hydrogen Reducing the cost of hydrogen production so as to compete in the production so as to compete in the transportation sector with conventional transportation sector with conventional fuels on a per-mile basis is a significant fuels on a per-mile basis is a significant hurdle to Fuel Cell’s success in the hurdle to Fuel Cell’s success in the commercial marketplacecommercial marketplace


There are three general categories of There are three general categories of Hydrogen productionHydrogen production Thermal ProcessesThermal Processes Electrolyte ProcessesElectrolyte Processes Photolytic ProcessesPhotolytic Processes


Thermal ProcessesThermal Processes Natural Gas ReformingNatural Gas Reforming Gasification Gasification Renewable Liquid ReformingRenewable Liquid Reforming


Natural Gas ReformingNatural Gas Reforming Steam Methane ReformingSteam Methane Reforming

Hydrogen is produced from methane in natural Hydrogen is produced from methane in natural gas using high-temperature steamgas using high-temperature steam

Methane reacts with the steam in presence of a Methane reacts with the steam in presence of a catalyst to produce hydrogencatalyst to produce hydrogen

This process accounts for about 95% of the This process accounts for about 95% of the hydrogen used today in the U.S.hydrogen used today in the U.S.

Partial oxidation Partial oxidation Produces hydrogen by burning methane in airProduces hydrogen by burning methane in air

Hydrogen Production Hydrogen Production

GasificationGasification Process in which coal or biomass is Process in which coal or biomass is

converted into gaseous components by converted into gaseous components by applying heat under pressure and in the applying heat under pressure and in the presence of steampresence of steam

A subsequent series of chemical reactions A subsequent series of chemical reactions produces a synthesis gas which reacts with produces a synthesis gas which reacts with steam to produce more hydrogen that can steam to produce more hydrogen that can be separatedbe separated


Renewable Liquid ReformingRenewable Liquid Reforming Biomass is processed to make renewable Biomass is processed to make renewable

liquid fuels, such as ethanol or bio-oil, that liquid fuels, such as ethanol or bio-oil, that are then reacted with high-temperature are then reacted with high-temperature steam to produce hydrogensteam to produce hydrogen

This process is very similar to reforming This process is very similar to reforming natural gasnatural gas


Electrolytic ProcessesElectrolytic Processes Electrolytic processes use an electric current Electrolytic processes use an electric current

to split water into hydrogen and oxygento split water into hydrogen and oxygen The electricity required can be generated by The electricity required can be generated by

using renewable energy technologies such using renewable energy technologies such as wind, solar, geothermal and hydroelectric as wind, solar, geothermal and hydroelectric powerpower


Photolytic ProcessesPhotolytic Processes Uses light energy to split water into Uses light energy to split water into

hydrogen and oxygenhydrogen and oxygen These processes are in the very early These processes are in the very early

stages of research but offer the possibility of stages of research but offer the possibility of hydrogen production which is cost effective hydrogen production which is cost effective and has a low environmental impactand has a low environmental impact


Auto manufacturers have worked on Auto manufacturers have worked on developing technology that would allow developing technology that would allow fuel cell cars to continue using gasolinefuel cell cars to continue using gasoline

A “reformer” on the fuel cell car would A “reformer” on the fuel cell car would convert the gasoline to hydrogen convert the gasoline to hydrogen onboard the automobileonboard the automobile

Funding for this technology has been Funding for this technology has been pulled due to unsatisfactory efficiencypulled due to unsatisfactory efficiency

How will the hydrogen be How will the hydrogen be stored?stored?

Developing safe, reliable, compact and Developing safe, reliable, compact and cost-effective hydrogen storage is one of cost-effective hydrogen storage is one of the biggest challenges to widespread use the biggest challenges to widespread use of fuel cell technologyof fuel cell technology

Hydrogen has physical characteristics Hydrogen has physical characteristics that make it difficult to store large that make it difficult to store large quantities without taking up a great deal quantities without taking up a great deal of spaceof space


Hydrogen will need to be stored onboard Hydrogen will need to be stored onboard vehicles, at hydrogen production sites, vehicles, at hydrogen production sites, refueling stations and stationary power refueling stations and stationary power sitessites

Hydrogen has a very high energy content Hydrogen has a very high energy content by weight (3x more than gasoline) and a by weight (3x more than gasoline) and a very low energy content by volume (4x very low energy content by volume (4x less than gasoline)less than gasoline)


If the hydrogen is compressed and stored If the hydrogen is compressed and stored at room temperature under moderate at room temperature under moderate pressure, too large a fuel tank would be pressure, too large a fuel tank would be required required

Researchers are trying to find light-Researchers are trying to find light-weight, safe, composite materials that weight, safe, composite materials that can help reduce the weight and volume can help reduce the weight and volume of compressed gas storage systems of compressed gas storage systems


Liquid hydrogen could be kept in a smaller tank Liquid hydrogen could be kept in a smaller tank than gaseous hydrogen, but liquefying than gaseous hydrogen, but liquefying hydrogen is complicated and not energy hydrogen is complicated and not energy efficientefficient

Liquid hydrogen is also extremely sensitive to Liquid hydrogen is also extremely sensitive to heat and expands significantly when warmed heat and expands significantly when warmed by even a few degrees, thus the tank insulation by even a few degrees, thus the tank insulation required affects the weight and volume that required affects the weight and volume that can be storedcan be stored


If the hydrogen is compressed and If the hydrogen is compressed and cryogenically frozen it will take up a very cryogenically frozen it will take up a very small amount of space requiring a small amount of space requiring a smaller tank, but it must be kept smaller tank, but it must be kept supercold- around -120 to -196 degrees supercold- around -120 to -196 degrees CelsiusCelsius


Scientists are researching Materials-based Scientists are researching Materials-based storagestorage This involves tightly binding hydrogen atoms or This involves tightly binding hydrogen atoms or

molecules with other elements in a compound to molecules with other elements in a compound to store larger quantities of hydrogen in smaller store larger quantities of hydrogen in smaller volumes at low pressure near room temperaturevolumes at low pressure near room temperature

This technology is considered very promising but This technology is considered very promising but additional research is needed to overcome problems additional research is needed to overcome problems dealing with capacity, cost, life cycle impacts and dealing with capacity, cost, life cycle impacts and the uptake and release of hydrogenthe uptake and release of hydrogen


Because hydrogen is thought to be an Because hydrogen is thought to be an alternative fuel for automobiles, much of alternative fuel for automobiles, much of the research for hydrogen storage is the research for hydrogen storage is focused on onboard vehiclesfocused on onboard vehicles

Scientists are attempting to develop Scientists are attempting to develop technology that can rival the performance technology that can rival the performance and cost of gasoline fuel storage systemsand cost of gasoline fuel storage systems


Using current storage technology, in Using current storage technology, in order to place a sufficient amount of order to place a sufficient amount of hydrogen onboard a vehicle to provide hydrogen onboard a vehicle to provide 300-mile driving range the tank would be 300-mile driving range the tank would be larger that the trunk of a typical larger that the trunk of a typical automobileautomobile

This large of a tank would add to the This large of a tank would add to the overall weight of the car and reduce fuel overall weight of the car and reduce fuel economyeconomy

How can Fuel Cell How can Fuel Cell technology be used?technology be used?

TransportationTransportation Stationary Power StationsStationary Power Stations TelecommunicationsTelecommunications Micro PowerMicro Power

How can Fuel Cell technology How can Fuel Cell technology be used?be used?

TransportationTransportation All major automakers are All major automakers are

working to commercialize a fuel working to commercialize a fuel cell carcell car

Automakers and experts Automakers and experts speculate that a fuel cell vehicle speculate that a fuel cell vehicle will be commercialized by 2010will be commercialized by 2010

50 fuel cell buses are currently in 50 fuel cell buses are currently in use in North and South America, use in North and South America, Europe, Asia and AustraliaEurope, Asia and Australia

Trains, planes, boats, scooters, Trains, planes, boats, scooters, forklifts and even bicycles are forklifts and even bicycles are utilizing fuel cell technology as utilizing fuel cell technology as wellwell

How can Fuel Cell technology How can Fuel Cell technology be used? be used?

Stationary Power StationsStationary Power Stations Over 2,500 fuel cell systems have been Over 2,500 fuel cell systems have been

installed all over the world in hospitals, installed all over the world in hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools and utility power plantsschools and utility power plants

Most of these systems are either connected Most of these systems are either connected to the electric grid to provide supplemental to the electric grid to provide supplemental power and backup assurance or as a grid-power and backup assurance or as a grid-independent generator for locations that are independent generator for locations that are inaccessible by power linesinaccessible by power lines


TelecommunicationsTelecommunications Due to computers, the Internet and Due to computers, the Internet and

sophisticated communication networks there sophisticated communication networks there is a need for an incredibly reliable power is a need for an incredibly reliable power sourcesource

Fuel Cells have been proven to be 99.999% Fuel Cells have been proven to be 99.999% reliablereliable


Micro PowerMicro Power Consumer electronics Consumer electronics

could gain drastically could gain drastically longer battery power with longer battery power with Fuel Cell technologyFuel Cell technology

Cell phones can be Cell phones can be powered for 30 days powered for 30 days without rechargingwithout recharging

Laptops can be powered Laptops can be powered for 20 hours without for 20 hours without rechargingrecharging

What are the benefits of Fuel What are the benefits of Fuel Cell technology?Cell technology?

Physical SecurityPhysical Security ReliabilityReliability EfficiencyEfficiency Environmental BenefitsEnvironmental Benefits Battery Replacement/AlternativeBattery Replacement/Alternative Military ApplicationsMilitary Applications


Physical SecurityPhysical Security Both central station power generation and Both central station power generation and

long distance, high voltage power grids can long distance, high voltage power grids can be terrorist targets in an attempt to cripple be terrorist targets in an attempt to cripple our energy infrastructureour energy infrastructure

Fuel Cells allow the country to discontinue Fuel Cells allow the country to discontinue reliance on these potential targetsreliance on these potential targets


ReliabilityReliability U.S. businesses lose $29 Billion a year from U.S. businesses lose $29 Billion a year from

computer failures due to power outages computer failures due to power outages More reliable power from fuel cells would More reliable power from fuel cells would

prevent loss of dollars for U.S. Businessesprevent loss of dollars for U.S. Businesses Properly configured fuel cells would result in Properly configured fuel cells would result in

less than one minute of down time in a six less than one minute of down time in a six year periodyear period


EfficiencyEfficiency Because no fuel is burned to make energy, Because no fuel is burned to make energy,

fuel cells are fundamentally more efficient fuel cells are fundamentally more efficient than combustion systemsthan combustion systems

Additionally when the heat comes off of the Additionally when the heat comes off of the fuel cell system it can be captured for fuel cell system it can be captured for beneficial purposesbeneficial purposes

This is called CogenerationThis is called Cogeneration


EfficiencyEfficiency The gasoline engine in a conventional car is less The gasoline engine in a conventional car is less

than 20% efficient in converting the chemical energy than 20% efficient in converting the chemical energy in gasoline into powerin gasoline into power

Fuel Cell motors are much more efficient and use Fuel Cell motors are much more efficient and use 40-60% of the hydrogen’s energy40-60% of the hydrogen’s energy

Fuel Cell cars would lead to a 50% reduction in fuel Fuel Cell cars would lead to a 50% reduction in fuel consumptionconsumption

Fuel Cell vehicles can be up to 3 times more Fuel Cell vehicles can be up to 3 times more efficient than internal combustion enginesefficient than internal combustion engines


EfficiencyEfficiency Fuel Cell power generation systems in Fuel Cell power generation systems in

operation today achieve 40% to 50% fuel-to-operation today achieve 40% to 50% fuel-to-electricity efficiencyelectricity efficiency

In combination with a turbine, electrical In combination with a turbine, electrical efficiencies can exceed 60%efficiencies can exceed 60%

When Cogeneration is used, fuel utilization When Cogeneration is used, fuel utilization can exceed 85%can exceed 85%


Environmental BenefitsEnvironmental Benefits Fuels cells can reduce air pollution today Fuels cells can reduce air pollution today

and offer the possibility of eliminating and offer the possibility of eliminating pollution in the futurepollution in the future


Environmental Benefits of Fuel Cell Environmental Benefits of Fuel Cell Power GenerationPower Generation A fuel cell power plant may create less than A fuel cell power plant may create less than

one ounce of pollution per 1,000 kilowatt-one ounce of pollution per 1,000 kilowatt-hours of electricity producedhours of electricity produced

Conventional combustion generating Conventional combustion generating systems produce 25 pounds of pollutants for systems produce 25 pounds of pollutants for the same electricity the same electricity


Environmental Benefits of Fuel Cell Environmental Benefits of Fuel Cell VehiclesVehicles Fuel Cell Vehicles with hydrogen stored on-Fuel Cell Vehicles with hydrogen stored on-

board produce ZERO POLLUTION in the board produce ZERO POLLUTION in the conventional senseconventional sense

The only byproducts of these Fuel Cell The only byproducts of these Fuel Cell vehicles are water and heatvehicles are water and heat


Environmental Benefits of Fuel Cell Environmental Benefits of Fuel Cell VehiclesVehicles Fuel Cell Vehicles with a reformer on board Fuel Cell Vehicles with a reformer on board

to convert a liquid fuel to hydrogen would to convert a liquid fuel to hydrogen would produce a small amount of pollutants, but it produce a small amount of pollutants, but it would be 90% less than the pollutants would be 90% less than the pollutants produced from combustion enginesproduced from combustion engines


Battery replacement/alternativeBattery replacement/alternative Fuel Cell replacements for batteries would Fuel Cell replacements for batteries would

offer much longer operating life in a offer much longer operating life in a packaged of lighter or equal weightpackaged of lighter or equal weight

Additionally, Fuel Cell replacements would Additionally, Fuel Cell replacements would have an environmental advantage over have an environmental advantage over batteries, since certain kinds of batteries batteries, since certain kinds of batteries require special disposal treatmentrequire special disposal treatment


Military ApplicationsMilitary Applications Fuel Cell technology in the military can help Fuel Cell technology in the military can help

save lives because it reduces telltale heat save lives because it reduces telltale heat and noise in combatand noise in combat

Handheld battlefield computers can be Handheld battlefield computers can be powered for 10 times longer with Fuel Cell powered for 10 times longer with Fuel Cell power meaning soldiers could rely on their power meaning soldiers could rely on their computers in the field for longer periods of computers in the field for longer periods of timetime

Challenges to Fuel Cell Challenges to Fuel Cell TechnologyTechnology

CostCost The cost of fuel cells must be reduced to The cost of fuel cells must be reduced to

compete with conventional technologiescompete with conventional technologies Conventional internal combustion engines Conventional internal combustion engines

cost $25-$35/kW; a fuel cell system would cost $25-$35/kW; a fuel cell system would need to cost $30/kW to be competitiveneed to cost $30/kW to be competitive

Challenges to Fuel Cell Challenges to Fuel Cell Technology Technology

Durability and ReliabilityDurability and Reliability Durability of fuel cell systems have not yet been Durability of fuel cell systems have not yet been

adequately establishedadequately established The durability standard for automobiles is The durability standard for automobiles is

approximately 150,000 miles and the ability to approximately 150,000 miles and the ability to function under normal vehicle operating conditionsfunction under normal vehicle operating conditions

For stationary systems 40,000 hours of reliable For stationary systems 40,000 hours of reliable operation in a temperature range of -35 degree operation in a temperature range of -35 degree Celsius to 40 degrees Celsius will be required for Celsius to 40 degrees Celsius will be required for market acceptancemarket acceptance

Challenges to Fuel Cell Challenges to Fuel Cell TechnologyTechnology

System SizeSystem Size The size and weight of current fuel cell The size and weight of current fuel cell

systems must be reduced to attain market systems must be reduced to attain market acceptance, especially with automobilesacceptance, especially with automobiles

Engineering

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