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Grammatical Relation I and II

(Subject, Object and Other Grammatical Relations)

Compiled by Group 5:

Syaja’atul ‘Aisyah

Widyashanti Kunthara Anindita

Yucha Febria K

Nunung

Yuni

2012

PPS Universitas Diponegoro Semarang

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1. Subject

Think of a staff meeting, for example. There are different kinds of people, different ages,

sexes, qualifications, etc and partly because of these differences; each person plays a different

role in the meeting. Likewise words in a sentence: there are different kinds of words – nouns,

verbs, adjectives and so on, and they each play a different role in the sentence. Each role gives

contributions to the sentence's meaning. For example, Pat likes beans, the subject Pat contributes

the `like-er' (subject) and the object beans contributes the `like-ee' (object). If we do not know

about the rule, surely we do not know about the meaning of the sentence.

In learning grammatical function, there will have a set of terms of grammatical

description. The terms are subject, object, oblique object, indirect object, complement and

adjunct. In terms of subject, a distinction is frequently drawn between grammatical subject,

logical subject, and thematic or psychological subject.

Grammatical subject is the grammatical forms that can function as the subject. For

example, in English grammar, the grammatical subjects are noun phrases, prepositional phrases,

verb phrases, and noun clauses. Sometimes, the subject of a sentence can be a nominalzed

sentence or sentence like constituent, as in:

- That Edinburgh’s New Town is magnificent is undeniable

- For you to run off with Mary would be madness.

When no such constituent is available to act as subject a ‘dummy’ subject is supplied; this is the

case with ‘weather’ expressions. E.g. It is raining. Where a nominalized sentence is extraposed,

it will become: - That Edinburgh’s New Town is magnificent is undeniable

- It is undeniable that Edinburgh’s New Town

Another item that operates like a dummy subject is there. Existential asserts the existence of

something. Eg. There are glasses in the drinks cupboard. Deictic point to something. Eg. There

is the glass. There are differences between deictic and existential. In deictic, pronounced with

non-reduced form.E.g. there is /ðɛəriz/, there are /ðɛəra/; There need not be a subject (For

instance, The glass is there); There can be questioned (Where is the glass?); Definite NP means

there typically restricted to sentences with definite NP ( the) .

In existential, pronounced with reduced form. Eg. there is /ðəz/, there are /ðəra/; There must

be a subject (For example: There is a glass); There can‟t be questioned (where are the glasses in

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the drinks cupboard?); Indefinite NP means there typically restricted to sentences with indefinite

NP ( a and an) E.g. A glass is on the table.

Subject in the grammar of English can be derived from transformational approach to

description. In this approach, we distinguish an underlying from a surface level of description.

Suppose the sentence: Everyone believes that Charlie is handsome

Everyone believes (Charlie is handsome) → Underlying structure

Derived from

Everyone believes Charlie to be handsome → Alternative realization

Logical subject is usually related to sentences involving an (agent) participant. Agent is

the "doer" who or what that causes the action.

For instance: William invaded England in 1066.

G L

England was invaded by William in 1066.

G L

There are many typical roles for the subject in logical subject. First, agentive subject

performs the action as in John beat the dog. Second, instrumental subject is used to carry out the

action as in The axe smashed the door. Third, dative subject as in Harry knows that his wife is

unfaithful. Fourth, goal subject where the action is directed towards/from as in Harry received a

gold medallion from the Royal Society. Fifth, source subject is where the action originated as in

The Royal Society presented a gold medallion to Harry. Sixth, locative place subject where the

action occurs as in Edinburgh is cold, wet and windy. Seventh, patient subject undergoes the

action and changes its state as in The butter is melting. Last, neutral subject mindlessly performs

the action as in Mary is very tired.

Thematic subject is characterized by textual considerations – this is what the sentence is

about. For example;

1. John (G,L,T) took the largest kitten

2. The largest kitten (G,T) was taken by John (L)

3. The largest kitten (T), we (G,L) gave away.

Derived from

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2. Object

In active declarative sentence with unmarked word order, these four grammatical features

characterize the object:

1. Directly follows the verb

2. Not in construction with a preposition

3. Can become the subject of the corresponding passive sentence

4. An obligatory constituent with transitive verbs

One kind of objects is object of result and it is also called an „effected‟ or „factitive‟ object.

e.g.

• Maggie move the table

• The workmen are cleaning the horse cages

It can become the subject of a passive sentence, and there are no paraphrases involving

preposition.

Meanwhile, the other object is „cognate object‟. The relevant NP in this object usually contains a

noun morphologically derived from (and hence cognate with) the verb stem.

e.g.

• Mother sewn a sewing

• She draw a beautiful drawing

The other object is called „object of concern‟. They are clearly neither affected (direct) nor

affected (resultant) objects.

e.g.

• Nunung is sipping his coffee

• Nindi is watching Troy

There is a hierarchy of „objecthood‟. The considerable example is the Direct Object (DO).

The characteristics are:

• Has a particularly close tie to the main verb

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• Is an obligatory sentence constituent

• Immediately follows the main verb

• Will not occur in a paraphrase involving a preposition

• Can be the subject of the corresponding passive sentence

Study this example:

1a America supplied tanks to the Israelis

1b America supplied the Israelis with tanks

In 1a, tanks is a DO (direct object) while Israelis is an (OO) oblique object. On the other hand, in

1b, tanks is an OO while Israelis is a DO.

Since those sentences are close in meaning –both of them describe events of supplying tanks- we

can see them as containing the same roles (agent, patient, neutral). They differs only to which

role is chosen as direct object and so that presented as more central, because more closely related

to the verb.

Note that they cannot occur with a preposition in this position, instead of they could become

the subject of the corresponding passive:

2a *America supplied with tanks to the Israelis

2b *America supplied to the Israelis with tanks

2c Tanks were supplied to the Israelis by America

2d The Israelis were supplied with tanks by America

Then,

2e *America supplied with tanks

But when the PP is omissible, they will become:

2f America supplied tanks

2g America supplied the Israelis

The NP in the PP is an OO because the NP in the PP might, as it were, have become the object,

had the other NP not done so. The OO is omissible, as we have observed, and cannot generally

become the subject of a passive sentence:

2h *The Israeli were supplied tanks to by America

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The effect of becoming an object is important. The syntactic effect has been discussed; but there

is also a semantic effect, which varies from cases like number 2.

3. Indirect Object

a) Exist when a verb is followed by two NPs, neither of which is associated with a

preposition. See this sentence:

3 Yucha gives Nindy (IO) a candy (DO)

b) May occur as an OO (Oblique Object), and can usually be omitted without affecting the

grammaticality of the sentence, whereas the DO cannot be omitted [see the example on

page 326-328]

Below are the passive formation cases on DO and IO:

4a Nunung lent that map (DO) to Yuni (OO)

4b That map was given to Yuni by Nunung

While,

4c Nunung lent Yuni (IO) that map (DO)

4d Yuni was lent that map by Nunung

But not always like those, because we can see these sentences:

5a Nindy asked Yucha a help

5b ?Yucha was asked a help by Nindy

And also study these:

6a Sister played me Dakon

6b *I was played Dakon by sister

The NP that immediately follow the verb has a privileged status, both syntactically and

semantically. When only one NP is available for this role (that is, in two-place propositions)

there would seem to be a hierarchy of „objecthood‟. When two NPs are available for the role in

three-place propositions, the situation is more complex.

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4. Complement

These sentences below are Attributive complement because they describe the class membership

of the subject noun, or ascribe an attribute to it:

7a Cinderella was pretty

7b Cinderella was a princess

Those can also be called „subject complement‟ cause it relate back to the subject noun. Then, in

7b the noun „a princess‟ is a „nominal complement‟. Those complements are „state complements‟

since they are found in stative sentences and describe states.

Those sentences below are the type of „result complements‟:

8a The mangoes are turning yellow

8b Yucha became a bachelor of english department

The complement cannot become the subject of a passive sentence.

Meanwhile, the identify complement can be shown in:

9a Nunung is the man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet.

The NP is always a definite NP. That sentence can be reversed:

9b The man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet is Nunung.

Let us study this:

9c Nunung is (to be identified as) the man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet.

The locative complement can be shown in:

10 Yuni is in her study room

Locative complement is usually a prepositional phrase. Sometimes it is used as a place adverb.

Corresponding on that, we can also recognize a „directional complement‟ in sentences, like:

11 Nindy hid under the table

12 Yucha walked across the hospital

Directional complements only occur in nonstate sentences.

The italicized constituents in the sentences in 12 are also often called complements:

12a Nunung comes back home safe

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12b Yuni talked the issue honest

12c Nindy always buys her spinach fresh

12d Yucha coloured her book green

12 a and 12 b are intensive to the subject, then others to the object. In some cases, they can be

substituted by adverbs. We can also make paraphrase constructions like:

12 e Nindy always buys her spinach in fresh condition

12 f Yuni was honest when she talked the issue, etc.

5. Adjuncts

Adjuncts are usually adverbials, whether they are adverb phrases, PP, adverbs, or subordinate

clauses of time, place, manner, and so on, that distributionally function like adverbials.

Adjuncts are clearly a rather „mixed bag‟, in that syntactically there are numerous subclasses

which have different and overlapping distribution, and they fill a variety of semantic roles.

Morphological Mapping of Grammatical Functions

Introduction

How are grammatical functions mapped onto morphological representation?

We will begin with a preliminary discussion intended to provide the necessary background

for understanding the key syntactic and semantic concepts that are involved. First introduce

the notions of thematic roles, grammatical relations and the theory of case assignment, next

explore the morphological effects of syntactic rules that change the canonical pairing of

thematic roles with grammatical function. And the final part of the chapter will take the

discussion further afield through an investigation of the phenomenon of incorporation

whereby the syntax requires the inclusion of one word within another.

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Predicates, arguments and lexical entries

Normally, sentences are constructed in such a way that some constituents identify particular

individuals or things (or more abstract entities like ideas) and other constituents which

indicate individuals or entities are called referring expressions, while those which attribute to

them properties, processes, actions, relations or states are called predicates.

e.g : a. my sister cried

b. she will go

c The car crashed

the sentence a refers to an individual and predicates the property crying of that individual at

some time in the past. In sentence b the property of going is predicated of the individual she.

Finally, sentences c the property of crash is attribute to an entity. Predicates take referring

expressions as their arguments (my sister, she, the car).

1. Theta-roles and lexical entries

Language use syntax and inflectional morphology to encode some of the semantic relations

which obtain in sentence between a predicate and its arguments. We will use the term theta-

roles (0-rules) for these semantic relations. (they are also called (abstract) case relations or

thematic relations in the literature.)

Recognition of 0-rules is essentially based on the intuition which is widely shared among

linguists that there is a relatively small number of syntactically relevant semantic properties

that play a role in the transitivity systems of language.

Gruber (1965,1976) and Fillmore (1968) define of Theta-roles:

Agent is the case of the individual (usually animate) that instigates the action identified by

the verb. e.g., (d) Mamat killed the chicken

Instrumental is the case of the inanimate instrument used to bring about the state of affairs

described by the verb. e.g., (e) mother whished with a brush

Patient is the case of the entity or individual that undergoes the process or action described

by the verb. e.g., (f) Toni punched the board

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Benefactive is the case of the individual who gains from the action or process described by

the verb.e.g., (g) Kai gave his girlfriend letter.

Theme is semantically the most neutral case. e.g., (h) Hari gave Mia new hand phone.

Locative is the case that indicates the location, direction or spatial orientation of the event, state

or action identified by the verb e.g., (i) Tomorrow I will go to Beijing.

Theta-roles are essentially used to characterize transitivity. They specify the parts

played by the arguments representing different participants is the action, state or process

indicated by the verb.

Intransitive verbs are one-place predicates. They occur in frames with one argument.

e.g., (j) Agung slept.

Transitive verb are two-place predicates. e.g., (k) Mamat killed the duck.

Intransitive verbs are three place predicates. e.g., (l) Mother put the ice cream in the

freezer

In order to ensure that a verb appears in the right syntactic frames, the lexicon must

specify the 0-roles which it requires.

The lexical entries for the verbs in e.g. (j) must contain the following information.

e.g.,

(k) sleep V (agent)

kill V (agent patient)

put V (agent goal theme )

.0-rules are associated directly with NPs by phrase structure rules, as shown in

e.g.

a. S NP VP

(agent)

b. VP V NP

<patient>

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c. NP Det N

d.N Nsg, Npl

e. Det - the

f. V Vtrns (i.e. transitive verb)

The tree should look like this

S

NP VP

(agent)

V NP

<patient>

Det N[sg] V[trns] Det N[pl]

The clown tickled the children

We will require each lexical entry for a verb to include the 0-roles which that verb

assigns to its arguments. To this and, a well formedness principle called the Theta-Critorion will

be incorporated in the grammar and given the task of ensuring that: a verb is only used in frames

where the requisite arguments are present, and those arguments all have the prescribed 0-roles.

Symbols X and Y are used as variables to represent any entity or individual that can

function as arguments of these predicates with the 0-rules of agent, patient, theme etc.

The entry for a verb in the lexicon will include a subcategorization template showing its

argument structure requirements.

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a. tickle V

#TICKLE (X? Y?)

e.g., The clown tickled the children

b. wash: V

# WASH 1 (X?)

e.g., This curtain washes well

# WASH2 (X? Y?)

e.g., peter washed the curtains

The lexical entries in tell us which senses of wash and tickle require two arguments, and

which particular 0-roles hold between those arguments in a particular sense of the verb. To solve

this problem we need to add a further dimension to the model of grammatical analysis, namely

that of grammatical relations.

2. Grammatical relations

Syntactic categories like noun phrase and verb phrase specify the syntactic type of

particular constituents. The syntactic type of a constituent is determined by the category of the

head of that constituent. A noun phrase is a constituent whose head is a noun while a verb phrase

is a constituent whose head is a verb, and so on.

o-roles, specify a semantic relationship between a predicate ad its arguments

Grammatical relations indicate the grammatical relationship that holds between two

syntactic constituents in a sentence. They are determined, not by semantic considerations, but by

the syntactic position of the particular constituent. The grammatical relations that we shall use

are verb phrase, subject, object, second object and oblique. They are defined in turn below

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The easiest grammatical relation to recognize is verb phrase (VP). The term VP is

commonly used ambiguously by generative grammarians to refer both to a syntactic category,

and to a grammatical relation as we are doing here. The grammatical relation VP has a verb as its

syntactic head e.g., Andi came. Andi is S and came is VP

All declarative sentences en English must have a subject (S).the subject is the topic

about which the rest of the sentence says nothing, the subject is the NP has the 0-role of agent, if

that role is present, the subject is the NP that precedes the VP, and with which the verb agrees in

number.

In reality, however, many subjects do not have all these properties, as we shall soon see.

The NP that immediately follows the verb is the object and the NP that comes after that object

NP is called the second object. e.g., Andi send Ani latter.

Grammatical relations is surrounded by a degree of theoretical controversy, there is

widespread agreement about the purpose which the serve.

Once the need for grammatical relations is recognized, grammars must perform the two tasks:

1. they must state how 0-roles are mapped on to grammar of a particular language. For

example, English mapping principles may take this form:

0-role correspondents grammatical function

agent subject

patient object of verb

locative oblique NP

2. They must state how grammatical functions are made on the surface, e.g. by word order,

prepositions or case inflection.

Various syntactic rules which may mask the grammatical function of a particular NP. Much

of the morphological complexity found in languages arise from the making og such masked

grammatical function.

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Grammatical Function Changing Rules

Grammatical functions are hierarchically ordered across languages. The hierarchy

depends on the relative likelihood of NPs associated with particular grammatical functions being

affected by certain syntactic rules. Keenan and Comrie (1977, 1979) have established this

hierarchy:

Subject > direct object > non-direct object > possessor

Such rules mask the relationship between the surface manifestation of grammatical

function (GF), which is often marked case or word order, and the semantic role of an argument.

GF changing rule tend to have significant morphological repercussions which typically affect

verbs more than other word-classes. These are some repercussion:

1. Passive

Often sentences expressing the same proposition can be realized in a variety of ways,

depending on how grammatical relations are encoded using the syntax and morphology.

Normally, where such choice exists, one way of expressing a proposition is marked and

another is unmarked.

a. Active voice Agent/ subject

Nominative

The Vet

She

b. Passive voice Patient/ subject

Nominative

Esmeralda

She

examined

examined

was examined

was examined

Patient/ object

accusative

Esmeralda

Her

Agent

Oblique NP

by the Vet

by her

The sentence above, with the subject as agent preceding the verb and the object, who is

patient, following the verb, is unmarked. The agent, who is also the subject, receives

nominative case and the patient, who is object, receives accusative case. Passive can be

semi-formally stated as in:

a. Subject oblique (or null)

b. Object subject

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2. Antipassive

The antipassive is the process used in ergative languages to turn a transitive verb

into an intransitive verb. It causes the object NP to be realized as an oblique NP, or to be

deleted. The effect of the antipassive is comparable to that of the passive. Just as the

passive demotes the original subject to an oblique NP in a nominative accusative

language, the antipassive demotes the original object of a transitive sentence to an

oblique NP and the underlying agent NP argument which should otherwise be in the

ergative is put in the absolute.

This can be seen in the example of Eskimo languages below:

a. bala yugu baɳgul

yara-

ɳgu gunba-n baɳgu

barri-

ɳgu

it-ABS

tree-

ABS he-ERG

man-

ERG

cut-

PAST it-INST

axe-

INST

the man cut the tree with an axe'

b. Antipassive

bayi yara gunba-l-ɳa-nyu bagu yugu-gu baɳgu

barri-

ɳgu

he-ABS

man-

ABS

cut-ANTIPAST-

PAST it-DAT

tree-

DAT it-INST

axe-

INST

the man cut the tree with an axe'

ABS = absolute; ANTIPAST = antipassive; ERG = ergative; INST = instrumental; DAT = dative

3. Applicative

The applicative is another common GF-changing rule with significant morphological

consequences. It characterizes using this schema:

Oblique

Indirect object object; object 2nd

object

Null (or oblique)

Some of applicative are:

(i) Benefactive: a NP in the benefactive case that has the GF of second object can be

realized as a direct object when the applicative rule applies. For example:

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a.

Andrew

gave the flowers to Helen

agent theme benefactive

subject object oblique NP

b.

Andrew

gave Helen the flowers

agent benefactive theme

subject object 2nd object

(ii) Locative: in many languages the applicative can be used with locative meaning

which is expressed in English using propositions like in, on, at, etc. This is the

example from Kinyarwanda languages.

a. Umwaana y-a-taa-ye igitabo

mu

maazi

child SP-past-throw-ASP book in water

the child has thrown the book in to the water'

b. Umwaana y-a-taa-ye-mo amaazi igitabo

child

SP-past-throw-ASP-APPL

(in) water book

the child has thrown the book into the water

(iii) Possessor: when possessor raising take takes place, an NP which function as the

„possessor‟ modifying the head of a possessive noun phrase is turned into the

object of the verb. The original object is shunted into a new slot and becomes the

second object. Possessor raising is shown below:

a. NP possessor in possessive NP object of verb

b. Object of verb 2nd

object

This is example from Bantu Language:

a. a-li-menya okugulu kw-a Kapere

s/he-fut-

break leg of Kapere

s/he will break Kapare's leg

b. a-li-menya Kapere okugulu

s/he-fut-

break Kapere leg

s/he will break Kapare's leg

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4. Causative

The changes in grammatical function caused by the causative GF process can be stated in

this way:

a. Null subject

b. Subject object

c. Object 2nd

object

This is the example from Luganda language

a. Abalenzi ba-li-fumb-a lumonde

boys

SP-futore-cook-

BVS potatoes

the boys will cook potatoes'

b. kaparea-li-fumb-is-a abalenzi lumonde

boys SP-future-

cook-BVS boys potatoes

Kapere will make the boys cook potatoes.'

SP = subject prefix; BVS = basic verbal suffix

From the example above, the causative introduces a new agentive NP as subject in [b]. The

original subject becomes the object and the original object becomes a second object. Equally

important, the verb receives the causative suffix –is-.

Miror Principle

Introduction

The traditional view on morphology is that word-formation takes place in the lexicon, and that

morphological rules are different in nature and operate on different primitive elements than

syntactic rules: morphology operates on stems and morphemes to produce words, while syntax

operates on words to produce phrases and sentences. In other words, the essential property of

morphology is, it is concerned with the structure of words; the essential property of syntax is, it

is concerned with the structure of sentences.

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The Mirror Principle

The idea of Mirror Principle was proposed by Baker (1985). His argument is that derivation of

words and their relationship in a sentence and in meaning couldn‟t be based only on functional

matter. Reviewing that the morphological derivations must directly reflect syntactic derivation

and the syntactic derivation must directly reflect morphological derivation. In other words,

syntactic and morphological orderings stand in a symmetrical relation. Unfortunately, Baker

does not specify according to which general principles are affixes merged into syntactic structure.

He argued that the Mirror Principle is the result of the strict locality of head movement (of cyclic

head movement) through incorporation of a lexical root to a morpheme. It this condition syntax

operates on both words and morphemes, and a complex word can be formed by syntactic rules,

and more specifically head movement. In short, if the morphological structure of a complex word

is derived through head-movement of the lexical root to the heads where the morphemes are

base-generated, the MP follows straightforwardly: “the order of morphemes in a complex word

reflects the natural syntactic embedding of the heads that correspond to those morphemes”

The rule of Mirror Principle (Baker 1985):

The order of affixes reflects the order in which the associated syntactic

‘operations’ apply.

Morphological derivations must directly reflect syntactic derivation and the

syntactic derivation must directly reflect morphological derivation

1. The evidence of Mirror Principle

Mirror Principle was applied in Luganda‟s major language, Bantu.

Verbal extensions in Luganda

Name Shape Example Gloss

Causative /-is-/ n-a-mu-zin-is-a „I made him dance‟

Applicative /-ir-/ a-n-zin-ir-a „he is dancing for me‟

Reciprocal /-agan-/ ba-a-kub-agan-a „they hit each other‟

Passive3 /-ibu-/ n-a-kub-ibw-a „I was beaten‟

Transitive4 /-i-/ y-a-ba-kaab-y-a „she made them cry‟

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Stative /-ik-/ ga-nyw-ek-a „it (water) is drinkable‟

Reversive /-ulul-/ oku-pang-ulul-a „to unstuck (take things off a

pile)‟

The data above is analyzed with : Causative Applicative Reciprocal Passive (CARP), where the

affixation can be classified.

As in Luganda language, the changing of affixation can be clearly recognize even there are some

inconsistent form. Compare with the sample below, the changing of affixation in Sundanese,

Mirror principle cannot be applied perfectly.

Name Shape Example Gloss

Causative */-keun-/ Abdi merintahkeun maneha gerua

gebug eta

„I made him hit‟

Applicative Maneha gebug keur abdi „he is hitting

something‟

Reciprocal /gebug-

gebugan/

Sadayana gebug-gebukan „they hit each other‟

Passive3 /-kena-/ Abdi kena gebug „I was hit

Transitive4 Maneha merintahkeun sadaya gerua

gebug eta

„she made them hit‟

Stative Cai eta tiasa dile‟leut „it (water) is

drinkable‟

Reversive Jalma eta mindahakeun cai „she move the

drink.‟

Analysis using C A R P (Causative Applicative Reciprocal Passive)

Causative Applicative Reciprocal Passive

Causative -

Applicative -

Reciprocal -

Passive -

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a. Causative-Applicative combination

b. Causative-Reciprocal

c. Causative-Passive

d. Applicative-Causative

e. Applicative-Reciprocal

2. The counter arguments against Mirror Principle

However, as Baker has lacking explanation of his idea on mirror principle, it raises some

counter arguments.

Federico Damonte (1998) claims:

that argument structure changing affixes in Pular are merged in a fixed hierarchy of

theta-related functional heads and that the complements they introduce are merged in

the specifiers of these functional projections.

Von Stechow (2002) and Zeijlstra (20007):

the position of affixes does not correspond to the position where they take scope from.

Sadock (1985):

propose a theory of auto lexical syntax that overview the autonomous of morphology

and syntax although they are held together.

Hyman and Katamba (1992):

Morphological position and phonological position infer the changing order of

morpheme in words.

3. Conclusion

It seems that mirror principle seems to be essentially correct, but languages may show variation

in the way which they set their own parameter. As seen from the examples above, comparing

Luganda and Sundanese language, the affixation which is essential in Luganda in changing

grammar doesn‟t appear in Sundanese. It is an evident that mirror principle can be applied in

certain languages. Moreover, the grammars of many languages provide alternative ways of

expressing the same kind of proportional meaning.

#END#